a0005

Family and Culture

James Georgas
University of Athens, Athens, Greece

1. Culture the study of family and culture. There are different

2. Family Theories family types: nuclear families, extended families, and
3. Family one-parent families. Family types differ according to
4. Kinship Patterns and Family Matters subsistence patterns, social systems, religion, and other
5. Family Roles and Power
cultural features. Marriage takes place in different ways
6. Psychological Dimensions
in different cultures. Kinship ties, postmarital residence,
7. Conclusion
Further Reading and descent are important determinants of family types.
The social power of the mother and the father is related
to the institutional structure and values of the culture.
Socialization of children by the family is related to
There are two general approaches to the study of family. ecocultural variables and family types and results in
One approach has been the focus on the family, its different psychological characteristics across cultures.
structure, interactions between family members, child
development, and other issues. The second approach
has been the study of the family within its cultural 1. CULTURE s0005

context. This approach assumes that the family is one

system within other social systems of a culture, and that Culture is a very broad term referring to all human-made
the study of the family necessarily entails studying its patterns of activity, including societal institutions, prac-
relationships with the institutions and other aspects of tices, norms, rules, means of subsistence, symbols, com-
the culture. In addition, the usual approach in cultural munication, settlements, transportation, art, religious
psychology studies the family in one culture or society, beliefs, ideas about nature and humans, interactions
whereas the cross-cultural approach is comparative, among humans, child-rearing practices, values, beliefs,
studying universals and differences in families across cognitive processes, personality, and social behavior.
cultures or countries. Cultural anthropology, sociology, There are many definitions of culture, each stressing
psychology, cross-cultural psychology, psychiatry, different elements, including the patterns of human ac-
economics, political science, and geography have each tivity, the unique symbols in each culture, the symbols
contributed to the study of family from the perspective transmitted through language, the achievements of the
of its own discipline. However, there is considerable group, the artifacts, the transmission of the traditions
overlap in theories and methods so that one can also from generation to generation, and the mutual process of
talk about a multidisciplinary approach employed by humans creating cultural elements and culture-shaping
many in each field. A number of issues are related to human and social patterns.

Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology, 11 #2004 Elsevier Inc.

VOLUME 2 All rights reserved.
 12 Family and Culture

The term culture, however, is also used to designate unit to the industrial revolution required a nuclear
a group with a common heritage as described in the family structure that could carry out societal functions
previous definition of culture. That is, culture is used and satisfy the physical and psychological needs of
as a synonym for ‘‘ethnic group,’’ ‘‘nation,’’ ‘‘society,’’ or family members. However, in its urban setting, the
‘‘country.’’ Anthropologists initially employed the term nuclear family is fragmented from its kinship network,
to refer to small exotic groups of people, often referred leading to psychological isolation. Distancing itself
to in the past as primitive peoples, savages, or indige- from the extended family results in loss of its produc-
nous groups. Employed in this sense, larger geopoliti- tive, political, and religious functions. Social mobility,
cal groups are referred to as nations or countries. particularly in the highly mobile U.S. culture, was
However, culture is also employed in taxonomies of made possible by the breaking of family ties.
nations, such as Western culture or Islamic culture. If However, most sociologists, anthropologists, and
culture is used to define an ethnic group with a specific psychologists today disagree with Parsons’ depiction
‘‘culture,’’ then the number of cultures has been esti- of the nuclear family as isolated from its kin.
mated by anthropologists to be in the thousands, Evidence from studies of family networks indicates
whereas there are approximately 200 nations or coun- that ties are maintained between members of the nu-
tries throughout the world. clear family and kin at different generational levels in
Thus, culture is employed in both ways in family the United States and many European countries. Many
research: It refers to a specific country or to those ethnic groups in the United States maintain fairly close
elements that characterize the society. family and kinship ties, whereas others do not. Cross-
cultural studies have indicated that there are not polar
opposites of no family ties versus close family ties but,
s0010
2. FAMILY THEORIES rather, different degrees of family ties. In countries
such as the United States, Sweden, and Britain there
Family theories have been developed in sociology, cul- are looser ties between the nuclear family and kin,
tural anthropology, psychology, psychiatry, and cross- whereas the ties are closer in countries such as
cultural psychology. The first family theories were China, India, and Greece.
developed in the 19th century. A form of social Family theories based on systemic concepts have
Darwinism theorized that the structure and function of also been developed (Parson’s theory is also a systems
family adapted, as a social organism, to the environment. theory). Family system theory has been developed within
Marxist theory employed the concept of economic deter- general systems theory, and its basic concepts apply to
minism to explain how economic resources determined physics, biology, and social sciences, among other
social power, which in turn determined class struggle. sciences. The family is a system within larger suprasys-
The concept of social power was extended to explain tems of society and attempts to maintain equilibrium by
authority and power structures of the father and mother. adapting to demands and to changes in the larger sys-
Durkheim’s theory explained the existence and the tem. The focus is on communication processes between
changes in family structure and function in terms of family members and on recurring family transactional
the family’s functional role in the preservation of society. patterns. Family system theory was developed in the
Functionalism analyzed the role of family as part of a fields of clinical psychology and psychiatry as a psy-
greater whole, in which an equilibrium with other social chotherapeutic method. This has resulted in the con-
institutions was established. This was essentially a sys- struction of models of family functioning and
tems theory, in contrast to the biological or economic techniques of psychotherapy directed toward the fam-
determinism of social Darwinism and Marxist theory. ily. Ecological theories of family trace the relationships
One of the most influential theories of family in the between environment, social institutions, the family,
second half of the 20th century was Parsons’ structural– and psychological variables. The human ecology the-
functional perspective, in which society was viewed as ory of Bronfenbrenner is basically a family systems
an organism striving to resist change and to maintain model. One of the earliest ecological models is that of
itself in a state of equilibrium. Structure refers to the cultural anthropologists John and Beatrice Whiting
members of the family (parents, child, and kin), and and Irvin Child and their many collaborators in their
function refers to how families satisfy physical and six-culture study. Their basic hypothesis was that
psychological needs for survival and maintenance. child training throughout the world is in many impor-
According to Parsons, the adaptation of the family tant aspects identical and that there are universal
 Family and Culture 13

aspects of behavior but also differences from culture to 3. FAMILY s0015

culture. Six cultures were studied in detail: those of

Raira, Okinawa; Tarong, the Philippines; Khalapur, 3.1. Definition of Family s0020

India; Nyansongo, Kenya; Juztlahuraca, Mexico; and

Orchard Town, United States. The elements of the Currently, there are many definitions of family based on
model were the environment (climate, flora, fauna, different theoretical perspectives. An early definition of
and terrain), history of the settlements, maintenance the family was that of the anthropologist Murdock:
systems (subsistence patterns, means of production, ‘‘The family is a social group characterized by common
settlement patterns, social structure, etc.), the child’s residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction. It
learning environment (caretakers and teachers, includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom
mothers’ workload, etc.), psychological variables maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and
(behavioral styles, skills and abilities, values, conflicts, one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually
and defenses), innate needs, and projective expressive cohabiting adults.’’ The functions of family were consid-
systems or elements of the culture (religion, magic ered to be sexual, reproduction, socialization, and
beliefs, ritual and ceremony, etc.) (Fig. 1). Cultural economic. The sociologist Popenoe defined family in
features such as the economy, social structure, settle- terms of recent changes in the social and economic
ment pattern, and household and family organization position of the family, the increase in one-parent
were found to be related to behavior. For example, the families [divorced, adoptive, widows(ers), or unmarried
complexity of the socioeconomic system and the com- mothers], and homosexual families. In this definition of
position of the household were predictive of social the family, the minimum number is one adult and one
behavior of the system. This is a classic cultural anthro- dependent person, the parents do not have to be of both
pological model for cross-cultural studies of family. sexes, and the couple does not have to be married. The
Other family theories employed include feminist functions of the family are procreation and socialization
theory, symbolic interactionism, family development, of children, sexual regulation, economic cooperation,
phenomenology, family power, and exchange theory. and provision of care, affection, and companionship.

Environment Maintenance
systems The Projective
individual expressive
Climate
adult system
Flora Subsistence
Fauna patterns
Means of Learned
Terrain Religion
production Magic beliefs
Behavioral styles
Settlement Ritual and
patterns Skills and ceremony
Social structure abilities Art and
Systems of defense Value priorities recreation
Law and social Conflicts Games and
control Defenses play
Division of labor Crime rates
Suicide rates
Innate

Needs
History Drives
Child’s Capacities
Migrations learning
Borrowings environment
Inventions Infant
Settings occupied
Caretakers and
teachers
Tasks assigned
Mothers workload

f0005 FIGURE 1 A model for psychocultural research. From Whiting and Whiting (1975).
 14 Family and Culture

s0025
3.2. Family Typology  In a few societies in Central Asia there are polyan-
drous families, in which one woman is married to sev-
As inferred in the previous definitions, there are differ- eral brothers and thus land is not divided. However, this
ent types of families. The structure refers to the posi- is a rare phenomenon in cultures throughout the world.
tions of the members of the family (e.g., mother, father,  The stem family consists of the grandparents and
daughter, grandmother, etc.) and the roles assigned to the eldest married son and heir and their children, who
the family members by the culture. For example, tradi- live together under the authority of the grandfather/
tional roles of the nuclear family in North America and household head. The eldest son inherits the family plot
northern Europe in the mid-20th century were the and the stem continues through the first son. The other
wage-earning father and the housewife and child- sons and daughters leave the household upon mar-
raising mother. Cultures have social constructs and riage. The stem family was characteristic of central
norms related to the proper roles of family members— European countries, such as Austria and southern
that is, what the role of the mother, father, etc. should be. Germany. The lineal or patriarchal family consists of
Family types or structures have been delineated the grandparents and the married sons. This is perhaps
primarily by cultural anthropological studies of small the most common form of family and is also found in
cultures throughout the world. However, family sociol- southern Europe and Japan.
ogists have also contributed to the literature on family  The joint family is a continuation of the lineal
typology, although sociology has been more interested family after the death of the grandfather, in which the
in the European and American family and less inter- married sons share the inheritance and work together.
ested in small societies throughout the world. Joint families were found south of the Loire in France,
There are a number of typologies of family types, but as were patriarchal families, whereas the nuclear family
a simple typology would be the nuclear and the was predominant north of the Loire. Joint families are
extended family systems. To these can be added the also found in India and Pakistan.
one-parent family.  The fully extended family, or the zadruga in
The nuclear family consists of two generations: the the Balkans countries of Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia,
wife/mother, husband/father, and their children. The Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria, had a
one-parent family is also a variant of the nuclear family. structure similar to that of the joint family but with
Most one-parent families are divorced-parent families; the inclusion of cousins and other kin. The number of
unmarried-parent families comprise a small percentage kin living and working together as a family numbered
of one-parent families, although they have increased in in the dozens.
North America and northern Europe. The majority of
one-parent families are those with mothers. A point needs to be made regarding the different types
The extended family consists of at least three genera- of extended families. Historical analyses of the family
tions: the grandparents on both sides, the wife/mother by anthropologists and sociologists indicated that people
and the husband/father, and their children, together considered to be members of a family or a household
with parallel streams of the kin of the wife and husband. were not necessarily kin. For example, in central
There are different types of extended families in cultures European countries until the 18th century, servants
throughout the world. The following is one taxonomy: (who were often relatives), semipermanent residents,
visitors, workers, and boarders were considered to be
 The polygynous family consists of one husband/ members of the household. The term familia was used to
father and two or more wives/mothers, together with denote large households rather than ‘‘family’’ in the
their children and kin. Polygynous families are found in modern sense. Until the 18th century, no word for nu-
many cultures. For example, four wives are permitted clear family was employed in Germany but the term
according to Islam. However, the actual number of ‘‘with wife and children.’’ Frédéric Le Play, considered
polygamous families in Islamic nations is very small to be the father of empirical family sociology, discussed
(e.g., approximately 90% of fathers in Qatar, Kuwait, the emergence of the nuclear family as a product of the
United Arab Emirates, Oman, Bahrain, and Saudi Arabia industrial revolution. He also characterized the nuclear
have only one wife). In Pakistan, a man seeking a family, the famille, as unstable in comparison with the
second wife must obtain permission from an arbitration stem family.
council, which requires a statement of consent from the One theory regarding the change from feudal
first wife before granting permission. familia to the famille of Western Europe is based on
 Family and Culture 15

the following analysis. After the reformation, vassals sociological theorizing about the nuclear family.
left the feudal towns to seek work in the cities. This However, studies of social networks in North America
led to the separation of the dwelling place and place of and northern Europe have shown that the hypothesized
work and resulted in privacy and the sentimentality of isolation of the nuclear family is a myth. Nuclear
the nuclear family. This pattern, however, was not families, even in these industrial countries, have net-
found among the peasants in the agricultural areas. works with grandparents, brothers and sisters, and
The strengthening of the relationship between parents other kin. The question is the degree of contact and
and children was also a result of the religious influ- communication with these kin, even in nations of north-
ence of the Age of Enlightenment. These changes led ern and southern Europe.
to the releasing of servants from the close community A second issue relates to the different cycles of fam-
of the household. Servants and workers became less ily, from the moment of marriage to the death of the
personal and part of the household and more contrac- parents or grandparents. The classic three-generation
tual. This led to the emergence of many new nuclear extended family has a lifetime of perhaps 20–30 years.
families (e.g., those of early factory workers and The death of the grandparent, the patriarch of an
clerks). A new word in German, Haus, referred only extended family, results in one cycle closing and the
to those living within it. beginning of a new cycle with two or three nuclear
Historical analyses of the family during this period families, the married and unmarried sons and daugh-
in Western Europe also emphasize that not all families ters. These are nuclear families in transition. Some will
were large extended families because establishing this form new extended families, others may not have
type of household was dependent on land ownership. children, some will not marry, and others (e.g., the
Most families worked for large feudal types of house- second son in the stem family) will not have the eco-
holds and were essentially nuclear in structure. In nomic base to form a new stem family. That is, even in
England during this period, where land ownership cultures with a dominant extended family system,
was restricted to the nobility, the vast majority of there are always nuclear families.
families, which either worked for the landowners or A third issue is the determination of a nuclear family.
rented small plots, were necessarily nuclear families. This is related to place of common residence or the
‘‘household’’ of the nuclear family. Demographic studies
s0030 of the family usually employ the term household in
3.2.1. The Nuclear Family: Separate or Part
determining the number of people residing in the resi-
of the Extended Family?
dence and their roles. However, there is a paradox
The key element in studying different types of family between the concepts household and family as employed
structure and its relationships with psychological devel- in demographic studies. Household refers to counting
opment of the children, its economic base, and its cul- the number of persons in a house. If there are two
ture is the nuclear family. In 1949, Murdock made an generations, parents and the children, they are identified
important distinction regarding the relationship of the as a nuclear family. However, this may lead to erroneous
nuclear family to the extended family: ‘‘The nuclear conclusions about the percentage of nuclear families in a
family is a universal human social grouping. Either as country. For example, in a European demographic
the sole prevailing form of the family or as the basic unit study, Germany and Austria had lower percentages of
from which more complex familial forms are com- nuclear families than Greece. This appears to be strange
pounded, it exists as a distinct and strongly functional because Greece is known to be a country with a strong
group in every known society.’’ extended family system. However, demographic statis-
Murdock made an important point: The nuclear fam- tics provide only ‘‘surface’’ information, which is difficult
ily is prevalent in all societies, not necessarily as an to interpret without data about attitudes, values, and
autonomous unit but because the extended family is interactions between family members. Nuclear house-
essentially a constellation of nuclear families across at holds in Greece, as in many other countries throughout
least three generations. Parsons’ theory that the adapta- the world, are very near to the grandparents—in
tion of the family unit to the industrial revolution the apartment next door, on the next floor, or in the
required a nuclear family structure resulting in its isola- neighborhood—and the visits and telephone calls be-
tion from its traditional extended family and kinship tween kin are very frequent. Thus, although nuclear in
network, leading to psychological isolation and anomie, terms of common residence, the families are in fact
has had a strong influence on psychological and extended in terms of their relationships and interactions.
 16 Family and Culture

In addition, there is the psychological component of prevalent. In agricultural and pastoral societies, in
those who one considers to be family. Social represen- which there is a permanent base and many hands are
tation of his or her family may consist of a mosaic of necessary for cultivation of the land, the extended
parents, brothers and sisters, grandparents, uncles, and family types are prevalent. In modern industrial soci-
aunts and cousins on both sides, together with differ- ety, in which people are hired to provide services or to
ent degrees of emotional attachments to each one, work in industries, money is a means of exchange,
different types of interactions, bonds, memories, etc. people live in urban areas, and apartments or houses
Each person has a genealogical tree consisting of a are expensive, the nuclear family is prevalent.
constellation of overlapping kinship groups—through
the mother, father, mother-in-law, father-in-law, but
also through the sister-in-law, brother-in-law, cousin-
4. KINSHIP PATTERNS s0040

in-law, etc. The overlapping circles of nuclear families

in this constellation of kin relationships are almost
AND FAMILY MATTERS
endless. Both the psychological dimension of family—
one’s social representation—and the culturally speci-
4.1. Kinship Relationships s0045

fied definition of which kin relationships are important Cultural anthropology has categorized the different types
determine which kin affiliations are important to the of kinship relationships in extended families in a variety
individual (‘‘my favorite aunt’’) or the family (‘‘our of cultures. These are called lineal, collateral, and affinal
older brother’s’’ family) and which are important in relationships. Lineal relationships are those between the
the clan (the ‘‘Zaman’’ extended family) or community grandparents and the grandchildren. Collateral relation-
(the ‘‘Johnsons’’ nuclear family). Thus, it is not so ships are those with uncles and aunts, cousins, and
important ‘‘who lives in the box’’ but, rather, the nephews and nieces. Affinal relationships are those
types of affiliations and psychological ties with the between parents-in-law, children-in-law, and siblings-
constellation of different family members or kin in in-law as well as with matrilineal and patrilineal kin.
the person’s conception of his or her family, whether However familiar the terms for these kin are in Europe
it is an ‘‘independent’’ nuclear family in Germany or an and North America, they are critical concepts in different
‘‘extended family’’ in Nigeria. cultures because they are also related to the types of
relationships and obligations toward affinal, collatoral,
and affinal kin, to lines of descent, to residence, to
inheritance of property, and to roles.
s0035
3.3. Subsistence Patterns
The terms for kin are more differentiated in various
and Family Types cultures. Murdock employed a system with six cate-
Ecological theories specify relationships between the gories based on categorization of cousins: Hawaiian,
family structure and function, the ecological context Eskimo, Sudanese, Iroquois, Crow, and Omaha. Other
(physical environment, climate, flora, fauna, terrain, categorizations are based on classification of paternal
and settlement patterns), the sociopolitical context (so- and maternal relatives. For example, in Iran the term in
cial structure, subsistence patterns, traditions, religion Farsi for mother’s sisters is khaleh and it is ammeh for
and beliefs, language and means of communication, father’s sisters, with analogous terms for father’s broth-
etc.), and psychological variables (cognition, personal- ers. In Pakistan, several cousins may be raised together
ity, values, social interactions, etc.). The ecological in the same household. They are referred to in Urdu as
context and the sociopolitical context can shape family brothers or sisters, with the prefix added, ‘‘through-my-
types, but the model is not strictly deterministic: maternal-aunt’’ or ‘‘through-my-paternal-uncle.’’ Generic
Individuals or the community can also shape family words, such as aunt, uncle, or even grandparents, have
types. The number of wives, the dowry system, and no equivalent in Urdu, but specific terms related to
relationships with kin in a family type can be shaped by matrilineal kin, as in Iran, are employed; for example,
traditions and religion. However, perhaps the most khala is the mother’s sister and phuphee the father’s sister.
important determinant of family type is the subsistence
system, which is also shaped by the ecological context,
particularly in small societies. In hunting and gather-
4.2. Residence s0050

ing societies, in which mobility of the family is neces- Residence refers to where the couple resides after
sary in order to obtain food, the nuclear family type is marriage. One theory is that subsistence patterns
 Family and Culture 17

determine rules of residence, which in turn affect the Bilateral: Affiliation is with both mother’s and
rules of descent. The theory is based primarily on father’s relatives.
small, noncomplex societies. Patrilineal: Affiliation is with kin of both sexes
through the maternal and paternal fathers only, but
 Patrilocal refers to residence with or near the hus-
not through maternal and paternal mothers.
band’s patrilineal kinsmen. This is the most common
Matrilineal: Affiliation is with kin of both sexes
form of postmarital residence, with approximately 50%
through the maternal and paternal mothers only, but
of small societies sampled.
not through maternal and paternal fathers.
 Virilocal refers to residence near the husband’s
Ambilineal (cognatic): Affiliation is with kin through
father and is similar to patrilocal residence. The differ-
either the maternal parents or the paternal parents.
ence is the absence of patrilineal kin groups. This
Some may affiliate with kin through their mothers
represents the second largest percentage (20%) of post-
and others through their fathers.
marital residence after patrilocal. The remainder of
Double: Affiliation is with both father’s patrilineal
residence patterns sum to the remaining 30% of
kin and mother’s matrilineal kin.
societies.
 Matrilocal is similar to patrilocal but refers to res-
idence with or near the wife’s matrilineal kinsmen. This
is the case, for example, with the Chiapas of Mexico. 4.4. Marriage s0060

 Avunculocal refers to residence with or near the

Societies have norms regarding whom one is permitted
maternal uncle or other male matrilineal kinsmen of
to marry (endogamy) and restrictions regarding whom
the husband.
one cannot marry (exogamy). In some societies, such as
 Bilocal is residence with or near the parents of the
in India or Pakistan, endogamy means that marriage is
husband or the wife.
restricted to the same caste, the same village, the same
 Matrilocal–avunculocal is similar to bilocal but
religion, and the same race. These social norms are not as
can be either matrilocal or avunculocal residence.
 Avunculocal-virilocal is also similar to bilocal but
restrictive in North America and Europe, although mar-
riage to someone of another racial or ethnic group or to
can be either avunculocal or virilocal residence.
 Neolocal means residence apart from the relatives
someone of a different level of education or social status
may not be accepted in some groups. Exogamy means
of both spouses. This is characteristic of nuclear family
that, e.g., marriage to a member of the nuclear family, or
residence in northern Europe and North America. In
incest, is a universal taboo in almost all societies. In
complex industrial societies in which there are few
China, marriage to someone with the same family name
small independent farms, the economy is based on
was disapproved. In many societies, marriage is not
wages rather than land ownership. Thus, land owner-
permitted with first cousins or with the son or daughter
ship as a basis of production is not a factor, and small
of a godparent. In other societies, such as Saudi Arabia,
nuclear families with neolocal residence are more
marriage with first cousins is desired, specifically to the
functional.
 Duolocal means separate residence of each spouse
sons and daughters of the paternal brother (uncle) or to
members of the clan. In other societies, if a husband dies,
in the paternal and maternal household.
the wife must marry the brother.
In the past, in most societies throughout the world,
marriages were arranged between two families, and a
s0055
4.3. Descent verbal or written contract was agreed upon regarding
Descent refers to the relationships with paternal and the dowry or the bride wealth; however, this is chang-
maternal kin. The relationships concern many aspects ing gradually in many societies in Africa and Asia. In
of life, such as economic activities, religious activities, patrilineal societies, the fathers usually made the deci-
child-rearing practices, political behavior, inheritance, sion. In the few matrilineal societies in the world, the
and residence. These aspects of living are organized mother’s brothers made the decision. Decisions to
around strict sets of rules with kin, many of them as unite their sons and daughters in marriage are based
ritualized behaviors. Societies with specific rules for on certain criteria. Because endogamy is an important
different kin are usually hierarchical in structure and restriction, families look for the best possible alliances
in the distribution of power. The following are rules of between them, which may be based on social and eco-
descent in different cultures. nomic factors and, in many cases (such as in Saudi
 18 Family and Culture

Arabia, where marriage between paternal first cousins divorce is controlled directly by the family, whereas in
is highly desirable), strengthening the wealth, prestige, others there is indirect control by social institutions and
and social power of the extended family within the clan by the dominant religion. For example, Catholicism does
or tribe. The decision of a young couple to marry on not permit divorce except under highly unusual situa-
the basis of love with or without the consent of the tions requiring a special dispensation. The Orthodox
parents occurs in a minority of societies, including Church permits three marriages and three divorces.
North America and northern Europe, although this is Islamic law, the sharia, permits polygamy up to four
changing rapidly in many societies. One theory is that wives and also divorces. However, in Islamic nations,
in societies with neolocal postmarital residence, ro- the intent of a husband to take a second wife may lead to
mantic love as a basis of marriage is more common. It the first wife seeking a divorce. Despite the conventional
is suggested that marriage based on love and compa- notion in the West that in Islam husbands can divorce a
nionship provides a stronger union when the couple wife by stating three times the phrase, ‘‘I divorce you,’’
must depend on their own economic assets and not on divorce is not an easy matter because of its legal and
their parents’ aid for survival. social consequences. According to Islamic law, the
The dowry is an integral part of the marriage contract daughter inherits property from the father—half of the
between the two families of the couple. There are three sum of the son’s. The wife retains property in her name
general types of dowries. The dowry system refers to the after marriage, even gifts from her family, and the hus-
transfer of property, money, or animals by the bride’s band has no legal claim to her property. After divorce,
parents to the husband after marriage. The bride wealth the woman retains her property and custody of the
system, the most common dowry system, is the opposite children until they reach 7 years of age. However, the
of the dowry system: The transfer is from the husband’s father remains the legal guardian and is responsible for
family to the bride’s family. A third type is bride theft, in the financial care of the children. Remarriage of a
which the man abducts the woman without the consent divorced woman is permitted, but the children of the
of the respective families. In the past, the dowry system first marriage are subsequently raised by the maternal
was in effect in European countries, in addition to other grandmother.
societies, whereas the bride wealth system was in effect
in Islamic nations as well as other societies.
Inheritance of property is an integral part of marriage 5. FAMILY ROLES AND POWER s0070

and lineal descent. Japan and China adapted differently

to industrialization in the 19th century. Both had an Role theory refers to the cultural norms regarding psy-
agrarian economy, rapid population growth, and exten- chological and interactional aspects of members of so-
sive but corrupt and inefficient bureaucracy. In China, ciety, such as mothers, fathers, sons, daughters, and
inheritance was egalitarian, but in Japan a single child grandparents. The originators of role theory are Ralph
inherited the property, which made it possible to accu- Linton in sociology and George Herbert Mead in social
mulate capital. In China, loyalty was to the family and psychology. Role refers to the social expectations and
nepotism a duty, so every family member could benefit the social scripts of family roles—how roles have been
from upward social mobility. In Japan, which had a shaped by cultural conventions and by the collective
more feudal system, a father could disinherit his son ideologies of a society. One aspect of role theory studies
and adopt a young man who seemed more worthy. how roles are learned during the process of social inter-
action. That is, people interact with others, they see
themselves and others as occupants of particular sta-
s0065
4.5. Divorce
tuses, and they learn guides for action. In other words,
There is considerable cultural diversity regarding there are certain social scripts or expectations associated
divorce. Divorce is socially disapproved in all societies, with certain roles.
and families usually make great efforts to keep the cou- Structural role theory as developed by Linton and
ple together. The reasons for this are many: the social Parsons refers to the structural and functional aspects
stigma of divorce, the consequences for the children, the of status and role. By structure is meant the positions
financial provisions, and the issues of property and recognized by the specific social system and the content
inheritance. of the role. That is, what are the social scripts associated
Societies differ in the degree to which divorce is with the roles of mother and father in the society? For
controlled and by which institutions. In some societies, example, social scripts of gender roles in a society might
 Family and Culture 19

be that the place of mother is in the home, she should may have the institutionalized social power within
raise the children, cook, etc., whereas in other societies the family, the influence of the mother in extended
mothers should work, share with the husbands the daily families regarding many family matters may be greater
work of the home and care of children, etc. The func- than that of the father.
tional analysis is concerned with the function of role. It is important to note that role theory refers to social
That is, what are the consequences for the rest of the values and social scripts—what the social scripts should
social system of the specific role? How does the role be in the society. However, there is also a psychological
contribute to the maintenance of the system? How does dimension; there are individual differences in each so-
a particular role help in the achievement of the goals of ciety regarding agreement with these roles. Some mem-
the system? How does the role help solve the process of bers of society insist on the strict application of these
adaptation to the social system and contribute to the roles, whereas some members rebel against these roles.
maintenance of patterns, such as the values system? In many societies throughout the world undergoing
Structural role theory also has a comparative element, transition, women are rejecting the traditional roles of
attempting to determine which structure features of so- mother, housewife, and caretaker and are entering the
cial systems are universal through cross-cultural analysis. workforce, as in Western societies. However, the pro-
Power, the degree of gender equality, and the divi- cess is more painstaking in these societies, and working
sion of resources within the family are another aspect mothers often experience strong family pressures,
of family dynamics in the family. Anthropology has which may come from the grandparents or the in-laws,
established that power is related to the control of the to be both a working mother and fulfill the traditional
economic activity or land ownership and institutiona- roles of housewife and caretaker. The structure of the
lized through the norms of the society. Power can be traditional family in many countries provides an alter-
defined as the influence of the spouse, children, and native caretaker of the child while the mother works—
other relatives. However, the influence is not a person- the grandmother.
ality trait, although there may be individual differences
in the ability to influence others. The basis of the
influence is the authority bestowed by social norms 6. PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS s0075

to different family roles and internalized in terms of

values. Power may be expressed in the control of the So far, the discussion has covered features of culture and
finances, in the ability to command respect and obedi- family. Societies differ in terms of degree of complexity,
ence, in feelings of autonomy and control over one’s from small, simple societies of a few hundred members
life, in the capacity to regulate one’s dependency on who subsist through fishing or hunting to large, com-
others, in the power to decide where the family lives plex societies of western Europe and North America in
and whose career is given priority, and in the freedom which the economic basis is industry and services.
to be able to leave difficult family situations. Societies also differ in terms of family structure and
Most agricultural societies are patrilineal, but some function. Family type is related to the subsistence sys-
are matrilineal. In some agricultural societies, the male tem, property and residence, and descent. This section
does most of the plowing or animal tending and the discusses whether there are different psychological
woman’s role is to care for the house and the children. characteristics related to different family types.
However, in many patrilineal agricultural societies, the As indicated previously, there are relationships be-
woman does much of the work, such as harvesting and tween means of subsistence and family types.
tending the crops, in addition to the household tasks Agricultural and pastoral societies tend to have extended
and caring for the children. Boys learn the roles of the families, whereas hunting, fishing, and gathering socie-
males and the fathers, and girls learn the roles of the ties tend to have nuclear societies. Agricultural societies
females and the mothers in small societies. The roles in tend to have a base, land and permanent houses, and
small societies are hierarchical, in which the patriarch large families and kin nearby. A large number of kin is
of the family has the ultimate power and males have necessary for crop cultivation. Cultivation is a process
more power than females. In matrilineal societies, the that requires patience and the cooperation of many, and
matriarch has more power than the father. The broth- it is affected by droughts, floods, and other natural
ers of the matriarch have more power than the father, forces. Studies have found that children in agricultural
who is absent from the family and may visit the matri- and pastoral societies are taught to be responsible, com-
arch secretly at night. However, although the father pliant, obedient, and to respect their elders. Hunting and
20 Family and Culture

gathering societies move about in order to obtain food, in the family model of total interdependence; the sepa-
hunting requires particular skills, and good hunters are rated self, high in autonomy but low in relatedness in the
respected no matter what their age. Children in these family model of independence; and the autonomous–
societies tend to be self-reliant, independent, and related self, high in both relatedness and autonomy in
achievement oriented. It is likely that these personality the family model of psychological interdependence,
traits and the social values that promote them are a revealed in the changing family in collectivistic societies.
function of the adaptation of the individual and the The previously discussed studies refer primarily to
family to the ecological constraints of their environment personality and emotional variables. Family type is also
through their means of subsistence. related to cognitive variables. An example is Berry’s
In the six-cultures studies of Whiting et al., relation- ecocultural framework, which traces the relationships
ships between the economy, social structure, settlement between ecological, cultural, and acculturational vari-
pattern, household and family organization, and the ables and cognitive styles. Initially, links were estab-
behavior of children were studied. Minturn and lished between hunting-based and agriculture-based
Lambert studied the effects of differences in living pat- peoples regarding ecological demands and cultural prac-
terns and economic activities on child-rearing practices tices and the required cognitive performances (i.e., vi-
and the behavior of children (e.g., succorance, achieve- sual disembedding and analytic and spatial abilities).
ment, self-reliance, obedience, nurturance, responsibil- These links were analyzed in detail in terms of the
ity, sociability, dominance, and aggression). Mothers variables subsistence patterns, settlement patterns, pop-
were least warm in Mexico and India, where the living ulation density, family type, social/political stratifica-
patterns were characterized by courtyard or semicourt- tion, socialization practices, education, and wage
yard living. In African and Philippine societies, where employment. It was found that nomadic hunters and
mothers lived in separate houses surrounding a partially gatherers, with a loose social structure, nuclear family
enclosed yard, mothers were intermediate in warmth. systems, and an emphasis on assertion in socialization,
Okinawan mothers, who had more privacy, were the were relatively field independent (i.e., were able to focus
warmest. New England mothers, who had the most pri- on an object without being influenced by its context),
vacy and almost exclusive responsibility for child care, whereas sedentary agriculturalists, with tight social
ranked lowest in warmth. In general, children in nuclear, structures, extended family systems, and an emphasis
joint, and lineal family households were treated more on compliance in socialization, were relatively field
warmly and were indulged when alternate caretakers, dependent (i.e., strongly influenced by the context of
such as grandparents, sisters, and aunts, were available. stimuli). In addition, people in societies undergoing
Kagitcibasi’s model of family change based on socio- acculturation and developing Western types of educa-
economic development posits three family interaction tion became more field independent (Fig. 2).
patterns: the traditional family in developing countries
characterized by total interdependence between genera-
tions in material and emotional realms, the individualis- 7. CONCLUSION s0080

tic nuclear family model of Western society based on

independence, and a dialectical synthesis of these two This article presented a picture of the family primarily
involving material independence but psychological from the perspective of cultural anthropology, sociology,
interdependence between generations. The parenting and cross-cultural psychology. In this brief synopsis, it
orientations differ significantly among these patterns, as was not possible to present the contributions of other
do the distinctive characteristics of the emergent selves. social sciences, such as economics, geography, psychia-
With increasingly urban lifestyles and increasing afflu- try, and political science. The primary goal was to focus
ence in collectivistic cultures, material interdependence on the study of family from the standpoint of cross-
between generations decreases because elderly parents cultural psychology and psychological anthropology.
no longer depend on the economic support of their adult Thus, emphasis was placed on an ecological or ecocul-
offspring, but emotional interdependence continues. tural perspective: the ecological context, social struc-
This leads to increased autonomy in child rearing, but ture, maintenance systems, means of subsistence, the
together with psychological interdependence. family, child development, roles, and psychological con-
These changes are theorized to lead to the develop- sequences. The picture may appear to be like a kaleido-
ment of three types of the self in the three family models: scope in that there is wide cultural variety and there
the related self, high in relatedness but low in autonomy are many variations of families and social structure.
 Family and Culture 21

Country level Country level Country level

Individual level Individual level

Ecocultural indices Family positions

• Affluence • Father, mother, 10-year-old
• Religion boy, girl, 20-year-old male,
• Education female, grandfather,
Psychological variables
• Population grandmother, uncle, aunt
• Temperature • Emotional distance
Family roles
(Georgas)
• Provides emotional support
• Keeps family united • Self–construal
• Conveys traditions, manners, (Singelis)
and customs
Social structural variables
• Marriage • Supports when in need (illness, • Personality (Williams
• Postmarital residence financial problems, etc.) et al.)
• Affinal, lineal and • Does housework (cleans,
collateral relationships cooks, washes) • Family values
• Descent • Does the shopping, pays bills, (Georgas)
• Control and etc.
institutionalization of • Contributes financially to the • Values (Schwartz)
divorce: child custody, family
direct control of • Helps parents with their work • Frequency of
property, financial (fields, shop or family communication
provisions for the occupation)
wife/husband
• Degree of power of
• Etc.
mother, father,
grandparents
• Geographic proximity
• Urban-rural residence

f0010 FIGURE 2 An ecocultural framework for the study of family.

However, there have been many efforts to determine the these societies have also been adapting. Acculturation
structure underneath this seemingly chaotic plethora of and enculturation in response to these pressures for
findings. This entails a comparative approach, consistent change have also affected the links between ecology,
with the approach of psychological anthropology and social structure, family types, and psychological vari-
cross-cultural psychology in seeking universals in family ables. There is a trend toward more families becoming
structure and function as well as variations due to structurally nuclear, even in small societies. However,
cultural differences. A criticism of sociology, which has one must be careful in employing the phrase ‘‘becoming
made significant contributions to the study of the family, nuclear.’’ There is increasing evidence from studies of
is that it has been concerned primarily with the study of small societies or developing nations that the predic-
the family, particularly the nuclear family, only in the tions of modernization theory that the driving force of
countries of northern Europe and North America. modernization, the economic engine, will eventually
An important issue in making sense of results from lead to the Western type of nuclear family system may
thousands of societies is the chronological dimension. be incorrect. The number of nuclear families is increas-
That is, anthropologists have been studying small socie- ing in many developing societies; the traditional family
ties for more than a century. Thus, some findings refer systems are no longer totally dependent on subsistence
to the study of a culture 100, 80, 40, or 30 years ago and systems, such as hunting, gathering, or even agriculture;
some to recent studies. However, in a changing world in young couples are increasingly choosing their spouses
which small societies have been exposed to economic rather than entering arranged marriages; women are
changes, technology, television, tourism, and trade with increasingly entering the workforce; traditional family
economically developed nations of the West and Asia, roles have changed; and the male is no longer the
22 Family and Culture

absolute patriarch in the family. However, even though psychological functioning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
the number of nuclear families is increasing in most University Press.
societies, these families still maintain very close relation- Ingoldsby, B. B., & Smith, S. (Eds.). (1995). Families in
ships with their kin. It appears that although the struc- multicultural perspective. New York: Guilford.
Levinson, D., & Malone, M. J. (1980). Toward explaining
ture of the family is changing from extended to nuclear,
human culture. New Haven, CT: HRAF Press.
the functions of the family and the kin relations have
Levi-Strauss, C. (1969). The elementary structures of kinship.
not changed as much. Interactions and relations with London: Eyre & Spottiswoode.
kin are the psychological components of the family, Malinowski, B. (1962). Sex, culture, and myth. New York:
which are of particular concern to psychologists. Harcourt, Brace, & World.
The study of culture, family, and the psychological Minturn, L., & Lambert, W. W. (1964). Mothers of six cul-
consequences is thus in a very dynamic phase and of tures. New York: Wiley.
considerable interest to social scientists and students. Munroe, R. H., Munroe, R. L., & Whiting, B. B. (1981).
Handbook of cross-cultural development. New York: Garland.
Murdock, P. M. (1949). Social structure. New York: Free
See Also the Following Articles Press.
Parsons, T. (1943). The kinship system of the contemporary
Marital Therapy
United States. American Anthropologist, 45, 22–38.
Parsons, T. (1949). The social structure of the family. In
R. N. Anshen (Ed.), The family: Its functions and destiny.
Further Reading
New York: Harper.
Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Segall, M. H., & Dasen, P. R. Popenoe, D. (1988). Disturbing the nest—Family changes and
(2002). Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applica- decline in modern societies. New York: Aldine.
tions. New York: Cambridge University Press. Segalen, M. (1986). Historical anthropology of the family.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human develop- Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
ment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Whiting, B., & Whiting, J. W. M. (1975). Children of six
Georgas, J., Berry, J. W., van de Vijver, F. J. R., Kagitcibasi, C., cultures: A psycho-cultural analysis. Cambridge, MA:
& Poortinga, Y. H. (Eds.). (2005). Cultures, family and Harvard University Press.