PRACTICAL 5

Aim :Study of constructional and operational features of Total station

Instruments and accessories required: total station , leveling staff etc

Total Station is an equipment used in surveying, designed for measuring horizontal and vertical
angles, inclusive of measuring sloping distance of object to the instrument. It is a combination
of electronic theodolite and electromagnetic distance measuring (EDM) instrument. It also consists of
a micro-processor with a memory unit which deals with recordings, readings, and the fundamental

calculation of measurements
Components of a Total Station
TotalStation is a compact instrument which weighs around 50 N to 55 N. It consists of a distance
measuring instrument (EDM), an angle measuring instrument (Theodolite) and a simple
microprocessor. The components used in Total station surveying are as follows:

1. A tripod is used to hold the total station

2. An electronic notebook used to record, calculate and even manipulate the field data
3. Prism and prism pole which can measure lengths up to 2 km and up to 6-7 km can be
measured with triple prism
4. Battery

Basic Steps involved in Totalstation surveying

Step-1: Setting up the of the instrument along with the tripod

Step-2: Levelling of the instrument approximately with the help of “bull’s eye bubble” and then
verifying the levelling electronically

Step-3: Adjustment of reticle focus and image.

Step-4: Recording all the measurements

Step-5: Data Processing

ADVANTAGES OF TOTAL STATION.

1: TH applications of laser plummets are also involved in the total station.
2: It is used to give the view of plots and lands graphically with no time.
3: It has also a role in the database. It is also used for the formation of GIS. It also gives accurate
calculations that are needed for users.
4: It is also used to sketch the map of the area with dimensions If the fields jobs are completed and
the data transmission is done.
5: It doesn’t require plenty of time.
6: It is used for the calculations of distance from 3 to 5 km.
DISADVANTAGES OF TOTAL STATION.
1: The worker cannot able to observe at the time of working because it complicates his work.
2: To perform the work completely it’s needed to go back to the office and perform drawings with
particular software.
3: The instrument is not cheap and is very expensive.

Error Sources in Total Station in Surveying

➢ Circle Eccentricity
➢ Horizontal Collimation Error in Total Station
➢ Height of Standards Error in Total Station
➢ Circle Graduation Error in Total Station
➢ Vertical Circle Error in Total Station
➢ Pointing Errors in Total Station
➢ Uneven Heating of the Instrument
➢ Vibrations
➢ Collimation Errors
➢ Vertical Angles and Elevations
➢ Atmospheric Corrections in Total Station
➢ Optical Plummet Errors
➢ Adjustment of Prism Poles
➢ Recording Errors
 ➢ Angles
➢ Slope to Grid and Sea Level EDM Corrections

PRECAUTION TO BE TAKEN WHILE USING A TOTAL STATION:

1.Use both hands to hold the total station handle.
2.Set up the tripod as stable as possible.
3.Do not move or carry a tripod with the total station fixed on it, except for centering.
4.Store the battery pack with the battery discharged.
5. Do not over tighten any of the clamp screws.

6. Take maximum care when the tribrach is removed from the total station.
 PRACTICAL 6
Aim: Constructional and operational features of EDM
Instruments and accessories required: total station , leveling staff etc

Procedure:

How to measure distance or the theoretical background for the measurement of distance by total station. So, we
will first give some introduction to measurement of distance using total station then actually total station
measure the distance using the concept of electronic distance measurement.

Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDMIs)

Introduction
• EDMIs were first introduced in 1950's by Geodimeter Inc. Early instruments were large, heavy,
complicated and expensive. Improvements in electronics have given lighter, simpler, and less expensive
instruments. EDMIs can be manufactured for use with theodolites (both digital and optical) or as an
independent unit. These can be mounted on standard units or theodolites or can also be tribrach
mounted.
• The electronic methods depend on the value of velocity of Electromagnetic radiation (EMR), which
itself is dependent upon measurement of distance and time. Hence, there is no inherent improvement in
absolute accuracy by these methods. The advantage is mainly functional - precise linear measurement
can now be used for longer base lines, field operations can be simplified and trilateration can replace or
augment triangulation.

EDM Calibration
All EDM instruments should be periodically (at least annually) checked over a NGS Calibration Baseline or a
baseline established by local state surveying societies.

Principle of EDMI
• The general principle involves sending a modulated Electro-magnetic (EM) beam from one transmitter
at the master station to a reflector at the remote station and receiving it back at the master station. The
instrument measures slope distance between transmitter and receiver by modulating the continuous
carrier wave at different frequencies, and then measuring the phase difference at the master station
between the outgoing and the incoming signals. This establishes the following relationship for a double
distance (2D):

• Where m is unknown integer number of complete wavelengths contained within double distance, Φ; is
 the measured phase difference and λ is modulation wavelength, and k is constant. Multiple modulation
frequencies are used to evaluate m , the ambiguity .

Various EDMIs in use are based on two methods:

• using timed pulse techniques such as those used in variety of radar instruments.
• using measurements of a phase difference which may be equated to one part of a cycle expressed in
units of time or length.

Pulse methods have advantages over the phase difference methods but their weight and power requirement is
such that they cannot be classed lightweight portable instruments.

(i) Pulse techniques

• All such measurements incorporate a very precise measurement of time usually expressed in units of
nanoseconds (1x10-9 s), which a EM wave takes to travel from one station to another. In this method, a
short, intensive pulse radiation is transmitted to a reflector target, which is immediately transmitted back
to the receiver. As shown in Figure 1.4, the distance (D) is computed as the velocity of light (V)
multiplied by half the time (Δt/2) the pulse took to travel back to the receiver (D = V x Δt/2).

• All such measurements incorporate a very precise measurement of time usually expressed in units of
nanoseconds (1x10-9 s), which a EM wave takes to travel from one station to another. In this method, a
short, intensive pulse radiation is transmitted to a reflector target, which is immediately transmitted back
to the receiver. As shown in Figure 1.4, the distance (D) is computed as the velocity of light (V)
multiplied by half the time (Δt/2) the pulse took to travel back to the receiver (D = V x Δt/2).

Figure 1.4 Principle of EDMI based on pulse measurement (Schoffield, 2002)

(ii) Phase difference techniques

• The relationship between wavelength and associated phase difference can be illustrated by the Figure
1.5 which shows that for a given complete cycle of EM wave, the phase difference can be expressed
both in terms of angular (degrees) and linear (fraction of wavelengths) units. In phase difference method
used by majority of EDMI, the instrument measures the amount δλ by which the reflected signal is out
 of phase with the emitted signal (Figure 1.6).

PRECAUTION TO BE TAKEN WHILE USING A TOTAL STATION:

1.Use both hands to hold the total station handle.
2.Set up the tripod as stable as possible.
3.Do not move or carry a tripod with the total station fixed on it, except for centering.
4.Store the battery pack with the battery discharged.
5. Do not over tighten any of the clamp screws.

6. Take maximum care when the tribrach is removed from the total station.

ERRORS
 PRACTICAL 7
Aim: Measurement of Latitude and Longitude using hand held GPS

Instruments and accessories required : Hand held gps , battery,etc.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of at least 24 satellites.
GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day, with no subscription fees or setup
charges. The U.S. Department of Defense (USDOD) originally put the satellites into orbit for military use, but
they were made available for civilian use in the 1980s.

How GPS works

GPS satellites circle the Earth twice a day in a precise orbit. Each satellite transmits a unique signal and orbital
parameters that allow GPS devices to decode and compute the precise location of the satellite. GPS receivers
use this information and trilateration to calculate a user's exact location. Essentially, the GPS receiver measures
the distance to each satellite by the amount of time it takes to receive a transmitted signal. With distance
measurements from a few more satellites, the receiver can determine a user's position and display it
electronically to measure your running route, map a golf course, find a way home or adventure anywhere.

To calculate your 2-D position (latitude and longitude) and track movement, a GPS receiver must be locked on
to the signal of at least 3 satellites. With 4 or more satellites in view, the receiver can determine your 3-D
position (latitude, longitude and altitude). Generally, a GPS receiver will track 8 or more satellites, but that
depends on the time of day and where you are on the earth. Some devices can do all of that from your wrist.

Once your position has been determined, the GPS unit can calculate other information, such as:

• Speed
• Bearing
• Track
 • Trip distance
• Distance to destination
• Sunrise and sunset time
• And more

GPS Signal Errors Sources

Factors that can affect GPS signal and accuracy include the following:

• Ionosphere and troposphere delays: Satellite signals slow as they pass through the atmosphere. The GPS
system uses a built-in model to partially correct for this type of error.
• Signal multipath: The GPS signal may reflect off objects such as tall buildings or large rock surfaces
before it reaches the receiver, which will increase the travel time of the signal and cause errors.
• Receiver clock errors: A receiver's built-in clock may have slight timing errors because it is less accurate
than the atomic clocks on GPS satellites.
• Orbital errors: The satellite's reported location may not be accurate.
• Number of satellites visible: The more satellites a GPS receiver can "see," the better the accuracy. When
a signal is blocked, you may get position errors or possibly no position reading at all. GPS units
typically will not work underwater or underground, but new high-sensitivity receivers are able to track
some signals when inside buildings or under tree-cover.
• Satellite geometry/shading: Satellite signals are more effective when satellites are located at wide angles
relative to each other, rather than in a line or tight grouping.
• Selective availability: The U.S. Department of Defense once applied Selective Availability (SA) to
satellites, making signals less accurate in order to keep 'enemies' from using highly accurate GPS
signals. The government turned off SA in May of 2000, which improved the accuracy of civilian GPS
receivers.

Precautions

1. Always check your gps batteries before using it.

2. Use in open space for better accuracy

LATITUADE AND LONGITUDE of Tiwari Sir Cabin