Statistics For Social Workers

Katherasala Srinivas M.S.
Social Work Research Unit – I

Meaning of Science
The word science is derived from the Latin word ‘scienta’ which means ‘to know’. Throughout history,
people have been very keen to acquire knowledge by using various methods. However, it was felt
necessary to evolve a method by which individual thinking has no effect on the conclusions. In other
words, the method should be such that the ultimate conclusion of every man is the same. Endeavours to
acquire knowledge, which involved such methods, came to be known as science.
The term ‘science’ has been defined in different ways. To some, science means an objective
investigation of empirical phenomena, to others science denotes an accumulation of systematic
knowledge; to still others, it means all knowledge collected by means of the scientific methodology.
Nevertheless, whatever may be the way of defining, science is united by its methodology. Hence it
would be easier to understand science if we first consider science as a method of approach, and then
discuss its aims and functions.
What Is Research ?
When we observe certain objects or phenomena, often unaware of our biases, we do not question
them and so we attribute our observations entirely to the objects or phenomena being observed. In this
process, it is possible to arrive at right decision on the basis of wrong reasons or vice versa. This
questions the process of observation. Was the observation error free? Every method of knowing has
certain limitations. While observing are we aware of our limitations? Any study to create new
knowledge or aims to increase existing fund of knowledge may it be through observation or by some
other methods, is called research if it takes into account the biases, the errors and limitations. As such,
research may be described as systematic and critical investigation of phenomena toward increasing the
stream of knowledge.
Scientific Research
Science aims at description, explanation and understanding of various objects or phenomena in nature
and research are special endeavours, which involves systematic and critical investigation. Thus,
towards increasing the stream of knowledge now it is easier to define scientific research. We may
define scientific research as a systematic and critical investigation about the natural phenomena to
describe, explain and finally to understand the relations among them
Scientific Method
It is obvious that it would be impossible to comprehend the nature and content of research without an
appreciation of a method. The method used in scientific research is usually designated as scientific
method. According to George Lundberg (1946), scientific method consists of three basic steps,
systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data. Through these steps, scientific
method brings about not only verifiability of the facts, but also it lays the confidence in the validity of
conclusions.
Katherasala Srinivas M.S.W
The definition requires some more explanations. First when Lundberg (1946) says that scientific method
is systematic observation, he means in effect, the scientific investigation is not ordered, it aims only at
discovering facts as they actually are and not as they are desired to be and as such the investigators can
have critical confidence in their conclusions. Second, the scientific method is concerned with classes of
objects’ not ‘individual objects’. Universality and predictability are other features of scientific method.
The method makes it possible to predict about a phenomenon with sufficient accuracy.
Use of Scientific Method in Social Work

Social work primarily deals with human behaviour, which is, by and large, complex and dynamic in
nature. One cannot, therefore investigate under guided conditions as in natural and physical sciences.
This creates many problems to the researcher such as the problems of subjectivity and individualistic
generalizations etc. The problem arising out of the nature and content of social work do not seriously
diminish the importance of scientific method for social workers. Not withstanding the inherent
limitations scientific method can be used for the study of problems related with social work so far as it
helps to arrive at valid generalisations.
Meaning of Social Work Research

In a very broad sense, social work research is the application of research methods to solve problems
that social workers confront in the practice of social work. It provides information that can be taken
into consideration by social workers prior to making decisions, that affect their clients, programmes or
agencies such as use of alternative intervention techniques or change or modification of programme/
client/objectives and so forth.
Following are some of the situations which call for application of social work research methods and
techniques:
1. A social caseworker is interested in assessing the nature and extent of the problem of her client
who has been facing marital maladjustment. She may be interested in obtaining information
about the actual or potential effectiveness of the client. She may also be keen to know to what
extent the intervention would be effective.
2. A group worker wishes to assess the extent to which the technique of role play is more or less
effective than group discussion in increasing knowledge of drug abuse among school going
children.
3. A community organiser wants to know the views of the community before he takes a decision
to change the programme/objectives.
4. A director of special school for mentally retarded children wants to know whether group
therapy is as effective as individual therapy in increasing adaptability of mentally retarded
children.
5. A social work administrator is concerned about effectiveness of implementation of new
programme launched.
Social Work Research: Definition

Social work research may be defined as systematic investigation into the problems in the field of social
work. The study of concepts, principles, theories underlying social work methods and skills are the
major areas of social work research. It involves the study of the relationship of social workers with their
clients; individuals, groups or communities on various levels of interaction or therapy as well as their
natural relationships and functioning within the organisational structure of social agencies.
Social Work Research: The Process

It must be borne in mind that the process of social work research is not completely identical to social
research. In fact, there are many similarities between this process and the traditional research process.
The process however, has some additional steps designed to suit the objectives of social work research.
By following the process social work researchers are in a position to know precisely what intervention
was applied and how much effect was produced. The process also links research and practice. Social
work research starts with problem identification and setting up of goals. This is followed by the process
of assessment (or need assessment) of the client’s problems. During these initial stages, the researcher
strives to obtain a clear and specific
understanding of the problem, using assessment tools such as interviewing (Monette, et. al., 1986).
After the problem is identified and needs are assessed, the next step is to set up goals to be achieved.
The goals are required to be specific, precisely defined and measurable in some way. The third step in
the process is to have a pre-intervention measurement, that is, measurement prior to intervention; the
preintervention measurement is used as basis from which to compare the client’s condition after the
intervention is introduced. Next stage in the process is to introduce intervention. It is important here to
note that only a single, coherent intervention be applied during any intervention phase. In the last
stage, we assess the effects of intervention by comparing the two measurements, that is,
preintervention measurement and measurements during intervention.
1 .Identification of Problems
2. Need Assessment
3. Selection of Social Work Research Design Introduce
4. Pre-Intervention Measurement (Data Collection)
5. IntroduceIntervention
6. Assess the Intervention Effects (Data Collection)
Relevance of Research in Social Work

Social work is a practice profession. As such, the major objective of social work research is to search for
answers to questions raised regarding interventions or practice effectiveness. In other words social
work research attempts to provide knowledge about what interventions or treatments really help or
hinder the attainment of social work goals. In addition, it also helps in searching for answers to
problems or difficulties faced by social work practitioners in the practice of their profession. Ultimately
it helps building knowledge base for social work theory and practice.
Social work research also deals with problems faced by professional social workers, social work
agencies and community in its concern with social work functions. In other words in social work
research the problems to be investigated are always found in the course of doing social work or
planning to do it (Dasgupta, 1968).
It is obvious that in social work research the study of a problem is from the point of view of social work
and that of professional social work. The designing of research problems, data collection and its
interpretation will have to be attempted in a manner as would be useful to professional social work
which would add new knowledge to the social work theory and practice and improve the efficiency of
professional social workers.
Social work research is regarded as the systematic use of research concepts, methods, techniques and
strategies to provide information related to the objectives of social work programmes and practices.
Thus the unit of analysis of social work research could be individuals, groups, families or programme of
the agency. That is, social work research, typically focuses on assessment of practitioner’s work with
individuals, groups, families, communities or appraisal of agencies or programmes that involve the
continued efforts of practitioners with many clients. As such, the research design, data collection and
analytic strategies in social work research vary as a function of unit of analysis and programme of
agencies of social work practitioner.
Social work research is the use of the scientific method in the search of knowledge, including
knowledge of alternate practice and intervention techniques, which would be of direct use to the social
work profession and thus enhance the practice of social work methods. Social work research focuses
on or confines itself to select aspects of behaviour and alternate models of behaviour modifications.
Social work research helps to find ways and means to enhance social functioning at the individual,
group, community and societal levels.
Social work research lays special emphasis on evaluation. This is one of the reasons that social work
research is also understood as evaluative research. Under social work research, varieties of evaluative
researches are undertaken. Some of the researches are on impacts or effects, efficacy and
effectiveness. Evaluation of agencies and its projects and programmes are some of the specialized areas
of social work research.
Scope of Social Work Research

Social work profession has a scientific base, which consists of a special body of knowledge; tested
knowledge, hypothetical knowledge and assumptive knowledge. Assumptive knowledge requires
transformation into hypothetical knowledge, which in turn needs transformation into tested
knowledge. Social work research has significant role in transforming the hypothetical and assumptive
knowledge to tested knowledge (Khinduka,1965).
Identification of social work needs and resources, evaluation of programmes and services of social work
agencies are some of the areas in which social work researches are undertaken. Social work research
may be conducted to know the problems faced by professional social workers in social work agencies
and communities in its concern with social work functions. Thus, social work research embraces the
entire gamut of social work profession; concepts, theories, methods, programmes, services and the
problems faced by social workers in their practice.
Goals and Limitations of Social Work Research

Social work research offers an opportunity for all social workers to make differences in their practice.
There is no doubt about the fact that social worker will be more effective practitioner guided by the
findings of social work research. Thus, social work research seeks to accomplish the same humanistic
goals, as does a social work method. Social work research deals with those methods and issues, which
are useful in evaluating social work programmes and practices. It explains the methodology of social
research and illustrates its applications in social work settings.
A substantive part of social work practice is concerned with the micro-level practice, such as working
with individuals, groups, or a community. Social work research has to take into consideration the
limitations of micro level design of study and techniques.
Social work research is basically a practice based research which mostly draws its inferences through
inductive reasoning. That is, inferring something about a whole group or a class of objects from the
facts or knowledge of one or few members of that group/class. Thus, in practice based research
inductive reasoning carries us from observation to theory through intervention/assessment.
Practitioners, for example, may observe that delinquents tend to come from family with low socio-
economic status. Based on the assumption that the parent-child bond is weaker in low socio-economic
families and that such parents, therefore, have less control over their children, the practitioners may
inductively conclude that a weak parent-child bond leads to delinquency.
A substantive part of social work practice is concerned with the micro-level practice, such as working
with individuals, groups, or a community. Practice based research has to take into consideration the
limitations of micro level practice. Accordingly, practice based research has to have special design of
study and techniques.
Steps of the research process

Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering a
multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This process is
used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method (scientific method of
inquiry, evaluation research, or action research). The process focuses on testing hunches or ideas in a
park and recreation setting through a systematic process. In this process, the study is documented in
such a way that another individual can conduct the same study again. This is referred to as replicating
the study. Any research done without documenting the study so that others can review the process and
results is not an investigation using the scientific research process. The scientific research process is a
multiple-step process where the steps are interlinked with the other steps in the process. If changes are
made in one step of the process, the researcher must review all the other steps to ensure that the
changes are reflected throughout the process.
Step 1: Identify the Problem

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research
problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information that is
needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend nationally. In the example in table 2.4,
the problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity, which is a local problem and concern
within the community. This serves as the focus of the study.
Step 2: Review the Literature

Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under
investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem. This
step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also educates
the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted,
and the conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity study, the review of literature enables the
programmer to discover horrifying statistics related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in
terms of health issues, death rates, and projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer finds
several articles and information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that describe the
benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day.
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This
can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained through the review of
literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research project. In the example, the
programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem and the purpose of the study. This topic is
very broad and could be studied based on genetics, family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence,
leisure activities, or health issues. All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore,
the problem and purpose of the study must be more clearly defined. The programmer has decided that
the purpose of the study is to determine if walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will improve
the individual’s health.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To minimize
confusion about what the terms & phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the
study. In the obesity study, the concept of “individual’s health” can be defined in hundreds of ways, such
as physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual health. For this study, the individual’s health is defined as
physical health. The concept of physical health may also be defined and measured in many ways. In this
case, the programmer decides to more narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of
weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more narrowly, the
scope of the study is more manageable for the programmer, making it easier to collect the necessary
data for the study.
Step 5: Define the Population
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development, employee
evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of technology into the
operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group of people in the community,
the study could examine a specific age group, males or females, people living in a specific geographic
area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally thousands of options are available to the researcher to
specifically identify the group to study. The research problem and the purpose of the study assist the
researcher in identifying the group to involve in the study. In research terms, the group to involve in the
study is always called the population. Defining the population assists the researcher in several ways.
First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large population to one that is manageable. Second,
the population identifies the group that the researcher’s efforts will be focused on within the study. This
helps ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during the study. Finally, by defining the
population, the researcher identifies the group that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the
study. In the example in table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the study as children
ages 10 to 12 years.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan

The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves as the
road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data
will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is composed of numerous decisions and
considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity study, the researcher has
decided to have the children participate in a walking program for six months. The group of participants
is called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. The
study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the community, so a smaller group is used
to represent the population. The researcher develops the plan for the walking program, indicating what
data will be collected, when and how the data will be collected, who will collect the data, and how the
data will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for the
study. This ensures that the programmer has carefully thought through all these decisions and that she
provides a step-by-step plan to be followed in the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data. The
collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research question.
Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is from the literature or from
subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with
a questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the programmers will
be collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the
number of days the person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the class.
The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program. These two
sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on weight, body fat, and
cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is ready to move to the
final step of the process, which is the data analysis.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process culminate in
this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be answered.
In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will be analyzed. The researcher now
analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized
in a manner directly related to the research questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares
the measurements of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first
meeting of the subjects to the measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These
two sets of data will be analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement
and the second measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to
determine if the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are statistically significant, the
study validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the study also provide valuable
information about one strategy to combat childhood obesity in the community.
As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific research
process requires you to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. You cannot conduct a study
using the scientific research process when time is limited or the study is done at the last minute.
Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either false conclusions or conclusions that are
not of any value to the organization.
Social Work Research Unit – II

Basic elements of research
Concept
A concept is an abstraction representing an object, a property of an object, are a certain phenomenon
for example ‘ water “, mass, weight and density, are concepts used by physical scientists. Concepts such
as, a social status, role, caste, religion, and family are common among sociologist
A concept of more intrest to social researher is social status its is an abstraction formed from the
observation of certain traits of individuals. This traits are associated with the possision of individuals in
the society, etc. The assessment of various indicators put together and expresed in a word - social
status
Every scientific discripstion has developed its unique set of concepts for communicating its reserach
findings the improtances of concepts in scientific investigation may be gauged from the fact that the
conceptual system
Concept and construct

In research we enumerate two sets of terms the 1st includes the terms ar words which we point to and
object the term ro ward represents for example, when we say house we can point to an object the word
represents , we can also mesure the area on which its exists, the height width and thicknes of wall and
such other dimensions of the house, there are many similar terms such as tree, temple, book, chalk, and
so on for which we can point of numerous objects mesure their dimensions , the seconds set of terms
susch as a race, religion, intelligence, achivements,etc does not have objects to point out this terms are
abstraction from the observation
Hence we frist define this terms anthen we respond to the definitions instead of observable
characteristics, the terms of the 1st set which have direct empirical refference are reffered to as
concepts where as the terms in second set have no direct empirical refference and are reffered as
construct
variables
Very simply, a VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group,
person to person, or even within one person over time. There are six common variable type
Case example of descriptive study variables

Variables are important to understand because they are the basic units of the information studied
and interpreted in research studies. Researchers carefully analyze and interpret the value(s) of each
variable to make sense of how things relate to each other in a descriptive study or what has happened in
an experiment.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables. For example, if the
independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching procedure, then the
dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the content taught using that
procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent variable depends on the variation
in the independent variable.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
. . . are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve manipulating
existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or introducing new
variables (e.g., adopting a totally new method for some sections of a class) in the research
setting. Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent variable(s)
will have some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent variables.
INTERVENING VARIABLES
refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the independent and
dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside the subjects'
heads, including various language learning processes which the researcher cannot observe.
For example, if the use of a particular teaching technique is the independent variable and
mastery of the objectives is the dependent variable, then the language learning processes
used by the subjects are the intervening variables.
MODERATOR VARIABLES
affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying the
effect of the intervening variable(s). Unlike extraneous variables, moderator variables are
measured and taken into consideration. Typical moderator variables in TESL and language
acquisition research (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age,
culture, or language proficiency of the subjects.
CONTROL VARIABLES
Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider
every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular
study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a
biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are
called control variables.
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the dependent
variable(s) but which are not controlled. Extraneous variables are dangerous. They may
damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by
the independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be
controlled, extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting
results.
Operationalization of concept
Operationalization is the process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors. The process
defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically and quantitatively.
For experimental research, where interval or ratio measurements are used, the scales are usually well
defined and strict.
Operationalization also sets down exact definitions of each variable, increasing the quality of the results,
and improving the robustness of the design.
For many fields, such as social

science, which often use ordinal
measurements, operationalization
is essential. It determines how the
researchers are going to measure
an emotion or concept, such as the
level of distress or aggression.
Such measurements are arbitrary,

but allow others to replicate the
research, as well as perform
statistical analysis of the results.
Fuzzy Concepts
Fuzzy concepts are vague ideas, concepts that lack clarity or are only partially true. These are often
referred to as "conceptual variables".
It is important to define the variables to facilitate accurate replication of theresearch process. For
example, a scientist might propose the hypothesis:
“Children grow more quickly if they eat vegetables.”

What does the statement mean by 'children'? Are they from America or Africa. What age are they? Are
the children boys or girls? There are billions of children in the world, so how do you define the sample
groups?
How is 'growth' defined? Is it weight, height, mental growth or strength? The statement does not
strictly define the measurable, dependent variable.
What does the term 'more quickly' mean? What units, and what timescale, will be used to measure
this? A short-term experiment, lasting one month, may give wildly different results than a longer-term
study.
The frequency of sampling is important for operationalization, too.
If you were conducting the experiment over one year, it would not be practical to test the weight every
5 minutes, or even every month. The first is impractical, and the latter will not generate enough
analyzable data points.
What are 'vegetables'? There are hundreds of different types of vegetable, each containing different
levels of vitamins and minerals. Are the children fed raw vegetables, or are they cooked? How does the
researcher standardize diets, and ensure that the children eat their greens?
Operationalization
The above hypothesis is not a bad statement, but it needs clarifying and strengthening, a process called
operationalization.
The researcher could narrow down the range of children, by specifying age, sex, nationality, or a
combination of attributes. As long as the sample group is representative of the wider group, then the
statement is more clearly defined.
Growth may be defined as height or weight. The researcher must select a definable and measurable
variable, which will form part of the research problemand hypothesis.
Again, 'more quickly' would be redefined as a period of time, and stipulate the frequency of sampling.
The initial research design could specify three months or one year, giving a reasonable time scale and
taking into account time and budget restraints.
Each sample group could be fed the same diet, or different combinations of vegetables. The researcher
might decide that the hypothesis could revolve around vitamin C intake, so the vegetables could be
analyzed for the average vitamin content.
Alternatively, a researcher might decide to use an ordinal scale of measurement, asking subjects to fill in
a questionnaire about their dietary habits.
Already, the fuzzy concept has undergone a period of operationalization, and the hypothesis takes on
a testable format.
The Importance of Operationalization

Of course, strictly speaking, concepts such as seconds, kilograms and centigrade are artificial constructs,
a way in which we define variables.
Pounds and Fahrenheit are no less accurate, but were jettisoned in favor of the metric system. A
researcher must justify their scale of scientific measurement.
Operationalization defines the exact measuring method used, and allows other scientists to follow
exactly the same methodology. One example of the dangers of non-operationalization is the failure of
the Mars Climate Orbiter.
This expensive satellite was lost, somewhere above Mars, and the mission completely failed.
Subsequent investigation found that the engineers at the sub-contractor, Lockheed, had used imperial
units instead of metric units of force.
A failure in operationalization meant that the units used during the construction and simulations were
not standardized. The US engineers used pound force, the other engineers and software designers,
correctly, used metric Newtons.
This led to a huge error in the thrust calculations, and the spacecraft ended up in a lower orbit around
Mars, burning up from atmospheric friction. This failure in operationalization cost hundreds of millions
of dollars, and years of planning and construction were wasted.
How To Formulate Research Problem?

Formulating the research problem and hypothesis acts as a major step or phase in the research
methodology. In research, the foremost step that comes into play is that of defining the research
problem and it becomes almost a necessity to have the basic knowledge and understanding of
most of its elements as this would help a lot in making a correct decision. The research problem
can be said to be complete only if it is able to specify about the unit of analysis, time and space
boundaries, features that are under study, specific environmental conditions that are present in
addition to prerequisite of the research process.
ResearchProcess
Research process is very commonly referred to as the planning process. One important point to
be kept in mind here is to understand that the main aim of the research process is that of
improving,the.knowledge.ofthe.humanbeings.
1.The.Primarystage:This,stage,includes –
a. Observation – The first step in the research process is that of the observation, research work
starts with the observation which can be either unaided visual observation or guided and
controlled observation.It can be said that an observation leads to research, the results obtained
from research result in final observations which can play a crucial part in carrying out further
research. Deliberate and guided observations also play an important part in this primary stage.
This method is very simple and helps a great deal in framing of the hypothesis as it is very
accurate in nature but it also has some major limitations like some of the occurrences may not be
open to the observation and the occurrences which may be open for observation may not be
studied conveniently.
b. Interest – As studied in the above paragraph, research starts with the observation and it leads
to a curiosity to learn and gain more and more about what has been observed. Hence it can be
said that observation results in the creation of an interest in the mind of the researcher.The
interest can be either academic in nature or it may be a policy making interest. It may be a self
interest or a group interest. Group interest is also referred to as the social interest
c. Crystallization – It can be defined as the process involving the designing of the definite form
of research to be used in the study of the subject matter that has been observed. During this
stage, the research project gets a concrete shape and structure.
d. Formulating a research problem – A research problem can belong to one of the following
two categories – it can belong to the category in which there can be relationships between
various variables or it may belong to the other category, which is based on nature. In the
beginning, it is important for a researcher to find out the general interest or the subject matter,
which he wants to study. By this the researcher will be able to state a problem more broadly and
also in a much generalized form then the ambiguities linked to the problem can be referred and
understood. This really supports in the formulation of a problem of a research. Although this
process is not that simple and requires many fruitful discussions in order to achieve a proper
conclusion or a decision.
e. Primary Synopsis – Before starting with the actual study work, it is very necessary for a
researcher to prepare a summary or a plan about the activities he has to perform in connection
with research operation. This will help him a lot to get a definite idea or an understanding of what
would be written in the final report.
f. Conceptual Clarity – It is very much important for a researcher to have in depth knowledge
and understanding of the subject or the topic he has to study as it helps a lot in achieving one’s
goal and objectives in a much easier and also a comparatively much simpler way.
g. Documentation – The documents help in providing important information to a researcher,

document is something in writing it can be a record, files or diaries etc. may be published or
unpublished in nature. Documents can be extracted and can be used in the research work.
Various documents can be classified as –
2. Secondary stage: – This stage of the research consists of all the features that are actually
required to run a research project. This stage includes the following –
a. Research project planning: – Involves selection of the future courses of action for conducting and
directing a research project. A research project plan gives a rational approach to research by
which one is able to decide in advance about what to do, how to do, when to do, where to do
and who is to do a particular task in a specific activity.
b. Research Project formulation: – After the planning of the project has been done the
researcher follows this with a practical approach in order to carry out the project. This step of
the secondary stage involves the systematic setting forth of the total research project, with
an aim of conducting a systematic study.
c. Data collection: – This step involves the in depth meaning for the concepts that are to be
investigated and looks forward to data analysis, data requirement etc… Sources of
understatement or overstatement should be avoided and the data should be free from any
type of error. The data collection planning should be done or implemented in a very careful
manner, with the help of specialist researchers. The data should be good and meaningful in
nature should not only be a collection of words but should provide meaningful information.
d. Classification and tabulation – Classification can be defined as the arrangement of the data
into groups and classes depending on the resemblance and the similarities. By classification,
the data can be condensed in a very elegant way by which the various important features can
be easily noticed i.e. one can easily highlight the various salient features of the data at a
glance. Tabulation of the data can be defined as the orderly arrangement of the data in
columns and the rows this step also helps a great deal in the condensation of the data and
also in the analysation of the relations, trends etc
e. Data Analysis – In this step, the collected data is arranged according to some pattern or a
particular format and this analysation of the data is done mainly to provide the data with a
meaning. It is actually the computing of the some of the measures supported by the search
for the relationship patterns, existing among the group of the data.
f. Testing of a hypothesis: – This step of testing acts as the back bone of the data analysis.
Various tests like “t” test, “z” test. Chi square test are used by the statisticians for the testing of
the hypothesis.
g. Interpretation of results: – It is very important that the results are interpreted into action
recommendations and the results should be able to refer to a decision i.e. should help in drawing
a conclusion.
3.FinalStage:-This.stage.involves –
a. Conclusions and recommendations – This act as the crux of the research project work.
Recommendations are based on the conclusions obtained and further these conclusions are
based on the interpretation of the results of data analysis. But a major point to be kept in mind
here is that all these conclusions and the recommendations should be linked to the research
hypothesis stated.
b. Report Writing - For the researcher as well as the reader, report writing is very crucial as it
acts as the best way for communication between the two. Report written must be very simple in
nature with easy language, high clarity. Report writing cannot be done by everyone and requires
an especial skilled person for this purpose.
Every true experimental design must have this statement at the core of its structure, as the ultimate aim
of any experiment.
The hypothesis is generated via a number of means, but is usually the result of a process of inductive
reasoning where observations lead to the formation of a theory. Scientists then use a large battery
of deductive methods to arrive at a hypothesis that is testable, falsifiable and realistic.
The precursor to a hypothesis is a research problem, usually framed as a question. It might ask what, or
why, something is happening.
For example, to use a topical subject, we might wonder why the stocks of cod in the North Atlantic are
declining. The problem question might be ‘Why are the numbers of Cod in the North Atlantic declining?’
This is too broad as a statement and is not testable by any reasonable scientificmeans. It is merely a
tentative question arising from literature reviews and intuition. Many people would think that instinct
and intuition are unscientific, but many of the greatest scientific leaps were a result of ‘hunches’.
The research hypothesis is a paring down of the problem into something testable and falsifiable. In the
aforementioned example, a researcher might speculate that the decline in the fish stocks is due to
prolonged over fishing. Scientists must generate a realistic and testable hypothesis around which they
can build the experiment.
Hypothesis Formulation
When research is conducted hypothesis formulation is one of the most preliminary step. Hypothesis
formulation helps in formulating research problem. Hypothesis formulation is not a necessary but an
important step of research. A valid and reasonable research can be conducted without any hypothesis.
Hypothesis can be one and it can be as many as possible.
Definition of Hypothesis:
A hypothesis is a possible answer to a research question. It is a presumption or a hunch on the bases of

which a study has to be conducted. This hypothesis is tested for possible rejection or approval. If
hypothesis get accepted it shows that your hunch was right if it get rejected it still does not mean that
your research was not valid but ti means that it is the opposite way you thought and perceived. Whether
it is approved or not it gives you some conclusion and adds to the available body of knowledge.
A hypothesis which has been tested again and again by various researchers can still be tested for making
it more valid but if the hypothesis ha been approved in such a manner that it has become a law than it is
better to test something that adds to the available knowledge rather than approving something which
has been approved many times before.
Example:
For example if you want to conduct a study on the Effects of Parental Depression on the Academic
Performance of Children, you may like to conduct it without any hypothesis but then you will have many
dimensions to think upon and will be more likely get distracted. If you formulate a hypothesis, that
parental depression results in depression in children too and this depression leads to low grades, your
research will get a direction and you will not think about the broader effects of depression everything is
well defined you have to test the impact of depression on the children's depression and as well as on the
grades of children. You may not need to test the impacts on the extra curricular activities, class conduct
and other such things.
Characteristics of a Well-formulated Research Hypothesis:

Testable and Verifiable: A research hypothesis has t5o be checked for possible approval or rejection.
This analysis is done statistically and, therefore it should be such that can be tested and analyzed. After
analysis the results can be obtained. Some hypothesis can not be tested because they are too subjective
and they are not suitable for research. Research needs objectivity and evidences without these two
things any research is impossible to conduct. For example you may want to conduct a research on the
existence of God but to prove the existence of God is a far different phenomenon and even you may
formulate a hypothesis is but you can not test it statistically, therefore, such hypothesis and research
questions should be avoided.
Simple and Clear: The wording of the hypothesis should have to be simple and clear. Any complex ideas
and wordings should be avoided. A simple hypothesis will make it easier for you to carry on through out
the research and will be easy for the reader to understand. In addition to the terminology and phrasing
the hypothesis should have to be clear in your mind from every perspective. If there are any ambiguities
or questions in your mind, resolve them at this stage; if they are not clear you will find it hard to conduct
the study in later stages.
Relevant: The hypothesis should have to be relevant to the study that you are about to conduct. An
irrelevant hypothesis will lead to an invalid research. Hypothesis is the possible answer to your research
question if your presumption or your presumed answer is wrong and irrelevant your method to find its
accuracy too will not result in any relevant conclusions. Check whether your hypothesis is related to the
direction in which you have planned to take your research or not.
Importance of Research Hypothesis: For a new

researcher it is important to have research hypothesis so as to be directional. Research hypothesis can
be present in research and it may not be but if it is present it can have following benefits.
Clarity: Hypothesis brings clarity to research. It makes your mind clear about the way in which you have
to carry on the research. Methodology of research depends greatly on research hypothesis. Clarity
brings 50 % chances of success in research. At each step you need to be clear about every aspect and
dimension. If you are not clear about a single thing you should not go forward, stay where ever you are
and resolve the issue and then move to the next step.
Focus: You formulate your research hypothesis and you get a focal point in your research. You need not
go off the track and stay intact to the main objective which you set after the hypothesis. Your research
becomes organized and haphazard actions are minimized.
Direction: Hypothesis sets a direction of research. This direction shows you what should be the
objectives, methodology, mode of analysis and research design. With hypothesis you have a confidence
that whatever you have presumed will be tested rather than testing something that is irrelevant to the
research.
Objectivity: Every research requires objectivity but without hypothesis you may collect data which is not
relevant to the research and hence decreases the objectivity of the research. When you know that your
hypothesis only deals with a particular aspect of the phenomenon you will not collect data that is not
required and the objectivity and validity of the research increases.
Add to the Body of Knowledge: A hypothesis add to the available body of knowledge. For example you
study different literature and you find out that this much work has already been done on this topic and
you should concentrate on the gaps that are yet to be filled by new research you formulate a hypothesis
and keep your direction towards it.
Types of Hypothesis
1.Research Hypothesis
The hypothesis derived from theiries is termed as research, hypothesis or working hypothesis. The
researcher, wh wishes to study a social phenomenon, looks for various theories about the social
phenomenon, because theories explain the nature of things or events. Thus, these explanation are
regraded as supposition, or tentative statements about reality until their are verified to the researcher’s
satisfaction. These suppositions or statements identified by the researcher for testing know as research
hypothesis and conventionally symbolized as H1. Example of research hypothesis are: female visit
cinema oftener than make or broken homes lead to juvenile delinquency.
2.Null Hypothesis
For the purpose of testing a research hypothesis, a researcher formulate the corollary of it which is
termed as null hypothesis. It is in one way, the reverse of research hypothesis, which refutes or denies
the relationship expressed in research hypothesis. In other words, a null hypotheisis states that there
is no difference or relationship between variables. Let us consider the research hypothesis dicussed
above
H1 Female visit cinema ofterner than Male.

H2 Broken homes leads to juvenile delinquency.
The null hypotheses for the above research hypotheses would be:
H0 Females and males do not differ in respect of the frequency of visting cinema.
H0 There is no relationship between broken homes and juvenile delinquency.
Conventionally, the null hypothesis is tested in researach because it is ordinarily more exact, and is easy
to disprove. Statistical techniques are better adopted to test a null hypothesis.
Step in Testing Hypothesis

Step 1: State the research Hypothesis. (H1) :
There is a ignificant difference between undergraduate and post-graduate students with regards to their
reading habits
Step 2; Formulate the Null Hypothesis (H2) :
There is no significant difference between undergraduate and post-graduate students with regard to
their reading habits.
Step 3: Choose a Statistical Test :
Let us suppose that we have decided to use chi-square statistic(X 2) to test the relationship between the
variables considered in the research hypothesis.
Step 4: Specify a Significance Level :
Further, we soppose that we would like to test our hypothesis at .05 level of significance.
Step 5: Compute the Statistical Test :

In this step the researcher has to cross-tabulate his data and compute chi-square test
Step 6: Reject/Accept the H0 :
If the calculate value of chi-square is more than critical value we reject the null hypothesis
Step 7: Draw the Inference, i.e., Accept/Reject H1 :
we accept the research hypothesis because the null hypothesis has been rejected.Hence,we can infer
that there is asiginificant difference between undergraduate and post-graduate students with regard to
their reading habbits.
Type I and Type II Errors Unlike physiscal

sciences,in social sciences we do not find propositions that indicate certainty in real world almost all the
propositions generally indicate some sort of probabilities.Thus instead of stating that if A is true,B must
follow,we say only if A is true,B will probably also be true. We
thus admit the possibillity that B may be false even if A is true. Thus,if we reject A whenever B is false,we
also run the risk of making error that of rejected a true research hypothesis (H1). We refer to this kind of
error as type I error or α error. Otherwise if
we fail to reject (accept) A when B is true, we again run the risk of making an error, since A may actually
be false.Accepting a false research hypothesis (H1) is referred to as type II error or β error.
Examples:
1. Most members will conform to sociental norm (A).
2.It is a norm of society not to steal.
3. B is a member of society
Type I error : population differ when in fact they are a like.

Type II error : Two populations are a like when in fact they differ.
Population realities
. Difference No difference
.
Research
Coclusions
(Draw on the basis
of sample) Reject Ho ------------
(there is difference0
.
Accept Ho- -------------------
(There id difference)
3.. Explanatory or Descriptive hypothesis – This type of the hypothesis generally involves data about
the cause of the process or about the law on which it is based. Hypothesis involving data about the
cause is explanatory in approach and the hypothesis involving laws acts descriptive in the approach.
4. Tentative hypothesis – Such a hypothesis is made, when one does not possess complete information
and understanding about a certain process or phenomenon. Such a situation, when one is not able to
understand the process may occur due to the technical difficulties. It is also possible to test two or more
hypothesis simultaneously the hypothesis about the propagation of light, namely, wave theory and the
corpuscular theory of light both describe the light’ s phenomenon but among both of these none of
them is final hence these can be referred to as tentative in nature.
5.. Representative fictions – Some hypothesis are based on the assumptions and depending on the
nature of the case, it is not at all possible to prove these assumptions by the direct means such
hypothesis is referred to as the representative fictions. The only positive point of these representative
fictions is that they are very suitable in order to explain the whole phenomenon.
Problems faced during hypothesis formulation

Formulating a hypothesis is not at all an easy process and is faced with a large number of difficulties.
According to Goode and Hatt, the various difficulties faced during the formulation of the hypothesis
generally include the lack of the knowledge about the scientific approach of the method involved, as
sometimes it becomes impossible to gather the complete information about a particular scientific
method. One other major difficulty in the formulation of the hypothesis is the lack of clear theoretical
background. Because of this problem of unclear and indefinite background of theory one is not able to
arrive to a conclusion easily.
But with time answers to all such problems are available and these difficulties that arise during the
hypothesis formulation can be easily removed by having complete and accurate information about the
concepts of the subjects involved. Also the hypothesis should not be very long and should be timely in
nature.
Social work Research Unit-III

Research Design
Conventional Designs
Design procedures using stresses or moments which have been determined by widely accepted
methods.
DEFINE
At this stage the requirements are developed. Questions like how big, how fast, how expensive, etc are
proposed in this stage.
MEASURE
In this stage other competitors are reviewed. Also internal reference designs are reviewed as well. At
this stage, the test plan creation is usually started.
ANALYZE
At this stage the data collected in the "measure" stage is analyzed. Further reviews might be needed. It
is at this stage where the specs get "locked down."
DESIGN
At this stage the design work begins. Engineers use tools such as CAD, spreadsheets, FEAs and
verification (prototype) designs are developed. The design is further refined at this stage.
VERIFY
At this stage the designs go through the qualification testing, as well as any regulatory testing. Failure to
complete this stage is at its most expensive, since tools have been created, lines have been created etc.
Failure to pass regulatory tests can push the release of a design up to 1 year later.
PRODUCTION
The design is released for production. Further improvements and cost reduction activities start and
continue at this stage for the life of the product.
OBSOLESCENCE
All good things come to an end. At this stage, perhaps competitor comes out with a better design, the
cost of the raw materials have gone up, the tools get old, the market no longer wants it, key
components are going obsolete, whatever.
It is at this stage that the decision is made to retire the design. A new product may be needed, which will
start the process all over again.
Research Purpose
The purpose of your research can be exploratory, descriptive, explanatory or policy-oriented. These
categories are not mutually exclusive, they are a matter of emphasis. As any research study will change
and develop over time, you may identify more than one purpose. These four types of research are
discussed below.
Exploratory Research
Exploratory research might involve a literature search or conducting focus group
interviews. The exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the researcher’s need for better
understanding, may test the feasibility of a more extensive study, or determine the best methods to be
used in a subsequent study. For these reasons, exploratory research is broad
in focus and rarely provides definite answers to specific research issues.
The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues and key variables. For example, one
outcome might be a better system of measurement for a specific
variable.Ifyoudefineyourstudyasexploratoryresearch,thenyouneedtoclearlydefinete objectives. Calling
your report “exploratory” inot an excuse for lack of definition.
EXAMPLE
An example in the business environment might be an exploratory study of a new management
technique in order to brief a management team. This would be a vital first step before deciding whether
to embrace the technique
Descriptive Research
As its name suggests, descriptive research seeks to provide an accurate description of observations of a
phenomena. The object of the collection of census data is to accurately describe basic information about
a national population at a particular point in time. The objective of much descriptive research is tomap
the terrain of a specific phenomenon. A study of this type could start with questions such as: ‘What
similarities or contrasts exist between A and B?’,where A and B are differentdepartments in the same
organisation, different regional operations of the same firm, or different companies in the same
industry. Such descriptive comparisonscan produce useful insights and lead to hypothesis-formation.
EXAMPLE
A detailed set of data on the profile of clients would be an example of this
type of report. By understanding the customer better,sales and marketing management will be able to
take better decisions on new product development.
Explanatory Research
Explanatory studies look for explanations of the nature
of certain relationships. Hypothesis testing provides an understanding of the relationships that exist
between variables. Zikmund (1984) suggests that the degree of uncertainty about the research problem
determines the research methodology, as illustrated in the Table below.
Exploratory Research Descriptive Explanatory

Research Research
Degree of Key variables not Key variables are Key variables and
Problem Definition defined defined key relationships are
defined
Possible “Quality of service is “What have been “Which of two

Situations declining and we the training programs is
don’t know why.” trends in more effective for
organisational reducing labour
“Would people be downsizing over the turnover?”
interested in our new past ten years?”
product idea?” “Can I predict the
“Did last year’s value of energy
product recall have stocks if I know the
“How important is an impact on our current dividends
business process re- company’s share and growth rates of
engineering as a price?” dividends?”
strategy?”
“Has the average “Do buyers prefer
merger rate for our product in a new
financial institutions package?”
increased in the
past
decade?”
Experimental Study Design
An experimental study is a type of evaluation that seeks to determine whether a program or

intervention had the intended causal effect on program participants. There are three key components of
an experimental study design:
(1) pre-post test design,

(2) a treatment group and a control group, and
(3) random assignment of study participants.
A pre-post test design requires that you collect data on study participants’ level of performance before
the intervention took plac (pre-), and that you collect the same data on where study participants are
after the intervention took place (post). This design is the best way to be sure that your intervention had
a causal effect.
To get the true effects of the program or intervention, it is necessary to have both a treatment group
and a control group. As the name suggests, the treatment group receives the intervention. The control
group, however, gets the business-as-usual conditions, meaning they only receive interventions that
they would have gotten if they had not participated in the study. By having both a group that received
the intervention and another group that did not, researchers control for the possibility that other factors
not related to the intervention (e.g., students getting accustomed to a test, or simple maturation over
the intervening time) are responsible for the difference between the pre-test and post-test results. It is
also important that both the treatment group and the control group are of adequate size to be able to
determine whether an effect took place or not. While the size of the sample ought to be determined by
specific scientific methods, a general rule of thumb is that each group ought to have at least 30
participants.
Finally, it is important to make sure that both the treatment group and the control group are statistically
similar. While no two groups will ever be exactly alike, the best way to be sure that they are as close as
possible is having a random assignment of the study participants into the treatment group and control
group. By randomly assigning participants, you can be sure that any difference between the treatment
group and control group is due to chance alone, and not by a selection bias.
 Pre-post test design study without a control group
A pre-post test design requires that you collect data on study participants’ level of performance before
the intervention took place (pre-), and that you collect the same data after the intervention took place
(post-). This study design only looks at one group of individuals who receive the intervention, which is
called the treatment group. The pre-post test design allows you to make inferences on the effect of your
intervention by looking at the difference in the pre-test and post-test results. However, interpreting the
pre-test and post-test difference should be done with caution since you cannot be sure that the
differences in the pre-test and the post-test are causally related to the intervention.
 Pre-post test design with a control group
While the pre-post test design will allow you to measure the potential effects of an intervention by
examining the difference in the pre-test and post-test results, it does not allow you to test whether this
difference would have occurred in the absence of your intervention. For example, perhaps the effect of
improved academic achievement is due to the students getting used to taking a test rather than the use
of educational software. To get the true effects of the program or intervention, it is necessary to have
both a treatment group and a control group. As the names suggest, the treatment group receives the
intervention. The control group, however, gets the business-as-usual conditions, meaning they only
receive interventions that they would have gotten if they had not participated in the study. By having
both a group that received the intervention and another group that did not, researchers control for the
possibility that other factors not related to the intervention (e.g., students getting accustomed to a test,
or simple maturation over the intervening time) are responsible for the difference between the pre-test
and post-test results. It is also important that both the treatment group and the control group are of
adequate size to be able to determine whether an effect took place or not. While the size of the sample
ought to be determined by specific scientific methods, a general rule of thumb is that each group ought
to have at least 30 participants.
Quasi-Experimental Study
A quasi-experimental study is a type of evaluation which aims to determine whether a program or

intervention has the intended effect on a study’s participants. Quasi-experimental studies take on many
forms, but may best be defined as lacking key components of a true experiment. While a true
experiment includes (1) pre-post test design, (2) a treatment group and a control group, and (3) random
assignment of study participants, quasi-experimental studies lack one or more of these design elements.
Since the most common form of a quasi-experimental study includes a pre-post test design with both a
treatment group and a control group, quasi-experimental studies are often an impact evaluation that
assigns members to the treatment group and control group by a method other than random
assignment. Because of the danger that the treatment and control group may differ at the outset,
researchers conducting quasi-experimental studies attempt to address this in a number of other ways
(e.g., by matching treatment groups to like control groups or by controlling for these differences in
analyses). This section focuses on two forms of quasi-experimental studies: a pre-post test design study
without a control group and a pre-post test design with a control group.
Single Subject Research

Single subject research is a study which aims to examine whether an intervention has the intended
effect on an individual, or on many individuals viewed as one group. The two most common single
subject research designs are the A-B-A-B design, and multiple baseline design. Each of these designs
has two main components:
(1) a focus on the individual and
(2) a design in which each individual is used as his or her own control observation.
The focus on the individual differs from other research designs, such as experimental and quasi-
experimental designs, which look at the average effect of an intervention within or between groups of
people. In single subject research, researchers often use more than one individual, but results are
examined by using each individual as his or her own control, rather than averaging results of different
groups. Comparisons are made on the behavior of one individual to that same individual at a different
point in time.
Single subject research has an important role to play in identifying and documenting solutions for
individuals with disabilities. The field needs much more evidence on what works for whom, under
what conditions, for which tasks, etc. Although individuals with disabilities—even those with the
same diagnosis—often experience unique needs, solutions may be adaptable in different
environments, and knowledge sharing can inform others working on assistive solutions
 Multiple baseline design
Because single subject designs focus on studying individuals rather than groups, they can be particularly
vulnerable to threats to internal validity. Internal validity addresses how valid it is to make causal
inferences about the intervention in the study. For more, see section on validity.
Particular internal validity threats in the A-B-A-B single subject research design are maturation (the
natural growth in the study participant’s ability over time) and test-retest (a study participant doing
better on each administration of a test due to their experience taking the test). The multiple baseline
design helps to control for these threats to internal validity by having a study participant give multiple
baseline observations before using the intervention. Further, if multiple individuals are tested with the
treatment given at different time points for different individuals, researchers can have a better
understanding of whether or not the treatment is effective. Unlike A-B-A-B single subject research
designs,.
Time series Designs

In many ways the single subject approach is similar to a time series analysis in that the stabiity and
changes in behavior are studied across time or experimental sessions. Time series analysis is
characterized by repeated measurements of the dependent variable over time with an introduction of
the independent
variable at a particular point in time.Trends or patterns of behavior are observed both before and after
introduction of the independent variable. Consistent with the theme of this chapter, the time series
analysis can be conducted with more than one participant but data analysis is typically focused on
individual participants.
Because time series analysis is characterized by relatively long
term measurements of some dependentvariable, you must be careful to consider extraneous variables
often associated with repeated measures designs. These include history, maturation, attrition,
instrumentation, and carryover effects. In some cases, a change in the level of behavior may be the
result of one of these extraneous variables rather than the introduction of the independent variable.
Time series analysis is also a technique that is often used to track changes in behavior that occur on a
large scale. For example, does a full moon make people more likely to commit crimes? One could track
crime statistics on a daily basis over a long period of time andrelate those statistics to the fullness of the
moon. Note that this is not an experimental design because there is no independent variable
manipulated by the researcher. Thus, cause/effect conclusions would not be warranted. A time series
analysis in which
there is a bit more control would involve the tracking of crime statisticsbothbefore and after a new law
is passed that increases the punishment for a particularcrime. One primary purpose of such a law is to
cause a reduction in the incidence of the crime. Even in this latter example it is very difficult to verify the
effect of this new law because there are so many other factors that influence crime rate that are likely
to vary over time (e.g., the economy). However, this is not to suggest that time series analysis of such
questions should not take place. In fact, they should. What we do suggest is that we all need to evaluate
such information with a very critical eye.
Definition of Program Evaluation

Evaluation is the systematic application of scientific methods to assess the design, implementation,
improvement or outcomes of a program (Rossi & Freeman, 1993; Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996).
The term "program" may include any organized action such as media campaigns, service provision,
educational services, public policies, research projects, etc. (Center for Disease Control and Prevention
[CDC], 1999).
Purposes for Program Evaluation
Demonstrate program effectiveness to funders
Improve the implementation and effectiveness of programs
Better manage limited resources
Document program accomplishments
Justify current program funding
Support the need for increased levels of funding
Satisfy ethical responsibility to clients to demonstrate positive and negative effects of program
participation (Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996).
Document program development and activities to help ensure successful replication
Barriers
Program evaluations require funding, time and technical skills: requirements that are often perceived as
diverting limited program resources from clients. Program staff are often concerned that evaluation
activities will inhibit timely accessibility to services or compromise the safety of clients. Evaluation can
necessitate alliances between historically separate community groups (e.g. academia, advocacy groups,
service providers; Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996). Mutual misperceptions regarding the goals and
process of evaluation can result in adverse attitudes (CDC, 1999; Chalk & King, 1998).
Overcoming Barriers
Collaboration is the key to successful program evaluation. In evaluation terminology, stakeholders are
defined as entities or individuals that are affected by the program and its evaluation (Rossi & Freeman,
1993; CDC, 1999). Involvement of these stakeholders is an integral part of program evaluation. Stakeholders
include but are not limited to program staff, program clients, decision makers, and evaluators. A
participatory approach to evaluation based on respect for one another's roles and equal partnership in
the process overcomes barriers to a mutually beneficial evaluation (Burt, Harrell, Newmark, Aron, &
Jacobs, 1997; Chalk & King, 1998). Identifying an evaluator with the necessary technical skills as well as a
collaborative approach to the process is integral. Programs have several options for identifying an
evaluator. Health departments, other state agencies, local universities, evaluation associations and
other programs can provide recommendations. Additionally, several companies and university
departments providing these services can be located on the internet. Selecting an evaluator entails
finding an individual who has an understanding of the program and funding requirements for
evaluations, demonstrated experience, and knowledge of the issue that the program is targeting (CDC,
1992).
Types of Evaluation
Various types of evaluation can be used to assess different aspects or stages of program development.
As terminology and definitions of evaluation types are not uniform, an effort has been made to briefly
introduce a number of types here.
Context Evaluation Investigating how the program operates or will operate in a particular social,
political, physical and economic environment. This type of evaluation could include a community needs
or organizational assessment (http://www.wkkf.org/Publications/evalhdbk/default.htm). Sample
question: What are the environmental barriers to accessing program services? Formative Evaluation
Assessing needs that a new program should fulfill (Short, Hennessy, & Campbell, 1996), examining the
early stages of a program's development (Rossi & Freeman, 1993), or testing a program on a small scale
before broad dissemination (Coyle, Boruch, & Turner, 1991). Sample question: Who is the intended
audience for the program? Process Evaluation Examining the implementation and operation of program
components. Sample question: Was the program administered as planned? Impact Evaluation
Investigating the magnitude of both positive and negative changes produced by a program (Rossi &
Freeman, 1993). Some evaluators limit these changes to those occurring immediately (Green & Kreuter,
1991). Sample question: Did participant knowledge change after attending the program? Outcome
Evaluation Assessing the short and long-term results of a program. Sample question: What are the
long-term positive effects of program participation? Performance or Program Monitoring
Similar to process evaluation, differing only by providing regular updates of evaluation results to
stakeholders rather than summarizing results at the evaluation's conclusion (Rossi & Freeman, 1993;
Burt, Harrell, Newmark, Aron, & Jacobs, 1997).
Evaluation Standards and Designs

Evaluation should be incorporated during the initial stages of program development. An initial step of
the evaluation process is to describe the program in detail. This collaborative activity can create a
mutual understanding of the program, the evaluation process, and program and evaluation terminology.
Developing a program description also helps ensure that program activities and objectives are clearly
defined and that the objectives can be measured. In general, the evaluation should be feasible, useful,
culturally competent, ethical and accurate (CDC, 1999). Data should be collected over time using
multiple instruments that are valid, meaning they measure what they are supposed to measure, and
reliable, meaning they produce similar results consistently (Rossi & Freeman, 1993). The use of
qualitative as well as quantitative data can provide a more comprehensive picture of the program.
Evaluations of programs aimed at violence prevention should also be particularly sensitive to issues of
safety and confidentiality. Experimental designs are defined by the random assignment of individuals to
a group participating in the program or to a control group not receiving the program. These ideal
experimental conditions are not always practical or ethical in "real world" constraints of program
delivery. A possible solution to blending the need for a comparison group with feasibility is the quasi-
experimental design in which an equivalent group (i.e. individuals receiving standard services) is
compared to the group participating in the target program. However, the use of this design may
introduce difficulties in attributing the causation of effects to the target program. While non-
experimental designs may be easiest to implement in a program setting and provide a large quantity of
data, drawing conclusions of program effects are difficult.
Participatory Research Methods
Participatory research comprises a range of methodological approaches and techniques, all with the
objective of handing power from the researcher to research participants, who are often community
members or community-based organisations. In participatory research, participants have control over
the research agenda, the process and actions. Most importantly, people themselves are the ones who
analyse and reflect on the information generated, in order to obtain the findings and conclusions of the
researchprocess.
Participatory research involves inquiry, but also action. People not only discuss their problems, they
also think about possible solutions to them and actions which need to be taken. The research conducted
by the Participatory Research Group (PRG) aims to influence decision-making processes and impact
peoples’ lives locally and nationally. The challenge is that the views of the most marginalised people are
by definition largely absent in public forums, which further excludes them and in turn amplifies the
perspectives of the more powerful groups. Bringing these people and perspectives into policy processes
is not a straightforward task. Participatory research is one way that these perspectives can be
articulated, and yet there are many challenges in how to do this well.
Methods used in Participate research
The research studies used a range of techniques. These included focus groups and multi stakeholder
meetings, participatory inquiry, action research, oral testimonies and story collection as a foundation for
collective analysis, photo- digital stories, photovoice, drawing and essay writing competitions,
participatory video, and immersions.
Characteristics of Participatory Research
In sharp contrast to elitist research the key features of participatory research are:
people are the subjects of research: the dichotomy between subject and object is broken
people themselves collect the data, and then process and analyse the information using methods easily
understood by them
the knowledge generated is used to promote actions for change or to improve existing local actions
the knowledge belongs to the people and they are the primary beneficiaries of the knowledge creation
research and action are inseparable – they represent a unity
research is a praxis rhythm of action-reflection where knowledge creation supports action
people function as organic intellectuals
there is an built-in mechanism to ensure authenticity and genuineness of the information that is
generated because people themselves use the information for life improvement.
Such participatory research may not get written up. Oral and visual methods characterise this process of
knowledge creation. If people can be stimulated to write them up in their own idiom then such research
could be an important source of a people’s literature, and reading materials for a wider public.
Some of the material could be translated into pictures, cartoons, graphics, posters and slogans which
may be a more effective method of communication. Such documentation may be carried out by
community activists who are well placed to articulate the community’s way of thinking.
The key processes of Participatory Research

The promotion of participatory research is basically an exercise in stimulating the people to:
collect information
reflect and analyse it
use the results as a knowledge base for life improvement, and
whenever possible, to document the results for wider dissemination ie for the creation of a people’s
literature.
Social Work Research Unit – IV

Sampling
Researchers usually cannot make direct observations of every individual in the population
they are studying. Instead, they collect data from a subset of individuals – a sample – and use
those observations to make inferences about the entire population.
Ideally, the sample corresponds to the larger population on the characteristic(s) of interest.
In that case, the researcher's conclusions from the sample are probably applicable to the
entire population.
This type of correspondence between the sample and the larger population is most
important when a researcher wants to know what proportion of the population has a certain
characteristic – like a particular opinion or a demographic feature. Public opinion polls that
try to describe the percentage of the population that plans to vote for a particular candidate,
for example, require a sample that is highly representative of the population.
Types of Sampling Desing
When conducting research, it is almost always impossible to study the entire population that you are
interested in. For example, if you were studying political views among
college students in the United States , it would be nearly impossible to survey every single college
student across the country. If you were to survey the entire population, it would be extremely timely
and costly. As a result, researcher use sample asa a way to gather data.
A sample is a subset of the population being studied. It represents the larger population and is used to
draw inferences about that population. It is a research technique widely used in the social sciences as a
way to gather information about a population without having to measure the entire population.
There are several different types and ways of choosing a sample from a population, from simple to
complex
Non-probability Sampling Techniques
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process
that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
Reliance On Available Subjects. Relying on available subjects, such as stopping people on a street corner
as they pass by, is one method of sampling, although it is extremely risky and comes with many
cautions. This method, sometimes referred to as a convenience sample, does not allow the researcher
to have any control over the representativeness of the sample. It is only justified if the researcher wants
to study the characteristics of people passing by the street corner at a certain point in time or if other
sampling methods are not possible. The researcher must also take caution to not use results from a
convenience sample to generalize to a wider population.
Purposive or Judgmental Sample. A purposive, or judgmental, sample is one that is selected based on
the knowledge of a population and the purpose of the study. For example, if a researcher is studying the
nature of school spirit as exhibited at a school pep rally, he or she might interview people who did not
appear to be caught up in the emotions of the crowd or students who did not attend the rally at all. In
this case, the researcher is using a purposive sample because those being interviewed fit a specific
purpose or description.
Snowball Sample. A snowball sample is appropriate to use in research when the members of a
population are difficult to locate, such as homeless individuals, migrant workers, or undocumented
immigrants. A snowball sample is one in which the researcher collects data on the few members of the
target population he or she can locate, then asks those individuals to provide information needed to
locate other members of that population whom they know. For example, if a researcher wishes to
interview undocumented immigrants from Mexico, he or she might interview a few undocumented
individuals that he or she knows or can locate and would then rely on those subjects to help locate more
undocumented individuals. This process continues until the researcher has all the interviews he or she
needs or until all contacts have been exhausted.
Quota Sample. A quota sample is one in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of pre-
specified characteristics so that the total sample has the same distribution of characteristics assumed to
exist in the population being studied. For example, if you a researcher conducting a national quota
sample, you might need to know what proportion of the population is male and what proportion is
female as well as what proportions of each gender fall into different age categories, race or ethnic
categories, educational categories, etc. The researcher would then collect a sample with the same
proportions as the national population.
Probability Sampling Techniques
Probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that gives all
the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
Simple Random Sample. The simple random sample is the basic sampling method assumed in statistical
methods and computations. To collect a simple random sample, each unit of the target population is
assigned a number. A set of random numbers is then generated and the units having those numbers are
included in the sample. For example, let’s say you have a population of 1,000 people and you wish to
choose a simple random sample of 50 people. First, each person is numbered 1 through 1,000. Then,
you generate a list of 50 random numbers (typically with a computer program) and those individuals
assigned those numbers are the ones you include in the sample.
Systematic Sample. In a systematic sample, the elements of the population are put into a list and then
every kth element in the list is chosen (systematically) for inclusion in the sample. For example, if the
population of study contained 2,000 students at a high school and the researcher wanted a sample of
100 students, the students would be put into list form and then every 20th student would be selected
for inclusion in the sample. To ensure against any possible human bias in this method, the researcher
should select the first individual at random. This is technically called a systematic sample with a random
start.
Stratified Sample. A stratified sample is a sampling technique in which the researcher divided the entire
target population into different subgroups, or strata, and then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata. This type of sampling is used when the researcher wants to
highlight specific subgroups within the population. For example, to obtain a stratified sample of
university students, the researcher would first organize the population by college class and then select
appropriate numbers of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors. This ensures that the researcher
has adequate amounts of subjects from each class in the final sample.
Cluster Sample. Cluster sampling may be used when it is either impossible or impractical to compile an
exhaustive list of the elements that make up the target population. Usually, however, the population
elements are already grouped into subpopulations and lists of those subpopulations already exist or can
be created. For example, let’s say the target population in a study was church members in the United
States. There is no list of all church members in the country. The researcher could, however, create a list
of churches in the United States, choose a sample of churches, and then obtain lists of members from
those churches.
Simple Random Samples
The simplest type of random sample is a simple random sample, often called an SRS. Moore and McCabe
define a simple random sample as follows: "A simple random sample (SRS) of size n consists of n
individuals from the population chosen in such a way that every set of n individuals has an equal chance
to be the sample actually selected."1.
Here, population refers to the collection of people, animals, locations, etc. that the study is focusing on.
Some examples:
1. In a medical study, the population might be all adults over age 50 who have high blood
pressure.
2. In another study, the population might be all hospitals in the U.S. that perform heart bypass
surgery.
3. If we are studying whether a certain die is fair or weighted, the population would be all possible
tosses of the die.
In Example 3, it is fairly easy to get a simple random sample: Just toss the die n times, and record each
outcome.
Selecting a simple random sample in examples 1 and 2 is much harder. A good way to select a simple
random sample for Example 2 would proceed as follows:
First, obtain or make a list of all hospitals in the U.S. that perform heart bypass surgery. Number them 1,
2, ... up to to the total number M of hospitals in the population. (Such a list is called a sampling frame.)
Then use some sort of random number generating process2 to obtain a simple random sample of size n
from the population of integers 1, 2, ..., M. The simple random sample of hospitals would consist of the
hospitals in the list that correspond to the numbers in the SRS of numbers.
In theory, the same process could be used in Example 1. However, obtaining the sampling frame would
be much harder -- probably impossible. So some compromises may need to be made. Unfortunately,
these compromises can easily lead to a sample that is biased or otherwise not close enough to random
to be suitable for the statistical procedures used.
Indeed, even the sampling procedure described above is a compromise and may not be suitable in some
situations, described in the next section .
stratified
A stratified sample is a probability sampling technique in which the researcher divides the entire target
population into different subgroups, or strata, and then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata. This type of sampling is used when the researcher wants to
highlight specific subgroups within the population.
For example, to obtain a stratified sample of university students, the researcher would first organize the
population by college class and then select appropriate numbers of freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and
seniors. This ensures that the researcher has adequate amounts of subjects from each class in the final
sample.
It is important to note that the strata used in stratified sampling must not overlap. Having overlapping
subgroups will give some individuals a higher chance of being selected as subjects in the sample. If this
happened, it would not be a probability sample.
Some of the most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender, religion,
educational attainment, socioeconomic status, and nationality
When To Use Stratified Sampling
There are many situations in which researchers would choose stratified random sampling over other
types of sampling. First, it is used when the researcher wants to highlight a specific subgroup within the
population. Stratified sampling is good for this because it ensures the presence of key subgroups within
the sample.
Researchers also use stratified random sampling when they want to observe relationships between two
or more subgroups. With this type of sampling, the researcher is guaranteed subjects from each
subgroup are included in the final sample, whereas simple random sampling does not ensure that
subgroups are represented equally or proportionately within the sample.
Researchers who are interested in rare extremes of a population often use stratified random sampling
because he or she can representatively sample even the smallest and most inaccessible subgroups of
the population. Simple random sampling does not allow this.
Stratified random samples generally require smaller sample sizes, which in turn can save a lot of time,
money, and effort for the researchers. This is because this type of sampling technique has a high
statistical precision compared to simple random sampling due to the fact that the variability within the
subgroups is lower compare to the variations of dealing with an entire population.
Proportionate Stratified Random Sample
In proportional stratified random sampling, the size of each strata is proportionate to the population
size of the strata when looked at across the entire population. This means that each stratum has the
same sampling fraction.
For example, let’s say you have four strata with population sizes of 200, 400, 600, and 800. If you choose
a sampling fraction of ½, this means you must randomly sample 100, 200, 300, and 400 subjects from
each stratum respectively. The same sampling fraction is used for each stratum regardless of the
differences in population size of the strata.
Disproportionate Stratified Random Sample

In disproportionate stratified random sampling, the different strata do not have the same sampling
fractions as each other. For instance, if your four strata contain 200, 400, 600, and 800 people, you may
choose to have different sampling fractions for each stratum. Perhaps the first strata with 200 people
has a sampling fraction of ½, resulting in 100 people selected for the sample, while the last strata with
800 people has a sampling fraction of ¼, resulting in 200 people selected for the sample.
The precision of using disproportionate stratified random sampling is highly dependent on the sampling
fractions chosen and used by the researcher. Here, the researcher must be very careful and know
exactly what he or she is doing. Mistakes made in choosing and using sampling fractions could result in a
stratum that is overrepresented or underrepresented, resulting in skewed results.
Advantages of Stratified Sampling
Using a stratified sample will always achieve greater precision than a simple random sample, provided
that the strata have been chosen so that members of the same stratum are as similar as possible in
terms of the characteristic of interest. The greater the differences between the strata, the greater the
gain in precision.
Administratively, it is often more convenient to stratify a sample than to select a simple random sample.
For instance, interviewers can be trained on how to best deal with a particular age or ethnic group while
others are trained on the best way to deal with a different age or ethnic group. This way the
interviewers can concentrate on and refine a small set of skills and it is less timely and costly for the
researcher.
A final advantage that stratified random sampling has over simple random sampling is that is guarantees
better coverage of the population. The researcher has control over the subgroups that are included in
the sample, whereas simple random sampling does not guarantee than any one type of person will be
included in the final sample.
Disadvantages of Stratified Sampling

One main disadvantage of stratified random sampling is that is can be difficult to identify appropriate
strata for a study. A second disadvantage is that it is more complex to organize and analyze the results
compared to simple random sampling.
Social WoRK Research Unit – V

Methods and tools of Data Collection :
Primary and Secondary Data Collection
When you’re working on any kind of research, there are going to be two types of data: primary and
secondary. Primary data is collected from a first-hand experience and is reliable and authentic.
Secondary data is already published. Just because one type of data is primary does not mean that it is
less important. You need primary and secondary data collection in all types of projects to make sure
that your conclusions are well informed. We can work on both types of data collection for you so that
you can be sure your project will come out complete.
Primary Data Collection

Primary data can be collected by using experiments, surveys, questionnaires, interviews, and
observations. If you’ve already gathered this information, we can then analyze it and then come up
with accurate results based on your needs. But if you haven’t already gotten this information
together, no problem! We can also help with that step of data collection as well.
We Make Primary Data Collection Easy
• We Create a Questionnaire
• We Design a Survey
• We Choose the Sample
• We Analyze the Data
Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data comes from resources that have already been published. You may have a running list
of certain sources but there are so many published items in the world, it can be hard to find the one
thing that will make a difference to your project. Collection of data from secondary sources is a
treasure hunt and we are skilled researchers with an eye for diamonds. We have developed extensive
lists of secondary sources of data collection and will utilize them for your project. Just because
something is listed as a secondary source for data collection doesn’t mean that it’s less important
though.
Secondary Data Collection Has Never Been Easier
• We Define the Values

• We Surf the Webpages
• We Create a Custom Table
• We Analyze and Interpret
Official Statistics
Official statistics are all statistics produced by government departments and specified crown entities.
They are the cornerstones of good government, and support public confidence in good government.
They provide a window to the work and performance of government by showing the scale of activity in
areas of public policy, and by allowing citizens to assess the impact of public policies and actions. It is a
government responsibility to provide such statistics and to maintain their long-term sustainability.
Official statistics can be collected through surveys or compiled from administrative records collected by
government agencies in their daily work. The majority of official statistics are produced by Statistics NZ
although many other government agencies produce information that is also highly valued.
Statistical Data:
A sequence of observation, made on a set of objects included in the sample drawn from
population is known as statistical data.
(1) Ungrouped Data:

Data which have been arranged in a systematic order are called raw data or ungrouped data.
(2) Grouped Data:

Data presented in the form of frequency distribution is called grouped data.
Collection of Data:
The first step in any enquiry (investigation) is collection of data. The data may be collected for
the whole population or for a sample only. It is mostly collected on sample basis. Collection of
data is very difficult job. The enumerator or investigator is the well trained person who collects
the statistical data. The respondents (information) are the persons whom the information is
collected.
Types of Data:
There are two types (sources) for the collection of data.
(1) Primary Data (2) Secondary Data
(1) Primary Data:

The primary data are the first hand information collected, compiled and published by organization for
some purpose. They are most original data in character and have not undergone any sort of statistical
treatment.
Example: Population census reports are primary data because these are collected, complied and
published by the population census organization.
(2) Secondary Data:

The secondary data are the second hand information which are already collected by some one
(organization) for some purpose and are available for the present study. The secondary data are not
pure in character and have undergone some treatment at least once.
Example: Economics survey of England is secondary data because these are collected by more than one
organization like Bureau of statistics, Board of Revenue, the Banks etc…
Methods of Collecting Primary Data:

Primary data are collected by the following methods:
Personal Investigation: The researcher conducts the survey him/herself and collects data from it. The
data collected in this way is usually accurate and reliable. This method of collecting data is only
applicable in case of small research projects.
Through Investigation: Trained investigators are employed to collect the data. These investigators
contact the individuals and fill in questionnaire after asking the required information. Most of the
organizing implied this method.
Collection through Questionnaire: The researchers get the data from local representation or agents
that are based upon their own experience. This method is quick but gives only rough estimate.
Through Telephone: The researchers get information through telephone this method is quick and give
accurate information.
Methods of Collecting Secondary Data:

The secondary data are collected by the following sources:
Official: e.g. The publications of the Statistical Division, Ministry of Finance, the Federal Bureaus of
Statistics, Ministries of Food, Agriculture, Industry, Labor etc…
Semi-Official: e.g. State Bank, Railway Board, Central Cotton Committee, Boards of (a) Economic
Enquiry etc…
(b) Publication of Trade Associations, Chambers of Commerce etc…
(c) Technical and Trade Journals and Newspapers.
(d) Research Organizations such as Universities and other institutions.
Difference between Primary and Secondary Data:

The difference between primary and secondary data is only a change of hand. The primary data are the
first hand data information which is directly collected form one source. They are most original data in
character and have not undergone any sort of statistical treatment while the secondary data are
obtained from some other sources or agencies. They are not pure in character and have undergone
some treatment at least once.
For Example: Suppose we interested to find the average age of MS students. We collect the age’s data
by two methods; either by directly collecting from each student himself personally or getting their ages
from the university record. The data collected by the direct personal investigation is called primary data
and the data obtained from the university record is called secondary data.
Editing of Data:
After collecting the data either from primary or secondary source, the next step is its editing. Editing
means the examination of collected data to discover any error and mistake before presenting it. It has to
be decided before hand what degree of accuracy is wanted and what extent of errors can be tolerated in
the inquiry. The editing of secondary data is simpler than that of primary data.
Observation
Origins and History
Observation is a fundamental way of finding out about the world around us. As human beings, we are
very well equipped to pick up detailed information about our environment through our senses.
However, as a method of data collection for research purposes, observation is more than just looking or
listening. Research, simply defined, is “systematic enquiry made public” (Stenhouse, 1975). Firstly, in
order to become systematic, observation must in some way be selective. We are constantly bombarded
by huge amounts of sensory information. Human beings are good at selectively attending to what is
perceived as most useful to us. Observation harnesses this ability; systematic observation entails careful
planning of what we want to observe. Secondly, in order to make observation ‘public’, what we see or
hear has to be recorded in some way to allow the information to be analysed and interpreted.
The origins of observation as a research technique coincide with the early development of science itself.
In the natural sciences, for example, early progress was made primarily through very careful, systematic
observation and recording of descriptions of phenomena in the natural world. The work of Charles
Darwin would be a good example of the way in which careful observation provided the evidence which
enabled him to build his theory of evolution in The Origin of Species. Observation in contemporary
educational and social research deals with highly complex social phenomena and provides major
challenges for the researcher.
The Role and Purpose of Observation
Quantitative Research
The term 'systematic' observation is usually associated with observation undertaken from the
perspective of quantitative research where the purpose is to provide reliable, quantifiable data. This
usually involves the use of some kind of formal, structured observation instrument or schedule. The
observation method being used will clearly identify: the variables to be observed, perhaps by means of
some kind of behavioural checklist; who or what will be observed; how the observation is to be
conducted; and when and where the observations will take place.
Qualitative Research
Observation can provide rich qualitative data, sometimes described as 'thick description' (Geertz, 1973),
for example, where the relevant phenomena have been carefully observed and detailed field notes have
been recorded. Typically, the researcher would not approach the observation with pre-determined
categories or questions in mind. Because of this openness, observation in qualitative research is often
referred to as unstructured.
Structured observation is more likely to be carried out by those operating from a 'positivist' perspective,
or who at least believe it is possible to clearly define and quantify behaviours. Unstructured observation
is more likely to be carried out by those operating from an 'interpretive' or 'critical' perspective where
the focus is on understanding the meanings participants, in the contexts observed, attribute to events
and actions. Positivist and critical researchers are likely to be operating from a 'realist' perspective,
namely that there is a 'real world' with 'real impact' on people's lives and this can best be studied by
looking at social settings directly.
Many of the issues studied in this unit apply both to quantitative and qualitative approaches but we
shall consider them separately.
Ethical Considerations
Observation poses potential ethical problems for researchers. The assumption of participation in
research being on the basis of fully informed consent is challenged where there is a need for the
observation to be unobtrusive and hence legitimate concern on the part of the researcher over the
observer effect, i.e. where the behaviour under consideration will change when those being observed
are aware of the presence of the observer. This is precisely the kind of situation which calls for the
involvement of an ethics committee to weigh up the desirability of the research to go ahead against the
interests of participants being fully informed of the research taking place. Another potential ethical issue
arises with observational research as it does with any kind of research, namely, the duty of the
researcher to protect participants from any harm. This, for example, would make an observational study
of school bullying unethical. If a child were observed bullying another, there would be a responsibility on
the part of the researcher to intervene in the situation to prevent any harm.
. Introduction
Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant's experiences. The
interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-up to
certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. Usually open-ended
questions are asked during interviews.
Before you start to design your interview questions and process, clearly articulate to yourself what
problem or need is to be addressed using the information to be gathered by the interviews. This helps
you keep clear focus on the intent of each question.
Preparation for Interview
1. Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the interviewee is
comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel more comfortable at
their own places of work or homes.
2. Explain the purpose of the interview.
3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here. Rarely can
you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in certain
circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how their answers will be
analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their written permission to do so. See
getting informed consent.
4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview you are conducting and its
nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they're to do so as they have them or wait
until the end of the interview.
5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.
7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview.
8. Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record the interview
or bring along someone to take notes.
Types of Interviews
1. Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain
as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during the
interview, the interviewer "goes with the flow".
2. General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure that the same
general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than
the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting
information from the interviewee.
3. Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions are asked to all
interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to choose how to answer
the question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this
approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.
4. Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same questions and
asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for
those not practiced in interviewing.
Types of Topics in Questions
Patton notes six kinds of questions. One can ask questions about:
1. Behaviors - about what a person has done or is doing

2. Opinions/values - about what a person thinks about a topic
3. Feelings - note that respondents sometimes respond with "I think ..." so be careful to note that
you're looking for feelings
4. Knowledge - to get facts about a topic
5. Sensory - about what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or smelled
6. Background/demographics - standard background questions, such as age, education, etc.
Note that the above questions can be asked in terms of past, present or future.
Sequence of Questions
1. Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.

2. Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and conclusions), first ask about
some facts. With this approach, respondents can more easily engage in the interview before
warming up to more personal matters.
3. Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long lists of fact-based
questions, which tends to leave respondents disengaged.
4. Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. It's usually easier
for them to talk about the present and then work into the past or future.
5. The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other information they
prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.
Wording of Questions
1. Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to choose their own terms when
answering questions.
2. Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that might influence answers, e.g.,
evocative, judgmental wording.
3. Questions should be asked one at a time.
4. Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any terms particular to the program
or the respondents' culture.
5. Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question infers a cause-effect relationship that
may not truly exist. These questions may also cause respondents to feel defensive, e.g., that
they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their responses to this and future
questions.
Conducting Interview
1. Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.

2. Ask one question at a time.
3. Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don't show strong emotional reactions to
their responses. Patton suggests to act as if "you've heard it all before."
4. Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, "uh huh"s, etc.
5. Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a note, it may
appear as if you're surprised or very pleased about an answer, which may influence answers to
future questions.
6. Provide transition between major topics, e.g., "we've been talking about (some topic) and now
I'd like to move on to (another topic)."
7. Don't lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to another topic,
take so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking questions
8. to the interviewer.
Immediately After Interview
1. Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.

2. Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratchings, ensure pages are
numbered, fill out any notes that don't make senses, etc.
3. Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the interview
occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were there any surprises
during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?
Questionnaires
Introduction
A questionnaire is simply a ‘tool’ for collecting and recording information about a particular issue of
interest. It is mainly made up of a list of questions, but should also include clear instructions and space
for answers or administrative details. Questionnaires should always have a definite purpose that is
related to the objectives of the research, and it needs to be clear from the outset how the findings will
be used. Respondents also need to be made aware of the purpose of the research wherever possible,
and should be told how and when they will receive feedback on the findings.
Structured questionnaires are usually associated with quantitative research, i.e. research that is
concerned with numbers (how many? how often? how satisfied?). Within this context, questionnaires
can be used in a variety of survey situations, for example postal, electronic, face-to-face and telephone.
Postal and electronic questionnaires are known as selfcompletion questionnaires, i.e. respondents
complete them by themselves in their own time. Face-to-face (F2F) and telephone questionnaires are
used by interviewers to ask a standard set of questions and record the responses that people give them.
Questionnaires that are used by interviewers in this way are sometimes known as interview schedules.
Questionnaires are commonly used:
• to collect factual information in order to classify people and their circumstances

• to gather straightforward information relating to people’s behaviour
• to look at the basic attitudes/opinions of a group of people relating to a particular issue
• to measure the satisfaction of customers with a product or service
• to collect ‘baseline’ information which can then be tracked over time to examine changes
Questionnaires should not be used:
• to explore complex issues in great depth

• to explore new, difficult or potentially controversial issues
(NB: longer, relatively unstructured depth interviews would be more appropriate here)
• as an ‘easy’ option which will require little time or effort (a common error)
Advantages and disadvantages of using questionnaires
Advantages Disadvantages
• Can contact a large number of people at • Response rates can be low (postal) and refusal
arelatively low cost (postal and telephone) rates high (telephone, F2F)
• Easy to reach people who are spread • There is little control over who completes a
across a wide geographical area or who live postal questionnaire, which can lead to bias
in remote locations (postal and phone)
• Respondents are able to complete postal • Postal questionnaires are inappropriate for
questionnaires in their own time and people with reading difficulties or visual
telephone call-backs can be arranged for a impairments and those who do not read English
more convenient time
• Telephone questionnaires can make it • Postal and phone questionnaires must be kept
easier to consult some disabled people relatively short
• F2F questionnaires can make it easier to • F2F and phone questionnaires require the use
identify the appropriate person to complete of trained interviewers
the questionnaire
• F2F questionnaires can be longer than • F2F questionnaires are time consuming for
postal and phone questionnaires, collect respondents, more costly and more labour
more information and allow the use of intensive than other methods
‘visual aids’
Questionnaire design
In order to gather useful and relevant information it is essential that careful consideration is given to the
design of your questionnaire. A well-designed questionnaire requires thought and effort, and needs to
be planned and developed in a number of stages:
(a)Initial considerations
(b)Question content, phrasing and response format
(c)Question sequence and layout
(d)Pre-test (pilot) and revision
(e)Final questionnair
Initial considerations
Firstly, it is important to be clear about the type and nature of information you need to collect and
exactly who is your target population (e.g. North Kirklees residents). You also need to decide on the
most appropriate method for administering the questionnaire (e.g. postal) and consider your approach
to sampling. For further information on sampling techniques see the guideline on ‘Sampling’. Finally, it
is useful to consider how the findings will be analysed as this may have an impact on the design of the
questionnaire. More information on analysis can be found in the guideline on ‘Analysing and reporting
quantitative data’
Question content, phrasing and response format

The second, and perhaps most important, aspect of questionnaire design relates to the questions
themselves. You need to make sure that each question:
• Adds value. If it is just ‘nice to know’ and does not add value, leave it out.
• Is clear and easy to understand.
• Asks what you think it is asking and does not cause confusion.
Writing questions is a creative process and there is no standard format for a ‘good’ question.
However, more information on questions and how to avoid some of the common mistakes is available
in the guideline on ‘Writing Questions’.
Question sequence and layout

Questions should be numbered and ordered in a way that is logical to the respondent, with similarly
themed questions grouped together. A technique known as ‘funnelling’ begins with general questions
before focusing down to more specific questions. Simple questions are often placed at the beginning to
put respondents at ease. Some questions may require ‘routing’, (e.g. if ‘no’, go to Q4), but be careful
not to make this too complex. It is also important to include clear instructions for the respondent or
interviewer (e.g. ‘mark all that apply’).
Equalities
When designing your questionnaire you also need to remember to account for equalities issues.
For example:
• Questions on gender, age, ethnic origin and disability are sometimes used to monitor whether a
representative cross-section of the population was reached (but it is bad practice to ask these questions
and simply store the data rather than using it for a specific purpose).
• You may need to include a paragraph translated into minority ethnic languages for people who do
not speak/read English as their first language. This should explain the focus of the survey and allow
them to request a translated copy of the questionnaire.
• You may also need to include a statement in large print indicating that respondents can
request a copy of the questionnaire transcribed into Braille or Large Text.
Confidentiality
Respondents need to be reassured that the information they provide on the questionnaire is
confidential. This means that their identities or personal details must not be disclosed to others, except
for research purposes, and any data used in the report will not be linked to any respondents. If the
questionnaire is not exclusively for research (for example, if it is used to update a database that is used
for purposes other than research), then this should be made clear to respondents and the questionnaire
cannot be described as confidential survey research.
Piloting the questionnaire

It is good practice to ‘pilot’ or pre-test your questionnaire with a small sample of respondents before
use. The pilot should check people’s understanding and ability to answer the questions, highlight areas
of confusion and look for any routing errors, as well as providing an estimate of the average time each
questionnaire will take to complete. Any amendments highlighted by the pilot should be made to the
questionnaire before issuing a final version.
Maximising the response rate
Questionnaires can suffer from low response rates, which are a source of bias. The following table
outlines some of the steps that can be taken to help improve your survey response rate:
In addition to this, the length of the questionnaire, ease of completion and the relevance/interest of the
subject matter to respondents are likely to affect the overall survey response rate.
RATING SCALES
Rating scales are one of the more common ways of collecting data in the social sciences. Scales can
represent any of a number of concepts. For example, illness terms can be rated on their degree of
severity, cars can be rated on “likelihood to purchase” scales, and political candidates can be rated on
how well liked their policies are. Items can be rated on a single conceptual scale or each may be rated
on a series of scales representing a variety of concepts or attributes. Frequently rating scales are
combined to create indices. Although rating scales are usually used to collect ordered data, they may
also be used to collect similarity data. To collect similarity data, pairs of items are rated on a scale of
similarity. Rating scales are most reliable with literates in a written format. Rating scales are the most
widely used technique for questionnaire data collection.
Types of Scales
Most frequently used Scales
1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale
Nominal Scale
This is a very simple scale. It consists of assignment of facts/choices to various alternative categories
which are usually exhaustive as well mutually exclusive. These scales are just numerical and are the least
restrictive of all the scales. Instances of Nominal Scale are - credit card numbers, bank account numbers,
employee id numbers etc. It is simple and widely used when relationship between two variables is to be
studied. In a Nominal Scale numbers are no more than labels and are used specifically to identify
different categories of responses. Following example illustrates –
What is your gender?

[ ] Male
[ ] Female
Another example is - a survey of retail stores done on two dimensions - way of maintaining stocks and
daily turnover.
How do you stock items at present?

[ ] By product category
[ ] At a centralized store
[ ] Department wise
[ ] Single warehouse
Daily turnover of consumer is?

[ ] Between 100 – 200
[ ] Between 200 – 300
[ ] Above 300
A two way classification can be made as follows
Daily/Stock
Product Department Centralized Single
Turnover
Category wise Store Warehouse
Method
100 – 200
200 – 300
Above 300
Mode is frequently used for response category.
Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales are the simplest attitude measuring scale used in Marketing Research. It is more powerful
than a nominal scale in that the numbers possess the property of rank order. The ranking of certain
product attributes/benefits as deemed important by the respondents is obtained through the scale.
Example 1: Rank the following attributes (1 - 5), on their importance in a microwave oven.
1. Company Name
2. Functions
3. Price
4. Comfort
5. Design
The most important attribute is ranked 1 by the respondents and the least important is ranked 5.
Instead of numbers, letters or symbols too can be used to rate in a ordinal scale. Such scale makes no
attempt to measure the degree of favourability of different rankings.
The most important attribute is ranked 1 by the respondents and the least important is ranked 5.
Instead of numbers, letters or symbols too can be used to rate in a ordinal scale. Such scale makes no
attempt to measure the degree of favourability of different rankings.
Example 2 - If there are 4 different types of fertilizers and if they are ordered on the basis of quality as
Grade A, Grade B, Grade C, Grade D is again an Ordinal Scale.
Example 3 - If there are 5 different brands of Talcom Powder and if a respondent ranks them based on
say, “Freshness” into Rank 1 having maximum Freshness Rank 2 the second maximum Freshness, and so
on, an Ordinal Scale results.
Median and mode are meaningful for ordinal scale.
Interval Scale
Herein the distance between the various categories unlike in Nominal, or numbers unlike in
Ordinal, are equal in case of Interval Scales. The Interval Scales are also termed as Rating Scales.
An Interval Scale has an arbitrary Zero point with further numbers placed at equal intervals. A
very good example of Interval Scale is a Thermometer.
Illustration 1 - How do you rate your present refrigerator for the following qualities.
Company Less Well

1 2 3 4 5
Name Known Known
Functions Few 1 2 3 4 5 Many
Price Low 1 2 3 4 5 High
Design Poor 1 2 3 4 5 Good
Very
Overall Very
Dis- 1 2 3 4 5
Satisfaction Satisfied
Satisfied
Such a scale permits the researcher to say that position 5 on the scale is above position 4 and
also the distance from 5 to 4 is same as distance from 4 to 3. Such a scale however does not
permit conclusion that position 4 is twice as strong as position 2 because no zero position has
been established. The data obtained from the Interval Scale can be used to calculate the Mean
scores of each attributes over all respondents. The Standard Deviation (a measure of dispersion)
can also be calculated.
Ratio Scale
Ratio Scales are not widely used in Marketing Research unless a base item is made available for
comparison. In the above example of Interval scale, a score of 4 in one quality does not
necessarily mean that the respondent is twice more satisfied than the respondent who marks 2
on the scale. A Ratio scale has a natural zero point and further numbers are placed at equally
appearing intervals. For example scales for measuring physical quantities like - length, weight,
etc.
The ratio scales are very common in physical scenarios. Quantified responses forming a ratio
scale analytically are the most versatile. Rati scale possess all he characteristics of an internal
scale, and the ratios of the numbers on these scales have meaningful interpretations. Data on
certain demographic or descriptive attributes, if they are obtained through open-ended
questions, will have ratio-scale properties. Consider the following questions :
Q 1) What is your annual income before taxes? ______ $

Q 2) How far is the Theater from your home ? ______ miles
Answers to these questions have a natural, unambiguous starting point, namely zero. Since
starting point is not chosen arbitrarily, computing and interpreting ratio makes sense. For
example we can say that a respondent with an annual income of $ 40,000 earns twice as much
as one with an annual income of $ 20,000.

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What are the different types of scales used in research?

What are the different types of scales used in research?

How is scientific research defined?

How is scientific research defined?

Katherasala Srinivas M.S.

Social Work Research Unit – I

Use of Scientific Method in Social Work

Meaning of Social Work Research

Social Work Research: Definition

Social Work Research: The Process

Relevance of Research in Social Work

Scope of Social Work Research

Goals and Limitations of Social Work Research

Steps of the research process

Step 1: Identify the Problem

Step 2: Review the Literature

Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan

Social Work Research Unit – II

Concept and construct

Case example of descriptive study variables

For many fields, such as social

Such measurements are arbitrary,

“Children grow more quickly if they eat vegetables.”

The Importance of Operationalization

How To Formulate Research Problem?

g. Documentation – The documents help in providing important information to a researcher,

A hypothesis is a possible answer to a research question. It is a presumption or a hunch on the bases of

Characteristics of a Well-formulated Research Hypothesis:

Importance of Research Hypothesis: For a new

H1 Female visit cinema ofterner than Male.

Step in Testing Hypothesis

Step 5: Compute the Statistical Test :

Type I and Type II Errors Unlike physiscal

Type I error : population differ when in fact they are a like.

Problems faced during hypothesis formulation

Social work Research Unit-III

Exploratory Research Descriptive Explanatory

Possible “Quality of service is “What have been “Which of two

Experimental Study Design

An experimental study is a type of evaluation that seeks to determine whether a program or

(1) pre-post test design,

 Pre-post test design study without a control group

 Pre-post test design with a control group

A quasi-experimental study is a type of evaluation which aims to determine whether a program or

Single Subject Research

Time series Designs

Definition of Program Evaluation

Evaluation Standards and Designs

Methods used in Participate research

Characteristics of Participatory Research

The key processes of Participatory Research

Social Work Research Unit – IV

Types of Sampling Desing

Non-probability Sampling Techniques

Probability Sampling Techniques

Simple Random Samples

When To Use Stratified Sampling

Proportionate Stratified Random Sample