English language

For other uses, see English (disambiguation). and sometimes also vocabulary, grammar and spelling –
English-speakers from around the world are able to com-
municate with one another with relative ease.
English is a West Germanic language that was first spo-
ken in early medieval England and is now a global lingua
franca.[4][5] Named after the Angles, one of the Ger-
manic tribes that migrated to England, it ultimately de- 1 Classification
rives its name from the Anglia (Angeln) peninsula in the
Baltic Sea. It is most closely related to the Frisian lan- Germanic

guages, although its vocabulary has been significantly in- West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic

fluenced by other Germanic languages in the early me-

Anglo-Frisian Low Franconian Old High German
dieval period, and later by Romance languages, partic-
ularly French.[6] English is either the official language Old English Old Frisian Low German

or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign Anglian West Saxon

states. It is the most commonly spoken language in the Northumbrian Mercian

United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, East Midland Middle English

Ireland, and New Zealand, and is widely spoken in some

areas of the Caribbean, Africa, and South Asia.[7] It is
Scots Standard Modern English Frisian Dutch German

the third most common native language in the world, af-

ter Mandarin and Spanish.[8] It is the most widely learned Phylogenetic tree showing the historical relations between the lan-
guages of the West Germanic branch of the Germanic languages
second language and an official language of the United
Nations, of the European Union, and of many other world
and regional international organisations. It is the most
widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least
70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch.
English has developed over the course of more than
1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of
Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-
Saxon settlers in the fifth century, are called Old English.
Middle English began in the late 11th century with the
Norman conquest of England, and was a period in which
the language was influenced by French.[9] Early Mod-
ern English began in the late 15th century with the in-
troduction of the printing press to London and the King
James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift.[10]
Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire,
modern English spread around the world from the 17th
to mid-20th centuries. Through all types of printed and
electronic media, as well as the emergence of the United
States as a global superpower, English has become the
leading language of international discourse and the lin-
gua franca in many regions and in professional contexts
The Germanic languages in Europe
such as science, navigation, and law.[11]
Modern English has little inflection compared with many English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to
other languages, and relies more on auxiliary verbs and the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages.[12]
word order for the expression of complex tenses, aspect Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages,
and mood, as well as passive constructions, interrogatives and English and Frisian form the Anglo-Frisian sub-
and some negation. Despite noticeable variation among group within West Germanic. Old Saxon and its de-
the accents and dialects of English used in different coun- scendent Low German languages are also closely re-
tries and regions – in terms of phonetics and phonology, lated, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian

1
2 2 HISTORY

Latin pes, stem ped-; Modern Greek πόδι pódi;

Russian под pod; Sanskrit पद् pád (original
Proto-Indo-European *p)

• English cheese, Frisian tsiis (ch and ts from palatali-

sation)

German Käse and Dutch kaas (k without

palatalisation)

English, like the other insular Germanic languages,

Icelandic and Faroese, developed independently of the
continental Germanic languages and their influences. En-
glish is thus not mutually intelligible with any continen-
tal Germanic language, differing in vocabulary, syntax,
and phonology, although some, such as Dutch, do show
strong affinities with English, especially with its earlier
stages.[19]
“EN” is the common language code for English (by ISO 639-1
Because English through its history has changed consid-
standard)
erably in response to contact with other languages, par-
ticularly Old Norse and Norman French, some scholars
are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea have argued that English can be considered a mixed lan-
Germanic languages.[13] Modern English descends from guage or a creole – a theory called the Middle English
Middle English, which in turn descends from Old En- creole hypothesis. Although the high degree of influence
glish.[14] Particular dialects of Old and Middle English from these languages on the vocabulary and grammar of
also developed into a number of other English (Anglic) Modern English is widely acknowledged, most specialists
languages, including Scots[15] and the extinct Fingallian in language contact do not consider English to be a true
and Forth and Bargy (Yola) dialects of Ireland.[16] mixed language.[20][21]
English is classified as a Germanic language because it
shares new language features (different from other Indo-
European languages) with other Germanic languages 2 History
such as Dutch, German, and Swedish.[17] These shared
innovations show that the languages have descended from Main article: History of the English language
a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-
Germanic. Some shared features of Germanic languages
are the use of modal verbs, the division of verbs into
strong and weak classes, and the sound changes affect- 2.1 Proto-Germanic to Old English
ing Proto-Indo-European consonants, known as Grimm’s
and Verner’s laws. Through Grimm’s law, the word Main article: Old English
for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, but its The earliest form of English is called Old English or
cognates in other Indo-European languages begin with Anglo-Saxon (c. 550–1066 CE). Old English developed
/p/. English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language be- from a set of North Sea Germanic dialects originally spo-
cause Frisian and English share other features, such as theken along the coasts of Frisia, Lower Saxony, Jutland,
palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in and Southern Sweden by Germanic tribes known as the
Proto-Germanic (see Phonological history of Old English Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. In the fifth century, the Anglo-
§ Palatalization).[18] Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from
Britain. By the seventh century, the Germanic language
of the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in Britain, re-
• English sing, sang, sung; Dutch zingen, zong, gezon- placing the languages of Roman Britain (43–409 CE):
gen; German singen, sang, gesungen (strong verb) Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, and Latin, brought
to Britain by the Roman occupation.[22][23][24] England
English laugh, laughed; Dutch and German and English (originally Englaland and Englisc) are named
lachen, lachte (weak verb) after the Angles.[25]
Old English was divided into four dialects: the Anglian
• English foot, Dutch voet, German Fuß, Norwegian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon di-
and Swedish fot (initial /f/ derived from Proto-Indo- alects, Kentish and West Saxon.[26] Through the edu-
European *p through Grimm’s law) cational reforms of King Alfred in the ninth century
2.2 Middle English 3

English had case endings in nouns as well, and verbs had

more person and number endings.[31][32][33]
The translation of Matthew 8:20 from 1000 CE shows
examples of case endings (nominative plural, accusative
plural, genitive singular) and a verb ending (present plu-
ral):

Foxas habbað holu and heofonan fuglas nest

Fox-as habb-að hol-u and heofon-an fugl-as
nest-∅
fox-NOM.PL have-PRS.PL hole-ACC.PL and
heaven-GEN.SG bird-NOM.PL nest-ACC.PL
“Foxes have holes and the birds of heaven
nests”[34]

2.2 Middle English

Main article: Middle English

Englischmen þeyz hy hadde fram þe bygynnyng þre man-

ner speche, Souþeron, Northeron, and Myddel speche in þe
myddel of þe lond, … Noþeles by comyxstion and mellyng,
furst wiþ Danes, and afterward wiþ Normans, in menye
þe contray longage ys asperyed, and som vseþ strange
wlaffyng, chyteryng, harryng, and garryng grisbytting.
Although, from the beginning, Englishmen had three
manners of speaking, southern, northern and midlands
speech in the middle of the country, … Nevertheless,
The opening to the Old English epic poem Beowulf, handwritten
in half-uncial script: through intermingling and mixing, first with Danes and
Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge then with Normans, amongst many the country language
frunon... has arisen, and some use strange stammering, chattering,
“Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard snarling, and grating gnashing.
of the glory of the folk-kings...”
“
”

and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex, the West

John of Trevisa, ca. 1385[35]
Saxon dialect became the standard written variety.[27]
The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and In the period from the 8th to the 12th century, Old
the earliest English poem, Cædmon’s Hymn, is written English gradually transformed through language contact
in Northumbrian.[28] Modern English developed mainly into Middle English. Middle English is often arbitrar-
from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from ily defined as beginning with the conquest of England by
Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the early William the Conqueror in 1066, but it developed further
period of Old English were written using a runic script.[29] in the period from 1200–1450.
By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, writ- First, the waves of Norse colonisation of northern parts
ten with half-uncial letterforms. It included the runic let- of the British Isles in the 8th and 9th centuries put Old
ters wynn <ƿ> and thorn <þ>, and the modified Latin let- English into intense contact with Old Norse, a North
ters eth <ð>, and ash <æ>.[29][30] Germanic language. Norse influence was strongest in
Old English is very different from Modern English and the Northeastern varieties of Old English spoken in the
difficult for 21st-century English speakers to understand. Danelaw area around York, which was the centre of
Its grammar was similar to that of modern German, and Norse colonisation; today these features are still particu-
its closest relative is Old Frisian. Nouns, adjectives, pro- larly present in Scots and Northern English. However the
nouns, and verbs had many more inflectional endings and centre of norsified English seems to have been in the Mid-
forms, and word order was much freer than in Modern lands around Lindsey, and after 920 CE when Lindsey
English. Modern English has case forms in pronouns (he, was reincorporated into the Anglo-Saxon polity, Norse
him, his) and a few verb endings (I have, he has), but Old features spread from there into English varieties that had
4 2 HISTORY

not been in intense contact with Norse speakers. Some

elements of Norse influence that persist in all English va-
rieties today are the pronouns beginning with th- (they,
them, their) which replaced the Anglo-Saxon pronouns
with h- (hie, him, hera).[36]
With the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the
now norsified Old English language was subject to con-
tact with the Old Norman language, a Romance lan-
guage closely related to Modern French. The Norman
language in England eventually developed into Anglo-
Norman. Because Norman was spoken primarily by the Graphic representation of the Great Vowel Shift, showing how
elites and nobles, while the lower classes continued speak- the pronunciation of the long vowels gradually shifted, with the
ing Anglo-Saxon, the influence of Norman consisted of high vowels i: and u: breaking into diphthongs and the lower
introducing a wide range of loanwords related to poli- vowels each shifting their pronunciation up one level
tics, legislation and prestigious social domains.[37] Mid-
dle English also greatly simplified the inflectional system,
probably in order to reconcile Old Norse and Old En- many irregularities in spelling, since English retains many
glish, which were inflectionally different but morpholog- spellings from Middle English, and it also explains why
ically similar. The distinction between nominative and English vowel letters have very different pronunciations
accusative case was lost except in personal pronouns, the from the same letters in other languages.[41][42]
instrumental case was dropped, and the use of the gen- English began to rise in prestige during the reign of Henry
itive case was limited to describing possession. The in- V. Around 1430, the Court of Chancery in Westminster
flectional system regularised many irregular inflectional began using English in its official documents, and a new
forms,[38] and gradually simplified the system of agree- standard form of Middle English, known as Chancery
ment, making word order less flexible.[39] By the Wycliffe Standard, developed from the dialects of London and the
Bible of the 1380s, the passage Matthew 8:20 was written East Midlands. In 1476, William Caxton introduced the
printing press to England and began publishing the first
Foxis han dennes, and briddis of heuene han printed books in London, expanding the influence of this
nestis[40] form of English.[43] Literature from the Early Modern pe-
riod includes the works of William Shakespeare and the
Here the plural suffix -n on the verb have is still retained, translation of the Bible commissioned by King James I.
but none of the case endings on the nouns are present. Even after the vowel shift the language still sounded dif-
ferent from Modern English: for example, the consonant
By the 12th century Middle English was fully developed, clusters /kn gn sw/ in knight, gnat, and sword were still
integrating both Norse and Norman features; it continued pronounced. Many of the grammatical features that a
to be spoken until the transition to early Modern English modern reader of Shakespeare might find quaint or ar-
around 1500. Middle English literature includes Geoffrey chaic represent the distinct characteristics of Early Mod-
Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, and Malory’s Le Morte ern English.[44]
d'Arthur. In the Middle English period the use of re-
gional dialects in writing proliferated, and dialect traits In the 1611 King James Version of the Bible, written in
were even used for effect by authors such as Chaucer. Early Modern English, Matthew 8:20 says:

The Foxes haue holes and the birds of the ayre

2.3 Early Modern English haue nests[34]

Main article: Early Modern English

This exemplifies the loss of case and its effects on sen-
The next period in the history of English was Early Mod-
tence structure (replacement with Subject-Verb-Object
ern English (1500–1700). Early Modern English was
word order, and the use of of instead of the non-
characterised by the Great Vowel Shift (1350–1700), in-
possessive genitive), and the introduction of loanwords
flectional simplification, and linguistic standardisation.
from French (ayre) and word replacements (bird origi-
The Great Vowel Shift affected the stressed long vow- nally meaning “nestling” had replaced OE fugol).
els of Middle English. It was a chain shift, meaning that
each shift triggered a subsequent shift in the vowel sys-
tem. Mid and open vowels were raised, and close vowels 2.4 Spread of Modern English
were broken into diphthongs. For example, the word bite
was originally pronounced as the word beet is today, and By the late 18th century, the British Empire had fa-
the second vowel in the word about was pronounced as cilitated the spread of English through its colonies and
the word boot is today. The Great Vowel Shift explains geopolitical dominance. Commerce, science and tech-
 5

nology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all con- 3 Geographical distribution
tributed to English becoming the first truly global lan-
guage. English also facilitated worldwide international See also: List of territorial entities where English is an
communication.[45][46] As England continued to form official language, List of countries by English-speaking
new colonies, these in turn became independent and de- population, and Anglosphere
veloped their own norms for how to speak and write the As of 2016, 400 million people spoke English as their
language. English was adopted in North America, In-
dia, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions.
In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created
nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to
continue using English as the official language to avoid
the political difficulties inherent in promoting any one in-
digenous language above the others.[47][48][49] In the 20th
century the growing economic and cultural influence of
the United States and its status as a superpower following
the Second World War has, along with worldwide broad-
casting in English by the BBC[50] and other broadcast-
ers, significantly accelerated the spread of the language Percentage of English speakers by country.
across the planet.[51][52] By the 21st century, English was
more widely spoken and written than any language has first language, and 1.1 billion spoke it as a secondary
ever been.[53] language.[59] English is probably the third largest lan-
A major feature in the early development of Modern guage by number of native speakers, after Mandarin
English was the codification of explicit norms for stan- and Spanish.[8] However, when combining native and
dard usage, and their dissemination through official me- non-native speakers it may, depending on the estimate
dia such as public education and state sponsored publi- used, be the most commonly spoken language in the
cations. In 1755 Samuel Johnson published his A Dictio- world.[53][60][61][62] English is spoken by communities on
nary of the English Language which introduced a stan- every continent and on oceanic islands in all the major
dard set of spelling conventions and usage norms. In oceans.[63] The countries in which English is spoken can
1828, Noah Webster published the American Dictionary be grouped into different categories by how English is
of the English language in an effort to establish a norm used in each country. The “inner circle”[64] countries
for speaking and writing American English that was inde- with many native speakers of English share an interna-
pendent from the British standard. Within Britain, non- tional standard of written English and jointly influence
standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly speech norms of English around the world. English does
stigmatised, leading to the quick spread of the prestige not belong to just one country, and it does not belong
varieties among the middle classes.[54] solely to descendants of English settlers. English is an of-
ficial language of countries populated by few descendants
In terms of grammatical evolution, Modern English has
of native speakers of English. It has also become by far
now reached a stage where the loss of case is almost com-
the most important language of international communi-
plete (case is now only found in pronouns, such as he and
cation when people who share no native language meet
him, she and her, who and whom), and where SVO word-
anywhere in the world.
order is mostly fixed.[54] Some changes, such as the use
of do-support have become universalised. (Earlier En-
glish did not use the word “do” as a general auxiliary as
Modern English does; at first it was only used in ques-
3.1 Three circles of English-speaking
tion constructions where it was not obligatory.[55] Now, countries
do-support with the verb have is becoming increasingly
standardised.) The use of progressive forms in -ing, ap- Braj Kachru distinguishes countries where English is spo-
pears to be spreading to new constructions, and forms ken with a three circles model.[64] In his model, the “in-
such as had been being built are becoming more common. ner circle” countries are countries with large communi-
Regularisation of irregular forms also slowly continues ties of native speakers of English, “outer circle” countries
(e.g. dreamed instead of dreamt), and analytical alter- have small communities of native speakers of English but
natives to inflectional forms are becoming more common widespread use of English as a second language in edu-
(e.g. more polite instead of politer). British English is also cation or broadcasting or for local official purposes, and
undergoing change under the influence of American En- “expanding circle” countries are countries where many
glish, fuelled by the strong presence of American English learners learn English as a foreign language. Kachru
in the media and the prestige associated with the US as a bases his model on the history of how English spread in
world power. [56][57][58] different countries, how users acquire English, and the
range of uses English has in each country. The three cir-
cles change membership over time.[65]
6 3 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

tend schools where English is the medium of instruction.

Varieties of English learned by speakers who are not na-
tive speakers born to English-speaking parents may be
influenced, especially in their grammar, by the other lan-
guages spoken by those learners.[74] Most of those vari-
eties of English include words little used by native speak-
ers of English in the inner-circle countries,[74] and they
may have grammatical and phonological differences from
inner-circle varieties as well. The standard English of the
inner-circle countries is often taken as a norm for use of
English in the outer-circle countries.[74]
In the three-circles model, countries such as Poland,
China, Brazil, Germany, Japan, Indonesia, Egypt, and
other countries where English is taught as a foreign lan-
guage make up the “expanding circle”.[81] The distinc-
tions between English as a first language, as a second lan-
guage, and as a foreign language are often debatable and
may change in particular countries over time.[80] For ex-
ample, in the Netherlands and some other countries of
Braj Kachru’s Three Circles of English. Europe, knowledge of English as a second language is
nearly universal, with over 80 percent of the population
able to use it,[82] and thus English is routinely used to
Countries with large communities of native speakers of communicate with foreigners and often in higher edu-
English (the inner circle) include Britain, the United cation. In these countries, although English is not used
States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand, for government business, the widespread use of English
where the majority speaks English, and South Africa, in these countries puts them at the boundary between
where a significant minority speaks English. The the “outer circle” and “expanding circle”. English is un-
countries with the most native English speakers are, usual among world languages in how many of its users
in descending order, the United States (at least 231 are not native speakers but speakers of English as a sec-
million),[66] the United Kingdom (60 million),[67][68][69] ond or foreign language.[83] Many users of English in the
Canada (19 million),[70] Australia (at least 17 million),[71] expanding circle use it to communicate with other peo-
South Africa (4.8 million),[72] Ireland (4.2 million), and ple from the expanding circle, so that interaction with
New Zealand (3.7 million).[73] In these countries, chil- native speakers of English plays no part in their deci-
dren of native speakers learn English from their parents, sion to use English.[84] Non-native varieties of English are
and local people who speak other languages or new immi- widely used for international communication, and speak-
grants learn English to communicate in their neighbour- ers of one such variety often encounter features of other
hoods and workplaces.[74] The inner-circle countries pro- varieties.[85] Very often today a conversation in English
vide the base from which English spreads to other coun- anywhere in the world may include no native speakers of
tries in the world.[65] English at all, even while including speakers from several
Estimates of the number of English speakers who are different countries.[86]
second language and foreign-language speakers vary
greatly from 470 million to more than 1,000 million
depending on how proficiency is defined.[7] Linguist
David Crystal estimates that non-native speakers now
outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.[60] In
Kachru’s three-circles model, the “outer circle” coun-
tries are countries such as the Philippines,[75] Jamaica,[76]
India, Pakistan, Singapore,[77] and Nigeria[78][79] with a
much smaller proportion of native speakers of English but
much use of English as a second language for education,
government, or domestic business, and where English is
routinely used for school instruction and official interac-
tions with the government.[80] Those countries have mil-
lions of native speakers of dialect continua ranging from Pie chart showing the percentage of native English
an English-based creole to a more standard version of En- speakers living in “inner circle” English-speaking coun-
glish. They have many more speakers of English who ac- tries. Native speakers are now substantially outnumbered
quire English in the process of growing up through day by worldwide by second-language speakers of English (not
day use and listening to broadcasting, especially if they at-
3.3 English as a global language 7

counted in this chart). Most people learn English for practical rather than ideo-
US (64.3%) logical reasons.[103] Many speakers of English in Africa
UK (16.7%) have become part of an “Afro-Saxon” language commu-
Canada (5.3%) nity that unites Africans from different countries.[104]
Australia (4.7%) As decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Em-
South Africa (1.3%) pire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often
Ireland (1.1%) did not reject English but rather continued to use it
New Zealand (1%) as independent countries setting their own language
Other (5.6%) policies.[48][49][105] For example, the view of the English
language among many Indians has gone from associat-
ing it with colonialism to associating it with economic
progress, and English continues to be an official language
3.2 Pluricentric English of India.[106] English is also widely used in media and lit-
erature, and the number of English language books pub-
English is a pluricentric language, which means that lished annually in India is the third largest in the world
no one national authority sets the standard for use of after the US and UK.[107] However English is rarely spo-
the language.[87][88][89][90] But English is not a divided ken as a first language, numbering only around a couple
language,[91] despite a long-standing joke originally at- hundred-thousand people, and less than 5% of the popu-
tributed to George Bernard Shaw that the United King- lation speak fluent English in India.[108][109] David Crys-
dom and the United States are “two countries separated tal claimed in 2004 that, combining native and non-native
by a common language”.[92] Spoken English, for example speakers, India now has more people who speak or under-
English used in broadcasting, generally follows national stand English than any other country in the world,[110] but
pronunciation standards that are also established by cus- the number of English speakers in India is very uncertain,
tom rather than by regulation. International broadcasters with most scholars concluding that the United States still
are usually identifiable as coming from one country rather has more speakers of English than India.[111]
than another through their accents,[93] but newsreader
Modern English, sometimes described as the first global
scripts are also composed largely in international standard
lingua franca,[51][112] is also regarded as the first world
written English. The norms of standard written En-
language.[113][114] English is the world’s most widely
glish are maintained purely by the consensus of educated
used language in newspaper publishing, book publish-
English-speakers around the world, without any over-
ing, international telecommunications, scientific pub-
sight by any government or international organisation.[94]
lishing, international trade, mass entertainment, and
American listeners generally readily understand most
diplomacy.[114] English is, by international treaty, the
British broadcasting, and British listeners readily under-
basis for the required controlled natural languages[115]
stand most American broadcasting. Most English speak-
Seaspeak and Airspeak, used as international languages
ers around the world can understand radio programmes,
of seafaring[116] and aviation.[117] English used to have
television programmes, and films from many parts of the
parity with French & German in scientific research, but
English-speaking world.[95] Both standard and nonstan-
now it dominates that field.[118] It achieved parity with
dard varieties of English can include both formal or in-
French as a language of diplomacy at the Treaty of Ver-
formal styles, distinguished by word choice and syntax
sailles negotiations in 1919.[119] By the time of the foun-
and use both technical and non-technical registers.[96]
dation of the United Nations at the end of World War
The settlement history of the English-speaking inner cir- II, English had become pre-eminent [120] and is now the
cle countries outside Britain helped level dialect distinc- main worldwide language of diplomacy and international
tions and produce a koineised form of English in South relations.[121] It is one of six official languages of the
Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.[97] The majority of United Nations.[122] Many other worldwide international
immigrants to the United States without British ances- organisations, including the International Olympic Com-
try rapidly adopted English after arrival. Now the major- mittee, specify English as a working language or official
ity of the United States population are monolingual En- language of the organisation.
glish speakers,[98][66] although English has been given of-
Many regional international organisations such as the
ficial status by only 30 of the 50 state governments of the
European Free Trade Association, Association of South-
US.[99][100]
east Asian Nations (ASEAN),[52] and Asia-Pacific Eco-
nomic Cooperation (APEC) set English as their organi-
3.3 English as a global language sation’s sole working language even though most mem-
bers are not countries with a majority of native English
English has ceased to be an “English language” in the speakers. While the European Union (EU) allows mem-
sense of belonging only to people who are ethnically ber states to designate any of the national languages as an
English.[101][102] Use of English is growing country-by- official language of the Union, in practice English
[123]
is the
country internally and for international communication. main working language of EU organisations.
8 4 PHONOLOGY

Although in most countries English is not an official lan- 4 Phonology

guage, it is currently the language most often taught as a
foreign language.[51][52] In the countries of the EU, En- Main article: English phonology
glish is the most widely spoken foreign language in nine-
teen of the twenty-five member states where it is not an
official language (that is, the countries other than the UK, The phonetics and phonology of English differ between
Ireland and Malta). In a 2012 official Eurobarometer dialects, usually without interfering with mutual com-
poll, 38 percent of the EU respondents outside the coun- munication. Phonological variation affects the inven-
tries where English is an official language said they could tory of phonemes (speech sounds that distinguish mean-
speak English well enough to have a conversation in that ing), and phonetic variation is differences in pronun-
language. The next most commonly mentioned foreign ciation of the phonemes.[134] This overview mainly de-
language, French (which is the most widely known for- scribes the standard pronunciations of the United King-
eign language in the UK and Ireland), could be used in dom and the United States: Received Pronunciation (RP)
conversation by 12 percent of respondents.[124] and General American (GA) (See Section below on “Di-
alects, accents and varieties”). The phonetic symbols
A working knowledge of English has become a require- used below are from the International Phonetic Alphabet
ment in a number of occupations and professions such (IPA).[135][136][137]
as medicine[125] and computing. English has become so
important in scientific publishing that more than 80 per-
cent of all scientific journal articles indexed by Chemical 4.1 Consonants
Abstracts in 1998 were written in English, as were 90 per-
cent of all articles in natural science publications by 1996 Main article: English phonology § Consonants
and 82 percent of articles in humanities publications by
1995.[126]
Most English dialects share the same 24 consonant
Specialised subsets of English arise spontaneously in in- phonemes. The consonant inventory shown below is valid
ternational communities, for example, among interna- for Californian American English,[138] and for RP.[139]
tional business people, as an auxiliary language. This has
led some scholars to develop the study of English as an * Conventionally transcribed /r/.
auxiliary languages. Globish uses a relatively small sub- In the table, when obstruents (stops, affricates, and frica-
set of English vocabulary (about 1500 words with highest tives) appear in pairs, such as /p b/, /tʃ dʒ/, and /s z/, the
use in international business English) in combination with first is fortis (strong) and the second is lenis (weak). For-
the standard English grammar. Other examples include tis obstruents, such as /p tʃ s/ are pronounced with more
Simple English. muscular tension and breath force than lenis consonants,
The increased use of the English language globally has such as /b dʒ z/, and are always voiceless. Lenis conso-
had an effect on other languages, leading to some English nants are partly voiced at the beginning and end of ut-
words being assimilated into the vocabularies of other terances, and fully voiced between vowels. Fortis stops
languages. This influence of English has led to concerns such as /p/ have additional articulatory or acoustic fea-
about language death,[127] and to claims of linguistic im- tures in most dialects: they are aspirated [pʰ] when they
perialism,[128] and has provoked resistance to the spread occur alone at the beginning of a stressed syllable, often
of English; however the number of speakers continues unaspirated in other cases, and often unreleased [p̚ ] or
to increase because many people around the world think pre-glottalised [ˀp] at the end of a syllable. In a single-
that English provides them with opportunities for better syllable word, a vowel before a fortis stop is shortened:
employment and improved lives.[129] thus nip has a noticeably shorter vowel (phonetically, but
not phonemically) than nib [nɪˑp̬] (see below).[140]
Although some scholars mention a possibility of future
divergence of English dialects into mutually unintelligi-
ble languages, most think a more likely outcome is that • lenis stops: bin [b̥ ɪˑn], about [əˈbaʊt], nib [nɪˑb̥ ]
English will continue to function as a koineised language • fortis stops: pin [ˈpʰɪn], spin [spɪn], happy [ˈhæpi],
in which the standard form unifies speakers from around nip [ˈnip̚ ] or [ˈniˀp]
the world.[130] English is used as the language for wider
communication in countries around the world.[131] Thus
English has grown in worldwide use much more than any In RP, the lateral approximant /l/, has two main
constructed language proposed as an international auxil- allophones (pronunciation variants): the clear or plain [l],
iary language, including Esperanto.[132][133] as in light, and the dark or velarised [ɫ], as in full.[141] GA
has dark l in most cases.[142]

• clear l: RP light [laɪt]

• dark l: RP and GA full [fʊɫ], GA light [ɫaɪt]

4.4 Stress, rhythm and intonation 9

All sonorants (liquids /l, r/ and nasals /m, n, ŋ/) devoice as in fly or sly; s and a voiceless stop, as in stay; and s, a
when following a voiceless obstruent, and they are syllabic voiceless stop, and an approximant, as in string.[145] Clus-
when following a consonant at the end of a word.[143] ters of nasal and stop are only allowed in codas. Clus-
ters of obstruents always agree in voicing, and clusters
• voiceless sonorants: clay [ˈkl̥ɛɪ̯] and snow [ˈsn̥ oʊ] of sibilants and of plosives with the same point of artic-
ulation are prohibited. Furthermore, several consonants
• syllabic sonorants: paddle [pad.l̩], and button [bʌt.n̩]
have limited distributions: /h/ can only occur in syllable
initial position, and /ŋ/ only in syllable final position.[146]
4.2 Vowels
Main article: English phonology § Vowels 4.4 Stress, rhythm and intonation

See also: Stress and vowel reduction in English and

The pronunciation of vowels varies a great deal between
Intonation in English
dialects and is one of the most detectable aspects of
a speaker’s accent. The table below lists the vowel
phonemes in Received Pronunciation (RP) and General Stress plays an important role in English. Certain
American (GA), with examples of words in which they syllables are stressed, while others are unstressed. Stress
occur from lexical sets compiled by linguists. The vowels is a combination of duration, intensity, vowel quality,
are represented with symbols from the International Pho- and sometimes changes in pitch. Stressed syllables are
netic Alphabet; those given for RP are standard in British pronounced longer and louder than unstressed syllables,
dictionaries and other publications. and vowels in unstressed syllables are frequently reduced
while vowels in stressed syllables are not.[147] Some
In RP, vowel length is phonemic; long vowels are marked
words, primarily short function words but also some
with a triangular colon ⟨ː⟩ in the table above, such as the
modal verbs such as can, have weak and strong forms de-
vowel of need [niːd] as opposed to bid [bɪd]. GA does
pending on whether they occur in stressed or non-stressed
not have long vowels.
position within a sentence.
In both RP and GA, vowels are phonetically shortened
Stress in English is phonemic, and some pairs of words
before fortis consonants in the same syllable, like /t tʃ f/,
are distinguished by stress. For instance, the word con-
but not before lenis consonants like /d dʒ v/ or in open
tract is stressed on the first syllable (/ˈkɒntrækt/ KON-
syllables: thus, the vowels of rich [rɪ̆tʃ], neat [niˑt], and
trakt) when used as a noun, but on the last syllable
safe [sĕɪ̆f] are noticeably shorter than the vowels of ridge
(/kənˈtrækt/ kən-TRAKT) for most meanings (for exam-
[rɪdʒ], need [niːd], and save [seɪv], and the vowel of light
ple, “reduce in size”) when used as a verb.[148][149][150]
[lăɪ̆t] is shorter than that of lie [laɪ]. Because lenis con-
Here stress is connected to vowel reduction: in the noun
sonants are frequently voiceless at the end of a syllable,
“contract” the first syllable is stressed and has the unre-
vowel length is an important cue as to whether the follow-
[144] duced vowel /ɒ/, but in the verb “contract” the first syl-
ing consonant is lenis or fortis.
lable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to /ə/. Stress
The vowels /ɨ ə/ only occur in unstressed syllables and is also used to distinguish between words and phrases, so
are a result of vowel reduction. Some dialects do not that a compound word receives a single stress unit, but the
distinguish them, so that roses and comma end in the corresponding phrase has two: e.g. to búrn óut versus a
same vowel, a dialect feature called weak vowel merger. búrnout, and a hótdog versus a hót dóg.[151]
GA has an unstressed r-coloured schwa /ɚ/, as in butter
In terms of rhythm, English is generally described as a
[ˈbʌtɚ], which in RP has the same vowel as the word-final
stress-timed language, meaning that the amount of time
vowel in comma.
between stressed syllables tends to be equal. Stressed
syllables are pronounced longer, but unstressed syllables
4.3 Phonotactics (syllables between stresses) are shortened. Vowels in un-
stressed syllables are shortened as well, and vowel short-
An English syllable includes a syllable nucleus consisting ening causes changes in vowel quality: vowel reduction.
of a vowel sound. Syllable onset and coda (start and end)
are optional. A syllable can start with up to three con-
sonant sounds, as in sprint /sprɪnt/, and end with up to 4.5 Regional variation
four, as in texts /teksts/. This gives an English syllable
the following structure, (CCC)V(CCCC) where C repre- Varieties of English vary the most in pronunciation of
sents a consonant and V a vowel. The consonants that vowels, and are categorised generally into two groups:
may appear together in onsets or codas are restricted, as British (BrE) and American (AmE). Because North
is the order in which they may appear. Onsets can only America was settled in the late 17th century, American
have four types of consonant clusters: a stop and approx- and Canadian English had time to diverge greatly
imant, as in play; a voiceless fricative and approximant, from other varieties of English during centuries when
10 5 GRAMMAR

transoceanic travel was slow. Australian, New Zealand, 5 Grammar

and South African English, on the other hand, were
settled in the 19th century, shortly before ocean-going Main article: English grammar
steamships became commonplace, so they show close
similarities to the English of South East England. The
English spoken in Ireland and Scottish English fall be- Modern English grammar is the result of a gradual change
tween these two groups. Some differences between the from a typical Indo-European dependent marking pat-
various dialects are shown in the table “Varieties of Stan- tern with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively
dard English and their features”.[152] free word order, to a mostly analytic pattern with little
inflection, a fairly fixed SVO word order and a complex
English has undergone many historical sound changes, syntax.[158] Some traits typical of Germanic languages
some of them affecting all varieties, and others affect- persist in English, such as the distinction between irreg-
ing only a few. Most standard varieties are affected by ularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut (i.e.
the Great Vowel Shift, which changed the pronunciation changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs speak/spoke
of long vowels, but a few dialects have slightly different and foot/feet) and weak stems inflected through affixa-
results. In North America, a number of chain shifts such tion (such as love/loved, hand/hands). Vestiges of the
as the Northern Cities Vowel Shift and Canadian Shift case and gender system are found in the pronoun sys-
have produced very different vowel landscapes in some tem (he/him, who/whom) and in the inflection of the cop-
regional accents. ula verb to be. As is typical of an Indo-European lan-
Some dialects have fewer or more consonant phonemes guage, English follows accusative morphosyntactic align-
and phones than the standard varieties. Some conserva- ment. English distinguishes at least seven major word
tive varieties like Scottish English have a voiceless [ʍ] classes: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, determiners
sound in whine that contrasts with the voiced [w] in wine, (i.e. articles), prepositions, and conjunctions. Some anal-
but most other dialects pronounce both words with voiced yses add pronouns as a class separate from nouns, and
[w], a dialect feature called wine–whine merger. The subdivide conjunctions into subordinators and coordina-
unvoiced velar fricative sound /x/ is found in Scottish tors, and add the class of interjections.[159] English also
English, which distinguishes loch /lɔx/ from lock /lɔk/. has a rich set of auxiliary verbs, such as have and do, ex-
Accents like Cockney with "h-dropping” lack the glottal pressing the categories of mood and aspect. Questions are
fricative /h/, and dialects with th-stopping and th-fronting marked by do-support, wh-movement (fronting of ques-
like African American Vernacular and Estuary English tion words beginning with wh-) and word order inversion
do not have the dental fricatives /θ, ð/, but replace them with some verbs.
with dental or alveolar stops /t, d/ or labiodental fricatives The seven word classes are exemplified in this sample
/f, v/.[153][154] Other changes affecting the phonology of sentence:[160]
local varieties are processes such as yod-dropping, yod-
coalescence, and reduction of consonant clusters.
General American and Received Pronunciation vary in 5.1 Nouns and noun phrases
their pronunciation of historical /r/ after a vowel at the
end of a syllable (in the syllable coda). GA is a rhotic English nouns are only inflected for number and posses-
dialect, meaning that it pronounces /r/ at the end of a syl- sion. New nouns can be formed through derivation or
lable, but RP is non-rhotic, meaning that it loses /r/ in compounding. They are semantically divided into proper
that position. English dialects are classified as rhotic or nouns (names) and common nouns. Common nouns are
non-rhotic depending on whether they elide /r/ like RP or in turn divided into concrete and abstract nouns, and
keep it like GA.[155] grammatically into count nouns and mass nouns.[161]

There is complex dialectal variation in words with the Most count nouns are inflected for plural number through
open front and open back vowels /æ ɑː ɒ ɔː/. These the use of the plural suffix -s, but a few nouns have ir-
four vowels are only distinguished in RP, Australia, New regular plural forms. Mass nouns can only be pluralised
Zealand and South Africa. In GA, these vowels merge through the use of a count noun classifier, e.g. one loaf
to three /æ ɑ ɔ/,[156] and in Canadian English they merge of bread, two loaves of bread.[162]
to two /æ ɑ/.[157] In addition, the words that have each Regular plural formation:
vowel vary by dialect. The table “Dialects and open vow-
els” shows this variation with lexical sets in which these Singular: cat, dog
sounds occur.
Plural: cats, dogs

Irregular plural formation:

Singular: man, woman, foot, fish, ox, knife,

mouse
5.1 Nouns and noun phrases 11

Plural: men, women, feet, fish, oxen, knives, Some adjectives are inflected for degree of comparison,
mice with the positive degree unmarked, the suffix -er marking
the comparative, and -est marking the superlative: a small
Possession can be expressed either by the possessive boy, the boy is smaller than the girl, that boy is the smallest.
enclitic -s (also traditionally called a genitive suffix), or Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superla-
by the preposition of. Historically the -s possessive has tive forms, such as good, better, and best. Other adjectives
been used for animate nouns, whereas the of possessive have comparatives formed by periphrastic constructions,
has been reserved for inanimate nouns. Today this dis- with the adverb more marking the comparative, and most
tinction is less clear, and many speakers use -s also with marking the superlative: happier or more happy, the hap-
inanimates. Orthographically the possessive -s is sepa- piest or most happy.[166] There is some variation among
rated from the noun root with an apostrophe. speakers regarding which adjectives use inflected or pe-
Possessive constructions: riphrastic comparison, and some studies have shown a
tendency for the periphrastic forms to become more com-
With -s: The woman’s husband’s child mon at the expense of the inflected form.[167]
With of: The child of the husband of the
woman 5.1.2 Pronouns, case and person

Nouns can form noun phrases (NPs) where they are the English pronouns conserve many traits of case and gen-
syntactic head of the words that depend on them such as der inflection. The personal pronouns retain a difference
determiners, quantifiers, conjunctions or adjectives.[163] between subjective and objective case in most persons
Noun phrases can be short, such as the man, composed (I/me, he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them) as well as a gen-
only of a determiner and a noun. They can also include der and animateness distinction in the third person sin-
modifiers such as adjectives (e.g. red, tall, all) and spec-gular (distinguishing he/she/it). The subjective case cor-
ifiers such as determiners (e.g. the, that). But they can responds to the Old English nominative case, and the
also tie together several nouns into a single long NP, us- objective case is used both in the sense of the previous
ing conjunctions such as and, or prepositions such as with,accusative case (in the role of patient, or direct object of
e.g. the tall man with the long red trousers and his skinnya transitive verb), and in the sense of the Old English da-
wife with the spectacles (this NP uses conjunctions, prepo-tive case (in the role of a recipient or indirect object of a
sitions, specifiers and modifiers). Regardless of length, an transitive verb).[168][169] Subjective case is used when the
NP functions as a syntactic unit. For example, the pos- pronoun is the subject of a finite clause, and otherwise
sessive enclitic can, in cases which do not lead to ambi- the objective case is used.[170] While grammarians such
guity, follow the entire noun phrase, as in The President as Henry Sweet[171] and Otto Jespersen[172] noted that the
of India’s wife, where the enclitic follows India and not English cases did not correspond to the traditional Latin
President. based system, some contemporary grammars, for exam-
The class of determiners is used to specify the noun they ple Huddleston & Pullum (2002), retain traditional la-
precede in terms of definiteness, where the marks a defi- bels for the cases, calling them nominative and accusative
nite noun and a or an an indefinite one. A definite noun cases respectively.
is assumed by the speaker to be already known by the Possessive pronouns exist in dependent and independent
interlocutor, whereas an indefinite noun is not specified forms; the dependent form functions as a determiner
as being previously known. Quantifiers, which include specifying a noun (as in my chair), while the independent
one, many, some and all, are used to specify the noun in form can stand alone as if it were a noun (e.g. the chair
terms of quantity or number. The noun must agree with is mine).[173] The English system of grammatical person
the number of the determiner, e.g. one man (sg.) but all no longer has a distinction between formal and informal
men (pl.). Determiners are the first constituents in a noun pronouns of address, and the forms for 2nd person plu-
phrase.[164] ral and singular are identical except in the reflexive form.
Some dialects have introduced innovative 2nd person plu-
ral pronouns such as y'all found in Southern American
5.1.1 Adjectives
English and African American (Vernacular) English or
Adjectives modify a noun by providing additional infor- youse and ye found in Irish English.
mation about their referents. In English, adjectives come Pronouns are used to refer to entities deictically or
before the nouns they modify and after determiners.[165] anaphorically. A deictic pronoun points to some person
In Modern English, adjectives are not inflected, and they or object by identifying it relative to the speech situation
do not agree in form with the noun they modify, as ad- — for example the pronoun I identifies the speaker, and
jectives in most other Indo-European languages do. For the pronoun you, the addressee. Anaphorical pronouns
example, in the phrases the slender boy, and many slender such as that refer back to an entity already mentioned or
girls, the adjective slender does not change form to agree assumed by the speaker to be known by the audience, for
with either the number or gender of the noun. example in the sentence I already told you that. The re-
12 5 GRAMMAR

flexive pronouns are used when the oblique argument is in the stem vowel. The non-past form is unmarked except
identical to the subject of a phrase (e.g. “he sent it to in the third person singular, which takes the suffix -s.[175]
himself” or “she braced herself for impact”).[174] English does not have a morphologised future tense.[178]
Futurity of action is expressed periphrastically with one
5.1.3 Prepositions of the auxiliary verbs will or shall.[179] Many varieties also
use a near future constructed with the phrasal verb be go-
[180]
Prepositional phrases (PP) are phrases composed of a ing to.
preposition and one or more nouns, e.g. with the dog, Further aspectual distinctions are encoded by the use of
for my friend, to school, in England. Prepositions have a auxiliary verbs, primarily have and be, which encode the
wide range of uses in English. They are used to describe contrast between a perfect and non-perfect past tense (I
movement, place, and other relations between different have run vs. I was running), and compound tenses such as
entities, but they also have many syntactic uses such as preterite perfect (I had been running) and present perfect
introducing complement clauses and oblique arguments (I have been running).[181]
of verbs. For example, in the phrase I gave it to him, the
preposition to marks the recipient, or Indirect Object of For the expression of mood, English uses a number of
the verb to give. Traditionally words were only consid- modal auxiliaries, such as can, may, will, shall and the
ered prepositions if they governed the case of the noun past tense forms could, might, would, should. There is
they preceded, for example causing the pronouns to use also a subjunctive and an imperative mood, both based
the objective rather than subjective form, “with her”, “to on the plain form of the verb (i.e. without the third per-
me”, “for us”. But some contemporary grammars such as son singular -s), and which is used in subordinate clauses
that of Huddleston & Pullum (2002:598–600) no longer (e.g. subjunctive:[179] It is important that he run every day;
consider government of case to be the defining feature imperative Run!).
of the class of prepositions, rather defining prepositions An infinitive form, that uses the plain form of the verb
as words that can function as the heads of prepositional and the preposition to, is used for verbal clauses that are
phrases. syntactically subordinate to a finite verbal clause. Finite
verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb
in the present or preterit form. In clauses with auxiliary
5.2 Verbs and verb phrases verbs they are the finite verbs and the main verb is treated
as a subordinate clause. For example, he has to go where
English verbs are inflected for tense and aspect, and only the auxiliary verb have is inflected for time and the
marked for agreement with third person singular subject. main verb to go is in the infinitive, or in a complement
Only the copula verb to be is still inflected for agreement clause such as I saw him leave, where the main verb is to
with the plural and first and second person subjects.[166] see which is in a preterite form, and leave is in the infini-
Auxiliary verbs such as have and be are paired with verbs tive.
in the infinitive, past, or progressive forms. They form
complex tenses, aspects, and moods. Auxiliary verbs dif-
fer from other verbs in that they can be followed by the 5.2.2 Phrasal verbs
negation, and in that they can occur as the first constituent
in a question sentence.[175][176] English also makes frequent use of constructions tradi-
Most verbs have six inflectional forms. The primary tionally called phrasal verbs, verb phrases that are made
forms are a plain present, a third person singular present, up of a verb root and a preposition or particle which fol-
and a preterite (past) form. The secondary forms are a lows the verb. The phrase then functions as a single pred-
plain form used for the infinitive, a gerund–participle and icate. In terms of intonation the preposition is fused to
a past participle.[177] The copula verb to be is the only verb the verb, but in writing it is written as a separate word.
to retain some of its original conjugation, and takes dif- Examples of phrasal verbs are to get up, to ask out, to
ferent inflectional forms depending on the subject. The back up, to give up, to get together, to hang out, to put
first person present tense form is am, the third person sin- up with, etc. The phrasal verb frequently has a highly
gular form is and the form are is used second person sin- idiomatic meaning that is more specialised and restricted
gular and all three plurals. The only verb past participle than what can be simply extrapolated from the combi-
is been and its gerund-participle is being. nation of verb and preposition complement (e.g. lay off
meaning terminate someone’s employment).[182] In spite
of the idiomatic meaning, some grammarians, including
5.2.1 Tense, aspect and mood Huddleston & Pullum (2002):274, do not consider this
type of construction to form a syntactic constituent and
English has two primary tenses, past (preterit) and non- hence refrain from using the term “phrasal verb”. Instead
past. The preterit is inflected by using the preterit form of they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a
the verb, which for the regular verbs includes the suffix - prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement, i.e. he
ed, and for the strong verbs either the suffix -t or a change woke up in the morning and he ran up in the mountains
5.3 Syntax 13

are syntactically equivalent. roles of each constituent is marked only by the position
relative to the verb:
5.2.3 Adverbs An exception is found in sentences where one of the con-
stituents is a pronoun, in which case it is doubly marked,
The function of adverbs is to modify the action or event both by word order and by case inflection, where the
described by the verb by providing additional informa- subject pronoun precedes the verb and takes the subjec-
tion about the manner in which it occurs. Many adverbs tive case form, and the object pronoun follows the verb
are derived from adjectives with the suffix -ly, but not and takes the objective case form. The example below
all, and many speakers tend to omit the suffix in the most demonstrates this double marking in a sentence where
commonly used adverbs. For example, in the phrase the both object and subject is represented with a third per-
woman walked quickly the adverb quickly derived from son singular masculine pronoun:
the adjective quick describes the woman’s way of walk- Indirect objects (IO) of ditransitive verbs can be placed
ing. Some commonly used adjectives have irregular ad- either as the first object in a double object construction (S
verbial forms, such as good which has the adverbial form V IO O), such as I gave Jane the book or in a prepositional
well. phrase, such as I gave the book to Jane [186]

5.3 Syntax 5.3.2 Clause syntax

Main article: English clause syntax

In English a sentence may be composed of one or more

Predicate / clauses, that may in turn be composed of one or more
phrases (e.g. Noun Phrases, Verb Phrases, and Preposi-
tional Phrases). A clause is built around a verb, and in-
cludes its constituents, such as any NPs and PPs. Within
a sentence one clause is always the main clause (or matrix
clause) whereas other clauses are subordinate to it. Sub-
ordinate clauses may function as arguments of the verb
in the main clause. For example, in the phrase I think
(that) you are lying, the main clause is headed by the verb
think, the subject is I, but the object of the phrase is the
subordinate clause (that) you are lying. The subordinat-
In the English sentence The cat sat on the mat, the subject is the ing conjunction that shows that the clause that follows is
cat (a NP), the verb is sat, and on the mat is a prepositional
a subordinate clause, but it is often omitted.[187] Relative
phrase (composed of an NP the mat, and headed by the prepo-
sition on). The tree describes the structure of the sentence.
clauses are clauses that function as a modifier or speci-
fier to some constituent in the main clause: For example,
Modern English syntax language is moderately in the sentence I saw the letter that you received today,
analytic.[183] It has developed features such as modal the relative clause that you received today specifies the
verbs and word order as resources for conveying meaning of the word letter, the object of the main clause.
meaning. Auxiliary verbs mark constructions such Relative clauses can be introduced by the pronouns who,
as questions, negative polarity, the passive voice and whose, whom and which as well as by that (which can also
progressive aspect. be omitted.)[188] In contrast to many other Germanic lan-
guages there is no major differences between word order
in main and subordinate clauses.[189]
5.3.1 Basic constituent order

English word order has moved from the Germanic 5.3.3 Auxiliary verb constructions
verb-second (V2) word order to being almost exclu-
sively subject–verb–object (SVO).[184] The combination Main articles: Do-support and Subject–auxiliary inver-
of SVO order and use of auxiliary verbs often creates sion
clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sen-
tence, such as he had hoped to try to open it. English syntax relies on auxiliary verbs for many func-
In most sentences English only marks grammatical re- tions including the expression of tense, aspect and mood.
lations through word order.[185] The subject constituent Auxiliary verbs form main clauses, and the main verbs
precedes the verb and the object constituent follows it. function as heads of a subordinate clause of the auxiliary
The example below demonstrates how the grammatical verb. For example, in the sentence the dog did not find
14 5 GRAMMAR

its bone, the clause find its bone is the complement of the rogative pronoun who is the only interrogative pronoun to
negated verb did not. Subject–auxiliary inversion is used still show inflection for case, with the variant whom serv-
in many constructions, including focus, negation, and in- ing as the objective case form, although this form may be
terrogative constructions. going out of use in many contexts.[193]
The verb do can be used as an auxiliary even in sim-
ple declarative sentences, where it usually serves to add 5.3.5 Discourse level syntax
emphasis, as in “I did shut the fridge.” However, in the
negated and inverted clauses referred to above, it is used At the discourse level English tends to use a topic-
because the rules of English syntax permit these construc- comment structure, where the known information (topic)
tions only when an auxiliary is present. Modern English precedes the new information (comment). Because of the
does not allow the addition of the negating adverb not to strict SVO syntax, the topic of a sentence generally has
an ordinary finite lexical verb, as in *I know not—it can to be the grammatical subject of the sentence. In cases
only be added to an auxiliary (or copular) verb, hence if where the topic is not the grammatical subject of the sen-
there is no other auxiliary present when negation is re- tence, frequently the topic is promoted to subject posi-
quired, the auxiliary do is used, to produce a form like I tion through syntactic means. One way of doing this is
do not (don't) know. The same applies in clauses requir- through a passive construction, the girl was stung by the
ing inversion, including most questions—inversion must bee. Another way is through a cleft sentence where the
involve the subject and an auxiliary verb, so it is not pos- main clause is demoted to be a complement clause of a
sible to say *Know you him?; grammatical rules require copula sentence with a dummy subject such as it or there,
Do you know him?[190] e.g. it was the girl that the bee stung, there was a girl who
Negation is done with the adverb not, which precedes the was stung by a bee.[194] Dummy subjects are also used in
main verb and follows an auxiliary verb. A contracted constructions where there is no grammatical subject such
form of not -n't can be used as an enclitic attaching to as with impersonal verbs (e.g., it is raining) or in existen-
auxiliary verbs and to the copula verb to be. Just as with tial clauses (there are many cars on the street). Through
questions, many negative constructions require the nega- the use of these complex sentence constructions with in-
tion to occur with do-support, thus in Modern English I formationally vacuous subjects, English is able to main-
don't know him is the correct answer to the question Do tain both a topic comment sentence structure and a SVO
you know him?, but not *I know him not, although this syntax.
construction may be found in older English.[191] Focus constructions emphasise a particular piece of
Passive constructions also use auxiliary verbs. A passive new or salient information within a sentence, generally
construction rephrases an active construction in such a through allocating the main sentence level stress on the
way that the object of the active phrase becomes the sub- focal constituent. For example, the girl was stung by a
ject of the passive phrase, and the subject of the active bee (emphasising it was a bee and not for example a wasp
phrase is either omitted or demoted to a role as an oblique that stung her), or The girl was stung by a bee (contrast-
argument introduced in a prepositional phrase. They are ing with another possibility, for example that it was the
[195]
formed by using the past participle either with the aux- boy). Topic and focus can also be established through
iliary verb to be or to get, although not all varieties of syntactic dislocation, either preposing or postposing the
English allow the use of passives with get. For example, item to be focused on relative to the main clause. For
putting the sentence she sees him into the passive becomes example, That girl over there, she was stung by a bee, em-
he is seen (by her), or he gets seen (by her).[192] phasises the girl by preposition, but a similar effect could
be achieved by postposition, she was stung by a bee, that
girl over there, where reference to the girl is established
5.3.4 Questions as an “afterthought”.[196]
Cohesion between sentences is achieved through the use
Both yes–no questions and wh-questions in English are of deictic pronouns as anaphora (e.g. that is exactly what
mostly formed using subject–auxiliary inversion (Am I I mean where that refers to some fact known to both
going tomorrow?, Where can we eat?), which may re- interlocutors, or then used to locate the time of a nar-
quire do-support (Do you like her?, Where did he go?). rated event relative to the time of a previously narrated
In most cases, interrogative words (wh-words; e.g. what, event).[197] Discourse markers such as oh, so or well, also
who, where, when, why, how) appear in a fronted posi- signal the progression of ideas between sentences and
tion. For example, in the question What did you see?, the help to create cohesion. Discourse markers are often the
word what appears as the first constituent despite being first constituents in sentences. Discourse markers are also
the grammatical object of the sentence. (When the wh- used for stance taking in which speakers position them-
word is the subject or forms part of the subject, no inver- selves in a specific attitude towards what is being said,
sion occurs: Who saw the cat?.) Prepositional phrases can for example, no way is that true! (the idiomatic marker
also be fronted when they are the question’s theme, e.g. no way! expressing disbelief), or boy! I'm hungry (the
To whose house did you go last night?. The personal inter- marker boy expressing emphasis). While discourse mark-
6.2 Word origins 15

ers are particularly characteristic of informal and spoken 6.2 Word origins
registers of English, they are also used in written and for-
mal registers.[198] Main article: Lists of English loanwords by country or
language of origin
English, besides forming new words from existing words

6 Vocabulary

The vocabulary of English is vast, and counting ex-

actly how many words English (or any language) has is
impossible.[199][200][201] The Oxford Dictionaries suggest
that there are at least a quarter of a million distinct En-
glish words.[199] Early studies of English vocabulary by
lexicographers, the scholars who formally study vocabu-
lary, compile dictionaries, or both, were impeded by a
lack of comprehensive data on actual vocabulary in use
from good-quality linguistic corpora,[202] collections of
actual written texts and spoken passages. Many state-
ments published before the end of the 20th century about
the growth of English vocabulary over time, the dates
of first use of various words in English, and the sources
of English vocabulary will have to be corrected as new
computerised analysis of linguistic corpus data becomes Source languages of English vocabulary[6][206]
available.[201][203]
and their roots, also borrows words from other lan-
guages. This process of adding words from other lan-
guages is commonplace in many world languages, but En-
glish is characterised as being especially open to borrow-
6.1 Word formation processes ing of foreign words throughout the last 1,000 years.[207]
The most commonly used words in English are West
[208]
English forms new words from existing words or roots in Germanic. The words in English learned first by chil-
dren as they learn to speak, particularly the grammatical
its vocabulary through a variety of processes. One of the
most productive processes in English is conversion,[204] words that dominate the word count of both spoken and
written texts, are the Germanic words inherited from the
using a word with a different grammatical role, for ex- [201]
ample using a noun as a verb or a verb as a noun. earliest periods of the development of Old English.
Another productive word-formation process is nominal But one of the consequences of long language contact be-
compounding,[201][203] producing compound words such tween French and English in all stages of their develop-
as babysitter or ice cream or homesick.[204] A process ment is that the vocabulary of English has a very high
more common in Old English than in Modern English, percentage of “Latinate” words (derived from French,
but still productive in Modern English, is the use of especially, [209] and also from Latin or from other Romance
derivational suffixes (-hood, -ness, -ing, -ility) to de- languages). French words from various periods of the
rive new words from existing words (especially those development of French now make up one-third of the vo-
[210]
of Germanic origin) or stems (especially for words of cabulary of English.
Latin or Greek origin). Formation of new words, called English has also borrowed many words directly from
neologisms, based on Greek or Latin roots (for exam- Latin, the ancestor of the Romance languages, during all
ple television or optometry) is a highly productive pro- stages of its development.[203][201] Many of these words
cess in English and in most modern European languages, were earlier borrowed into Latin from Greek. Latin or
so much so that it is often difficult to determine in Greek are still highly productive sources of stems used to
which language a neologism originated. For this reason, form vocabulary of subjects learned in higher education
lexicographer Philip Gove attributed many such words such as the sciences, philosophy, and mathematics.[211]
to the "international scientific vocabulary" (ISV) when English continues to gain new loanwords and calques
compiling Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (“loan translations”) from languages all over the world,
(1961). Another active word-formation process in En- and words from languages other than the ancestral Anglo-
glish is acronyms,[205] words formed by pronouncing as a Saxon language make up about 60 percent of the vo-
single word abbreviations of longer phrases (e.g. NATO, cabulary of English.[212] English has formal and informal
laser). speech registers, and informal registers, including child
16 7 WRITING SYSTEM

directed speech, tend to be made up predominantly of Although letters and speech sounds do not have a one-to-
words of Anglo-Saxon origin, while the percentage of vo- one correspondence in standard English spelling, spelling
cabulary that is of Latinate origin is higher in legal, sci- rules that take into account syllable structure, phonetic
entific, and academic texts.[213][214] changes in derived words, and word accent are reliable
for most English words.[222] Moreover, standard English
spelling shows etymological relationships between related
6.3 English loanwords and calques in other words that would be obscured by a closer correspondence
between pronunciation and spelling, for example the
languages
words photograph, photography, and photographic,[222] or
the words electricity and electrical. While few scholars
English has a strong influence on the vocabulary of other
agree with Chomsky and Halle (1968) that conventional
languages.[210][215] The influence of English comes from
English orthography is “near-optimal”,[219] there is a ra-
such factors as opinion leaders in other countries know-
tionale for current English spelling patterns.[223] The stan-
ing the English language, the role of English as a world
dard orthography of English is the most widely used writ-
lingua franca, and the large number of books and films
ing system in the world.[224] Standard English spelling
that are translated from English into other languages.[216]
is based on a graphomorphemic segmentation of words
That pervasive use of English leads to a conclusion in
into written clues of what meaningful units make up each
many places that English is an especially suitable lan-
word.[225]
guage for expressing new ideas or describing new tech-
nologies. Among varieties of English, it is especially Readers of English can generally rely on the correspon-
American English that influences other languages.[217] dence between spelling and pronunciation to be fairly reg-
Some languages, such as Chinese, write words borrowed ular for letters or digraphs used to spell consonant sounds.
from English mostly as calques, while others, such as The letters b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, y, z repre-
Japanese, readily take in English loanwords written in sent, respectively, the phonemes /b, d, f, h, dʒ, k, l, m, n,
sound-indicating script.[218] Dubbed films and television p, r, s, t, v, w, j, z/. The letters c and g normally represent
programmes are an especially fruitful source of English /k/ and /ɡ/, but there is also a soft c pronounced /s/, and
influence on languages in Europe.[218] a soft g pronounced /dʒ/. The differences in the pronun-
ciations of the letters c and g are often signalled by the
following letters in standard English spelling. Digraphs
used to represent phonemes and phoneme sequences in-
7 Writing system clude ch for /tʃ/, sh for /ʃ/, th for /θ/ or /ð/, ng for /ŋ/, qu
for /kw/, and ph for /f/ in Greek-derived words. The sin-
See also: English alphabet, English braille, and English gle letter x is generally pronounced as /z/ in word-initial
orthography position and as /ks/ otherwise. There are exceptions to
these generalisations, often the result of loanwords be-
ing spelled according to the spelling patterns of their lan-
Since the ninth century, English has been written in a guages of origin[222] or proposals by pedantic scholars in
Latin alphabet (also called Roman alphabet). Earlier Old the early period of Modern English to mistakenly follow
English texts in Anglo-Saxon runes are only short in- the spelling patterns of Latin for English words of Ger-
scriptions. The great majority of literary works in Old manic origin.[226]
English that survive to today are written in the Roman
alphabet.[29] The modern English alphabet contains 26 For the vowel sounds of the English language, however,
letters of the Latin script: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are
l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z (which also have more irregular. There are many more vowel phonemes in
capital forms: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, English than there are vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u, w, y).
O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z). As a result of a smaller set of single letter symbols than
the set of vowel phonemes, some "long vowels" are often
The spelling system, or orthography, of English is multi- indicated by combinations of letters (like the oa in boat,
layered, with elements of French, Latin, and Greek the ow in how, and the ay in stay), or the historically based
spelling on top of the native Germanic system.[219] Fur- silent e (as in note and cake).[223]
ther complications have arisen through sound changes
with which the orthography has not kept pace.[41] Com- The consequence of this complex orthographic history
pared to European languages for which official organ- is that learning to read can be challenging in English.
isations have promoted spelling reforms, English has It can take longer for school pupils to become inde-
spelling that is a less consistent indicator of pronunciation pendently fluent readers of English than of many other [227]
and standard spellings of words that are more difficult to languages, including Italian, Spanish, or German.
guess from knowing how a word is pronounced.[220] There Nonetheless, there is an advantage for learners of En-
are also systematic spelling differences between British glish reading in learning the specific sound-symbol reg-
and American English. These situations have prompted ularities that occur in the standard English spellings of
[222]
proposals for spelling reform in English. [221] commonly used words. Such instruction greatly re-
8.1 UK and Ireland 17

duces the risk of children experiencing reading difficul-

ties in English.[228][229] Making primary school teachers
more aware of the primacy of morpheme representation
in English may help learners learn more efficiently to read
and write English.[230]
English writing also includes a system of punctuation that
is similar to the system of punctuation marks used in
most alphabetic languages around the world. The pur-
pose of punctuation is to mark meaningful grammatical
relationships in sentences to aid readers in understanding Scots
a text and to indicate features important for reading a text
Scottish
aloud.[231] English
Ulster Geordie
English
Northern
Yorkshire
8 Dialects, accents, and varieties Lancashire

Scouse
Southern
Main articles: List of dialects of the English language, Hiberno-English East
West Midlands
World Englishes, and regional accents of English Wales Midlands
English

London
Cockney
Dialectologists distinguish between English dialects, re-
South
gional varieties that differ from each other in terms of West Country East
grammar and vocabulary, and regional accents, distin-
guished by different patterns of pronunciation. The ma-
jor native dialects of English are often divided by lin-
guists into the two general categories of the British di- Map showing the main dialect regions in the UK and Ireland
alects (BrE) and those of North America (AmE).[232]

considered “non-standard” and are associated with lower

8.1 UK and Ireland class speakers and identities. An example of this is H-
dropping, which was historically a feature of lower class
See also: English language in England, Northern England London English, particularly Cockney, but which today
English, Scots language, Scottish English, Welsh English, is the standard in all major English cities—yet it remains
Estuary English, Ulster English, and Hiberno-English largely absent in broadcasting and among the upper crust
As the place where English first evolved, the British Isles, of British society.[236]
and particularly England, are home to the most varie-
gated pattern of dialects. Within the United Kingdom, English in England can be divided into four major dialect
the Received Pronunciation (RP), an educated dialect of regions, Southwest English, South East English, Midlands
South East England, is traditionally used as the broad- English, and Northern English. Within each of these re-
cast standard, and is considered the most prestigious of gions several local subdialects exist: Within the North-
the British dialects. The spread of RP (also known as ern region, there is a division between the Yorkshire di-
BBC English) through the media has caused many tra- alects, and the Geordie dialect spoken in Northumbria
ditional dialects of rural England to recede, as youths around Newcastle, and the Lancashire dialects with lo-
adopt the traits of the prestige variety instead of traits cal urban dialects in Liverpool (Scouse) and Manchester
from local dialects. At the time of the Survey of En- (Mancunian). Having been the centre of Danish occupa-
glish Dialects, grammar and vocabulary differed across tion during the Viking Invasions, Northern English di-
the country, but a process of lexical attrition has led most alects, particularly the Yorkshire dialect, retain
[237]
Norse
of this variation to disappear. [233]
Nonetheless this attri- features not found in other English varieties.
tion has mostly affected dialectal variation in grammar Since the 15th century, Southeastern varieties centred
and vocabulary, and in fact only 3 percent of the En- around London, which has been the centre from which
glish population actually speak RP, the remainder speak- dialectal innovations have spread to other dialects. In
ing regional accents and dialects with varying degrees London, the Cockney dialect was traditionally used by
of RP influence.[234] There is also variability within RP, the lower classes, and it was long a socially stigmatised
particularly along class lines between Upper and Middle variety. Today a large area of Southeastern England has
class RP speakers and between native RP speakers and adopted traits from Cockney, resulting in the so-called
speakers who adopt RP later in life.[235] Within Britain Estuary English which spread in areas south and East of
there is also considerable variation along lines of social London beginning in the 1980s. Estuary English is distin-
class, and some traits though exceedingly common are guished by traits such as the use of intrusive R (drawing
18 8 DIALECTS, ACCENTS, AND VARIETIES

is pronounced drawring /ˈdrɔːrɪŋ/), t-glottalisation (Potter

is pronounced with a glottal stop as Po'er /poʔʌ/), and the
pronunciation of th- as /f/ (thanks pronounced fanks) or
/v/ (bother pronounced bover). [238]
Scots is today considered a separate language from En-
glish, but it has its origins in early Northern Middle
English[239] and developed and changed during its his-
tory with influence from other sources, particularly Scots
Gaelic and Old Norse. Scots itself has a number of re-
gional dialects. And in addition to Scots, Scottish English
are the varieties of Standard English spoken in Scotland,
most varieties are Northern English accents, with some
influence from Scots.[240]
In Ireland, various forms of English have been spoken
since the Norman invasions of the 11th century. In
County Wexford, in the area surrounding Dublin, two
highly conservative dialects known as Forth and Bargy
and Fingallian developed as offshoots from Early Middle
English, and were spoken until the 19th century. Modern
Hiberno-English however has its roots in English coloni-
sation in the 17th century. Today Irish English is divided
into Ulster English, a dialect with strong influence from
Scots, and southern Hiberno-English. Like Scots and
Northern English, the Irish accents preserve the rhotic-
ity which has been lost in most dialects influenced by
RP.[16][241] Rhoticity dominates in North American English. The Atlas of
North American English found over 50% non-rhoticity, though,
in at least one local white speaker in each U.S. metropolitan area
designated here by a red dot. Non-rhotic African American Ver-
8.2 North America nacular English pronunciations may be found among African
Americans regardless of location.
Main articles: American English, General American,
African American Vernacular English, Southern Amer-
ican English, and Canadian English strongly prevails, replacing the region’s historical non-
American English is generally considered fairly homo- rhotic prestige,[250] though social variation may still
geneous compared to the British varieties. Today, Amer- apply.[251][252] Southern accents are colloquially de-
ican accent variation is in fact increasing,[242] though scribed as a “drawl” or “twang,”[253] being recognised
most Americans still speak within a phonological contin- most readily by the Southern Vowel Shift that begins
uum of similar accents,[243] known collectively as General with glide-deleting in the /aɪ/ vowel (e.g. pronouncing
American (GA), with its differing accents hardly noticed spy almost like spa), the “Southern breaking” of several
even among Americans themselves (such as Midland and front pure vowels into a gliding vowel or even two syl-
Western American English).[244][245][246] Separate from lables (e.g. pronouncing the word “press” almost like
GA are American accents with clearly distinct sound “pray-us”),[254] the pin–pen merger, and other distinctive
systems; this historically includes Southern American phonologial, grammatical, and lexical features, many of
English, English of the coastal Northeast (famously in- which are actually recent developments of the 19th cen-
cluding Eastern New England English and New York tury or later.[255]
City English), and African American Vernacular English.
Today spoken primarily by working- and middle-class
Canadian English, except for the Maritime provinces, African Americans, African American Vernacular En-
may be classified under GA as well, but it often showsglish (AAVE) is also largely non-rhotic and likely orig-
unique vowel raising, as well as distinct norms for writ-
inated among enslaved Africans and African Americans
ten and pronunciation standards.[247] In GA and Canadian
influenced primarily by the non-rhotic, non-standard En-
English, rhoticity (or r-fulness) is dominant, with non-
glish spoken by whites in the Old South. A minority
rhoticity (r-dropping) becoming associated with lowerof linguists,[256] contrarily, propose that AAVE mostly
prestige and social class especially after World War II;
traces back to African languages spoken by the slaves who
this contrasts with the situation in England, where non-
had to develop a pidgin or Creole English to communi-
rhoticity has become the standard.[248] cate with slaves of other ethnic and linguistic origins.[257]
In Southern American English, the largest Ameri- AAVE shares important commonalities with older South-
can “accent group” outside of GA,[249] rhoticity now ern American English and so probably developed to a
 19

highly coherent and homogeneous variety in the 19th or flap [ɾ] instead of as the more common fricative.[268]
early 20th century. AAVE is commonly stigmatised in Several varieties of English are also spoken in the
North America as a form of “broken” or “uneducated” Caribbean Islands that were colonial possessions of
English, also common of modern Southern American En- Britain, including Jamaica, and the Leeward and
glish, but linguists today recognise both as fully devel- Windward Islands and Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados,
oped varieties of English with their own norms shared by the Cayman Islands, and Belize. Each of these areas are
a large speech community.[258][259] home both to a local variety of English and a local English
based creole, combining English and African languages.
The most prominent varieties are Jamaican English and
8.3 Australia and New Zealand
Jamaican Creole. In Central America, English based cre-
oles are spoken in on the Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua
Main articles: Australian English and New Zealand
and Panama. [269] Locals are often fluent both in the
English
local English variety and the local creole languages and
code-switching between them is frequent, indeed another
Since 1788 English has been spoken in Oceania, and the way to conceptualise the relationship between Creole and
major native dialect of Australian English is spoken as a Standard varieties is to see a spectrum of social registers
first language by the vast majority of the inhabitants of with the Creole forms serving as “basilect” and the more
the Australian continent, with General Australian serv- RP-like forms serving as the “acrolect”, the most formal
ing as the standard accent. The English of neighbour- register.[270]
ing New Zealand has to a lesser degree become an in-
Most Caribbean varieties are based on British English
fluential standard variety of the language.[260] Australian
and consequently most are non-rhotic, except for formal
and New Zealand English are most closely related to
styles of Jamaican English which are often rhotic. Ja-
British English, and both have similarly non-rhotic ac-
maican English differs from RP in its vowel inventory,
cents, aside from some accents in the South Island of
which has a distinction between long and short vowels
New Zealand. They stand out, however, for their inno-
rather than tense and lax vowels as in Standard English.
vative vowels: many short vowels are fronted or raised,
The diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ are monophthongs [eː] and
whereas many long vowels have diphthongised. Aus-
[oː] or even the reverse diphthongs [ie] and [uo] (e.g. bay
tralian English also has a contrast between long and short
and boat pronounced [bʲeː] and [bʷoːt]). Often word final
vowels, not found in most other varieties. Australian En-
consonant clusters are simplified so that “child” is pro-
glish grammar differs from British English only in few in-
͡
nounced [tʃail] and “wind” [win].[271][272][273]
stances, one difference is the lack of verbal concord with
collective plural subjects.[261][262] New Zealand English
As a historical legacy, Indian English tends to take RP
differs little from Australian English, but a few charac-as its ideal, and how well this ideal is realised in an in-
dividual’s speech reflects class distinctions among Indian
teristics sets its accent apart, such as the use of [ʍ] for
wh- and its front vowels being even closer than in Aus- English speakers. Indian English accents are marked by
tralian English.[263][264][265] the pronunciation of phonemes such as /t/ and /d/ (often
pronounced with retroflex articulation as [ʈ] and [ɖ]) and
the replacement of /θ/ and /ð/ with dentals [t̪] and [d̪ ].
8.4 Africa, the Caribbean, and South Asia Sometimes Indian English speakers may also use spelling
based pronunciations where the silent <h> found in words
See also: South African English, Caribbean English, and such as ghost is pronounced as an Indian voiced aspirated
Indian English stop [gʱ].[274]

English is spoken widely in South Africa and is an offi-

cial or co-official language in several countries. In South 9 References
Africa, English has been spoken since 1820, co-existing
with Afrikaans and various African languages such as the [1] OxfordLearner’sDictionary 2015, Entry: English – Pro-
Khoe and Bantu languages. Today about 9 percent of the nunciation.
South African population speak South African English
(SAE) as a first language. SAE is a non-rhotic variety, [2] Crystal 2006, pp. 424–426.
which tends to follow RP as a norm. It is alone among
non-rhotic varieties in lacking intrusive r. There are dif- [3] Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath,
ferent L2 varieties that differ based on the native language Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). “Standard En-
glish”. Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the
of the speakers.[266] Most phonological differences from
Science of Human History.
RP are in the vowels.[267] Consonant differences include
the tendency to pronounce /p, t, tʃ,͡ k/ without aspiration [4] Crystal 2003a, p. 6.
(e.g. /pin/ pronounced [pɪn] rather than as [pʰɪn] as in
most other varieties), while r is often pronounced as a [5] Wardhaugh 2010, p. 55.
20 9 REFERENCES

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[7] Crystal 2003b, pp. 108–109.
[44] Cercignani 1981.
[8] Ethnologue 2010.
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[18] König & van der Auwera 1994. [54] Romaine 1999, pp. 1–56.

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11 External links
• Accents of English from Around the World (Univer-
sity of Edinburgh) Sound files comparing how 110
words are pronounced in 50 English accents from
around the world
 35

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
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guae, Erik9, Sesu Prime, Testabright, Zachary98, Haldraper, Johnnybfat, Legobot III, Youed, Ricraider, Hyperboreer, Theiyallen, Ed-
winy772, FrescoBot, Legend soul7, Russian Rocky, Fortdj33, Fathiah 85, Paine Ellsworth, Ryryrules100, Coroboy, Isodn332, Alexan-
derKaras, MusicInTheHouse, Jdsilentio, Traceylane, Itstrh, Tayloe69, Matomal, Itachimoru, Recognizance, Mistakefinder, KuroiShiroi,
J648, Mastercoolio, Rahachow, Izzedine, Funnysnowboarder, Markonpolo, Angeluser, Girlwithgreeneyes, Serge2800, Bambuway, Ilke-
ston1990, Purpleturple, Airborne84, A little insignificant, WalesLord, Tharthan, Citation bot 1, Poo cleaner, Ahjwiki, DSLund, Gmansta-
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sey95, Rameshngbot, Vladmirfish, Israelboy, Calmer Waters, Nosepass, Sluffs, Moonraker, Shiva Khanal, DAVilla, Mediatech492, Noel
Streatfield, Jaguar, Skeptical Dude, SpaceFlight89, Île flottante, Emika22, KobeBlackMamba, Saloni J, Nameless123456, Harry362, Anil
gupta25, Beao, Reedos3, Jeppiz, Reconsider the static, Sgilanguages, John123521, Horst-schlaemma, White Shadows, Kreutznaer, Ce-
lyndel, Grindor, Leasnam, Lightlowemon, FoxBot, Mjs1991, TobeBot, Mercy11, Trappist the monk, Bostonian Mike, Fama Clamosa,
Dalakov, Jonkerz, LukeM212, Qwang13, Callanecc, GregKaye, Petr Kulaty, RoadTrain, Murma174, Alvaro1901, Hadger, Extra999,
Oftenews, Andymcgrath, Duoduoduo, VraumDse, Opperhei, Adnyre, ThunderbirdJP, Martyparty007, Peacekeepper, Eldsayer, EStale-
Bread, DeCorbeau, Felipito1.966, Unrulyevil, Watisfictie, Athene cheval, Brian the Editor, AlanD1956, IRISZOOM, Knopffabrik, In-
notata, PleaseStand, Tbhotch, Stroppolo, Nuvolet, Reach Out to the Truth, RobertMfromLI, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Stj6, RjwilmsiBot,
TjBot, Vtstarin, IANVS, MMS2013, NameIsRon, Ripchip Bot, Ckemgreen, Brainulator9, Mandolinface, Rainfrog, Lee lid, LcawteHug-
gle, Shabidoo, EmausBot, AmigoCgn, Chrisloader, Wobultra, Nima1024, WikitanvirBot, Gfoley4, Sophie, Abrawak, Sixholdens, Dominus
Vobisdu, Az29, Ajraddatz, SuperMarineSpitFireKid101, Sabblabla, Katherine, GoingBatty, Fabsie, Cannon3000, Dtrox28, John C Willis,
DiiCinta, Pierrejcd, Wowkids38, Michaeltobbylee, RememberingLife, Cremepuff666, RIS cody, MrGRA, P. S. F. Freitas, Stephencole2,
Fish gut, Shkibobedobe, Zaps, Mynameisrlyweirdhawhaw, Jocirilo, Blondonien, AvicBot, Triton Rocker, ZéroBot, Wnsoren, Checkingfax,
Splibubay, Ida Shaw, Liquidmetalrob, Fæ, Josve05a, Dolovis, Catalaalatac, Anglom, OttomanJackson, WeijiBaikeBianji, Roy singleton,
KiwiJeff, A930913, EddieDrood, H3llBot, SporkBot, AManWithNoPlan, Zap Rowsdower, Dijhndis, Wayne Slam, ScalaDiSeta, Erianna,
Neddy1234, Flávio Paiva F1, Rcsprinter123, Scythia, Apple Crap, Veritas4ever, Pones44, KarasuGamma, Socbomboman, Augurar, Vic-
car M Khan, IGeMiNix, Brandmeister, Dagko, L Kensington, Maxwelltay, Jarjarbinks10, Sortsdam, Alborzagros, Leek1312, Gsarwa,
Irrypride, Yogi02kumar, Rise before Zod, Kneel before Zod, MichaelHubbard31, Saruman-the-white, DeCausa, LisaSandford, GJLR,
Artemis Dread, Monteitho, ChuispastonBot, GermanJoe, Bernardbonvin, L33tpolice, Peter Karlsen, VictorianMutant, KelseyKizzy, Iketsi,
WakawakaMZ, Brigade Piron, Sven Manguard, DASHBotAV, Ornithologician, Любослов Езыкин, Draxacoffilus, Actarus176, Rock-
King97, SophieMcVeigh, TheTruthMatters01, ResearchRave, ClueBot NG, Adamnk81, Abdullingua, Acct2141, Cdrunner1, Ephemeral
Antlions, Calànch, Vippylaman, Zuzubak, Obamapinoy1982, MusoForde, Sleddog116, Movses-bot, Enumer8tor, Jawadhussaini, Pro-
scribe, IfYouDoIfYouDon't, Korrawit, Vulpesinculta51, Frietjes, Costesseyboy, Ximar, Cyrrk, Jojo966, Kutsuit, North Atlanticist Usonian,
IgnorantArmies, Harsimaja, Helpful Pixie Bot, Daviddwd, Titodutta, Calidum, Wbm1058, Imajaymalik, BG19bot, Roberticus, LGBLA,
Vagobot, Zbrnajsem, Sij747, Queen Zeppelin Metallica Floyd, Navhus, HIDECCHI001, Sleeping is fun, JohnChrysostom, Frze, Avo-
catoBot, Jordanson72, Compfreak7, Ugncreative Usergname, Cadiomals, Viller the Great, The Almightey Drill, KiwiRyan, Surtalnar,
Philpill691, Ernio48, 23haveblue, Larmas, ‫יהודה שמחה ולדמן‬, Nary14, TBrandley, Loriendrew, Yekshemesh, Robertbusby7, BattyBot,
RoachPeter, Preston stone, Toby323, Boeing720, StarryGrandma, DarafshBot, Victor Yus, Dawn Eastwood, IkbenFrank, Dja1979, Mor-
ganson691, Chie one, SD5bot, Tx rnel, Filipino nationalism, JJ 65, Mitchell NZ, Hridith Sudev Nambiar, E4024, Dexbot, Debolars, Has-
ser95, Br'er Rabbit, Quibilia, Hmainsbot1, Aditya Mahar, Mogism, Phung Wilson, CuriousMind01, Eransgran, Herve Reex, Harry Zelfer,
Donnowin1, Wario-Man, Zziccardi, Corinne, Elevatorrailfan, Corn cheese, Pincrete, Loup Solitaire 81, QatarStarsLeague, ShiftlessO-
taku, Ezequiel Matias Acosta, Sharmeka-winnsboro, Fu7gffeg7456, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, Rob984, Redd Foxx 1991, LordMinty-
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nis Fan, Kgartm1185, Lethsp, Juhuyuta, Qoby, Nelson Tran248, Jononmac46, Justinrleung, Carlos Rojas77, Monkbot, AntiqueReader,
Endriksohn, WwiikkiiPEDIA, Eman235, Gati123, Peter238, SalopianTank01, WordSeventeen, Coin Collecting John, Austin1206, À la
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38 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Wynstol, Sundayclose, Tralala0, Jason.nlw, Dhirajbhoir, Benjaminikuta, Nøkkenbuer, KasparBot, Ceannlann gorm, G.W.Kyte, Ripple-
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