PSYCHIATRIKI 30 (4), 2019

329

Review
Ανασκόπηση

Empty-nest-related psychosocial stress:

Conceptual issues, future directions
in economic crisis
A. Bougea,1,2 A. Despoti,1 E. Vasilopoulos3
1
1st Department of Neurology, University of Athens, Medical School, Eginition Hospital, Athens,
2
Postgraduate Course Science of Stress and Health Promotion, School of Medicine, University of Athens,
3
1st Department of Psychiatry, University of Athens, Eginition Hospital, Athens, Greece

Psychiatriki 2019, 30:329–338

Τ
he empty-nest syndrome is a transitional stage, when middle-aged parents are in the process of
encouraging their children to take up their obligations as adults. The empty-nest syndrome is a
psychological condition that affects both parents, who experience feelings of grief, loss, fear, in-
ability, difficulty in adjusting roles, and change of parental relationships, when children leave the
parental home. Τhis syndrome has gained special interest in a world where the current economic crisis has
not only deepened global poverty but also a crisis of values reflected in the dynamic model of the family.
The purpose of this review was to appraise the impact of psychosocial stress of the empty- nest syndrome
on the parents’ well-being through the years, during the current socio-economic crisis, taking into account
gender, national and cultural background, socio-demographic and other context factors. We addressed
the phenomenon of the “Boomerang Kids” and crowded nests as a result of current financial instability.
Finally, we focused on the strategies which the family can employ to retain their resilience, according to the
Transactional Model of Stress and Coping Family resilience framework and self-efficacy models. A literature
review was conducted using web-based search engines provided by Medline, Scopus, Embase, Cochrane
and PsychINFO. The term “empty nest syndrome’’ was combined with women, men, economic crisis, par-
enthood, stress, menopause, midlife crisis, Boomerang kids, crowded nets, resilience, self-efficacy, well-
being, and cultural differences. Women and men from diverse cultural groups have a different experience
of the empty nest, as well as ways of coping. Distress caused by empty nest results in the incidence of
symptoms of depression, behavioral symptoms and cognitive impairment. In most of studies, low marital
quality and lack of social support affected negatively on a parent’s well-being particularly for those experi-
encing the return of their “Boomerang kids”. However, the financial crisis can transform an empty-nest into
a “dynamic nest” by community health promotion services. Social support programs should be designed
to strengthen family resource and improve family well-being.
Key words: Εmpty-nest syndrome, family, economic crisis, resilience, well-being.
330 A. BOUGEA et al PSYCHIATRIKI 30 (4), 2019

Introduction Definition, history and theoretical background

The term “empty-nest syndrome” owes its origin to
The empty-nest syndrome is a transitional stage
the theory of role identity.7 It describes the impact
experienced by middle-aged parents (45–65 years that the children’s departure from the parental nest
old) when their children leave home.1 The percent- has on the welfare of the parents. According to this
age of empty-nest elderly (aged <60 years) ranged theory, which was most popular in the late 50s, the
from 50–78% in different populations.2,3 The empty- loss of a very important role brings alienation and
nest syndrome is characterized by feelings of sad- loneliness and dissatisfaction.7 The more roles one
ness, loss, fear or difficulty in redefining roles with has, the less threatening the prospect of empty-
negative effects such as depression, alcoholism, nest syndrome.8 However, this approach is based
identity crisis, and marital conflict.4 However, there is on the questionable assumption that the departure
also evidence that the empty nest can be a positive of children from the parental home also implies the
time for parents, an opportunity for reconnection simultaneous loss of the parental role, an assump-
and a time to rekindle interests.5 tion which researchers have generally rejected. It is
thought that the parental role can change, or adapt
Despite these conflicting findings, evidence in re-
to the new situation, but by no means can it be lost.8
cent years has shown that transition to the empty
nest has undergone dramatic changes. Since the The theoretical approach to the role change is as-
beginning of the global financial crisis in 2009, pov- sociated with the study of Rahe and Holmes who
erty has not only deepened significantly and unem- have created a list of 43 events which are consid-
ployment has risen dramatically but also the crisis ered as sources of stress and require a degree of
of values reflected in the dynamic model of family.6 adaptation.9 The child’s departure from parental
home is positioned at 23rd place, scoring 29 points.9
However, data are lacking on how empty nest par-
Consequently, the extent to which the change in
ents redefine their new role in such situations.
the parental role disrupts the life of the parent and
The purpose of this first review was to analyze the requires adjustment can also influence his/her pros-
definitions, historical and theoretical background perity. The impact of the parental role change on his/
of empty-nest syndrome through the main compo- her prosperity may be reinforced by other stressful
nents of the parental role. We then proceeded to events taking place around the same period of time.
examine the effect of stress on the emotional health For example, retirement may coincide with the stage
and well-being of empty nest parents taking into of empty nest; consequently, the required adjust-
account gender, national and cultural differences. ment effort is intensified with an increased risk of ex-
Furthermore, we examined the impact of the current haustion of homeostatic mechanisms.9
economic crisis on empty-nest syndrome and strate- Empty nest during the early 70s affected mainly
gies on how the family can retain their resilience. women and was a strong predictor of depression.10 In
contrast, other researchers found that the experience
Μaterial and method of empty nest had no effect on well-being. A study
in the United States indicated that women empty-
We conducted a review of original articles re- nesters showed greater life satisfaction and happier
trieved in Medline, Scopus, Embase, Cochrane and marital relations, in comparison with age-matched
PsychINFO without time restriction. A literature women who have a child at home.11 Moreover, the
review was conducted using web-based search departure of the youngest child, indeed, was gener-
engines provided by Medline, Scopus, Embase, ally anticipated with a sense of relief.12
Cochrane and PsychINFO. The term “empty-nest syn- The effect of empty nest on the relationship of
drome’’ was combined with the words: women, men, the couple has long become the object of research.
economic crisis, parenthood, stress, menopause, Deutscher13 found an improvement in the couple’s
midlife crisis, Boomerang kids, crowded nest, resil- relationship following the departure of children
ience, self-efficacy, well-being, cultural differences. from the parental home. In contrast, Glenn11 found
PSYCHIATRIKI 30 (4), 2019 EMPTY-NEST-RELATED PSYCHOSOCIAL STRESS 331

no positive correlation with marital satisfaction of ment, interactions of the family system and percep-
empty nest parents. The explanation given by the tion of the parental role.14,15,21
researcher was that the parental role is very stressful
and most likely responsible for reduced marital sat- The impact of gender on stress
of the empty-nest syndrome
isfaction.
The finding that the experience of the empty nest Social approaches agree that gender does not re-
is not the same for all parents, given that for some fer to the biological and physiological characteristics
it proved to be a highly stressful situation while for that define man and woman, but to their socially
others it was anticipated with pleasure, was consti- constructed roles that have been judged as “appro-
tuted the thread guide of research in the 80s and priate”. It is more “natural” and suitable for women as
90s. Research interest was focused on establishing mothers to be more clinging to their child than men
the parameters which rendered the experience of as fathers. Men and women have a different experi-
the empty nest as a stressful event. Women have ence of the transitional stage of the nest because of
spent more time raising the children and as a result their different roles and priorities, as well as ways of
they have a stronger bond with them. Because of the coping.
salience of the mother role, women experience more The risk of depression increases when the loss
stress in their parental role compared to men,14 who of the parental role coexists with the lack of other
tend to show competitiveness and more tension roles. 22,23 Adlemann24 concluded that work acts as
with sons rather than daughters, while stepchildren a protective factor against changes in the maternal
may cause greater family pressure compared to bio- role. However, the researchers showed that while
logical children.15 This competitiveness is important work per se has a significant impact on well-being,
because triggers more conflict in the family making the state of the empty nest has no major effect on
the transition to empty nest more difficult. There is a the well-being of women.25,26
lack of evidence between the relationship with step- Given that the majority of evidence focuses on
children and empty nest because of the complexity women, few studies support that men experience
of the subject. Stepchildren are most likely to leave greater difficulty than women in the transitional pe-
from their home maybe because they have the op- riod of empty nest. The most affected fathers were
tion to live with an alternative parent. those with fewer children, higher self-nurturance
Research in the new millennium dealt with the ex- scores, older in years, and in marriages which evi-
perience of the empty nest in older adults who live denced lower quality.27 In traditional families, men
alone and had infrequent contact with their children. relate the departure of children to the loss of their
Older adults who are experiencing the situation of protective paternal role, while women report im-
the empty nest suffer from loneliness, physical and provement in well-being and reduction in daily has-
mental decline, and less life satisfaction compared to sles.4 Reduced parental role stress following college
those who have regular contact with their children.16 entrance was significantly related to the quality of
Low social support, low socio-economic status, di- parent-adolescent communication and the degree of
vorce and widowhood were found to be predic- emotional connectedness (for fathers) present in the
tors of loneliness and decreased life satisfaction.17,18 family prior to the transition. 28 Fathers, as opposed
Depressive symptoms were associated with educa- to mothers, considered the children’s departure as
tion level/employment status, negative coping style, a step toward encouraging child maturity.29 Fathers’
low support utilization, and economic status.19,20 satisfaction at having raised successful children was
Thus, it can be concluded that the main difficulty negatively related to both spouses’ levels of per-
in clearly defining the effect of empty nest syn- ceived stress.30
drome is that there is no specific pattern that can ad- Few studies have associated psychological symp-
equately describe this experience. It may depend on toms with the physical changes of middle-aged
factors that cannot be easily investigated, such as the empty nest women, particularly menopausal, even if
personality of the individual, psychosocial develop- the timing of the transition of the nest varies widely
332 A. BOUGEA et al PSYCHIATRIKI 30 (4), 2019

in relation to the life of each woman as a mother. The with southern European countries they also have
physical symptoms are related to hormonal changes Mediterranean cultural characteristics.
including hot flushes, night sweats, vaginal dryness,
The return to the empty nest
and breast tenderness. Dennerstein5 found that re-
in the era of crisis
turn of children to home during the menopausal
transition was associated with decline of positive The current global economic crisis, which started
mood and decline in the frequency of sexual activity unexpectedly in 2009, has radically changed the la-
for women. A very recent research showed that emp- bor market. The crisis has dramatically reduced the
ty-nest-related psychological distress is associated personal income, forcing many into unemployment
with white brain matter lesions and loss of memory while the number of unstable and fleeting job op-
in the elderly.31,32 portunities has risen without providing, in many cas-
es, any social health insurance. The unemployment
The impact of ethnic and cultural differences rate in the USA reached 10% (October, 2009) while
in the empty-nest syndrome in Europe the situation was even more severe with
Greece reaching 27.9%, Spain 26.3% and Italy 13%
Various cultural groups adopt different norms, val-
(Eurostat 2013). It is noteworthy that to date, after
ues, roles, and expectations regarding family types,
all these years of economic crisis, Greece is the only
relationships and ways of coping. 33–37 Indo-Eastern country among the southern European countries
origin parents have strict principles regarding the that after all these years of crisis continues to be in a
appropriate withdrawal time (i.e. for studies, or mar- precarious economic situation under memorandum
riage) and some families maintain the tradition of obligations.40
older male descendants remaining with their wives
within the family in order to care for elderly par- The “Boomerang kids”
ents. 36 In Africa, India, Middle East, and East Asia, The term “boomerang kids” was first coined by
older parents are held in very high esteem and it Okimoto and Stegall37 to describe young adults that
is virtually considered a child’s duty to care for and return to the parental home following residential in-
respect them. 38 When these principles are not re- dependence. It is not a rare phenomenon and almost
spected, it causes stress, sadness, or shame to the 40% of young adults return to their parental home
parents. In British families, the departure of children at least once after self-reliant living.41 One of the
from the family is an indicator of parental success in most common reasons for returning home involves
raising children equipped face the challenges of au- financial constraints due to unemployment or low in-
tonomous adult life. 39 Conversely, in south-Europe- come.41,42 A partner break-up or a mental health ail-
an families in Italy and Spain, the patriarchal model ment such as depression or drug/alcohol addiction
considers the empty nest as a loss of family herit- can also lead to a young adult to return home and
age. 39 Italian mothers react negatively to the empty may well be the result of job loss in itself.42
nest and feel a loss of wellness, while French moth- We could divide the returners into two groups:
ers experience empty nest more positively retain- young adults and those aged above 30 years. The un-
ing less traditional maternal roles and recognizing employment rate of young adults, aged 15–24 years,
the potential return of children to the family home. is higher than the general population accounting for
There are no published data regarding Greek fami- 47.4% in Greece and 44.5% in Spain.43 In Australia,
lies and empty nest so far. Greek families have many the United Kingdom, and the United States unem-
common cultural characteristics with other southern ployment rates during the financial crisis for those
European countries like Italy or Spain. Greek chil- aged 16 to 24 were notably higher than for the rest of
dren for instance, delay their departure from home the working population.44 Although the financial cri-
or parents experience more negative the empty sis in Australia was relatively mild, well-being is sig-
nest syndrome. It is important to investigate more nificantly affected by economic shocks.44 However,
specific empty nest syndrome in Greek families, studies on empty-nesters during the financial crisis
because even though they have many in common are lacking. Over the past decades, certain significant
PSYCHIATRIKI 30 (4), 2019 EMPTY-NEST-RELATED PSYCHOSOCIAL STRESS 333

structural and cultural changes have influenced the The crowded nest
course of family life. For instance, the age at which
couples choose to marry has risen, higher levels of The transition from the empty to the “crowded”
education are sought and study years are longer and nest, as a result of current financial instabilities, is not
the unstable labor market is making it harder to gain an easy process. Returning home could compromise
financial independence.45 Most young people find the relationship between child and parents and carry
themselves in a semi-dependent situation, receiving the risk of conflict, but at the same time, sharing time
financial assistance from parents and rendering the may also provide the opportunity for quality rela-
prolonged stay in the parental home or the return to tions to develop.48 One of the greatest challenges is
home after college a predictable fact.46 Despite the the redefinition and negotiation of adult roles and
lack of specific data, the economic crisis is affiliated identities, the individuation from parents. There are
with a moral and value crisis, a rise in criminality, na- two psychological criteria that characterize the tran-
tionalism, individualism, exploitation and hostility, sition to adulthood: the equal relationship with par-
making it more unstable and stressful for young peo- ents, and independent decision making.48
ple to live on their own. Sassler48 found that even though the returners
On the other hand, adults aged above 30 face a strive to establish a relationship in such a way that
more complex situation. Unemployment, in this they are considered as an equal adult and not as a
group tends to be viewed as a failure, thereby add- dependent member, parents continue to perceive
ing to the pressure to become earners and leading them as children. Furthermore, even though return-
to feelings of anomie in terms of social roles and ers endeavor to make independent decisions, the
age-linked expectations, which are linked to cultural parents tried to amerce their opinion over decisions
norms.47 Adults aged 30–55 years may have children about jobs, social life. It is as though the parents rec-
or their own business, a house mortgage or loans, all reate childhood patterns to keep them in a depend-
of which increase stress and anxiety levels. Albeit the ent state, which inevitably provokes conflict.
return to the parental home has become relatively
Prominent changes, such as sudden unemploy-
common nowadays, independence and self-accom-
ment and “boomeranging”, question the adult’s so-
plishment remain highly rated by a society that still
cial and personal identity and idea of self, placing re-
supports social timetabling norms.48 Economic sta-
bility and residential independence are crucial to turners in a stigmatizing position. There is no specific
the transition to adulthood. A return to the parental data on how modern unemployed “boomerang kids”
home may question their status as adults. It is note- seek to re-establish their social status. According to
worthy, that this age group may have had already social studies, potential coping strategies could in-
“boomeranged” once before (e.g. after studies) and clude self-promotion (making other believe that they
only to find themselves again in the same situation.1 are capable), blarney (persuading others that they
are likeable), intimidation, exemplary (showing that
Regardless of their age, the adults return is often they are respectable/responsible) and pleading (to
accompanied by multiple losses: loss of work, self-es- be shown pity as they are helpless).49
teem and independence leading to feelings of hope-
lessness, depression and anxiety. Joblessness affects The return into the parental home may also af-
psychological well-being, cognitive performance, fect the satisfaction with the living arrangement48
motivation and perception of self-worth places a as well as midlife parental marital satisfaction,1 poor
strain on personal relations.46 In turn, this affects co- quality of life and well-being.46 Parents risk lack of
habitation on many levels, with both adults and par- privacy and autonomy with the children’s return.45
ents having to adapt to changes and redefine their Furthermore, the return may originate feelings of
new role. The return to the nest, due to such a life disappointment and self-blaming end even ques-
changing factor as the current economic crisis, may tion their status as adequate and successful parents.
even strengthen and encourage more quality rela- Parents feel that it is their obligation to financially
tionships between family members. support their boomeranged child.45
334 A. BOUGEA et al PSYCHIATRIKI 30 (4), 2019

Although research often considers that “crowded Walsh53 developed the family resilience framework
nest” adults cause major problems, such as marital model for stress relief, to overcome family crisis and
friction, disputes and financial defalcation. 50 Other promote growth and functional family unit. It is or-
findings suggest low levels of conflict between par- ganized into three determiners: belief system, or-
ents and returning young adults.45 Only 18% report- ganizational patterns and communication/problem
ed having had three or more disagreements.15 These solving. According to Walsh this framework works as
studies refer to recent decades, but current reality is “conceptual map” that helps families to recover from
different. It is not only boomeranged kids that face challenging situations, overcome stress and be em-
financial difficulties but also their parents, who may powered.
be unemployed or have a reduced pension and no Based on this model, unemployed boomerang kids
social insurance. Families are hence called upon to and their parents need to find the meaning of their
overcome vital issues, which leads to greater and crisis and view it as a shared challenge. Keeping a
deeper conflicts. positive view of the facts, will not perhaps, dissipate
unemployment, but it can lead to more positive rela-
Transactional model of stress
and coping tionships – develop a new social network – and more
constructive alternative ideas. Adaptability (flexibil-
According to the Transactional Model of Stress and ity and stability) and connectedness are essential for
Coping, introduced by Lazarus and Folkman,51 stress family resilience. Modern boomerang families need
coping can be achieved either by focusing on the to find a new way of fitting with the current global
problem (control and solve the problem by defying reality. They have to abandon the age-old standards
it, seeking a solution, reconsidering) or by focusing that are associated with employment, marital age,
on the emotion (avoidance, quitting, acceptance, and starting a family. Stability, which can be estab-
alcohol/ drug abuse). Which strategy is used will de- lished by developing an everyday routine, will bal-
pend on the conditions and individual personality. ance friction of young adults returning, and create
They can be used separately or combined. a “safety” net on which individuals can rely.52 Open
Unemployed “boomerang kids” can relieve stress conversations and expression of emotions will en-
either by perceiving the problem and trying to ac- able better communication and help each other’s
quire new skills that will lead them to employment differences within the family to be respected. The
and independence, e.g. (free online educational family has to support each other, by trying to find
seminars, learning a new language etc.) or by ac- alternatives (e.g. change working field, continue
cepting the situation, maintaining sangfroid, recog- education, increase job opportunities by relocating
nizing the opportunity of renaissance and trying to to another city), all of which can promote innovative
establish harmonic relationships with the relatives. business or career ideas, and the setting of goals.
Accordingly, their families could either assign the Self-efficacy model
house chores (to help children assume responsibility)
or either accept the fact that unemployment is not The self-efficacy model54 is about one’s belief in his
their fault. ability to achieve anything. This belief affects the way
people, think, feel and behave. According to Bandura
Family resilience framework model “the higher the level of self-efficacy, the higher the
and recommendations performance accomplishments and the lower the
Family resilience is a term to describe how a fam- emotional arousal”. Self-efficacy model operates as a
ily system can rise up, cope with stress and promote cognitive mechanism and helps individuals in stress
mental health. The interactions between the family coping and in life changing events.
members can be very dynamic when it is associated Families with both parents and boomerang kids
with how the members deal with the problems in unemployed with low expectations regarding their
their lives.52 The people change when they success- abilities to act effectively in life, will experience frus-
fully cope with life changing events. tration and act weakly and passively. On the other
PSYCHIATRIKI 30 (4), 2019 EMPTY-NEST-RELATED PSYCHOSOCIAL STRESS 335

hand, the higher the expectations, the more likely of adaption. Stress management aims at strength-
they are to achieve their goals and overcome fail- ening and encouraging the growth of new skills in
ure. Unemployed boomeranged kids, can achieve order that people are better equipped to face these
higher self-efficacy by learning from their experi- stressful life challenges and to acquire self-reliance
ences, observing role models, acquiring verbal skills and self-efficacy in recommendations that rely
and developing a more positive somatic-emotional on their health and environment. Some practical
state. transactional, family resilience framework and self-
efficacy models include: (a) recognition that unem-
Conclusions and recommendations ployment is not their fault and that they must have
for future research self-worth, (b) open conversations and expressing
the emotions which will bring about better com-
The economic crisis has not only deepened global
munication, (c) maintaining a positive attitude by
poverty but also the crisis regarding values reflect-
finding motivation throughout education, online
ed in a dynamic model of a family. Family resilience
courses, art, hobbies, volunteering and physical
is not an easy process in the current changing con-
exercise, (d) remembering that no one is alone and
text of life. The government should pay more atten-
that they can always ask for help via counseling and
tion to community social support-health promotion
psychotherapy. The empty nest can be transformed
programs (broad coverage of health services, sense
to a safe nest where family members develop them-
of coherence, maintaining healthy lifestyles and
selves, support each other, and keep strong bonds
extensive social communication). 55–62 Only when
in every aspect of life. Future enrichment programs
these social policies are based on family functions
should be designed to strengthen family resources
and demands can they provide effective help to
and improve their life-long well-being and quality
members of society, particularly regarding the fam-
of life.
ily’s responsibilities in raising children and support-
ing the elderly.62 Modern family acts like the Greek Acknowledgements: Authors would like to thank
god Proteus: change the status to cope with the Gina St John for her contribution in reviewing this
crisis and the straits by creating psychosocial ways manuscript.

Το ψυχοκοινωνικό στρες της άδειας φωλιάς:

Εννοιολογικά ζητήματα, μελλοντικές κατευθύνσεις
κατά την οικονομική κρίση
Α. Μπουγέα,1,2 Α. Δεσπότη,1 Ευ. Βασιλόπουλος3
1
Α' Νευρολογική Κλινική, Ιατρική Σχολή Πανεπιστημίου Αθηνών, Αιγινήτειο Νοσοκομείο, Αθήνα,
2
Μεταπτυχιακό Πρόγραμμα Επιστήμης του Στρες και Προαγωγής της Υγείας, Ιατρική Σχολή Πανεπιστημίου Αθηνών, Αθήνα,
3
Α΄ Ψυχιατρική Κλινική, Πανεπιστήμιο Αθηνών, Αιγινήτειο Νοσοκομείο, Αθήνα

Ψυχιατρική 2019, 30:329–338

Το σύνδρομο της άδειας φωλιάς αποτελεί ένα μεταβατικό στάδιο, κατά το οποίο γονείς της μέσης
ηλικίας βρίσκονται στη διαδικασία της προώθησης των παιδιών τους στην ανάληψη των υπόχρεω-
σεών τους ως ενηλίκων. Το σύνδρομο της άδειας φωλιάς είναι μια ψυχολογική κατάσταση, η οποία
επηρεάζει και τουs δύο γονείς που ενδέχεται να βιώσουν συναισθήματα λύπης, απώλειας, φόβου,
336 A. BOUGEA et al PSYCHIATRIKI 30 (4), 2019

αβεβαιότητας, δυσκολία στην αναπροσαρμογή των ρόλων τους και τη διαφοροποίηση των σχέ-
σεών τους, όταν τα παιδιά αποχωρούν από την πατρική εστία. Αποκτά ιδιαίτερη σημασία σε έναν
κόσμο όπου η τρέχουσα οικονομική κρίση έχει οξύνει την παγκόσμια φτώχεια και έχει οδηγήσει
σε κρίση των αξιών, όπως αυτή αντανακλάται στο δυναμικό μοντέλο της οικογένειας. Σκοπός της
παρούσας ανασκόπησης είναι να εξετάσουμε τις επιπτώσεις του ψυχολογικού στρες του συνδρό-
μου στη συναισθηματική υγεία και ευημε­ρία των γονέων, λαμβάνοντας υπόψη το φύλο, το εθνικό
και το πολιτιστικό τους υπόβαθρο, κοινωνικο-δημογραφικούς και άλλους παράγοντες πλαισίου
μέχρι τη σύγχρονη οικονομική κρίση. Εξετάσαμε τις ψυχοκοινωνικές συνέπειες της επιστροφής
στην κενή φωλιά των παιδιών "Boomerang", ως αποτέλεσμα των τρεχουσών οικονομικών αστα-
θειών. Τέλος, εστιάσαμε στις στρατηγικές με τις οποίες η οικογένεια μπορεί να διατηρήσει την
ανθεκτικότητά της, σύμφωνα με το μοντέλο της ανθεκτικότητας και τα μοντέλα αυτο-αποτελε-
σματικότητας. Διεξήχθη ηλεκτρονική αναζήτηση στο Medline, Scopus, Embase, Cochrane and
PsychINFO. O όρος empty-nest syndrome συνδυάστηκε με τις λέξεις: women, men, economic
crisis, parenthood, stress, menopause, midlife crisis, Boomerang kids, crowded nest, resilience,
self-efficacy, well-being, cultural differences. Γυναίκες και άνδρες από διάφορες κοινωνικές και
πολιτιστικές ομάδες, έχουν μια διαφορετική εμπειρία της κενής φωλιάς, καθώς και των τρόπων
αντιμετώπισής της. Το στρες της άδειας φωλιάς έχει ως συνέπεια την εκδήλωση καταθλιπτικών και
συμπεριφορικών συμπτωμάτων και νοητικής εξασθένησης. Σύμφωνα με τις περισσότερες μελέ-
τες, οι διαταραγμένες οικογενειακές σχέσεις –συγκρούσεις, συναισθηματική απόσταση, εχθρό-
τητα– και η ελλιπής κοινωνική υποστήριξη επηρεάζουν αρνητικά την ευημερία των γονέων. Η
χρηματοπιστωτική κρίση δύναται να μετατρέψει την άδεια φωλιά σε «δυναμική φωλιά» μέσω της
ενδυνάμωσης των υπηρεσιών της κοινότητας. Προγράμματα κοινωνικής υποστήριξης θα πρέπει
να σχεδιαστούν για την ενίσχυση των οικογενειακών πόρων και τη βελτίωση της ποιότητας της
οικογενειακής ζωής.
Λέξεις ευρετηρίου: Σύνδρομο άδειας φωλιάς, οικογένεια, οικονομική κρίση, ανθεκτικότητα, ευη-
μερία.

References

1. M
 itchell BA, Gee EM. “Boomerang Kids” and Midlife Parental 7. P
 hillips BS. A Role Theory Approach to Adjustment in Old
Marital Satisfaction. Family Relations 1996, 45: 442–448, doi: Age. Am Sociol Rev 1957, 22:212–217, doi: 10.2307/2088860
10.2307/585174 8. T
 hoits P. Multiple Identities and Psychological Well-Being: A
2. Z
 hou Y, Zhou L, Fu C, Wang Y, Liu Q, Wu H et al. Socio-- Reformulation and Test of the Social Isolation Hypothesis. Am
economic factors related with the subjective well-being of the Sociol Rev 1983, 48:174–187, doi: 10.2307/2095103
rural elderly people living independently in China. Int J Equity
9. H
 olmes JD, Rahe RH. The Social Readjustment Rating Scale.
Health 2015, 14:15, doi: 10.1186/s12939-015-0136-4
J Psychosom Res 1967, 11:213–218, doi: 10.1016/0022-
3. G
 ratton B, Gutmann MP. Emptying the nest: older men in the 3999(67)90010-4
United States, 1880–2000. Popul Dev Rev 2010, 36:331–356,
10. H
 arkins, E. Effects of Empty Nest Transition on Self-Report of
doi: 10.1111/j.1728-4457.2010.00332.x
Psychological and Physical Well- Being. J Marriage Fam 1978,
4. H
 uerta R, Mena A, Malacara JM, de León JD. Symptoms 40:549–556, doi: 10.2307/350935
at perimenopausal period: its association with attitudes
11. G
 lenn NE. Psychological well-being in the post-parental stage:
toward sexuality, life-style, family function, and FSH lev-
Some evidence from national surveys. J Marriage Fam 1975,
els. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1995, 20:851–864, doi:
37:105–110, doi: 10.2307/351034
10.1016/0306-4530(94)00046-d
12. L
 owenthal MF, Chiriboga D. Transition to the Empty Nest Crisis,
5. D
 ennerstein L, Dudley E, Guthrie J. Empty Nest or Revolving
Challenge, or Relief? Arch Gen Psychiatry 1970, 26:8–14, doi:
Door: A Prospective Study Of Women’s Quality of Life in
10.1001/archpsyc.1972.01750190010003
Midlife During the Phase of Children Leaving and Re-Entering
the Home. Psychol Med 2002, 32:545–550, doi: 10.1017/  eutscher I. From parental to post-parental life. Sociol Symp
13. D
S0033291701004810 1969, 3:47–60
6. E
 urostat. The Statistical Office of The European Union 14. M
 cLanahan S, Adams J. Parent-hood and Psychological
(Cited 31 December 2018) Available from http://epp.eurostat. Well-Being. Annu Rev Sociol 1987, 13:237–257, doi: 10.1146/
ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/eurostat/home/ annurev.so.13.080187.001321
PSYCHIATRIKI 30 (4), 2019 EMPTY-NEST-RELATED PSYCHOSOCIAL STRESS 337

15. S
 uitor J, Pillemer K. Explaining Intergenerational Conflict when sion of brain white matter lesions and cognitive impairment in
Adult Children and Elderly Parents Live together. J Marriage the elderly. Sci Rep 2017, 7:43816, doi: 10.1038/srep43816
Fam 1988, 50:1037–1047 32. W
 ang Z, Shu D, Dong B, Luo L, Hao Q. Anxiety disorders and
16. W
 ang G, Hu M, Xiao SY, Zhou L. Loneliness and depres- its risk factors among the Sichuan empty-nest older adults: a
sion among rural empty-nest elderly adults in Liuyang, China: cross-sectional study. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2013, 56:298–302,
a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2017, 7:e016091, doi: doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2012.08.016
10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016091 33. B
orland D. A Cohort Analysis Approach to the Empty-
17. L
 iu LJ, Guo Q. Life satisfaction in a sample of empty-nest nest Syndrome Among Three Ethnic Groups of Women: A
elderly: a survey in the rural area of a mountainous county in Theoretical Position. J Marriage Fam 1982, 44:117–129, doi:
China. Qual Life Res 2008, 17:823–830, doi: 10.1007/s11136- 10.2307/351267
008-9370-1 34. M
 itchell BA, Wister AV. Midlife Challenge or Welcome
18. W
 u ZQ, Sun L, Sun YH, Zhang XJ, Tao FB, Cui GH. Correlation Departure? Cultural and Family-Related Expectations of
between loneliness and social relationship among empty nest Empty Nest Transitions. Int J Aging Hum Dev 2015, 81:260–80,
elderly in Anhui rural area, China. Aging Ment Health 2010, doi: 10.1177/0091415015622790
14:108–112, doi: 10.1080/13607860903228796 35. P
 illay AL. Midlife depression and the “empty nest” syndrome
19. X
 ie LQ, Zhang JP, Peng F, Jiao NN. Prevalence and relat- in Indian women. Psychol Rep 1988, 63:591–4, doi: 10.2466/
ed influencing factors of depressive symptoms for empty- pr0.1988.63.2.591
nest elderly living in the rural area of Yong Zhou, China. 36. P
 utney NM, Bengtson VL. Family relation in changing times: A
Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2010, 50:24–29, doi: 10.1016/j.arch- Longitudinal Study of Five Cohorts of Women. Int J Sociol Soc
ger.2009.01.003 Policy 2005, 25:92–119, doi: 10.1108/01443330510791144
20. Z
 hai Y, Yi H, Shen W, Xiao Y, Fan H, He F et al. Association  kimoto JD, Stegall PJ. Boomerang kids: how to live with adult
37. O
of empty nest with depressive symptom in a Chinese elderly children who return home. Pocket Books, New York, 1989
population: A cross-sectional study. J Affect Disord 2015, 187: 38. D
 ixon SV, Graber JA, Brooks-Gunn J. The roles of respect for
218–223, doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2015.08.031 parental authority and parenting practices in parent-child con-
21. D
 ubey B, Jain K. Empty nest syndrome as a function of flict among African American, Latino, and European American
personality dimension and socio-economic status. Int J Curr families. J Fam Psychol 2008, 22:1–10, doi: 10.1037/0893-
Res 2018, 10:70384–70386, doi: 10.24941/ijcr.30993. 06.2018 3200. 22.1.1
22. L
 iang Y, Wu W. Exploratory analysis of health-related quality of 39. S
 ven Reher D. Family Ties in Western Europe: Persistent
life among the empty-nest elderly in rural China: An empirical Contrasts. Popul Dev Rev 1998, 24:203–234, doi: 10.2307/
study in three economically developed cities in eastern China. 2807972
Health Qual Life Outcomes 2014, 12:59, doi: 10.1186/1477- 40. OECD. OECD Economic Surveys: Greece. OECD Publishing,
7525-12-59 Paris, 2016
23. C
 heng P, Jin Y, Sun H, Tang Z, Zhang C, Chen Y et al. 41. S
 ironi M. Economic Conditions of Young Adults Before and
Disparities in prevalence and risk indicators of loneliness After the Great Recession. J Fam Econ Issues 2018, 39:103–
between rural empty nest and non-empty nest older adults 116, doi: 10.1007/s10834-017-9554-3
in Chizhou, China. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2015, 15:356–64, doi:
42. S
 andberg-Thoma SE, Snyder AR, Jang BJ. Exiting and
10.1111/ggi.12277
Returning to the Parental Home for Boomerang Kids. J
24. A
 delmann PK, Antonucci TC, Crohan SE, Coleman LM. Empty Marriage Fam 2015, 77:806–818, doi: 10.1111/jomf.12183
Nest, Cohort, and Employment in the Well-Being of Midlife
43. O
 ECD. Youth unemployment rate.(Cited 31 December 2015)
Women. Sex Roles 1989, 20: 173–189, doi: 10.1007/bf0028799
Available from https://data.oecd.org/unemp/youth-unemploy-
 adloff LS. Depression and the Empty Nest. Sex Roles 1980,
25. R ment-rate.htm
6:775–781, doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00287233
44. P
 arker PD, Jerrim J, Anders J. What Effect Did the Global
26. C
 oleman LM, Antonucci TC. Impact of work on women at Financial Crisis Have Upon Youth Wellbeing? Evidence From
midlife. Dev Psychol 1983, 19:290–294, doi:10.1037/0012- Four Australian Cohorts. Dev Psychol 2016, 52:640–651, doi:
1649.19.2.290  10.1037/dev0000092
27. L
 ewis RA, Freneau PJ, Roberts CL. Fathers and The 45. W
 est AJ, Roberts J, Noden P. Young Adult Graduates Living
Postparental Transition. Fam Coord 1979, 28:514–520, doi: in the Parental Home: Expectations, Negotiations, and
10.2307/583513 Parental Financial Support. J Fam Issues 2016, 34:975–1007,
28. A
 nderson SA. Parental Stress and Coping During The doi: 10.1177/0192513X16643745
Leaving Home Transition. Fam Relat 1988, 37:160–165, doi: 46. Córdoba-Doña J, Sebastián MS, Escolar-Pujolar A, Martínez-
10.2307/584314 Faure J, Gustafsson PE. Economic crisis and suicidal behavior:
29. L
 omranz J, Shmotkin D, Eyal N, Zohar Y. Launching themes the role of unemployment, sex and age in Andalusia, Southern
in Israeli fathers and mothers. J Adult Dev 1996, 3:159–170, Spain. Int J Equity Health 2014, 13:55, doi: 10.1186/1475-
doi: 10.1007/BF02285776 9276-13–55
30. B
 ouchard G. A Dyadic Examination of Marital Quality at the  eck U, Beck-Gernsheim E. Individualisation: Institutionalised
47. B
Empty-Nest Phase. Int J Aging Hum Dev 2018, 86:34–50, doi: Individualism and Its Social and Political Consequences. Sage,
10.1177/0091415017691285 London, 2002
31. D
 uan D, Dong Y, Zhang H, Zhao Y, Diao Y, Cui Y et al. Empty- 48. S
 assler S, Ciambrone D, Benway G. Are they really mama’s
nest-related psychological distress is associated with progres- boys/daddy’s girls? The negotiation of adulthood upon return-
338 A. BOUGEA et al PSYCHIATRIKI 30 (4), 2019

ing to the parental home. Sociol Forum 2008, 23:670–698, doi: model. J Public Health (Oxf) 2018, doi: 10.1093/pubmed/
10.1111/j.1573-7861.2008.00090.x fdy185
49. J
 ones EE, Pittman TS. Toward a general theory of strategic 59. Z
 hang C, Xue Y, Zhao H, Zheng X, Zhu R, Du Y et al.
self presentation. In: Suls J (ed) Psychological perspectives Prevalence and related influencing factors of depressive
on the self. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, 1982:231–262 symptoms among empty-nest elderly in Shanxi, China. J Affect
50. T
 osi M, Grundy E. Returns home by children and changes in Disord 2019, 245:750–756, doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.045
parents’ well-being in Europe. Soc Sci Med 2018, 200:99–106, 60. Y
 ang T, Chu J, Zhou C, Medina A, Li C, Jiang S et al.
doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.01.016 Catastrophic health expenditure: a comparative analysis of
 azarus RS, Folkman S. Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer,
51. L empty-nest and non-empty-nest households with seniors in
New York, 1984 Shandong, China. BMJ Open 2016, 6:e010992, doi: 10.1136/
bmjopen-2015-010992
 erdiana I, Suryanto D, Handoyo S. Family Resilience: A
52. H
Conceptual Review. Proceedings of the 3rd ASEAN Conference 61. X
 u J, Sun Y, Wang Z. Prevalence and risk factors of depres-
on Psychology, Counselling, and Humanities (ACPCH 2017), sion in the empty nest elderly from the Sichuan Longmenshan
Series: Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities fault earthquake. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2017, 17: 2143–2149, doi:
Research 2018, doi: 10.2991/acpch-17.2018.9 10.1111/ggi.13050
53. W
 alsh F. Applying a Family Resilience Framework in Training, 62. S
 u Z, Hu Z, Peng X. The impact of changes in China’s family
Practice, and Research: Mastering the Art of the Possible. Fam patterns on family pension functions. Int J Health Planning Manage
Process 2016, 55:616–632, doi: 10.1111/famp.12260 2017, 32:351–362, doi: 10.1002/hpm.2436
54. B
 andura A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavio-
ral change. Psychol Rev 1977, 84:191–215, doi: 10.1037/0033-
295X.84.2.191
55. G
 ong F, Zhao D, Zhao Y, Lu S, Qian Z, Sun Y. The factors
associated with geriatric depression in rural China: stratified
by household structure. Psychol Health Med 2018, 23:593–
603, doi: 10.1080/13548506.2017.1400671
56. H
 uang Lj Mm, Du WT, Liu YC, Guo LN, Zhang JJ BS, Qin
MMBS et al. Loneliness, Stress, and Depressive Symptoms
Among the Chinese Rural Empty Nest Elderly: A Moderated
Mediation Analysis. Issues Ment Health Nurs 2019, 40:73–78,
doi: 10.1080/01612840.2018.1437856
57. M
 urphy DA, Roberts KJ, Herbeck DM. HIV-positive moth-
ers with late adolescent/early adult children: “empty nest”
concerns. Health Care Women Int 2012, 33:387–402, doi:
10.1080/07399332.2012.655395
58. Z
 hang C, Zhao H, Zhu R, Lu J, Hou L, Yang XY et al. Corresponding author: A. Bougea, Neurologic Clinic of Eginition
Improvement of social support in empty-nest elderly: results Hospital, 72–74 Vasilissis Sofias Ave, GR-115 28 Athens, Greece,
from an intervention study based on the Self-Mutual-Group Tel: (+30) 210-72 89 286, e-mail: [email protected]