Aerospace materials

Aircraft applications of steel.

Advantages and disadvantages
Production figures (approximate) for aluminum, magnesium, steel
and composites
Aircraft structural components made using high-strength steel
Aircraft structural components made using high-strength steel
 Aerospace materials
Video lecture 4.2
Classification and Designation of steels
Grades of steel

Most important groups of steels are:

• Mild steels
• High-strength low-alloy steels
• Medium-carbon steels
• Medium-carbon low-alloy steels
• Maraging steels
• Stainless steels
Alloy steels are classified based on:
• chemical composition (Ni steels, Cr steels, Ni–Cr steels, etc.)
• microstructure (pearlitic, ferritic, martensitic, etc.)
• functions (structural steels, tool steels, etc.)
• specific attributes (magnetic steels, heat-resistant steels,
corrosion-resistant steels, etc.)
Chemical compositions of UHSS low alloy aerospace steels (wt.%)

SAE С Mn Si Ni Cr Mo V
4037 0.35-0.40 0.70-0.90 0.15-0.35 - - 0.20-0.30 -
4130 0.28-0.33 0.40-0.60 0.20-0.35 - 0.80-1.10 0.15-0.25 -
4140 0.38-0.43 0.75-1.00 0.20-0.35 - 0.80-1.10 0.15-0.25 -
4340 0.38-0.43 0.60-0.90 0.20-0.35 1.65-2.00 0.70-0.90 0.20-0.30 -
6150 0.48-0.53 0.70-0.90 0.20-0.35 - 0.80-1.10 0.15-0.25 0.15 min
300М 0.40-0.46 0.65-0.90 1.45-1.80 1.65-2.00 0.70-0.95 0.30-0.45 0.15 min
D6as 0.42-0.48 0.60-0.90 0.15-0.30 0.40-0.70 0.90-1.20 0.90-1.10 0.05-0.01
9260 0.56-0.64 0.75-1.00 1.80-2.20 - - - -

N.B: The maximum content of sulphur and phosphorus in all the grades is 0.02 and 0.025,
respectively
 UHSS low alloy steels used in aircraft

SAE no. and type Applications

Sheet fittings, landing gear axles, turbine components (rotors,
4037 (Cr-Mo)
shaft and discs), highly stressed airframe components
4130 (Cr-Mo) Axles, rotors, gears, perforators, high strength forged and
4140 (Cr-Mo) machined parts, landing gear, highly stressed fuselage fittings,
4340 (Ni-Cr-Mo) propeller hubs, snap rings, bolts
Propeller cones and snap rings, springs, shafts, gears, pinions,
6150 (Cr-Mo-V)
axles, heavy duty pins, bolts
300М (Mn-Si) Springs
D6as (Ni-Cr-Si-Mo) Landing gear, airframe parts, fasteners
Landing gear, motor cases for solid fuel rockets, shafts, gears,
9260 (Cr-Mo-Ni-V)
springs
 Russian steel grades designate the chemical composition
(the average content of an alloying element)

Steel 30KhGSA contains:

• 0.3% carbon,
• 1…1.5% chromium,
• manganese,
• silicon.

The letter "A" shows that steel contains few harmful impurities -
less than 0.025% sulfur and phosphorus.

Steel grades are sometimes conventional designations (e.g., EP410

or VNS-2).
Mild steels
Mild steels (also called low-carbon steels) contain less than
0.2% carbon and are hardened by cold working.
Mild steels have moderate yield strength (200…300 MPa) and
are too soft for aircraft structures.
High-strength low-alloy steels (HSLA)
HSLA steels contain a small amount of carbon (less than 0.2%)
and alloying elements (copper, nickel, niobium, vanadium,
chromium, molybdenum and zirconium).
The yield strength of HSLA steels is 250…600 MPa. Among other
applications, they are used in automobiles, trucks and bridges.
Medium-carbon steels
Medium-carbon steels contain 0.25…0.5% carbon and are
hardened by thermomechanical treatment to 300…1000 MPa.
Composition and properties of some steels used in aircraft
Yield Ultimate
Elonga-
Steel Average composition strength, strength,
tion, %
MPa MPa
Maraging steels
18Ni (200) 0.03%C max, 18%Ni, 8.5%Co,
660 970 17
3.3%Mo, 0.2%Ti, 0.1%Al
18Ni (250) 0.03%C max, 18%Ni, 8.5%Co,
1700 1790 11
5%Mo, 0.4%Ti, 0.1%Al
18Ni (300) 0.03%C max, 18%Ni, 9%Co, 5%Mo,
1950 2000 9
0.7%Ti, 0.1%Al
18Ni (350) 0.03%C max, 18%Ni, 12.5%Co,
2300 2370 6
4.2%Mo, 1.6%Ti, 0.1%Al
Medium-carbon low-alloy steels
4130 0.3%C, 1%Cr, 0.5%Mn, 0.25%Si,
540 700 25
0.2%Mo
4340 0.4%C, 1.8%Ni, 0.8%Cr, 0.7%Mn,
410 750 22
0.25%Si, 0.25%Mo
300M 0.38%C, 1.8%Ni, 1.6%Si, 0.8%Cr,
0.8%Mn, 0.4%Mo, 0.05% min V 1590 1930 7

Aermet 100 0.25%C, 11%Ni, 3%Cr, 1.2%Mo,

1720 1960 14
0.45%V,
H11 0.35%C, 5%Cr, 1.5%Mo, 1%Si,
1650 2000 9
0.5%Mn, 0.4%Mn, 0.03%Ni
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels
15-5 PH 0.07%C, 15%Cr, 4.5%Ni, 3.5%Cu,
1400 1470 10
1%Mn, 1%Si, 0.3%Nb
17-4 PH 0.07%C, 16%Cr, 4%Ni, 4%Cu, 1%Mn,
1150 1330 10
1%Si, 0.3%Nb
Aerospace materials
High-strength alloy steels
High-strength steels are materials with an ultimate
tensile strength В  1600 MPa or T > 1300 MPa.

Steels with a temporary yield strength of more than

2000 MPa are called ultra-high strength steels.
High-strength steels can be classified into:
• low-alloy steels (used after quenching and low
tempering);
• TRIP-steels (steels with ductility caused by phase
-transformation and formation of martensite as
a result of plastic deformation)
• precipitation hardening steels
• maraging steels.
Disadvantages of martensite:
• low corrosion resistance
• high sensitivity to stress concentrators
• low impact strength
• hydrogen embrittlement
• manifestation of the Rehbinder effect in liquid
environments
Rehbinder effect is the adsorptive reduction in the
hardness of solids, deformation facilitation and
destruction of solids due to the reversible physical and
chemical effects of the environment.
 Basic principles of alloying high-strength steels:

1. High-strength steels must contain a minimum carbon content:

~ 0.25 ... 0.30% - for 1650 ... 1850 MPa
~ 0.4% - for 1900 ... 2100 MPa.
2. 2% Cr is added to improve hardenability and increase strength.
3. Ni and Cr have a beneficial effect on toughness and
hardenability.
4. ~ 1% Si allows for the tempering of steel at 220 ... 250С. At
these
temperatures, the relaxation of internal stresses is more
intensive.
5. Steel alloyed with Mo, W, Nb and V is less sensitive to
overheating.
Hardening heat treatment of high-strength pearlitic steels

Strength,
Steel grade Heat treatment
σв, MPa
Isothermal quenching:
• 280…330°С
1400…1600
• 270…300°С
30HGSA 1500…1700
• 240…280°С
1600…1750
Quenching at 880°С, oil; tempering at
220°С 1650…1850
Quenching at 900 °С, oil; tempering at
1600…1800
290°С, 1 h.
Isothermal time quenching in nitrate at
30HGSN2A 270…300°С; 1500…1700
tempering at 200…300 °С, 1 h.
Isothermal time quenching in nitrate at
1400…1600
280…330°С
Quenching at 900°С, oil; tempering at
1800…2000
200…260°С.
30HGSN2MA Isothermal time quenching in nitrate at
240…280С, 2…3 h; tempering at 1800…2000
240…260С, 2…3 h.
Quenching at 860°С, oil; tempering at
1500…1650
200…230°С, 2…3 h.
25H2GNTA
Isothermal time quenching in nitrate at
1500…1650
200…250°С, 1 h; tempering at 200…230°С
Aerospace materials
Video lecture 4.4
Microstructural phases of steels
Steel can occur as several microstructural
phases at room temperature:
• austenite
• ferrite
• pearlite
• cementite
• bainite
• martensite
 Austenite
Austenite is a materials science term for iron with a face-centred-cubic (fcc)
crystal structure, and this phase occurs in the Fe-C system above the eutectoid
temperature of 727 °C.
 Ferrite
Ferrite is a solid solution of body-centred-cubic (bcc) iron containing interstitial
elements such as carbon and substitutional elements such as manganese and nickel.

The maximum solubility of carbon is about 0.02% at 727 °C, and the soluble
concentration drops with the temperature to 0.006% at room temperature.
 Cementite

Cementite is a hard, brittle compound with an orthorhombic crystal

structure having the formula Fe3C.

Fe-C 1.2 (wt%) steel: cementite on the pearlite grain boundaries

 Pearlite

Pearlite is a composite microstructure consisting of cementite layers

sandwiched between ferrite layers.

Pearlite: a – photograph; b - schematic representation

 Part of Fe-Fe3C phase diagram for steels

Eutectoid steels
At a carbon content of about 0.8% the steel is eutectoid, which means the
microstructure consists of an 100% pearlite.
 Eutectoid steels
At a carbon content of about 0.8% the steel is eutectoid, which means the
microstructure consists of an 100% pearlite.
 Hypereutectoid steels
Steel containing more than 0.8% carbon is hypereutectoid

Hypereutectoid steels containing pearlite (dark) grains and cementit light

(mesh, needles, inclusions)
 Hypoeutectoid steels
Steel is hypoeutectoid when the carbon content is below 0.8%

Hypoeutectoid steels containing ferrite (light) and pearlite (dark) grains

Effect of carbon content on the volume fraction of pearlite and
mechanical properties for a hypoeutectoid steel
The principal transformational phases are:
• bainite
• martensite
Bainite
Martensite
Fe-C 0.4 (wt.%) steel, quenched: martensitic and quench cracks
(the photograph is from flickr.com/photos/core-materials)
Effect of tempering temperature on the properties of 4340
(40ХN2МА) medium-carbon low-alloy steel
Aerospace materials
Maraging steel
Maraging steel is strong, tough, low-carbon martensitic steel
which contains hard precipitate particles formed by thermal
ageing.

Maraging steel contains:

• carbon (0.03% maximum)
• nickel (17…19%)
• cobalt (8…12%),
• molybdenum (3…5%)
• titanium (0.2…1.8%)
• aluminum (0.1..0.15%)
The effect of chemical elements on the strength
of maraging steels
Heat treatment
 Hardening phases in maraging steels

Temperature, С
Grades Hardening phase
Quenching Aging
N18К9М5Т 900 480…550 Fe2Mo,Ni3(MoTi)
Fe2Mo, (Fe, Co)2Mo, (Fe,
R13К15М10Т 1000 500…600
Co)7Mo6,
Kh12N8К5М2ТYu 1000 650 Ni3Al, Ni3Ti
Kh12N8К5М2ТYu 1000 700 (Fe, Co)15Cr8Mo10 – R- phase
Kh10К13М5 1100 500…700 (Fe, Co)15Cr8Mo10 – R- phase
Kh10К13М5 1100 700…800 (Fe, Co)15Cr8Mo10 – R- phase
Kh4К9N6М5 1130 500…700 (Fe, Co)15Cr8Mo10 – R- phase
Kh11N10М2Т 1000 520…600 Ni3Ti

Ni50(X, Y, Z)50

where X, Y, Z - Mo, Ti and Al

Effect of ageing temperature on the strength and ductility
(percentage elongation to failure)
of a maraging steel
Aerospace materials
Other steels
 Medium-carbon low-alloy steel
Aircraft applications include landing gear components,
shafts and other parts.
Grades of medium-carbon low-alloy steel:
• 40KhN2МА
• 8Kh2N2МА
• 36Kh2N2МVА
• 4340
• 300M
• H11
• and etc.
 Stainless steel

Types of stainless steel:

• ferritic
• austenitic
• martensitic
• duplex
• precipitation-hardened
 Precipitation-hardened stainless steel

17-4 PH (ASTM Grade A693):

• carbon (0.07% max)
• chromium (15…17.5%)
• nickel (3…5%),
• copper (3…5%)
• other alloying elements (Mo, V, Nb).
Russian high-strength corrosion-resistant steels

13Kh15N4AMZ (EP310SH, VNS-5)

• strength – 1400…1600 MPa
• fracture toughness (KCV) - 0.9 MJ/m2 ductility -  = 55%

08Kh15N5D2T (VNS-2, EP410)

06Kh14N6D2MBT (EP817)
• strength – 1150…1400 MPa
• hardness – 40…42 HRC
VNS-5
Aerospace materials
Summary
The following types of steels are commonly used in aircraft
structures:
• maraging steel,
• medium-carbon low-alloy steel and
• precipitation-hardened stainless steel

Disadvantages of using steels include:

• high weight,
• potential hydrogen embrittlement,
• stress corrosion cracking and other forms of corrosion.