Topic 1 - Introduction To Steel Design

Topic 1 – Introduction to Steel Design
Steel structure is a metal structure which is made of structural steel* components connect with each other
to carry loads and provide full rigidity. Because of the high strength grade of steel, this structure is reliable
and requires less raw materials than other types of structure like concrete structure and timber structure.
In modern construction, steel structures are used for almost every type of structure including heavy
industrial building, high-rise building, equipment support system, infrastructure, bridge, tower, airport
terminal, heavy industrial plant, pipe rack, etc.
INTRODUCTION
STEEL
• A relatively modern human creation
• An alloy of iron and carbon that is widely used in construction and other applications because of
its hardness and tensile strength
• Used in building and bridge construction from middle of 18th century up to present
• Has improved in both material properties and in methods and types of application
• Where ratio of strength to weight (or strength per unit weight) must be kept high, steel offers
feasible options
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL
A “billet” is a length of metal that has a round or square cross-section, with
an area less than 36 in2 (230 cm2). Billets are created directly via continuous
casting or extrusion or indirectly via hot rolling an ingot or bloom.
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS
ENGR. IRB PRINSTEEL Page 1 of 16

Steel Sections
1. Hot–Rolled Shapes
 A mill process which involves rolling the steel at a high temperature (typically at a temperature
over 1700° F), which is above the steel’s recrystallization temperature
 When steel is above the recrystallization temperature, it can be shaped and formed easily, and
the steel can be made in much larger sizes
 Is typically cheaper than cold rolled steel due to the fact that it is often manufactured without
any delays in the process
Wide-flange Shape : W 18  97
American Standard Shape : S 12  35
American Standard Channel : C 9  20
Angles : L 64½
Structural Tee : WT, MT or ST : ST 8  76
Hollow Structural Sections : HSS 9 or 8  8
2. Cold Formed Sections

 Common term for products made by rolling or pressing steel
into semi-finished or finished goods at relatively low
temperatures
 Created by the working of steel billet, bar, or sheet using
stamping, rolling (including roll forming), or presses to deform it
into a usable product
3. Built-Up Sections
 Sections comprised of other smaller members; could be plates welded together to form an I-
shape or angles bolted back to back to make a double angle shape
 The issue one must consider with built-up shapes is that the welding or punching for bolt holes
creates a significant residual stresses in the member, weakening its capacity
 Used when span, load and corresponding bending moment are of such magnitudes that rolled
steel beam section becomes inadequate to provide required section modulus

RESIDUAL STRESSES
• Stresses that remain in a solid material after original cause of stresses has been removed
• The result of one region of metal being constrained from expanding or contracting by adjacent
regions
• Arise due to thermal treatment or mechanical treatment as an elastic response of material to a
non-uniform distribution of plastic strain, e.g. Permanent deformation
PROPERTIES OF STEEL
• Tensile Strength
 Ability of material to pull something
 Typical definitions of tensile strength:
 Yield strength
o Stress a material can withstand without
permanent deformation
 Ultimate strength
o Maximum stress a material can withstand
 Breaking strength
o Stress at point of rupture

• Toughness
 Ability to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracturing
• Ductility
 Ability to deform under tensile stress
 Characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire
• Malleability
 Ability to deform under compressive stress
 Characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling
• Durability
 Capable of withstanding wear and tear or decay
ADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

• High strength/weight ratio
 Has a high strength/weight ratio
 Dead weight of steel structures is relatively small
 Makes steel a very attractive structural material for;
 High–rise buildings
 Long–span bridges
 Structures located on soft ground
 Structures located in highly seismic areas
• Ductility
 Can undergo large plastic deformation before failure
 Can resist shock loading such as blasts or earthquakes
 Has energy–absorbing capacity and will not incur sudden failure
 Shows large visible deflections before failure or collapse
• Predictable material properties

 Properties of steel can be predicted with a high degree of certainty
 Steel properties do not change considerably with time
• Speed of erection
 Steel structures can be erected quite rapidly
 Normally results in quicker economic payoff

• Quality of construction
 Steel structures can be built with high–quality workmanship and narrow tolerances
• Ease of repair
 Steel structures in general can be repaired quickly and easily
• Adaptation of prefabrication
 Highly suitable for prefabrication and mass production
• Repetitive use
 Can be reused after a structure is disassembled
• Expanding existing structures

 Buildings can be easily expanded by adding new bays or wings
• Fatigue strength
 Steel structures have relatively good fatigue strength
• Uniformity
• Ability to be rolled into a variety of sizes/shapes
• Scrap value even if not reusable in its existing form
• Ability to be fastened together by simple connection
DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

• General cost
 Steel structures may be more costly than other types of structures
• Fireproofing
 Strength of steel is reduced substantially when heated
 Transmits heat from a burning portion of the building quite fast
 Steel in buildings must have adequate fireproofing
• Maintenance
 Structures exposed to air and water are susceptible to corrosion
• Susceptibility to buckling
 Steel compression members are more slender and consequently more susceptible to buckling

FAILURE OF STEEL STRUCTURES
bending about the “strong” or bending about the “weak” or torsion or twisting about the
major axis minor axis longitudinal axis of a member
web buckling/crippling flange buckling
shear failure of bolts steel rupture connection failure

TOPIC 2 – Introduction: Structural Analysis - 1
A structure, as it relates to civil engineering, is a system of interconnected members used to support

external loads. Structural analysis is the prediction of the response of structures to specified arbitrary
external loads.
During the preliminary structural design stage, a structure’s potential external load is estimated, and the
size of the structure’s interconnected members are determined based on the estimated loads. Structural
analysis establishes the relationship between a structural member’s expected external load and the
structure’s corresponding developed internal stresses and displacements that occur within the member
when in service.
TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS
FACTORS: DESIGNING STRUCTURES

 Safety
 Esthetics
 Serviceability
 Economic and Environmental Constraints
Structure – refers to a system of connected part to support a load.

 Examples:  Other Branches
o Buildings o Ship and Aircraft frames,
o Bridges o Tanks
o And Towers o Pressure Vessel
o Mechanical Systems
o And electrical Supporting Structures
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
It is important for a structural engineer to recognize the various types of elements composing a structure
and to be able to classify structures as to their form and function.
Structural Elements
1. Tie Rods – Structural members subjected to a tensile force are
often referred to as tie rods or bracing struts. Due to the nature
of this load, these members are rather slender, and are often
chosen from rods, bars, angles, or channels.
Engr. Bryan Dale P. Yu PRINSTEEL Page 1 of 16

2. Beams – are usually straight horizontal members used primarily to carry vertical loads. Beams are
primarily designed to resist bending moment.
3. Columns – are generally vertical and resist axial

compressive loads. Columns are subjected to both an
axial load and a bending moment.
TYPES OF STRUCTURES
The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is referred to as
a structural system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of structures.
1. Trusses – consist of slender elements, usually arranged in

triangular fashion. Due to the geometric arrangement of its
members, loads that cause the entire truss to bend are
converted into tensile or compressive forces in the members
2. Cables – are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. They
are commonly used to support bridges, and building roofs.
Because they are always in tension, cables will not become
unstable and suddenly collapse, as may happen with beams or
trusses

3. Arches – achieve strength in compression, since it has

a reverse curvature to that of the cable. Arches are
frequently used in bridge structures, dome roofs, and
for openings in masonry walls.
4. Frames – are often used in buildings and are

composed of beams and columns that are either pin
or fixed connected. The strength of such a frame is
derived from the moment interactions between the
beams and the columns at the rigid joints.
5. Surface Structures– made from a material having a very small

thickness compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this
material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-
inflated structure.
LOADS
Often, it is the anticipation of the various loads that will
be imposed on the structure that provides the basic
type of structure that will be chosen for design.
Live Loads
refer to loads that do, or can, change over time, such as
 people walking around a building (occupancy) or
movable objects such as a flower pot on a deck.
 environmental loads are loads that are created
naturally by the environment and include wind,
snow, seismic, and lateral soil pressures.
Dead Loads
refer to loads that typically don’t change over time, such as
 the weights of materials and components of the structure itself (the framing, the flooring material,
roofing material, etc.), and the weights of fixed service equipment (plumbing, HVAC-Heating,
Ventilating, and Air Conditioning, etc.).

 Dead Loads

 Unit Weight of Construction Materials Other Loads

• Building Loads
• Highway Bridge Loads
• Railroad Bridge Loads
• Impact Loads
• Wind Loads
• Snow Loads
• Other Natural Loads

Live Loads
Reduction for building having very large floor area

Wind Loads
 are produced by the flow of wind around the structure.
 the magnitudes of wind loads that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of
the structure, obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry
and the vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.
Where:
lb N
qz =is the velocity pressure at height z in 2 m2,
ft
V=is the basic wind speed in mph, mps
I=is the importance factor: accounts for hazard to human life
and damaged to property in the event of failure of the structure.
Kz =is the velocity pressure exposure coefficient
Kzt =1, is the topographic factor
Kd =1, wind directionality factor.
(For structure subjected to wind load only)
The velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz
𝐾𝑧 =
• z=height above the ground in ft , m

• zg =gradient height in ft, m
• ∝ =power law coefficient
Note:
zg and ∝ =depend on the obstructions on the terrain immediately surrounding
the structure"
The ASCE7 standard classifies the terrains to which the structures may exposed
into three categories
External Wind Pressures Where:

pz =qzGCp for windward wall h=mean roof height above ground
qh =velocity pressure at height h
ph =qh GCp for leeward wall, (evaluated by substituting z=h)
sidewall and roof pz =design wind pressure at ht. z above ground
ph =design wind pressure at mean roof height h
G=gust effect factor: For rigid structure, whose fundamental
frequency is greater than or equal to 1 Hz; G=0.85
Cp =external pressure coefficient

Design Wind Pressure for Enclosed Buildings



Design Wind Pressure for Signs

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Whenever a structure is designed, it is important to give consideration to both material and load
uncertainties. These uncertainties include a possible variability in material properties, residual stress in
materials, intended measurements being different from fabricated sizes, loadings due to vibration or
impact, and material corrosion or decay.
ASD- Allowable Stress Design Method (Working Stress Design)

• Include both the material and load uncertainties into a single factor of safety
• The computed elastic stress in the material must not exceed the allowable stress for each various
load combinations.
LRFD – Load and Resistance Factor Design (Strength Design/Ultimate Strength Design)
• Is a method of proportioning and designing structural element using load and resistance factors
such that no applicable limit state is reached when the structure is subjected to all appropriate load
combinations.
• Used in the design of steel structure
Load Combination Using ASD Load Combinations using LRFD
(Working Stress Design) (Strength Design/Ultimate Strength Design)

 𝐷+𝐹  1.4(𝐷 + 𝐹)
 𝐷+𝐻+𝐹+𝐿+𝑇  1.2(𝐷 + 𝐹 + 𝑇) + 1.6(𝐿 + 𝐻) + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑅)
 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (𝐿𝑟 + 𝑅)  1.2𝐷 + 1.6(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) + (𝑓1 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 0.8𝑊)
 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 0.75(𝐿 + 𝑇(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑅))  1.2𝐷 + 1.6𝑊 + 𝑓1 𝐿 + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)
𝐸  1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 𝑓1 𝐿
 𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (𝑊 𝑜𝑟 1.4
)
Where:
D = dead load
E = earthquake load
Em = estimated maximum earthquake force that can be developed in the structure
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil
L = liveload, except roof liveload, including any permitted liveload reduction
Lr = roof liveload, including any permitted liveload reduction
P = ponding load
R = rain load on the underflected roof
T = self-straining force and effects arising from contraction or expansion resulting
from temp. change, shrinkage, moisture change, creep in component materials,
movement due to differential settlement, or combinations thereof.
W = load due to wind pressure

Module 1 – Introduction: Structural Analysis
Example 1:
The floor beam is used to support the 6-ft width of a lightweight plain concrete slab having a thickness of
4 in. The slab serves as a portion of the ceiling for the floor below, and therefore its bottom is coated with
plaster. Furthermore, an 8-ft-high, 12-in.-thick lightweight solid concrete block wall is directly over the top
flange of the beam. Determine the loading on the beam measured per foot of length of the beam.
 Solution:
 Using the data in Tables 1-2 and 1-3
lb
o 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒃 − 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 8.0
ft2 ∙𝑖𝑛
lb 𝒍𝒃
𝑊 = (8.0 ) (4𝑖𝑛)(6𝑓𝑡) = 𝟏𝟗𝟐
ft 2∙ 𝑖𝑛 𝒇𝒕
lb
o 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝒆𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 5.0 ft2
lb 𝒍𝒃
𝑊 = (5.0 2
) (6𝑓𝑡) = 𝟑𝟎
ft 𝒇𝒕
lb
o 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌 𝑾𝒂𝒍𝒍 − 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 105.0
ft3
lb 1𝑓𝑡 𝒍𝒃
𝑊 = (105.0 3
) (8𝑓𝑡)(12𝑖𝑛) ( ) = 𝟖𝟒𝟎
ft 12𝑖𝑛 𝒇𝒕
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 192 𝑓𝑡 + 30 𝑓𝑡 + 840 𝑓𝑡
𝒍𝒃 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟐 = 1.062
𝒇𝒕 𝑓𝑡
Engr. Bryan Dale P. Yu STEEL AND TIIMBER DESIGN Page 12 of 16

Example 2:
The barrier is commonly used during highway construction. Determine its weight per foot of length if it is
made from plain stone concrete.
 Solution:
 Using the data in Tables 1-2

lb
o 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒆 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 144.0 ft3
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 1:
𝐴1 = 𝑏ℎ = 24 × 6
𝑨𝟏 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝒊𝒏𝟐
12 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛550 = 𝐴3 = (𝑏 + 𝐵)𝐻
𝑎 2
𝑎 = 8.402" 1
𝑐 = 1.5975" 𝐴2 = (7.195 + 24)(12)
2
2𝑎 + 𝑏 = 24
𝑏 = 7.195" 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖𝟕. 𝟏𝟕𝒊𝒏𝟐
2𝑐 + 4" =b 1
𝑏 = 7.195" 𝐴3 = (𝑏 + 𝐵)𝐻
2
𝑐 = 1.5975" 1
ℎ 𝐴3 = (4 + 7.195)(5.962)
𝑡𝑎𝑛750 = 2
𝑐
ℎ = 𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛750 𝑨𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟕𝟐𝒊𝒏𝟐
ℎ = 5.962"
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂:
𝐴 𝑇 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 = 𝟑𝟔𝟒. 𝟓𝟒𝟐 𝒊𝒏𝟐
𝑊𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑡 𝑥 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑥𝐴 𝑇
𝑙𝑏𝑠 2
𝑓𝑡 2
𝑊 = 144 𝑥 364.542 𝑖𝑛 𝑥( )
𝑓𝑡 3 122 𝑖𝑛2
𝒍𝒃
𝑾 = 𝟑𝟔𝟒. 𝟓𝟒𝟐
𝒇𝒕

Example 3:
A two-story office building shown in the photo has interior columns that are spaced 22 ft apart in two
perpendicular directions. If the (flat) roof loading is 20lb/ft2, determine the reduced live load supported
by a typical interior column located at ground level.
 Solution:
A tributary area or effective loaded area:

𝐴 𝑇 = (22𝑓𝑡)(22𝑓𝑡) = 𝟒𝟖𝟒 𝒇𝒕𝟐
For the roof, the live load (FR):

𝑙𝑏
𝐹𝑅 = (20 ) (484𝑓𝑡 2 ) = 𝟗𝟔𝟖𝟎𝒍𝒃 = 𝟗. 𝟔𝟖𝒌
𝑓𝑡 2
For the second floor, the live load (FS):

FR
𝑙𝑏
𝐿𝑜 = 50 𝑓𝑡 2 , 𝐾𝐿𝐿 = 4.0
4𝐴 𝑇 = 4(484 𝑓𝑡 2 ) = 1936𝑓𝑡 2 > 400𝑓𝑡 2 ∴ 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑

15 𝒍𝒃
𝐿𝑜 = 50 (0.25 + ) = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟓𝟓
√1936 𝒇𝒕𝟐 FS
The load reduction:

29.55 C1
( ) × 100% = 59.1% > 50% ∴ 𝑂. 𝐾.
50
𝑙𝑏
𝐹𝑆 = (29.55 2 ) (484𝑓𝑡 2 ) = 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑳𝒃 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟑𝟎𝒌
𝑓𝑡
The total live load supported by the ground-floor column:
F = FR + FS = 9.68 k + 14.3 k
FT = 24.0 k

Example 4:
Determine the external wind pressure on the roof of the rigid-gabled frame of a school building shown
in the figure. The structure is located in a suburb, where the terrain is representative of exposure B. The
wind direction is normal to the ridge as shown. (V = 40m/s)
 Given:
 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒: 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 I = 1.15
Wind
 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐵: 𝒁𝒈 = 𝟑𝟔𝟓. 𝟕𝟔. 𝜶 = 𝟕. 𝟎
 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑, 𝑽 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒎/𝒔
 𝑮 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 (𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
 Solution:
𝑬𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑹𝒐𝒐𝒇:

𝒑𝒉 = 𝒒𝒉 𝑮𝑪𝒑
𝑞ℎ = 𝑞𝑧 = 0.613𝑘𝑧 𝑘𝑧𝑡 𝑘𝑑 𝑉 2 𝐼 (𝑁/𝑚2 ); 𝑘𝑧𝑡 = 1, 𝑘𝑑 = 1
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒌𝒛 :
5
ℎ = 𝑧 = 12 + = 14.5 𝑚
2
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒑 : ( 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)
4.6 ≤ 14.5 ≤ 𝑍𝑔 = 365.76
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 5
2/𝛼 2/7 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 39.810
𝑍 14.5 𝑟𝑢𝑛 6
𝑘𝑧 = 2.01 ( ) = 2.01 ( )
𝑍𝑔 365.76 ℎ 14.5
= = 1.208
𝑘𝑧 = 0.799 𝐿 12
ℎ
𝜃 ≥ 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ≥ 1.0
𝐿
𝑞ℎ = 0.613(0.799)(1)(1)(402 )(1.15)
𝒒𝒉 = 𝟗𝟎𝟏. 𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
PRINSTEEL Page 15 of 16
𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝑪𝒑: Interpolation
−0.2 − 𝑥 35 − 39.81
𝐶𝑝 = = = −0.104
−0.2 − 0 35 − 45
0.2 − 𝑥 35 − 39.81
𝐶𝑝 = = = 0.248
0.2 − 0.3 35 − 45
𝑝ℎ = (901.208)(0 85)(−0.104) = −𝟕𝟗. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝑝ℎ = (901.208)(0 85)(0.248) = 𝟏𝟖𝟗. 𝟗𝟕𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝑳𝒆𝒆𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝑪𝒑
𝐶𝑝 = −0.6
𝑝ℎ = (901.208)(0 85)(−0.6) = −𝟒𝟓𝟗. 𝟔𝟏𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

Seismicity refers to the geographic and historical distribution of earthquakes. The dots represent the
epicenters of significant earthquakes. It is apparent that the locations of the great majority of earthquakes
correspond to the boundaries between plates.
INTRODUCTION
Effects of Horizontal Ground Motion

- Horizontal components of an earthquake usually exceeds the vertical component
- Structures are usually stiffer and stronger in response to vertical loads than they are in response to
horizontal loads.
- Experience shows that the horizontal components are the most destructive.
How Earthquake affects Buildings?
a vs. ag
For structural design, the intensity of
an earthquake is usually described in terms of
ground acceleration as a fraction of the
acceleration of gravity, say, 0.1g, 0.2g or 0.3g.
Displacements
Based on Elastic behavior, structures subjected to a major earthquake would be required to undergo large
displacements.
However, practice requires that structures be
designed for only a fraction of the forces associated
with those displacements.
ENGR. Bryan Dale P. Yu PRINSTEEL Page 1 of 19

Displacements may also be of such magnitude that the strength of the structure is affected by stability
considerations.
Designers of structures that may be subjected to earthquakes, therefore are faced with a choice of…
1. providing adequate stiffness and strength to limit the response of structures to elastic range;
2. providing lower strength structures, with presumably lower initial costs, that had the ability to
withstand large inelastic deformations while maintaining their load-carrying capability.
Structural Considerations
The closer the frequency of the ground motion is to one of the natural frequencies of a structure, the
greater the likelihood of the structure experiencing resonance resulting in an increase in both
displacement and damage.
Therefore, earthquake response depends strongly on the geometric properties of a structure, especially
height.
.
Tall buildings respond more strongly to long-period (low frequency) ground motion, while short
buildings respond more strongly to short-period (high-frequency) ground motion.

Structural Response
The safety of structures subjected to seismic loading depends on the response of the structure to ground
motion.
The goal of earthquake design has been to construct buildings that will withstand “moderate earthquakes
without damage and severe earthquakes without collapse”. Building codes have undergone regular
modification as major earthquakes have exposed weaknesses in existing design criteria.
Member Considerations
Members designed for seismic loading must perform in a ductile fashion and dissipate energy in a manner
that does not compromise the strength of the structure. Both the overall design and the structural details
must be considered to meet this goal.
The principal method of ensuring ductility in members subject to shear and bending is to provide
confinement for the concrete.
This is accomplished through the use of the “hoops” or spiral reinforcement, which enclose the core of
beams and columns. When confinement is provided, beams and columns can undergo nonlinear cyclic
bending while maintaining their flexural strength and without deteriorating due to diagonal tension
cracking.
The formation of ductile hinges allows reinforced concrete frames to dissipate energy.
Successful seismic designs of frames require that the structures be proportioned so that hinges will
occur at locations that least compromise its strength.
For a frame undergoing lateral displacement, the flexural capacity of the members at a joint should be
such that the columns are stronger than the beams.
In this way, hinges will form in the beams rather in the columns, minimizing the portion of the structure
affected by nonlinear behavior and maintaining the overall vertical load capacity.
For these reasons, the “weak beam-strong column” approach is used to design frames subjected to
seismic loading.

Seismic Loading Criteria

The principal design document in the Philippines for regions of high seismicity is the National Structural
Code of the Philippines, which incorporates the design criteria developed from the Uniform Building Code
1997 (UBC).
The UBC allows structures to be designed based on either equivalent static lateral loads or a time-history
analysis of the dynamic response of the structure.
The method used to determine the loads depends on the seismic zone and the type of structure. The simpler
of the two equivalent static loading methods is specified by the UBC under the criteria for “minimum design
lateral-forces”, whereas the more complex equivalent static loading method, as well as the time-history
analyses, are specified under “dynamic lateral force procedures”.
Selection of Lateral Force Procedures
Equivalent Static Lateral Force

The primary source for the provisions of the National Structural Code of the Philippines is the Recommended
Lateral Force Requirements and Commentaries written by the Structural Engineering Association of
California (SEAOC).
The NSCP embodies the SEAOC recommendations and prescribes that every building shall be designed and
constructed to resist a minimum lateral seismic force applied statically and independently in the direction
of each of the two main axes of the structure.
Simplified Static Method

- the simplified static lateral force procedure set forth in the Code may be used for the following
structures of Occupancy Category IV or V; (NSCP 2015, Table 103-1)
- buildings of any occupancy (including single-family dwellings) not more than three stories in
height excluding basements that use light-frame construction.
- other buildings not more than two stories in height excluding basements.
Static Method
- the static lateral force procedure may be used for the following structures;
- all structures, regular or irregular in Occupancy Categories IV and V in Seismic Zone 2
- regular structures under 75 meters in height with lateral force resistance provided by systems listed
in Table 208-11, except where Sec. 208.4.8.3, Item 4 applies
- irregular structures not more than 5 stories or 20 meters in height
- structures having a flexible upper portion supported on a rigid lower portion where both portions of
the structure considered separately can be classified as being regular, the average story stiffness of the lower
portion is at least 10 times the average story stiffness of the upper portion and the period of the entire
structure is not greater than 1.1 times the period of the upper portion considered as a separate structure
fixed at the base.

Dynamic Method
The dynamic lateral force procedure of the Code shall be used for all other structures, including the
following;
1. Structures 75m or more in height, except as permitted by section 208.4.8.2, item I.
2. Structure having a stiffness, weight or geometric vertical irregularity of Type 1, 2, or 3, as defined in table
208-9
3. Structures over five stories or 20m in height in seismic zone 4 not having the same structural system
throughout their height except as permitted by section 208.3.2.
4. Structures, regular or irregular, located on soil profile type Sf, that have a period greater than 0.7s. The
analysis shall include the effects of soils at the site and shall conform to Section 208.5.3.2, Item 4.
Member Considerations
Uniform Building Code (UBC)

• Published in 1927 by the International Council of Building Officials, which was based in Whittier,
California.
• It was intended to promote public safety and provided standardized requirements for safe
construction which would not vary from city to city.
• Updated editions of the code were published approximately every three years until 1997, which was
the final version of the code.
The UBC was replaced in 2000 by the new International Building Code (IBC) published by the
International Code Council (ICC).
The ICC was a merger of three predecessor organizations which published three different
building codes. These were:
1. International Council of Building Officials (ICBO)
Uniform Building Code
2. Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA)
The BOCA National Building Code
3. Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI)
Standard Building Code
The new ICC was intended to provide consistent standards for safe construction and eliminate
differences between the three different predecessor codes. It is primarily used in the United States.

208.4.8.2 Static
The static lateral force procedure of Section 208.5 may be used for the following structures:
1. All structures regular or irregular in Occupancy Categories IV and V in seismic Zone 2.
2. Regular Structures under 75m in height with lateral force resistance provided by systems listed in table 208-11, except where section
208.4.8.3, Item 4, applies.
3. Irregular structures not more than five stories or 20m in height.
4. Structures having a flexible upper portion supported on a rigid lower portion where both portions of the structures considered
separately can be classified as being regular, the average storey stiffness of the lower portion is at least 10 times the average storey
stiffness of the upper portion and the period of the entire structure is not greater than 1.1 times the period of the upper portion
considered as a separate structure fixed at the base.
Table 208-9 Vertical Structural Irregularities

Irregularity Type and Definitions Reference Section
1. Stiffness Irregularity – Soft Storey
A soft storey is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70% of that in the storey above or less than 80 208.4.8.3
percent of the average stiffness of the three stories above. Item 2
2. Weight (Mass) Irregularity

Mass Irregularity shall be considered to exist where the effective mass of any storey is more than 150% of 208.4.8.3
the effective mass of an adjacent storey. A roof that is lighter than the floor below need not be considered Item 2
3. Vertical Geometric Irregularity

Vertical Geometric Irregularity shall be considered to exist where the horizontal dimension of the lateral- 208.4.8.3
force-resisting system in any storey is more than 130% of that in an adjacent storey. One-storey penthouses Item 2
need not to be considered
4. In-Plane Discontinuity In Vertical Lateral-Force-Resisting Element Irregularity
An in-plane offset of the lateral-load-resisting elements greater than the length of those elements 208.5.8.1.5.1
5. Discontinuity In Capacity-Weak Storey Irregularity

A weak storey is one in which the storey strength is less than 80% of that in the storey above. The storey
208.4.9.1
strength is the total strength of all seismic-resisting elements sharing the storey for the direction under
consideration.
Table 208-10 Horizontal Structural Irregularities

Irregularity Type and Definitions Reference Section
1. Torsional Irregularity – To Be Considered When Diaphragms Are Not Flexible
Torsional irregularity shall be considered to exist when the maximum storey drift, computed including 208.7.2.7
accidental torsion, at one end of the structure transverse to an axis is more than 1.2 times the average of Item 6
the storey drifts of the two ends of the structure
2. Re-Entrant Corner Irregularity
Plan configurations of a structure and its lateral-force-resisting system contain re-entrant corners, where 208.7.2.7
both projections of the structure beyond a re-entrant corner are greater than 15% of the plan dimension Item 6 and 7
of the structure in the given direction
3. Diaphragm Discontinuity Irregularity
Diaphragms with abrupt discontinuities or variations in stiffness, including those having cutout or open 208.7.2.7
areas greater than 50% of the gross enclosed area of the diaphragm, or changes in effective diaphragm Item 6
stiffness of more than 50% from one storey to the next.
208.5.8.5.1,
4. Out-Of-Plane Offsets Irregularity
208.7.2.7
Discontinuities in lateral force path, such as out-of-plane offsets of the vertical elements
Item 6
5. Non-Parallel Systems Irregularity
The vertical lateral-load-resisting elements are not parallel to or symmetric about the major orthogonal 208.7.1
axes of the lateral force-resisting systems

SIMPLIFIED DESIGN BASE SHEAR

Simplified Static Force Procedure
① Check whether the Simplified Method is Applicable.

• Simplified Static Lateral Force procedure may be used for the following structures of occupancy
category 4 and 5
1. Building of any occupancy (including single family dwellings) not more than 3 stories in height
excluding basements, that use light frame construction.
2. Other building not more than 2 stories in height, excluding basements.
② The total design base shear in a given direction shall be determined from the following equation:
𝟑 𝑪𝒂
𝑽= 𝑾 (𝑒𝑞𝑛. 208 − 5)2015
𝑹
Ca - Seismic Coefficient (Table 208-7)

When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail, used
Type SD for Seismic Zone 4 and
Type SE for Seismic Zone 2 at Table 208-7
Na - Near Source Force used to determine Ca (Table 208-4)
R - Numerical Coefficient representative of the inherent over strength and global ductility
capacity of lateral-force-resisting systems as set forth in Table 208-11
③ Design Lateral Forces / Vertical Distribution

• The forces at each level shall be calculated using the following equation:
𝟑 𝑪𝒂
𝑭𝒙 = 𝑾𝒊
𝑹
Where the value of Ca shall be based on table 208-7.
④ Computing the design base shear using the standard method:

• The total design base shear need not exceed the following:
The design base shear value using the simplified method is

approximately 20% higher than that using the standard method.

Table 103-1– Occupancy Categories
OCCUPANCY OCCUPANCY OR FUNCTION OF STRUCTURE

CATEGORY
I – Essential Facilities  Occupancies having surgery and emergency treatment areas.
 Fire and Police Stations
 Garages, Shelters for emergency Vehicles, and emergency aircraft
 Structures and Shelters in Emergency Preparedness Centers
 Aviation Control Towers
 Structures and Equipment in Communication Centers and other facilities required for
emergency response
 Facilities for standby power-generating equipment for Category I structures
 Tanks or other structures containing housing or supporting water or other fire
suppression material or equipment required for the protection of Category I, II, and
III structures
 Public School Buildings
 Hospitals, and
 Designated Evacuation Centers
II – Hazardous  Occupancies and structures housing or supporting toxic or explosive chemicals or
Facilities substances
 Non-building structures storing, supporting or containing quantities of toxic or
explosive substances
III-Special  Single Story School Buildings
Occupancy  Buildings with an assembly room with an occupant capacity of 1,000 or more
Structures  Educational buildings such as museums, libraries, auditorium with a capacity of 300
or more students,
 Buildings used for college or adult education with a capacity of 500 or more students
 Institutional Buildings with 50 or more students
 Mental hospitals, sanitariums, jails, prison and other buildings where personal
liberties of inmates are similarly restrained
 All structures with an occupancy of 5,000 or more persons
 Structures and equipment in power-generating stations, and other public utility
facilities not included in Category I or II and required for continued operation
IV- Standard  All Structures housing occupancies or having functions not listed in Category I, II, or
Occupancy III and Category V.
Structures
V – Miscellaneous  Private garages, carports, sheds and fences over 1.5m high
Structures

Table 208-1 – Seismic Importance Factors
SEISMIC SEISMIC 1
1 See Table 103-1 for occupancy
OCCUPANCY CATEGORY IMPORTANCE IMPORTANCE category listing
FACTOR, I FACTOR, Ip 2
3
The limitation of Ip for panel
I. Essential Facilities 1.50 1.50 connections in section 208.8.2.3
shall be 1.0 for the entire connector
3
II. Hazardous Facilities 1.25 1.50 Structural observation
requirements are given in section
4
III. Special Occupancy Structures 1.00 1.00 107.9
4
4
For anchorage of machinery and
IV. Standard Occupancy Structures 1.00 1.00 equipment required for life-safety
systems, the value of Ip shall be
V. Miscellaneous Structures 1.00 1.00 taken as 1.5.
Table 208-3 – Seismic Zone Factor, Z
Zone 2 4 208.4.4.1 Seismic Zone

Z 0.20 0.40 The Philippine archipelago is divided into two
seismic zones only. Zone 2 covers the provinces of
Palawan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi while the rest of the
country is under Zone 4 as shows in Figure 208-1.
Each structure shall be assigned a seismic zone
factor Z, in accordance with Table 208-1.
Table 208-4 Near-Source Factor, Na1 Table 208-7 Seismic Coefficient, Ca
Closest Distance To Known Soil Profile Type Seismic Zone, Z

Seismic Source Seismic Source2 Z = 0.2 Z = 0.4
Type
≤5 km ≥ 10 km Sa 0.16 0.32Na
A 1.2 1.0 Sb 0.20 0.40Na
B 1.0 1.0 Sc 0.24 0.40Na
C 1.0 1.0 Sd 0.28 0.44Na
Se 0.34 0.44Na
Sf See Footnote 1 of table 208-8

Example 1:
Determine the base shear and the design lateral forces for a two-storey reinforced concrete SMRF office
building using the simplified design base shear.
Design Criteria:
Z : 4
Seismic Source Type : C
R : 8.5
st
Weight: 1 Floor : 600 kN
nd
2 Floor : 900 kN
 Solution:
Since the building is covered by second item, therefore,
Simplified Base Shear procedure can be use.
 Determine the Base Shear:

𝟑 𝑪𝒂
𝑽= 𝑾 ; 𝐶𝑎 = 0.44𝑁𝑎 , 𝑁𝑎 = 1.0
𝑹
3 (0.44)(1.0)
𝑉= (600 + 900)
8.5
𝑽 = 𝟐𝟑𝟐. 𝟗𝟒𝟏 𝒌𝑵
 Design Lateral Forces:

𝟑 𝑪𝒂
𝑽 = 𝑭𝒙 = 𝑾𝒊
𝑹
3 (0.44)(1.0)
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟: 𝑭𝟏 = (600) → 𝑭𝟏 = 𝟗𝟑. 𝟏𝟕𝟔 𝒌𝑵
8.5
3 (0.44)(1.0)
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟: 𝑭𝟐 = (900) → 𝑭𝟐 = 𝟏𝟑𝟗. 𝟕𝟔𝟓 𝒌𝑵
8.5
 Computing the design base shear using the standard method:

The total design base shear need not exceed the following:
𝟐. 𝟓 𝑪𝒂 𝑰
𝑽= 𝑾 ; 𝐼 = 1.0 (𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 208 − 1)
𝑹
2.5 (0.44)(1.0)(1.0)
𝑉= (1500) → 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟗𝟒. 𝟏𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝑵 < 232.941 𝑘𝑁
8.5
232.941
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × 100% = 𝟏𝟐𝟎%
194.118
The design base shear value using the simplified method is approximately 20% higher than that using the
standard method.

◉ STRUCTURE PERIOD, T
T – Elastic fundamental period of vibration of the structure in the direction under consideration, in
seconds
Method A
period calculations involve the following expression
Ct = 0.0853 - for steel-resisting frame,

Ct = 0.0731 - for reinforced concrete moment resisting frames and eccentrically braced
frames
Ct = 0.0488 - for all other buildings
where coefficient Ct depends on the type of structural system used.
The code also allows the use of Method B provided that the value of T from Method B
shall not exceed a value 30% greater than the value of T obtained from Method A in Seismic
Zone 4.
1. Steel special moment–resisting frame structure

2. Concrete special moment–resisting frame structure

Example 2:
Determine the period for each of the structures below using Method A.
 Solution:
The height of the structure (steel-resisting frame)

above its base is 30.0 with a basement 6.0 m from the
ground level.
The height below the ground will not be included in

determining period T.

Ct = 0.0731 - for reinforced concrete moment
resisting frames and eccentrically braced frames
T = Ct(hn)3/4 (Eqn.208-12)
= (0.0853) (30)3/4
T = 1.09343 s

Example 3:
Determine the period for each of the structures below using Method A. The structure is a made of
reinforced concrete.
 Solution:
The height below the ground will not be included in

determining period T.

Ct = 0.0731 - for reinforced concrete moment
resisting frames and eccentrically braced frames
T = Ct(hn)3/4 (Eqn.208-12)
= (0.0731) (12)3/4
T = 0.47131 s

DESIGN BASE SHEAR

Static Force Procedure
208.4.8.2 Static
The static lateral force procedure of Section 208.5 may be used for the following structures:
1. All structures regular or irregular in Occupancy Categories IV and V in seismic Zone 2.
2. Regular Structures under 75m in height with lateral force resistance provided by systems listed in table 208-
11, except where section 208.4.8.3, Item 4, applies.
3. Irregular structures not more than five stories or 20m in height.
4. Structures having a flexible upper portion supported on a rigid lower portion where both portions of the
structures considered separately can be classified as being regular, the average storey stiffness of the lower
portion is at least 10 times the average storey stiffness of the upper portion and the period of the entire
structure is not greater than 1.1 times the period of the upper portion considered as a separate structure
fixed at the base.
From Static Force Procedure:

The total design base shear in given direction shall be determined from the following equations:
Required Variables to satisfy the Formula:
Check for the Limits:

The total design base shear need not exceed the following:
The total design base shear shall not be less than the following:
In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear shall also not be less than the following:

Table 208-4 Near-Source Factor, Na Table 208-7 Seismic Coefficient, Ca
Closest Distance To Known Soil Profile Type Seismic Zone, Z

Seismic Source Seismic Source2 Z = 0.2 Z = 0.4
Type
≤5 km ≥ 10 km Sa 0.16 0.32Na
A 1.2 1.0 Sb 0.20 0.40Na
B 1.0 1.0 Sc 0.24 0.40Na
C 1.0 1.0 Sd 0.28 0.44Na
Se 0.34 0.44Na
Table 208-5 Near-Source Factor, Nv Table 208-8 Seismic Coefficient, Cv
Closest Distance To Known Seismic Soil Profile Type Seismic Zone, Z

Seismic Source2 Z = 0.2 Z = 0.4
Source Type
≤5 km 10 km ≥ 15 km Sa 0.16 0.32Nv
A 1.6 1.2 1.0 Sb 0.20 0.40Nv
B 1.2 1.0 1.0 Sc 0.32 0.56Nv
C 1.0 1.0 1.0 Sd 0.40 0.64Nv
Se 0.64 0.96Nv
Notes for Tables 208-4 and 208-5:
1. The Near-Source Factor may be based on the
linear interpolation of values for distances other
1. Site specific geotechnical investigation and
than those shown in the table
dynamic site response analysis shall be
2. The closest distance to seismic source shall be
performed to determined seismic coefficients
taken as the minimum distance between the site
and the area described by the vertical projection
of the source on the surface (i.e. surface projection
of the fault plane). The surface projection need not
include portions of the source at depths of 10km
or greater. The largest value of the near-source
factor considering all sources shall be used for
design.

Example 4:
Determine the design base shear for a five storey concrete special moment-resisting frame building.
Design Criteria:
Z : 4
Seismic Source Type : A
Distance to Seismic Source : 10 km
Soil Profile Type : SC
I : 1.0
R : 8.5
Weight; 1st Floor : 2000 kN
2nd Floor : 1500 kN
3rd Floor : 1500 kN
4th Floor : 1500 kN
5th Floor : 1500 kN
 Solution:
 Determine the Total Design Base Shear:
𝑪𝒗 𝑰 Ct = 0.0853 for steel-resisting frame,
𝑽= 𝑾 ; 𝐶𝑉 = 0.56𝑁𝑣 , 𝑁𝑣 = 1.2
𝑹𝑻 Ct = 0.0731 for reinforced concrete moment resisting
𝑇 = 𝐶𝑡 (ℎ𝑛 )3/4 = 0.0731(17.50)3/4 = 0.6255 frames and eccentrically braced frames
Ct = 0.0488 for all other buildings
0.56 (1.2)(1.0)
𝑉= (8000 𝑘𝑁)
8.5 (0.6255)
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝑵
 Check for the limits:

𝐶𝑎 = 0.40𝑁𝑎 , 𝑁𝑎 = 1.0, 𝐶𝑉 = 0.56𝑁𝑣 , 𝑁𝑣 = 1.2
𝟐. 𝟓 𝑪𝒂 𝑰
𝑽= 𝑾 ; 𝐼 = 1.0
𝑹
2.5 (0.40)(1.0)(1.0)
𝑉= (8000 𝑘𝑁) → 𝑽 = 𝟗𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟓 𝒌𝑵 < 1011.1440 𝑘𝑁
8.5
𝑽 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏 𝑪𝒂 𝑰 𝑾 ; 𝐼 = 1.0
𝑉 = 0.11(0.40)(1.0)(1.0) (8000 𝑘𝑁) → 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟓𝟐 𝒌𝑵 < 1011.1440 𝑘𝑁
𝟎. 𝟖 𝒁𝑵𝒗 𝑰
𝑽= 𝑾 ; 𝐼 = 1.0, 𝑍 = 4
𝑹
0.8 (4)(1.2)(1.0)
𝑉= (8000 𝑘𝑁) → 𝑽 = 𝟑𝟔𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟔 𝒌𝑵 > 1011.1440 𝑘𝑁
8.5


◉ VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FORCE

The total force shall be distributed over the height of the structure in conformance with equations
208-15, 208-16, and 208-17 in the absence of a more rigorous procedure:
The concentrated force Ft at the top, which is in addition to Fn, shall be determined from the equation:
Ft need not exceed 0.25V and maybe considered as zero where T Is 0.7 seconds or less.
The remaining portion of the base shear shall be distributed over the height of the structure, including
level n, according to the following equations:
At each level designated as x, the force Fx shall be applied over the area of the building in accordance
with the mass distribution at that level. Structural displacements and design seismic forces shall be
calculated as the effect of forces Fx and Ft applied at the appropriate levels above the base.

Example 5:
A ten-storey building has a moment resisting steel frame for a lateral force-resisting system. Find the
vertical distribution of the lateral forces based from the following design criteria.
 Solution:

Topic 1 - Introduction To Steel Design

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Topic 1 – Introduction to Steel Design

TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS

ENGR. IRB PRINSTEEL Page 1 of 16

2. Cold Formed Sections

ENGR. IRB PRINSTEEL Page 2 of 16

ENGR. IRB PRINSTEEL Page 3 of 16

ADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

• Predictable material properties

ENGR. IRB PRINSTEEL Page 4 of 16

• Expanding existing structures

• Ability to be rolled into a variety of sizes/shapes

• Scrap value even if not reusable in its existing form

• Ability to be fastened together by simple connection

DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

ENGR. IRB PRINSTEEL Page 5 of 16

FAILURE OF STEEL STRUCTURES

web buckling/crippling flange buckling

shear failure of bolts steel rupture connection failure

ENGR. IRB PRINSTEEL Page 6 of 16

A structure, as it relates to civil engineering, is a system of interconnected members used to support

TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS

FACTORS: DESIGNING STRUCTURES

Structure – refers to a system of connected part to support a load.

Engr. Bryan Dale P. Yu PRINSTEEL Page 1 of 16

3. Columns – are generally vertical and resist axial

1. Trusses – consist of slender elements, usually arranged in

Engr. Bryan Dale P. Yu PRINSTEEL Page 2 of 16

3. Arches – achieve strength in compression, since it has

4. Frames – are often used in buildings and are

5. Surface Structures– made from a material having a very small

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Reduction for building having very large floor area

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The velocity pressure exposure coefficient, Kz

• z=height above the ground in ft , m

External Wind Pressures Where:

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Design Wind Pressure for Enclosed Buildings

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Design Wind Pressure for Signs

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ASD- Allowable Stress Design Method (Working Stress Design)

Load Combination Using ASD Load Combinations using LRFD

(Working Stress Design) (Strength Design/Ultimate Strength Design)

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 Using the data in Tables 1-2 and 1-3

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 Using the data in Tables 1-2

𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂:

𝐴 𝑇 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 = 𝟑𝟔𝟒. 𝟓𝟒𝟐 𝒊𝒏𝟐

𝑊𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑡 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑡 𝑥 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑥𝐴 𝑇

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A tributary area or effective loaded area:

For the roof, the live load (FR):

For the second floor, the live load (FS):

4𝐴 𝑇 = 4(484 𝑓𝑡 2 ) = 1936𝑓𝑡 2 > 400𝑓𝑡 2 ∴ 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑