World History

Pamantasan ng Cabuyao
City of Cabuyao, Laguna, Philippines
BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES
Afuang, John Mark

Alcoran, Kenneth L.
Algire, Jessa Mae
Amancio, Aljenn Mae L.
Amparo, Althea T.
THE EARTH AND ITS BEGINNING

The origin of the earth from different perspectives
1. Creationism
 The belief that the universe and the various forms of life were created by God out of
nothing (ex nihilo). It is a response to modern evolutionary theory, which explains
the emergence and diversity of life without recourse to the doctrine of God or any
other divine power. Mainstream scientists generally reject creationism.
 Biblical creationists believe that the story told in Genesis of God’s six-day creation of
all things is literally correct. Others, such as old-Earth creationists, believe that a
creator made all that exists, but they may not hold that the Genesis story is a literal
history of that creation. Both types of creationists, however, believe that changes in
organisms may involve changes within a species (often understood as the “kind”
mentioned in Genesis 1:24) or downward changes such as negative mutations, but
they do not believe that any of these changes can lead to the evolution of a lower or
simpler species into a higher or more-complex species. Thus, the theory of
biological evolution is disputed by all creationists.
2. Nebular Theory/Hypothesis
 Is an explanation theory for the formation of solar system. The word “Nebula” is
Latin for “cloud” and according to the explanation, stars are born from clouds of
insterstellear gas and dust.
 According to this theory, the sun and all the planets of our solar system began as
giant cloud of molecular gas and dust.
3. Planetesimal Theory
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 Is a rock type object formed in the early solar system form collisions with other
objects in the solar system. The collisions eventually formed larger objects that led
to the formation of planets.
4. Bigbang Theory
 Is the leading explanation about how the universe began. It says the universe as we
know it started with a small singularity, and then inflated over the next 13.8 billion
years to the cosmos that we know today.
5. Steady state Theory
 As an alternative to Big bang theory to explain the origin and expansion of the
universe.
 This states that the universe is infinite in extent, infinitely old and, taken as a whole.
 In other words the Universe doesn’t evolve or change over time.
Discovery of Early humans
1. Theory of Creation
 Young Earth Creationists - adopts a method of Biblical interpretation which requires
that the Earth be no more than 10, 000 years old.
 Old Earth Creationists - is an umbrella term to describe biblical creationists believes
that God created the Universe and its inhabitants (including Adam and Eve) over a
much longer period of time than is allowed for by young earth creationists.
2. Theory of Malakas and Maganda
 Legends say that the First Filipino man and woman are born from a bamboo stalk.
They both had brown skin and supple bodies. The man was named “Malakas or
strong man” and “Maganda or beautiful one.”
3. Theory of Evolution
 Based on the fascinating study of the Origin of the man, our ancestors were found
around 2.5 million years ago.
Stone Age and Bronze Age

1. Old Stone Age
 Approximately 2,500,000 to 10,000 B.C.
 Humans relied on hunting and gathering for their daily food.
 Made and used simple tools, which became refined over the years.
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 People are nomadic.

 Use of fire to survive.
 They made paintings inside caves.

2. New Stone Age
 Approximately 10,000 to 4,000B.C.
 Agricultural revolution which gave humans greater control over their environment.
a. Domesticated animals
b. Regular farming
 Neolithic farming villages appeared in Europe, India, Egypt, China, and Mesoamerica.
a. Permanent dwellings
b. Specialized occupation
3. Bronze Age
 Around 3,000 to 1,200 B.C.
 The use of metals marked a new level of human control over the environment and
its resources.
a. Copper was the first metal to be used in making tools.
 Developed more complex societies leading to a whole new pattern for human life.
Differences of Kingdom and Empire
 A Kingdom is a country ruled by either a king or queen. It is usually ethnically
homogenous with a common language, history, culture, and sense of identity.
 An Empire on the other hand, is a large multi-ethnic state ruled by a central authority,
often through military force.
Ancient Mesopotamian civilizations
 Mesopotamian civilizations formed on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in
what is today Iraq and Kuwait.
 Early civilizations began to form around the time of the Neolithic Revolution—12000
BCE.
 Some of the major Mesopotamian civilizations include the Sumerian, Assyrian,
Akkadian, and Babylonian civilizations.
 Evidence shows extensive use of technology, literature, legal codes, philosophy, religion,
and architecture in these societies.
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Sumerian
 Sumer was the first civilization in Mesopotamia and arguably the earliest civilization in

the world.
 Sumerian King Eannatum founded one of the first known empires in history
 The most famous achievement of Sumer is invention of the cuneiform
script around 3400 bc. Cuneiform is a Latin term meaning “wedge-shaped”.
 The oldest law code yet discovered is the code of ur-nammu.
Akkadian Empire
 Centered at the Mesopotamian city of Akkad, the Akkadian Empire was the largest
empire in recorded history up to that point.
 At its peak, it controlled a vast area including most of modern Iraq, Kuwait, Syria,
Lebanon, Turkey and Iran.
 Founded by the famous king Sargon of Akkad, the Akkadian Empire existed for
around 180 years from 2334 BC to 2154 BC
 The Akkadian government system became a model for future empires in the region
 Akkadian language is the earliest attested Semitic language
Babylonian Empire
 The Amorites established the first dynasty of Babylon
 The first dynasty of Babylon reached its greatest heights under Hammurabi
- Hammurabi, conducted major building work in Babylon, expanding it from a small
town into a great city. Hammurabi began a series of conquest to expand his empire.
 The Patron deity of Babylon was Marduk
 Babylonia laid the foundation for Western Mathematics and Astronomy
Assyrian Empire
 Tiglath-Pileser iii built the first professional standing army of the Assyrian empire
 Assyrian empire ended after it was defeated by the Babylonians and the Medes at
Harran in 609 BC
 Assyrians are known for ruthless war tactics and brutal treatment of their enemies
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 Assyrians worshiped a variety of gods, Ashur became the chief god of the entire nation
over time
 At first, the rulers of Assyria allowed the hereditary kings of each conquered land to still
rule but forced them to pay tributes to Assyria and to supplement their military force.
Soon, however, this system was replaced with a more centralized bureaucratic rule
made up of governors and civil servants.
 Despite their notorious characteristics, the Assyrians built the first ever library in history.
Hittite
 The Hittites were some of the first people to use iron
 The worst crime to commit was the crime of rebellion
 The Hittites worshiped many storm gods and goddesses
 The Hittite leader was called "Great Son" or "Great King", and was the military and
religious leader
 Even slaves had the right to own property
 The Hittites used 9 different languages
 Agriculture was important to the Hittites, and they grew grapes, apples, pomegranate,
and barley
 They also domesticated donkeys, horses, cows, and honey bees
Chaldeans
 The capital Babylon
 Lasted from 792 to 595 B.C.
 Their ruler was King Nebuchadnezzar (792-604 B.C.) and King Nebuchadnezzar II (604-
561 B.C.)
 King Nebuchadnezzar built one of the Seven Wonders of The World
 Chaldeans today still speak Aramaic, which was the lingua franca of the ancient Near
East in the 8th Century B.C.
 The Chaldeans had a semi-constitutional monarchy
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Andrada, Rostum O.
Anayan, Reymond I.
Anzures, Jhonel V.
Bajao, Mark Clint
Barrameda, Eloisa O.
ANCIENT GREECE
 Geography of Greece influenced how centers of power developed (lots of
mountains/islands/valleys)
 City State also called the Polis
 Political unit made up of a city and surrounding lands
 Due to infertile land Greeks often traveled and expanded overseas creating colonies
throughout the Mediterranean from Spain to Egypt.
 Their travels spread their ideas about literature and art.
 The word democracy derives from the Greek dēmos which referred to the entire citizen
body and although it is Athens which has become associated with the birth of
democracy (demokratia) from around 460 BCE, other Greek states did establish a similar
political system.
GOVERNMENT IN ANCIENT GREEK

Democracy - rule by the people (male citizens).
Monarchy - rule by an individual who had inherited his role.
Oligarchy - rule by a select group of individuals.
Tyranny - rule by an individual who had seized power by unconstitutional means.
 The assembly of Athens met at least once a month, perhaps two or three times, on the
Pnyx hill in a dedicated space which could accommodate 6000 citizens. Any male citizen
18 years or over could speak (at least in theory) and vote in the assembly, usually with a
simple show of hands. Attendance was even paid for in certain period which was a
measure to encourage citizens who lived far away and couldn’t afford the time-off to
attend.
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THE SPARTA
 The Spartan Army fought in a Phalanx formation. They would line up side by side and
several men deep. Then they would lock their shields together and advance on the
enemy stabbing them with their spears. The Spartans spent their lives drilling and
practicing their formations and it showed in battle. They rarely broke formation and
could defeat much larger armies.
 Spartan boys were trained to be soldiers from their youth. They were raised by their
mothers until the age of seven and then they would enter a military school called the
Agoge. At the Agoge the boys were trained how to fight, but also learned how to read
and write.
 The Agoge was a tough school. The boys lived in barracks and were often beaten to
make them tough. They were given little to eat in order to get used to what life would
be like when they went to war. The boys were encouraged to fight one another. When
the boys turned 20 they entered into the Spartan army.
 Spartan girls also went to school at the age of seven. Their school wasn't as tough as the
boys, but they did train in athletics and exercise. It was important that the women stay
fit so they would have strong sons who could fight for Sparta. The women of Sparta had
more freedom and education than most Greek city-states at the time. Girls usually were
married at the age of 18.
FACTS ABOUT SPARTA

 Boys were encouraged to steal food. If they were caught, they were punished, not for
stealing, but for getting caught.
 Spartan men were required to stay fit and ready to fight until the age of 60.
 The term "spartan" is often used to describe something simple or without comfort.
 The Spartans considered themselves to be direct descendents of the Greek hero
Hercules.
 Sparta was ruled by two kings who had equal power. There was also a council of five
men called the ephors who watched over the kings.
 Laws were made by a council of 30 elders which included the two kings.
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ATHENS DEMOCRACY GOVERNMENT

 The city of Athens, Greece, with its famous Acropolis, has come to symbolize the whole
of the country in the popular imagination, and not without cause. Athens began as a
small, Mycenaean community and grew to become a city that, at its height, epitomized
the best of Greek virtues and enjoyed such prestige that the Spartans refused to sack
the city or enslave the citizens, even after Athens' defeat in the Peloponnesian War.
Athenian Government & Laws

 The wealthy aristocrats held control of both the land and the government and, in time,
poorer land owners became enslaved (or nearly so) through debt to the more wealthy.
Further, there was a perceived lack of consistency among the other laws of the city.
THE PELOPONESIAN WAR
 Peloponnesian War, (431–404 BCE), war fought between the two leading city-states in
ancient Greece, Athens and Sparta. Each stood at the head of alliances that, between
them, included nearly every Greek city-state. The fighting engulfed virtually the entire
Greek world, and it was properly regarded by Thucydides, whose contemporary account
of it is considered to be among the world’s finest works of history, as the most
momentous war up to that time.
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ANCIENT ROME
The Beginnings of Rome
Ancient Rome began with the overthrow of foreign Kings in 503 B. C. But romans like to say the
history of their city began at 753 B. C.
The Founding of Rome

The legend keeps going with the twins Romulus and Remus the descendants of Aeneas who
founded Rome. Their mother abandoned them, but they were saved by a wolf. When the twins
grew up they fought over Rome’s location so Romulus killed his brother Remus and traced
Rome’s location around Palatine hill. After Romulus a series of Roman kings ruled the city. In
the 600s B. C. the Etruscans from northern Italy conquered Rome. In order to regain self-rule
the romans overthrew the Etruscans King.
Romes Geography and Early Life

 Over throw of Estrucans
 Rome grew from a city to a country, and eventually into an empire Hills and Rivers
 1st settlers of Rome were Latin
o They built Rome on seven steep hills
o They chose Rome for it’s mild climate, good farmland, and strategic location
o Located a short distance from the Mediterranean Sea on ancient trade routes, it also
lay next to the Tiber River, an important resource.
 Italian Peninsula Location on Italian Peninsula played important role in development
o The 2 main mountain ranges of Italy helped protect Rome
o The Alps border Italy on the North and the Apennies form Italy’s spine
o Italy also had big plains that were good farming
Farm Life
 Roman farmers planted wheat, barley, beans, vegetables, and fruit.
 They later planted olives and grapes.
 They raised pigs, goats, sheep, and chickens.
 They used oxen to pull their plows.
 Most Roman farmers lived in simple homes of mud or timber.
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 Most Roman farmers lived in simple homes of mud or timber.

 Had little furniture.
 Lived with grandparents, aunts& uncles, nieces& nephews, or cousins.
 They had to obey the orders they got.
Rise of the Republic

 Rome developed into 2 classes the Patricians and the Plebeians.
 There was a conflict between the twoclasses; when the conflict ended it defined the
citizens rights.
o They used this system for 500 years to keep the people under control
 Patricians were wealthy land owners that had seats in the government.
 Plebeians were commoners that h ad the right to vote but didn’t have gov’t seats
 The Twelve Tables was a system made around 450b.c. to establish basic rights and
duties
o Made by patricians
 The leaders of the Roman republic established atripartite government.
 The type of government has three branches legislative, judicial, executive
 The senate was made up of 300 members that advise Roman leaders.
 Most senators were patricians.The assemblies were made up of plebeians.
 Their representatives protected the rights of plebeian.
 Judicial branch consisted of eight judges they served for one year.
o They oversaw the courts and governed the provinces.
o 2 consuls led Rome’s executive branch.
o For 1 year they commanded the army and the directed the government
o Going on each consul had the power to veto or overrule the other. In times of
crisis the consuls could choose a dictator – a leader with absolute power.
 The republic expands
 For hundred of years after the founding of the republic, Rome expanded it territories.
o By the 300s B.C., the Romans dominated central Italy.
o By 275 B.C., all of the Italian Peninsula was under Roman control.
o Rome did not impose harsh rule on conquered peoples.
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o The republic offered Roman citizenship to most of them and allowed them to
govern themselves.
o In return , the new citizens had to pay taxes and provide soldiers for the Roman
army. 264 B.C
 Rome needed soldiers to fight in Punic wars
o These were a series of 3 wars with Carthage, a rich trading city in North Africa
o Rome won all of the wars and almost lost the second Hannibal, a general from
Carthage, crossed the Alphas with a hard of elephants and nearly captured Rome
o The Roman general Scipio devised a plan to attack Carthage
o The plan forced Hannibal to return to Africa to defend his native city 202 B.C
 Then made a Roman province Romans brought great wealth and slaves
 They bought large estates and farmed them with slaves
 But because many small farmers couldn’t compete, they lost their farms Unemployment
and poverty increased.
 The gap between rich and poor grew wide Romans brought great wealth and slaves.
They bought large estates and farmed them with slaves. But because many small
farmers couldn’t compete, they lost their farms, unemployment and poverty increased.
The gap between rich and poor grew wider.
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Bautista, Alexandria A.
Bellin, Artemio Jr. E.
Capuras, Sulpicio, C.
Codes, Nikko J.
Corpuz, Analyn Y.
Daro, Paula Marie L.
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

BYZANTINE EMPIRE
The Byzantine Empire was a vast and powerful civilization with origins that can be
traced to 330 A.D., when the Roman emperor Constantine I dedicated a “New Rome” on the
site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium. Though the western half of the Roman Empire
crumbled and fell in 476 A.D., the eastern half survived for 1,000 more years, spawning a rich
tradition of art, literature and learning and serving as a military buffer between Europe and
Asia. The Byzantine Empire finally fell in 1453, after an Ottoman army stormed Constantinople
during the reign of Constantine XI.
➢ The term “Byzantine” derives from Byzantium, an ancient Greek colony founded by a
man named Byzas. Located on the European side of the Bosporus (the strait linking the
Black Sea to the Mediterranean), the site of Byzantium was ideally located to serve as a
transit and trade point between Europe and Asia.
In 330 A.D., Roman Emperor Constantine I chose

Byzantium as the site of a “New Rome” with an
eponymous capital city, Constantinopole. Five years
earlier, at the Council of Nicaea, Constantine had
established—as Rome’s official religion.
In terms of religion, the Council of Chalcedon in 451 officially established the division of
the Christian world into five patriarchates, each ruled by a patriarch: Rome (where the patriarch
would later call himself pope), Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem.
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Justinian I, who took power in 527 and would rule until his death in 565,
was the first great ruler of the Byzantine Empire. During the years of his
reign, the empire included most of the land surrounding the
Mediterranean Sea, as Justinian’s armies conquered part of the former
Western Roman Empire, including North Africa.
Many great monuments of the empire would be built under Justinian, including the
spectacular domed Church of Holy Wisdom, or Hagia Sophia. Justinian also reformed and
codified Roman law, establishing a Byzantine legal code that would endure for centuries and
help shape the modern concept of the state.
At the time of Justinian’s death, the Byzantine Empire reigned supreme as the largest
and most powerful state in Europe. However, During the seventh and eighth centuries, attacks
from the Persian Empire and from Slavs, combined with internal political instability and
economic regression, threatened the stability of the empire.
A new, even more serious threat arose in the form of Islam, founded by the prophet
Muhammad in Mecca in 622. In 634, Muslim armies began their assault on the Byzantine
Empire by storming into Syria.
ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY
Iconoclasm - denied the holiness of icons, or religious images, and prohibited their worship or
veneration. It did not end definitively until 843, when a Church council under Emperor Michael
III ruled in favor of the display of religious images.
LAWS AND GOVERNMENT

ROMAN LAW
In the great span of time during which the Roman Republic and Empire existed, there
were many phases of legalistic development. During the period of the republic (753–31 BCE),
the jus civile (civil law) developed. Based on custom or legislation, it applied exclusively to
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Roman citizens. By the middle of the 3rd century BCE, however, another type of law, jus
gentium (law of nations), was developed by the Romans to be applied both to themselves and
to foreigners.
JUSTINIAN CODE
Justinian created a set of laws called the Justinian Code. This code said that the emperor
made all of the laws and interpreted the laws as well. The Justinian Code was law throughout
the empire. Many of our modern laws can be traced back to the Justinian Code.
Justinian had a goal of re-uniting the Roman Empire. He sent out armies to battle
the barbarians who had taken control in the West. Justinian's Roman armies were very
successful, taking back parts of Africa and most of Italy.
GOVERNMENT
The government of the Byzantine Empire was headed and dominated by the emperor,
but there were many other important officials who assisted in operating the finances, judiciary,
military. and bureaucracy of a huge territory. Without elections, the ministers, senators, and
councilors who governed the people largely acquired their position through imperial patronage
or because of their status as large landowners.
THE FALL OF BAYZANTINE EMPIRE
Murad
revoked all privileges
given to the Byzantines
and laid siege to
Constantinople; his successor, Mehmed II, completed this process when he launched the final
attack on the city. On May 29, 1453, after an Ottoman army stormed Constantinople, Mehmed
triumphantly entered the Hagia Sophia, which would soon be converted to the city’s leading
mosque.
The fall of Constantinople marked the end of a glorious era for the Byzantine Empire.
Emperor Constantine XI died in battle that day, and the Byzantine Empire collapsed, ushering in
the long reign of the Ottoman Empire.
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The Byzantine Empire (or Eastern Roman Empire) was the name of the eastern remnant
of the Roman Empire which survived into the Middle Ages. Its capital was Constantinople,
which today is in Turkey and is now called Istanbul.
Legacy of the Byzantine Empire

 ARTS AND CULTURE
 RELIGION
Byzantine Christianity originated in the eastern Roman
Empire where it evolved concurrently with the emerging
Byzantine state. It was the dominant form of Eastern
Christianity throughout the Middle Ages and during this
period it developed a complex theological system with
unique spiritual practices.
 ARCHITECTURE
One notable structure for which Justinian was
responsible is the Hagia Sophia, or Church of Holy
Wisdom, built by Isidorus of Miletus and Anthemius of
Tralles, both of whom would oversee most building
projects that Justinian ordered within Constantinople.
Like most Byzantine churches of this time, the Hagia
Sophia is centrally planned , with the dome serving as its
focal point.
 ICON PAINTING
Icon painting, as distinct from other forms of
painting, emerged in the Early Byzantine period as an aid
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to religious devotion. In contrast, earlier Christian art had relied more on allegory and
symbolism.
 USE OF COLOR
Russian icon depicting the Holy Trinity: Christ,
seated in the middle, wears a blue garment over a red one
to symbolize his status as God made human. All three
figures wear wings to signify their roles as messengers. The
gold background places their location in Heaven.
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THE THREE KINGDOMS OF WEST AFRICA: GHANA, MALI, SONGHAI

KINGDOM OF GHANA
 Ghana was a wealthy and powerful trade state by 500 AD.
 They traded their few resources of gold and salt through silent barter: a process in
which people exchange goods without contacting each other directly.
 This method of trade kept trade peaceful and the location of the gold mines secret.
Ghana Control Trade
 Berbers in the north traded salt, cloth, and metals, from the Mediterranean in exchange
for gold, ivory, iron, and slaves.
 Camel caravans were used to transport goods across the Sahara Desert.
 Both Ghana kings and Islamic merchants became wealthy from this trade.
Ghana’s Decline
 By the early 120s, Ghana collapsed:
Factor 1: Muslims (the Almoravids) from North Africa attacked
Factor 2: The Almoravids brought herds of animals with them, allowing them to
overgraze the land
Factor 3: Rebellion within the expanded empire left Ghana weak & unable to keep
control
 As Ghana decline, the Kingdom of Mali grew
KINGDOM OF MALI
 In the 1230s, Sundiata took control of region & the gold & salt trade
 He improved agriculture by clearing new fields for beans, onions, rice and introduced
cotton.
 He took control from all the local leaders and took their title of Mansa-political &
religious leader
 After Sundiata’s death in 1255, later leaders took the title Mansa as well
Mansa Musa
 Mansa Musa was Mali’s most famous ruler
 In the1300s, Mali reached its height under Mansa Musa
 He encouraged the spread of Islam through his pilgrimage to Mecca
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 Added trade cities like Timbuktu throughout empire

 Supported education- sent scholars to study in Morocco, who returned & built schools
in Mali
 His people were taught to read the Arabic language so the Muslims in his empire could
read the Qur’an • He hired Muslim architects to build Mosques throughout his empire
Fall of Mali
 After Mansa Musa’s death, his son could not stop raiders from the southeast from
burning down Timbuktu’s schools & mosques
 By 1500 Mali had all but broke away
THE KINGDOM OF SONGHAI

 In the 1300s Mansa Musa conquered the Songhai people
 By 1400s they rebelled & regained their freedom
 Because the Songhai were Muslims, the Berbers in the north were willing to trade with
them
 1464, Sunni Ali organized & expanded the Songhai empire through religious tolerance
Askia the Great
 1492, Sunni dies & a rebellion overthrows his non- Muslim son
 Askia led the rebellion & took control of the Songhai empire
 Timbuktu flourished again with schools, universities, libraries, & mosques
 Songhai Falls to Morocco
 Morocco wanted control of Songhai’s salt mines
 1591, Morocco attacked Songhai with arquebus-early form of gun & destroyed
Timbuktu
Songhai Falls to Morocco
 Morocco wanted control of Songhai’s salt mines
 1591, Morocco attacked Songhai with harquebus-early form of gun & destroyed
Timbuktu
 Changes in trade patterns ended the Songhai empire
 Port cities on the Atlantic coast were preferred by the European merchants who did not
like dealing with the overland Muslim traders.
Espenida, Leslie Anne G.
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Ferreras, Raul Justine

Fruto, Paul Symon
Ginaga, Joshua B.
Gaynilo, Michelle Angela C.
Genio, Amadeo
THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

ROLE OF THE CHURCH IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD
INTRODUCTION
1. Centers of Religious and Social life
2. All Christians belongs to the church –Roman Catholic
3. Provided leadership is unstable
4. The church was as important, if not more important than kings/Queens
THE POWER OF THE CHURCH

1. Christianity in Middle Ages
a) As society withered from the fall of Rome Christianity remains constant.
b) Popes and Church leaders would be able to use the power vacuum in Europe.
c). Christianity was spread by
Missionaries –who risked their lives to spread Christianity.
Clovis –when he united the franks through the use of Christianity
Attacks by Muslim spurred people to convert to Christianity.
2. Structure of the Church

3. Religion as Unifying Source
-Provided people with a sense of security and belonging to a religious group.
- Priest and other clergy administered sacraments, lay people couldn’t administered in this
ceremonies.
4. Education
-The church is the only place to receive and provide education in the Middle Ages.
- It usually held at monasteries, and convents.
5. The far reaching authority of the Church
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-The Christian church become secular or wordly.

6. The Emperor clashes with the Pope
- Lay investiture controversy
CHURCH AND CHARLEMAGNE

Medieval Period
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages (or medieval period) lasted from the 5th to the 15th
century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance
and the Age of Discovery.
This period of time is also known as the Medieval Age, the Dark Ages (due to the lost
technology of the Roman empire), or the Age of Faith (because of the rise of Christianity and
Islam). When used narrowly, the term "Dark Ages" refer only to very early period, from 476 to
800 ce (when Charlemagne became Holy Roman Emperor). Because few could write, less is
known about the Dark Ages than about earlier times.
Church in Medieval Period

The early Christian Church thrived in the first few centuries after Christ, even under intense
persecution from Imperial Rome. However, the Roman Empire was falling into decline by the
300s. This fall is considered to have taken place by 476 A.D.
During the high Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church became organized into an elaborate
hierarchy with the pope as the head in western Europe. He establishes supreme power. Many
innovations took place in the creative arts during the high Middle Ages.
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In Medieval England, the Church dominated everybody's life. All Medieval people – be they
village peasants or towns people – believed that God, Heaven and Hell all existed. From the
very earliest of ages, the people were taught that the only way they could get to Heaven was if
the Roman Catholic Church let them.
In 1095 Pope Urban II launched the First Crusade, a military operation aimed at capturing the
Middle East from Muslim groups and bringing it under Christian control. The First Crusade was
largely successful, as Christian forces captured Jerusalem and established Christian kingdoms.
CHARLEMAGNE
Charlemagne (c.742-814), also known as Karl and

Charles theGreat, was a medieval emperor who ruled
much of Western Europe from 768 to 814. In 771,
Charlemagne became king of the Franks, a Germanic
tribe in present-day Belgium, France, Luxembourg,
the Netherlands and western Germany. He embarked
on a mission to unite all Germanic peoples into one
kingdom, and convert his subjects to Christianity.
A skilled military strategist, he spent much of his reign engaged in warfare in order to
accomplish his goals. In 800, Pope Leo III (750-816) crowned Charlemagne emperor of the
Romans. In this role, he encouraged the Carolingian Renaissance, a cultural and intellectual
revival in Europe. When he died in 814, Charlemagne’s empire encompassed much of Western
Europe, and he had also ensured the survival of Christianity in the West. Today, Charlemagne is
referred to by some as the father of Europe.
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Three of his major accomplishments:

1. CHARLEMAGNE UNITED MOST OF WESTERN EUROPE FOR THE FIRST TIME SINCE THE
ROMAN EMPIRE
The fall of Western Roman Empire in late 5th century led to its vast territory being
divided in numerous kingdoms without any central authority. Charlemagne became the King of
the Franks in 768. He then successfully led a series of campaigns throughout his reign to unite
most of Western Europe under a sole emperor for the first time since the fall of the Western
Roman Empire. The expanded Frankish state Charlemagne founded was called the Carolingian
Empire.
2. CHARLEMAGNE WAS THE FIRST EMPEROR OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

In 799, Pope Leo III was physically attacked by a faction of Romans. He flew to
Charlemagne and asked for his aid. Charlemagne assisted the Pope and restored his power. This
led to Pope Leo III crowning Charlemagne ‘Emperor of the Romans’ in Saint Peter’s Basilica on
December 25, 800. Charlemagne thus became the first Holy Roman Emperor and an empire
rivalling the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire was created. This is considered by historians as
one of the most important moments in world history.
3. CHARLEMAGNE PLAYED A VITAL ROLE IN THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY ACROSS EUROPE
Charlemagne was devoted to Christianity and took several steps to spread the religion across
his vast empire. He gave money and land to the Christian church and protected the popes.
Through his religious reforms he strengthened the church’s power; educated the clergy and
improved their skills; and standardized liturgical practices. He had Benedict’s rule copied and
distributed to encourage monks throughout Western Europe to follow it as a standard. He also
took an intense interest in church music and ensured its propagation and adequate
performance throughout his empire.
THE RISE OF ISLAM

Muslim conquests following Muhammad's death led to the creation of the caliphates,
occupying a vast geographical area; conversion to Islam was boosted by missionary activities,
particularly those of Imams, who intermingled with local populations to propagate the religious
teachings.
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What is Caliphates?
A caliphate is an Islamic state under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph,
a person considered a political-religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a
leader of the entire ummah (Muslim community).
Abu Bakr (632–634 C.E.)

The Rashidun Caliphate was the first of the four major caliphates established after the death of
the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs (successors) of
Muhammad after his death in 632 CE. These caliphs are collectively known in Sunni Islam as the
Rashidun, or "Rightly Guided" caliphs
The Umayyad Caliphate
Umayyad dynasty/family
The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death
of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, hailing from Mecca
The Abbasid Caliphate
Banu Hashim clan
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The Abbasid Caliphate was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet
Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn
Abdul-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name They ruled as caliphs for
most of the caliphate from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after having
overthrown the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE
The Ottoman Caliphate
The Ottoman Caliphate (1517–1924), under the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire, was
the last Sunni Islamic caliphate of the late medieval and the early modern era. During the
period of Ottoman growth, Ottoman rulers claimed caliphal authority since Murad I's conquest
of Edirne in 1362. Later Selim I, through conquering and unification of Muslim lands, became
the defender of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina which further strengthened the Ottoman
claim to caliphate in the Muslim world.
These early caliphates, coupled with Muslim economics and trading and Islamic Golden Age and
the later expansion of the Gunpowder Empires, resulted in Islam's spread outwards from Mecca
towards the Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans and the creation of the Muslim world. Trading
played an important role in the spread of Islam in several parts of the world, notably Indian
traders in Southeast Asia.
The Golden Age of Islam

The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the
history of Islam, traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 14th century. This period is
traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid
Gunpowder Empire
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The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal dynasties established control over Turkey, Iran, and India
respectively, in large part due to a Chinese invention:gunpowder. In large part, the successes of
the westernempires depended on advanced firearms and cannons. As a result, they are called
the "Gunpowder Empires."
Muslim dynasties were soon established and subsequent empires such as those of the
Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Seljukids, Ajuran, Adal and Warsangali in Somalia, Delhi,
Gujarat, Malwa, Deccan, Bahmani, and Bengal Sultanates, Mughals, Mysore, Nizams, and
Nawabs of Bengal in the Indian subcontinent, Ghaznavids, Ghurids and Safavids in Persia and
Ayyubids and Ottomans in Anatolia were among the largest and most powerful in the world.
The people of the Islamic world created numerous sophisticated centers of culture and science
with far-reaching mercantile networks, travelers, scientists, hunters, mathematicians,
physicians, and philosophers, all contributing to the Golden Age of Islam. Islamic expansion in
South and East Asia fostered cosmopolitan and eclectic Muslim cultures in the Indian
subcontinent, Malaysia, Indonesia and China.
The Rise of Islam

Muhammad unified the Arabic people both politically and through the religion of islam
The Will of Allah - Muslim was unified in their belief in islam, and were inspired to spread the
world of Allah
Dive and Conquer - Byzantine and Persian Empires were weakened from fighting against each
other
Fair Treatment - Muslim rules treated conquered fairly, many converted to Islam, non-Muslims
must pay a special tax. but could practice freely
The Mighty Sword - Arabs were strong fighters
FEUDALISM: THE FEUDAL AND CHIVERLY
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 Feudalism was the system in European medieval societies of the 10th to 13th centuries
CE whereby a social hierarchy was established based on local administrative acontrol
and the distribution of land into units (fiefs).
 A landowner (lord) gave a fief, along with a promise of military and legal protection, in
return for a payment of some kind from the person who received it (vassal). Such
payment came in the form of feudal service which could mean military service or the
regular payment of produce or money.
Service for Land

 Under the feudal system land was granted to people for service. It started at the top
with the king granting his land to a baron for soldiers all the way down to a peasant
getting land to grow crops.
The Manor
 The center of life in the Middle Ages was the manor. The manor was run by the local
lord. He lived in a large house or castle where people would gather for celebrations or
for protection if they were attacked. A small village would form around the castle which
would include the local church. Farms would then spread out from there which would
be worked by the peasants.
Hierarchy of Rulers
King - The top leader in the land was the king. The king could not control all of the land by
himself, so he divided it up among the Barons. In return, the Barons pledged their loyalty and
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soldiers to the king. When a king died, his firstborn son would inherit the throne. When one
family stayed in power for a long time, this was called a dynasty.
Bishop - The Bishop was the top church leader in the kingdom and managed an area called a
diocese. The Catholic Church was very powerful in most parts of Medieval Europe and this
made the Bishop powerful as well.
Lords and Knights - The lords ran the local manors. They also were the king's knights and could
be called into battle at any moment by their Baron. The lords owned everything on their land
including the peasants, crops, and village.
Peasants or Serfs - Most of the people living in the Middle Ages were peasants. They had a hard
rough life. Some peasants were considered free and could own their own businesses like
carpenters, bakers, and blacksmiths. Others were more like slaves. They owned nothing and
were pledged to their local lord. They worked long days, 6 days a week, and often barely had
enough food to survive.
THE RISE OF TOWNS AND CITIES

Towns
A new class emerged during the Middle Ages; the merchant. The growth of trade and the
merchant middle class went hand in hand with the growth in towns. Town populations swelled
during this period, particularly after the Black Death. Trade routes grew, though roads
remained poor and dangerous, so most goods were transported by water.
Towns were built on trade, and the elite of towns were the merchants. Merchant
guilds controlled town government, though they often clashed with craft guilds for power.
Merchants needed stability for trade, so they supported the king and the establishment of a
strong central government against the rule of individual nobles. The king, for his part,
encouraged the growth of towns and trade.
Town charters became a major source of royal revenue. Eventually the growth of towns and
guilds led to the breakdown of the manor-centred feudal society.
Merchant Guilds
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Guilds controlled the trade in a town. Merchant guilds regulated prices, quality, weights and
measures, and business practices. The power of the guilds was absolute in their domain, and to
be expelled from a guild made it impossible to earn a living. Each guild had a patron saint,
celebrated religious festivals together, put on religious plays, and looked after the health and
welfare of the members and their families.
Craft Guilds
Separate from the merchant guilds were the craft guilds, which regulated the quality, working
hours and conditions of its members. There were three levels of craftsmen; masters,
journeymen, and apprentices. Parents paid a fee to place a boy with a master craftsman as an
apprentice. There he received food, lodging (often sleeping under the counter in the shop
itself), clothes, and instruction in the craft.
Apprentices, Journeymen, and Masters

The period of apprenticeship lasted for 2-7 years, after which time the apprentice became a
journeyman. The term has nothing to do with traveling; it comes from the French "journee",
(day), and meant that the journeyman was paid by the day for his work. After several years as a
journeyman the craftsman would submit a piece of his best work to the guild for approval. If
this "master-piece" was accepted he could become a master craftsman and own his own shop.
All townsmen were free, and this provided some incentive for serfs to run away to the towns. If
they could remain there for a year and a day they were considered free and could not be
compelled to return to the manor.
Streets
Before Edward I all repairs to streets were the responsibility of adjacent householders. After
Edward's time town councils began to take over more responsibility. New roadways were often
built directly on top of the old with little attempt to clear it away. Thus repairs never lasted
long. There was also the possibility that a citizen would build his section higher than his
neighbour. Because of this practice street levels rose and rose. In London the original Roman
roads are buried up to 20 feet beneath the street level of today.
Roads were narrow, and tradesmen and householders were constantly encroaching on them.
Traffic moved slowly, not least because tolls at the town gates were often paid in kind (that is,
with goods rather than money), causing delays and long lineups.
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Cleanliness
Sanitation was a constant concern. Open drain channels ran along the sides or down the centre
of streets. Many stables opened out onto the streets and muck heaps encroached on passage.
People often threw dirty water out of windows in the general direction of the drains. Dyers vats
were particularly noxious when they were emptied into the street. Again the onus was on the
individual householder to keep the space in front of his house relatively clean. In practice the
only real incentive to do so was an outbreak of the plague or a visit of the King.
Livestock in the Streets

Pigs were another nuisance in the streets. Most people kept pigs. They were cheap, and a good
source of food. However, houses were small and gardens even smaller, so pigs were often let
out into the streets to forage. Stray pigs were such a nuisance that they were liable to be killed
and the owner charged for the return of the dead animal.
Law Enforcement
Law and order in the town was enforced by the beadle or constables, who could call on citizens
to form a night Watch. If a "hue and cry" was raised to chase a criminal all citizens had to join in
or risk being fined. The penalty for the criminal was much higher. A thief found in possession of
stolen goods was hanged.
Sanctuary
If a fugitive managed to reach a church they could claim the right of sanctuary there for a
period of 40 days. This meant that someone would have to stand watch outside the church for
the entire time to ensure that the fugitive did not escape, a duty that no one wanted. Towns
could even be fined if the felon escaped. At any one time in the Middle Ages it has been
estimated that there were as many as 1000 people in sanctuary throughout England.
The Curfew Bell

Curfews were imposed in towns to keep the peace. Originally the "curfew bell" was rung at 8 or
9 o'clock in the evening to indicate that it was time for smiths, brewers, and taverners to cease
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their working day. It became the custom that anyone abroad after that had to carry a light and
have a good excuse for being out. The carrying of weapons was carefully regulated, especially
where foreigners were concerned. Nobility, as usual, were exempt from these regulations.
There were also laws prohibiting the wearing of masks in the street; this after an attempt on
the life of Henry IV by some nobles disguised as Christmas mummers.
Fire
Fire was the constant fear of town dwellers. Due to closely packed wooden houses and
inadequate water supply, fires were difficult to control and could produce widespread damage.
There were other factors that increased the risks of fire; Beds were of straw and were
commonly kept close to open hearths for warmth. Roofs of reeds, rushes and straw were
common. It was only after 1213 that these materials were forbidden in London in favour of tile
and shingles. Other places were slow to follow London's lead.
Wooden and Brick Buildings

Although stone building was encouraged, expense meant that most houses were built of wood
up until Tudor times. Then, the flourishing new brick industry and a rapidly falling timber supply
swung the tide away from wood as the material of choice for most domestic building. Cooks,
barbers, and brewers were heavily regulated because of the risk their fires posed. Their
premises had to be whitewashed and plastered inside and out.
Each householder was required to keep a full vessel of water outside his door in summer, due
to fire risk. When fires did occur it was every citizen's duty to come running with whatever
equipment they had. Often firehooks were used to haul burning thatch off a roof, and also to
pull down adjacent buildings to provide a firebreak.
The Town Day

The day officially began with the ringing of the Angelus bell at 4 or 5 o,clock. It announced the
first mass of the day and the end of the night watchman's duty. Most shops opened at 6 AM,
providing plenty of early morning shopping before the first meal of the day at 9 or 10 AM.
Market Hours
Morning was the active time for markets. Things quieted down after noon, and most shops
closed at 3 o'clock. Some kept open until light faded, and others, such as the barbers and
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blacksmiths, were open until the curfew bell sounded. Foreign merchants were heavily
regulated. They had to wait two or more hours before they could enter the market, giving the
locals the best of the business.
Markets were noisy, raucous affairs. Merchants had to "cry the wares" as their only means of
advertising, and some had to be fined for forcibly grabbing hold of passers-by in their
enthusiasm to make a sale.
Saturday was early closing day for shops. Usually noon was the close of business. Sunday,
however, the "Lord's day of rest", was not kept as restful as we might think. Some trades were
allowed to work after Mass, and some field work was allowed to be done before it. A few places
even had the privilege of Sunday markets.
Bells and Criers

Bells were the main medium of telling time and making announcements. A Common Bell was
rung to summon civic meetings, courts, and as an alarm in case of fire or attack. The town crier
rang a hand bell when he walked throughout the town declaiming news and proclamations. The
criers were the main source of news for town dwellers. They also had the task of ringing their
bells to solicit prayers in memory of people who had paid for the privilege.
EARLY AMERICAN CIVILIZATION
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 A region stretching from Central Mexico to Central

 America.
 Meso means Middle
 Middle America
OLMEC CIVILIZATION
 The Olmec Civilization existed from 1300 BC to about 400 BC.
 The Olmec are believed to be the earliest civilization in Americas.
 Located in southern Veracruz and Tabasco
 Olmec called “mother of culture” of Meso America.
DAILY LIFESTYLE OF OLMEC

 The olmec were very good at farming.
- the land in this region was very fertile and food supply was steady, they live in villages near
rivers and also fished for food.
 The olmec played a game called “pok-a-tok”.
- it is the ceremonial ball game that that was something like basketball.
- you must shoot a rubber ball through a stone ring without using your hands or feet.
 Huge Ball courts built by the olmec suggest that the game was popular with spectators.
Facts about the Olmec Civilization

 No One Knows What Happened to Their Civilization
 They Were Extremely Influential
 The Olmec Were Organized Under Strong Political Power
 The Olmec Were Diligent Traders
 They Were Talented Architects and Engineers
 They Were Extremely Talented Artists and Sculptors
 They Had Gods
 They Had a Rich Religion
 Much of Their Culture Has Been Lost
 They Were the First Major Mesoamerican Culture
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THREE EARLY AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS

 Mayas
 Aztecs
 Incas
MAYAS CIVILIZATION
 Maya civilization existed from 400 BC to about 900
CE
 Northern part of central America, Yucatan
Peninsula (present day Mexico and Guetamela).
 The Mayas were not AN EMPIRE and NOT UNITED
POLITICALLY (maya civilization was made up of city –
states ,
- Each city state had its own ruler
- ruling chief usually a man
though sometimes womens served.
 TIKAL (tee – KAHL )
- located in the present day country of Guatemala. Its population was about 50, 000
 Maya Priest play an important role in society.
- Although priest were not the sole of rulers in the city state, they played an important role
in the everyday lives of the mayas
- because only they could perform religious ceremony needed for success in war and good
harvest.
 Priest, Nobles and worrior were the upper classes of maya society.
- warriors fought the frequent wars, between city – states. Maya noble helped run the
government, they collect taxes , kept records of work that was done and enforced laws.
 Like the olmec, the maya expert in farmers.
 They grew several crops but their main source of food was corn.
MAYAN RELIGION
 The mayan were polytheistic
 Over 160 Gods
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 IZAMNA – the major god of the mayan people (who was known as fire and earth god as
well as being creator)
 BOLON TZACAB – a great and significant God only to the royal people. (Because only
they could make a contact with him).
 The Maya practiced human sacrifice. (sacrifices took place on top tall pyramids)
 Suicides, sacrifices, women who died in childbirth and warriors went straight to heaven.
WHAT HAPPENED TO THE MAYA?

 The maya abandoned many of their cities around 900 A.D
- archeologist do not know why maya civilization decline.
- the reason for these event are still a mistery.
THEORY: around the 900 A.D there was a severe drought. Many died due to starvation others
migrated away.
MAYAN TODAY
 More than 2 million maya people live in Guatemala and southern Mexico today.
AZTECS CIVILIZATION
 The term “Aztec” means “A person who originated
from “Aztlan”. (white land)
 1345 and 1521 CE
 Located in the valley of mexico around lake
Texcoco
 Capital City Tenochtitlan
- present day mexico city.
- located in the middle of lake.
To build Tenochtitlan into the city they wanted, the Aztecs knew that they would need many
engineers, builders, and other specialist.
- (to solve this problem, the Aztecs set up a system of public school) (all Aztec children went
to school where they learned Aztec history, religion, and a specialized profession)
 Aztecs are skilled engineers and builders who constructed aqueducts, dams, irrigation
systems, square and markets.
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(Aztecs children were trained to be a specialist in some areas. Boys studied how to be
farmers, traders , engineers , builders, astronomers , and doctors.) (Students who became
builders and engineers designed and built the amazing Aztec cities, including the capital
city of Tenochtitlan)
AZTECS GOVERNMENT
 They had one king / emperor who ruled overall
chosen by council of nobles and priests.
(The Aztecs emperor main job was to lead in war.)
 Montezuma II, king of Aztecs.
 The Aztecs created an empire through conquest.
 Nobles serve as judges , officials and governors .
 Most crimes punishable by death or being sold into slavery.
RELIGION
 Aztecs were polytheistic
 Huitzilopochtli was the main Aztec God. ( the sun and war god)
 Tlaloc is god of rain
 Quetzalcoatl the feathered serpent god.
 The Aztecs built massive temples and pyramids dedicated to their gods.
HUMAN SACRIFICE
 Human sacrifice was a common practice of the Aztecs.
o ( about 20 000 years ) ( bodies taken to the top of pyramids, chests were cut
open, heart ripped out , and body thrown off.) ( mostly prisoners of war , some
slaves, some nobles)
 For the reconsecration of great pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487 , the Aztecs reported
that they sacrificed 84, 000 prisoners over the course of four days.
o (to give the sun strength to rise each day , human sacrifice were offered.)
 Some historians say bodies were sometimes eaten by royalty.
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THE FALL OF AZTEC

 In 1521 , Spanish conquistadors and their native American partners defeated the Aztec
and ended their empire.
 - (led by Hernando Cortes) (conquistador is a Spanish soldier). (Tenochtitlan was
destroyed and a new capital Mexico City, was built on top of the ruins of the
destroyed city.)
 3/4 of the Aztecs died from war and disease.
INCAS CIVILIZATION
 The term “Inca” means “empire”
 Located in the Andes Mountains of South America.
 West coast of South America in Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina.
Capital city was Cuzco Machu Picchu the “lost city of the Incas”.
GOVERNMENT OF INCA
 Ruled by an Emperor called the Sapa Inca and had absolute control.
 Great system of roads adopted from the Mochia.
 - (let armies and news travel rapidly, cut into mountains and had many bridges ordinary
people could not use the roadS.)
RELIGION OF INCA
 Polytheistic
 The Primary God was Inti, the sun God.
 Chosen women dedicated their lives to serving the sun god.
HUMAN SACRIFICE
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 Held a feast, took them to the top of a mountain , gave them something to intoxicate
themOR Were either strangled , hit on the head , or left to die of exposure.
 Involved mainly children
 Happened around an important event
 Could only be perfect children
WHAT HAPPENED TO THE INCA?

 Civil war in the empire broke out and;
 Smallpox spread , killing much of the Inca
 But ultimately, it was Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro that brought about
the fell of the Inca Empire.
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Guardiana, Shaira Mae B.

Hisarza, Jamaldine B.
Lamis, Eruel A.
Lepitin, Sheila Mae N.
Loterte, Floriza B.
Opina, Nick Limuel S.
Palecpec, Paula Doreen
RENAISSANCE
 It is a French word meaning “Rebirth”
 It was the period when there was a surge of interest in and production of art and
literature. It is typically referred to as the period in European History between the year
of 1400- 1600.
 Renaissance thinkers sought to revitalize the concept of culture by re-emphasizing
classical texts and philosophies. They expanded and re-interpreted them, creating their
own style of art, philosophical and scientific enquiry.
Scholars believed that Florence, Italy was the birthplace of the Renaissance because:
 It contained a lot of wealth and power
 Close to trade routes
 Had a lot of Genius Scholars
CAUSES OF THE RENAISSANCE

Increased Interaction between Different Cultures
 While Europe is in the midst of Middle Ages, Feudalism and devout religious faith in the
form of Christianity formed a society that was very rigid- socially, religiously and
politically. This, means that European society at that time was not necessarily open to
change. However, due to the instigation of Renaissance, Europe experienced a shift in
worldview and perspective. (new ideas, views, and beliefs).
 Trade networks across the Europe
 The Crusades
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Rediscovery of Ancient Greek and Roman Texts

 The intellectual culture of the Renaissance was sparked by the rediscovery of these
ancient philosophies and ideas which had largely been ignored in Europe throughout
the Middle Ages. Many of these ancient texts were preserved by Islamic and Jewish
cultures in the Middle East.
 Francesco Petrarch rediscovered earlier work of Cicero.
Emergence of Humanism
 Francesco Petrarch is considered to be the founder of the Humanist Movement- a study
of Greek and Roman texts with the goal of promoting new norms and values in society.
 Renaissance Humanists increased emphasis on the importance of education
Different Artistic and Technological Innovations

 Johannes Gutenberg developed the first printing press in the mid 1400’s which allowed
new ideas to spread easily.
 It challenged the long-held literacy and educational standards that allowed normal
people to read and understand new ideas from the scholars.
 Increased literacy challenged the power of the wealthy, nobility, and the church
 The artistic styles and methods used by Renaissance painters were focused on the
realities of everyday life and real people.
 Famous artists, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, pioneered new skills and
techniques, such as linear perspective, sfumato.
Impacts of Conflicts and Death

 Black Death is the most famous pandemic in all of human history
 Throughout history it has also been referred to as the “Great Mortality” and “Great
Pestilence”
 It causes people to question and challenge their own religious beliefs
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RENAISSANCE GENIUSES
Leonardo da Vinci
 The Mona Lisa
 The Last Supper
Michelangelo
 Statue of David
 Pieta
 The Sistine Chapel in Rome
Raphael
 The School of Athens
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECT AND ASTRONOMER

 Filippo Brunellschi
 Nicolaus Copernicus
RENAISSANCE RELIGION
Rise of Protestantism
 In the 16th century, Martin Luther- German monk, led the Protestant Reformation- a
revolutionary movement that caused a split in the Catholic Church.
 He questioned many of the practices of the church and whether they aligned with the
teachings of the Bible
End of Renaissance
 By the end of 15th century, numerous wars had plagued the Italian Peninsula.
 Changing trade routes led to a period of economic
 Counter-reformation
 In 1545, the Council of Trent, established the Roman Inquisition
 Giving way to the Age of Enlightenment.
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ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
 The Italian Renaissance started in the early 14th century and lasted until the late 16th
century.
 Transition between Medieval Europe and Early New Europe. Before the Italian
Renaissance the time is often referred to as “The Dark Ages”.
 The term was coined in the 19th century to show the difference between the power of
church and the humanist ideals of the Renaissance.
What Lead To The Italian Renaissance?

 The Italian City State
 Politics
 Money
 Humanism
Italian City State

 High Urban
 Divided into smaller city state and territories
 The kingdoms of Naples
 Republic of Florence
 The Papal State
 The Milan
 The Genoa
 The Venice
Politics and Money

 No more Feudalism
 Society was based on merchants and commerce
 Wealthy Florentines flaunted their money and power by becoming patrons, or
supporters of artist and intellectuals.
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THE MEDICI FAMILY

 Florence was controlled by the rich de'Medici family and the renaissance started in this
City State.
 Members of the powerful medici family, which ruled Florence for more than 300 years,
were famous backers of the movement.
 Some of their family members became Pope ( Leo X, Clement VII, Leo XI) , Queen of
Florence ( Catherine de' Medici & Maria de'Medici ) and some are became cardinal of
the Catholic Church.
HUMANISM
 In contrast to the Medieval scholastic mode, which humanists focused on resolving
contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient text in the original, and
appraise them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence.
 5 Humanities: Poetry, Grammar, History, Moral Philosophy, Rhetoric
FAMOUS HUMANISTS
Dante Alighieri
 The divine comedy
 Mixing Religion with a kind of early humanism
 Florence, 14th century
Francesco Petrarch
 Father of Humanism
 a philosophy that helped spark the Renaissance. Petrarch's writing includes well-known
odes to Laura, his idealized love. His writing was also used to shape the modern Italian
language. He died at age 69 on July 18 or 19, 1374, in Arquà, Carrara.
Lorenzo Valla
 “Declamation concerning the False Decretals of Constantine”
 Italian humanist, philosopher, and literary critic who attacked medieval traditions and
anticipated views of the Protestant reformers.
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RENAISSANCE GENIUSES
Donato Di Niccolo Di Betto Bardi
 Early Renaissance sculptor from Florence and one of the first artist who work for the
Medici Family
 Around 1430, Cosimi'de medici, the foremost art patron of his era, commissioned from
Donatello the bronze David for the court of his Palazzo Medici.
Giovanni Bellini
 Venice
 Depth of religious feeling with a human pathos which is his own.
 Most known for his colour and its seen as the father of Venetian colouring techniques
Sandro Botticelli
 Considered to be one of the first true masters of Itallian Renaissance painting
 He is expressing different parts of classical ideals that he felt fit with the life of people in
Florence at the time.
Rene Descartes
 La Haye, France
 French Philosopher and mathematician rthe father of modern philosophy, Famous for
stating , “I think; therefore I am”
 (Mind-Body Dualism)
Galileo Galililei
 Pisa, Italy
 Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer whose pioneering work with telescopes
enabled him to describes the moons of Jupiter and rings of Saturn.
 Heliocentric Universe
William Shakespeare
 Stratford-upon-Avon, England
 England's “national poet” and the most famous playwright of all time, celebrated f his
sonnets and plays like “Romeo and Juliet”
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NORTHERN RENAISSANCE
 The Northern Renaissance is a period in which artists north of the Alps—namely, in the
Low Countries (the Netherlands and Belgium), Germany, France, and England adopted
the ideas of the Italian Renaissance.
 It is characterized by a realistic approach to painting, improved techniques, and the
proliferation of printmaking.
 In the 15th century, artistic tastes throughout Europe started to shift. This change
resulted in a period known as the Renaissance, a 300-year “golden age” of
enlightenment
 This transformation touched many countries across the continent, culminating in a
separate but simultaneous movement known as the Northern Renaissance.
 During this time, art in Europe was usually religious, and, though often rendered in
expressive detail, displayed little interest in perspective and human realism.
 Around the year 1400, Italian artists began to emulate Classical sculpture in their work.
 The invention of the printing press 50 years later, these ideas would spread across the
continent, inspiring northern artists to embrace a likeminded approach to artistic
representation.
 Achievements
While the Italian Renaissance is known for its advancements in color, understanding of
anatomy, and renewed interest in secular subject matter, the northern movement is celebrated
for realistic altarpieces and portraits, exquisite brushwork, and popularization of prints.
REALISM
 Unlike Italian artists who shifted away from religious iconography, many northern artists
continued to produce altarpieces throughout the Renaissance. Unlike previous church
commissions that featured flat perspective, stylized figures, and ethereal backdrops,
however, these new works showcased an interest in depth, realistic people, and
everyday settings.
CONTRIBUTION TO CIVILIZATION
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 Renaissance produced several of the greatest artists who ever lived, the greatest mind
of all time and set up Europe for the Protestant Revolution.
 What is humanism?
- Humanism is a Renaissance movement in philosophy towards a more human-
centered (and less religion-centered) approach.
- A well-known *reformer during this period is Martin Luther.
- *these are people who wanted to change the view of people in Christianism.
In terms of Art:
 Renaissance art was characterized by naturalism and realism. Artists strived it depict
people and objects in a true to life way. They also used techniques, such as perspective,
shadows and light to add depth to their work. Emotion was another quality that artists
tried to infuse into their pieces.
 Naturalism in arts refes to the depiction of realistic objects in a natural setting. It focuses
on poorly educated or lower class subject and also violence and taboo activities.
 Realism was led by Gustave Courbet in France. Generally the attempt to faithful
representation of life. Focuses more on middle class and its problems.
In terms of Science:
 Leonardo da Vinci would study anatomy to better understand the human body so they
could create better paintings and sculptures. Filippo Brunelleschi made advances in
math in order to design buildings.
 Printing Press
The most important invention of the Renaissance, and perhaps in the history of the world, was
the printing press. It was invented by German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440. By 1500 there
were printing presses throughout Europe. The printing press allowed for information to be
distributed to a wide audience. This helped to spread new scientific discoveries as well, allowing
scientists to share their works and learn from each other.
 Microscope/Telescope/Eyeglasses
Both the microscope and the telescope were invented during the Renaissance. This was due to
improvements in making lenses. These improved lenses also helped with making eyeglasses,
which would be needed with the invention of the printing press and more people reading.
 Clock
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The first mechanical clock was invented during the early Renaissance. Improvements were
made by Galileo who invented the pendulum in 1581. This invention allowed clocks to be made
that were much more accurate.
 Warfare
There were also inventions that advanced warfare. This included cannons and muskets which
fired metal balls using gunpowder. These new weapons signaled the end of both the Middle
Age castle and the knight.
REFORMATION: THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

 The Church was strongly criticized because of the system it follows. One of thia system is
the habitual way of bishop of buying and paying just to have a position.
 The first move of reformation will all start at Martin Luther.
Martin Luther
 Born on (November 10 1483- February 18 1546)
 His parents were relatively wealthy. e studied at Magdeburg and Eisenach
 • He took law at first, then study Aristotle teachings
 He was a German monk who became the father of the Protestant Reformation.
95 THESES AND THE CONTROVERSY OF INDULGENCE

 On 1517 the Reformation ignited when Martin Luther criticized and oppose the
Indulgence.
 On 1517 Johann Tetzel went to Wittenberg to sell his Indulgence because of the said
reason. For the renovation of St. Peter's Basilica
 For paying the debt of a local archbishop on buying a position to a Pope.
 On ninety-five thesis Martin Luther states that, through faith everyone will come on the
salvation not just on making good deeds.
 The spread of ninety-five thesis which is being published at Saxony by the students of
Luther triggered the Catholic Church to give him
 Martin Luther decided to seek protection on Frederick an elector of Saxony with a high
position because of this his sanction has been cancelled.
 On 1520, Martin Luther was being chased by the Church and at that time his writing
we're already spread.
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OTHER WRITINGS OF MARTIN LUTHER

 Address of the Christian Nobility of the German Nation published in the year 1520
 The freedom of the Christian Man that was published in year 1520
 In the year 1521. Martin Luther was invited by the Holy Roman Empire which is Charles
V to join on the Diet of Worms in which Luther would be able to share his ideology and
apologized for his disrespect towards the church
 Address of the Christian Nobility of the German Nation published in the year 1520
 The freedom of the Christian Man that was published in year 1520
 In the year 1521. Martin Luther was invited by the Holy Roman Empire which is Charles
V to join on the Diet of Worms in which Luther would be able to share his ideology and
apologized for his disrespect towards the church
THE SPREAD OF REFORMATION

Some reasons why Catholicism weakened at Germany
 Germans oppose the rules of Church like:
- Germans Providing money for the Rome to give it to Church as a tax.
- German Farmers suffers a 10% tax for their crops.
 Monarch was able to seek a way to get back their own land and to oppose the power of
Charles V which had planned to influence the Princes' of German.
REFORMATION: THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION

The Revolt of the Farmers
 This happen in the year 1524-1525. It was called as the “Peasants war”. It was inspired
by the changes brought by the reformation but it was later condemned by Martin Luther
saying that people should still respect the authority.
The Peace of Augsburg

 The Peace of Augsburg is an agreement between Charles V and the forces Schmalkaldic
League om September 25, 1555.
 The agreement states a dictum that " cuius regio, eius religio" "whoever rules his
religion"
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 The Germany was being divide because of having Protestantism at the North and
Catholicism at the South. (last until the 19th Century)
Ulrich Zwingli (1481-1531)

 came from Switzerland. He was influenced by Humanism by Erasmus and known be one
of the critiques about the Swiss policy. He also condemns indulgence by the Catholic
Church. The ideas of Zwingli are based on reading and analysing the old and New
Testament.
John Calvin
 He is also contributed on the spread of Protestantism in Europe. He believed in
predestination
COUNTER-REFORMATION
 Period of spiritual, moral, and intellectual revival in the Catholic Church in the 16th and
17th centuries, usually dated from 1545 (the opening of the Council of Trent) to 1648
(the end of the Thirty Years' War). While it is normally seen as a reaction to the
Protestant Reformation, the Counter-Reformation has roots going back to the 15th
century, and is therefore sometimes called the Catholic Revival or the Catholic
Reformation
The Early Roots of the Counter-Reformation
 With the waning of the Catholic Middle Ages and the dawn of an increasingly secular
and political modern age in the 14th century, the Catholic Church found herself affected
by trends in the broader culture. Through a series of reforms of religious orders, such as
the Benedictines, Cistercians, and Franciscans, in the 14th and 15th centuries, the
Church tried to elevate the preaching of the gospel and to call laypeople back to
Catholic morality.
 Many problems, however, had deeper roots that affected the very structure of the
Church. In 1512, the Fifth Lateran Council attempted a series of reforms for what are
known as secular priests—that is, clergy who belong to a regular diocese rather than to
a religious order.
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 Before the Fifth Lateran Council, Cardinal Farnese had a longtime mistress, with whom
he had four children. But the council pricked his conscience, and he reformed his life in
the years immediately before a German monk by the name of Martin Luther set out to
reform the Catholic Church—and ended up sparking the Protestant Reformation.
The Catholic Response to the Protestant Reformation

 Martin Luther's 95 Theses set the Catholic world on fire in 1517, and nearly 25 years
after the Catholic Church condemned Luther's theological errors at the Diet of Worms
(1521), Pope Paul III attempted to put out the flames by convening the Council of Trent
(1545-63).
 But the Council of Trent addressed structural problems within the Catholic Church as
well, many of which had been cited by Luther and other Protestant reformers
 Through the council's reforms, the practice of appointing secular rulers as bishops came
to an end, as did the sale of indulgences, which Martin Luther had used as a reason to
attack the Church's teaching on the existence of, and need for, Purgatory.
 The Council of Trent ordered the writing and publishing of a new catechism to make it
clear what the Catholic Church taught, and called for reforms in the Mass, which were
made by Pius V, who became pope in 1566 (three years after the council ended). The
Mass of Pope Pius V (1570), often regarded as the crown jewel of the Counter-
Reformation, is today known as the Traditional Latin Mass or (since the release of Pope
Benedict XVI's Summorum Pontificum) the Extraordinary Form of the Mass.
Petate, Ellaica Jane D.

Pielago, Danielle Anne H.
Ragot, Marielle S.
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Samson, Christine P.
Samuya Jr., Celestino M.
Sartiel, Jerome V.
Torres, Cedie Jay M.
Unabia, Irish Crystal N.
Uriarte, Sophia Mae L.
AGE OF EXPLORATION AND THE EXPLORERS

During the fifteenth and the sixteenth century, the states of Europe began their modern
exploration of the world with a series of sea voyages
 Spain and Portugal were foremost in this enterprise.
 These explorations increased European knowledge of the wider world, particularly in
relation to sub-Saharan Africa and the Americas.
 These explorations were frequently connected to conquest and missionary work, as the
states of Europe attempted to increase their influence, both in political and religious
terms, throughout the world.
Why did explorations happen?

 A variety of factors all came together to make the time period (1450- 1700) the “ Age of
Exploration”
 Some of these factors were agricultural and other resources they wished to have (gold,
silver, spices, precious stones, etc.)
 Some were pulls, motivations and
What factors were pushing Europeans to explore?

 Decline of Mongol Empire in 1400s made goods from the east harder to get, more
expensive
 Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 was a major block to trade.
The First G: Gold

 Gold was a hot item that explorers were looking for, but it is really wealth, not just
literal gold that explorers were after.
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 Europe needed gold (and silver) to fuel the rising banking system
 Europeans also desired spices (Da Gama’ s voyage to India made him a 3000% profit!)
 Other natural resources would come to be sold for profit as well (timber, sugar, tobacco,
ivory, etc.)
 This competition will be enhanced by the idea of mercantilism that emerges, the idea
that there is only so much wealth in the world, and that to make your kingdom strong
you must have more gold and wealth than the other kingdoms
The second G: Glory

 Just like the first G, Gold, Glory was a relatively new idea in Europe
 Came out of the Renaissance ideal of Humanism, and the focus on individual
achievement
 With the rise of the printing press, the idea of gaining fame for one’s actions was more
possible
 Also, individual kings wanted glory for their kingdoms; competition spreads the Triumph
of Fame, a Flemish tapestry from 1502.
The third G: God

 As members of a universalizing religion, Europeans had always seen spreading
Christianity as a good thing
 Especially after the Reformation, competition will spring up
 Colonization will become a race to convert native peoples to a particular brand of
Christianity
 Jesuits (Catholics) are some of the most active
 New technologies enabled explorations
 The caravel was a new, faster, more maneuverable ship
 Caravels had triangular sails (easier to change direction)
 Bilge pump system enabled ship to float higher (less likely to run aground, easier to
explore coasts and rivers)
 Compass, astrolabe, maps, sextant and other technologies from Islamic culture all
helped make explorations possible
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 New Maritime Technology Hartman Astrolabe (1532) Mariner’s Compass Better Maps
Sextant
New Weapons Technology

 Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal – Began exploring the western and SW coasts of
Africa.
 Bartolomeu Diaz – rounded the southern tip of Africa in 1488.
How did these explorations begin?

 The first to encourage new ship explorations was Prince Henry of Portugal, known as “
Prince Henry the Navigator”
 Started an institute for seafaring and exploring
 Combined ship technology learned from Islam with new European innovations
 By the time of his death in 1460, Portuguese had sailed as far south as the Gold Coast of
West Africa
The Explorers: Portugal

 Sailed around Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa
 Found route to Indian Ocean
 Trade can go from Europe to Asia by sea Bartolomeu Diaz
Vasco da Gama Voyage
 Vasco da Gama - Sailed around the continent of Africa and reached India in 1498.
Opened a trade route with Asia.
 Landed in India in 1498
 Important trade route from Europe to India and East Indies
Ferdinand Magellan
 His crew made first voyage around the world
 Proved for certain that the world was round
 Magellan was killed in the Philippines, did not make it home
Christopher Columbus
Columbus’ Voyages to America
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 Columbus was the first to create extended interest in the New World and make it a
centerpiece of colonization efforts by the Spanish, French, English, and others.
 Christopher Columbus: Italian born in Genoa,
 He had lived for years in Portugal,
 Bookseller, a mapmaker, and a sailor.
 Sailing to Iceland in the North Atlantic and down the coast of Africa in the South
Atlantic.
 Columbus believed that the Earth was round, not flat.
 The Ocean Sea was seen as a great expanse of water surrounding much of Eurasia and
Africa, stretching from Europe to China and Japan in the Far East.
 If a ship left the coast of Europe, sailed west toward the setting sun, and circled the
globe, it would reach the shores of Asia—or so Columbus thought.
 In the past, European explorers and traders had taken the overland route to the Far
East, with its precious silks and spices. They traveled for months by horse and camel
along the Silk Road, an ancient caravan trail that crossed deserts and climbed dizzying
mountain peaks.
 But recently, this land route to Asia, controlled in part by the Turks, had been closed to
Europeans. Also, European trades encountered attacks from the pirates.
 Columbus was convinced that he could find an easier and faster route to Asia by sailing
west.
 In 1484, he proposed his bold scheme of sailing west to China to King John II of Portugal,
and then submitted the Italian sailor's plan to a committee of mapmakers, astronomers,
and geographers. The experts declared that Asia must be much farther away than
Columbus thought.
 Columbus decided to approach King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain; They were
curious about the route to Asia that Columbus proposed. Like King John, they too
appointed a committee of inquiry to consider the matter, but those experts came to the
same negative conclusion: Columbus's claim about the distance to China and the ease of
sailing there could not possibly be true. Columbus persisted. He talked at length to
members of the Spanish court and convinced some of them, but Ferdinand and Isabella
twice rejected his appeal for ships. Finally, he threatened to seek support from the king
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of France. Columbus actually set out for France, riding a mule down a dusty Spanish
road.
 Royal advisors persuaded Ferdinand and Isabella to change their minds. If another king
sponsored Columbus, and his expedition turned out to be a success, then the Spanish
monarchs would be embarrassed. They would be criticized in Spain. “Let Columbus risk
his life”, the advisors said. “Let him seek out the grandeurs and secrets of the universe."
If he succeeded, Spain would win much glory and would overcome the Portuguese lead
in the race to exploit the riches of Asia.
 Ferdinand and Isabella decided to take a chance. They were ready to grant him a
hereditary title, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, and the right to a tenth of any riches—pearls,
gold, silver, silks, spices— that he brought back from his voyage. And they agreed to
supply two ships for his expedition.
 August 3, 1492, the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa María sailed from the port of Palos,
Spain, carrying some ninety crew members in all. Columbus kept several hourglasses to
mark the passage of time, a compass, and an astrolabe, an instrument for calculating
latitude by observing the movement of the sun.
 The little fleet stopped for repairs at La Gomera in the Canary Islands, a Spanish
possession off the coast of Morocco. On September 6, Columbus and his three ships set
sail again, heading due west, moving now through the unknown waters of the Ocean
Sea. Five weeks later, on October 12, his worried crew finally sighted land.
Voyages of Columbus
 Columbus tells us a few things about these now-extinct people. He was impressed by
their good looks and apparent robust health. "They are very well-built people, with
handsome bodies and very fine faces," he wrote in his log. "Their eyes are large and very
pretty. . . . These are tall people and their legs, with no exceptions, are quite straight,
and none of them has a paunch." Many of the Tainos had painted their faces or their
whole bodies black or white or red. And as Columbus and his men noticed right away,
some of them wore gold earrings and nose rings. They offered gifts to the European
visitors—parrots, wooden javelins, and balls of cotton thread.
 They proceeded onward and landed in Cuba. Finally, they continued onward, arriving at
the island of Hispaniola, which is modern-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
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 He returned to a triumphant welcome. It was said that when Ferdinand and Isabella
received him at their court in Barcelona.
 A second voyage was planned. This time, the monarchs gave Columbus seventeen ships,
about fifteen hundred men, and a few women to colonize the islands. He was instructed
to continue his explorations, establish gold mines, install settlers, develop trade with the
Indians, and convert them to Christianity.
 When he returned to Hispaniola on his third voyage in 1498, he found the island in
turmoil, torn by rivalries and disagreements among the settlers. Many colonists, unable
to make a living from the gold mines or by farming, were clamoring to return to Spain.
Others, rivals of Columbus who wanted to gain control of the colony, rebelled against
his rule.
 Columbus died in a Spanish monastery on May 20, 1506, at the age of fifty-seven, still
believing that he had found a new route to Asia, and that China and Japan lay just
beyond the islands he had explored. By then, other explorers were following the sea
route pioneered by the Admiral of the Ocean Sea, and Europeans were already speaking
of Columbus's discoveries as a "New World."
 Christopher Columbus did all the discovering, yet it was Americus Vespucci whose name
got put on the land
 Now Americus Vespucci was an adventurer just like Columbus. He made several trips
across the ocean and went way down the coast of South America
 But what made him famous was that he wrote about his trips. His letters were so
fascinating that everyone wanted to read them. And, thanks to Gutenberg’s printing
press, many people did.
 Amerigo Vespucci did something else that was important: He understood that there
was a huge continent over here, a continent new to Europeans, and he said so in his
writings. He called it a “New World.”
 Vespucci looked at the land of South America with an open mind.
 “In those southern parts, I have found a continent more densely peopled and abounding
in animals than our Europe or Asia or Africa.”.
 A man named Martin Waldseemuller actually named America. He was a printer and
mapmaker who was fascinated by Vespucious’s letters.
 In 1507 Waldseemuller printed a huge world map, and on it he put a new continent.
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 Waldseemuller used information from the voyages of Columbus and Vespucci to make
the map. He decided to put the name America on the southern continent, since Amerigo
had written about it.
Line of Demarcation
The Age of Exploration
 France and the Netherlands.
 Samuel de Champlain explored the St. Lawrence River.
 In 1608, he founded a fur-trading post at Quebec. This post became the first permanent
French settlement in North America. Champlain’s activities opened a rich fur trade with
local Native Americans.
o New France.
 The Dutch were building a colony: New Amsterdam.
 It was located along the Hudson River in present-day New York.
 After Hudson’s voyage up the river in 1609, the Dutch built Fort Nassau in 1614, near
the site of the modern city of Albany.
 In 1626, the Dutch bought Manhattan Island from Native Americans.
 The colony was soon thriving from the fur trade with Native Americans.
EUROPEAN COLONIZATION AND OVERSEAS EMPIRES
GERMAN EMPIRE
The German colonial empire was an overseas area formed in the late nineteenth
century as part of the Hohenzollern dynasty's German Empire. Short-lived colonial efforts by
individual German states had occurred in preceding centuries, but Imperial Germany's colonial
efforts began in 1883. The German colonial empire ended with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919
following World War I when its territories were confiscated and distributed to the victors under
the new system of mandates set up by the League of Nations. Initially reluctant to enter the
race for colonies because of its tradition of expansion within the European space, Germany's
renewed attempt to conquer Europe in World War I resulted in loss of its overseas possessions.
At various times, Germany (as the Holy Roman Empire) had included Northern Italy, Austria,
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Switzerland, Holland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, what is now the Czech Republic, Slovenia,
Belgium and parts of Poland. Parallels have been made between use of death camps during the
revolt in German West Africa 1904-1905 and Adolf Hitler's "final solution" to what he called the
"Jewish problem." The colonial territories were ruled in the same way that Germany was
governed, more or less from the top down. On the other hand, Germany's disengagement from
colonialism took place in such a way that protracted wars of independence were avoided.
Germany's history in the twentieth century resulted in reflection on the colonial experience
receiving less attention than it has had in other former colonial powers. Instead, Germany's role
in two World Wars and the Holocaust has dominated thinking in terms of re-negotiating
national identity.
Owing to its delayed unification by land-oriented Prussia in 1871, Germany came late to
the imperialist scramble for remote colonial territory—their so-called "place in the sun." The
German states prior to 1870 had retained separate political structures and goals, and German
foreign policy up to and including the age of Otto von Bismarck concentrated on resolving the
"German question" in Europe and securing German interests on that same continent. On the
other hand, Germans had traditions of foreign sea-borne trade dating back to the Hanseatic
League; a tradition existed of German emigration (eastward in the direction of Russia and
Romania and westward to North America); and North German merchants and missionaries
showed lively interest in overseas lands.
Many Germans in the late nineteenth century viewed colonial acquisitions as a true
indication of having achieved nationhood, and the demand for prestigious colonies went hand-
in-hand with dreams of a High Seas Fleet, which would become reality and be perceived as a
threat by the United Kingdom. Initially, Bismarck—whose Prussian heritage had always
regarded Europe as the space in which German imperialist ambition found expression—
opposed the idea of seeking colonies. He argued that that the burden of obtaining and
defending them would outweigh the potential benefits. During the late 1870s, however, public
opinion shifted to favor the idea of a colonial empire. During the early 1880s, Germany joined
other European powers in the “Scramble for Africa.” Among Germany's colonies were German
Togoland (now part of Ghana and Togo), Cameroon, German East Africa (now Rwanda, Burundi,
and Tanzania), and German South-West Africa (now Namibia). The Berlin Conference of 1884-
85, which Bismarck organized, established regulations for the acquisition of African colonies; in
particular, it protected free trade in certain parts of the Congo River.
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Because Germany was so late to join the race for colonial territories, most of the world
had already been carved up by the other European powers; in some regions the trend was
already towards decolonization, especially in the continental Americas, encouraged by the
American Revolution, French Revolution, and Napoleon Bonaparte. In the Scramble for Africa,
Germany lagged behind smaller and less-powerful nations, so that even Italy's colonial empire
was larger. Geography helped Italy, whose African possessions, like France's, started
immediately to the South of Italy across the Mediterranean. 1883 was late in the day to enter
the colonial race.
Colonial Polity
Germany did not attempt to re-mold its colonial subjects in the German image in the
way that the French and the British tried to mold their subjects in their image. While the French
and the English instituted policies that spread their languages and culture, Germany restricted
use of German to a small number of elite colonial subjects. Germany did not actually profit
from colonialism, since the expenses incurred in administration were greater than revenues
generated. Colonies were regarded as overspill for German settlers, rather than as territories to
be developed and eventually granted autonomy, or independence. In fact, only small numbers
of Germans relocated to the colonies. Rebellions when they took place were brutally crushed.
The most well-known incident of rebellion took place in German South West Africa (now
Namibia), where, when the Herero people rose in rebellion (known as the Maji-Maji rebellion)
in 1904, they were crushed by German troops; tens of thousands of natives died during the
resulting genocide. Parallels have been made between use of death camps and concentration
camps during this period, and those of the Third Reich in its effort to exterminate the Jewish
people.[1]
End of the Colonial Empire
Germany's defeat in World War I resulted in the Allied Powers dissolving and re-assigning the
empire, mainly at and its subsequent peace at the Paris Peace Conference (1919)
In the treaties Japan gained the Carolines and Marianas, France gained Cameroons,
Belgium gained small parts of German East Africa, and the United Kingdom gained the
remainder, as well as German New Guinea, Namibia, and Samoa. Togoland was divided
between France and Britain. Most of these territories acquired by the British were attached to
its various Commonwealth realms overseas and were transferred to them upon their
independence. Namibia was granted to South Africa as a League of Nations mandate. Western
Samoa was run as a class C League of Nations mandate by New Zealand and Rabaul along the
58
same lines by Australia. This placing of responsibility on white-settler dominions was at the time
perceived to be the cheapest option for the British government, although it did have the bizarre
result of British colonies having their own colonies. This outcome was very much influenced by
W.M. Hughes, the Australian Prime Minister, who was astounded to find that the big four
planned to give German New Guinea to Japan. Hughes insisted that New Guinea would stay in
Australian hands, with the troops there defending it by force if necessary. Hughes achievement
in preventing Japan occupying New Guinea was of vital importance in World War II.
William II, German Emperor, was so frustrated by the defeat of his European generals
that he declared that Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, the German general in charge in East Africa,
should be the only German officer allowed to lead his soldiers in a victory parade through the
Brandenburg Gate. Vorbeck was the only undefeated German general of the war, and the only
one to set foot in British territory
BRITISH EMPIRE
The British Empire is the most extensive empire in world history and for a time was the
foremost global power. It was a product of the European age of discovery, which began with
the global maritime explorations of Portugal and Spain in the late fifteenth century.
By 1921, the British Empire ruled a population of between 470 and 570 million people,
approximately one-quarter of the world's population. It covered about 14.3 million square
miles (more than 37 million square kilometers), about a quarter of Earth's total land area.
Though it has now mostly evolved into the Commonwealth of Nations, British influence remains
strong throughout the world: in economic practice, legal and governmental systems, sports
(such as cricket and football), and the English language itself.
The British Empire was, at one time, referred to as "the empire on which the sun never
sets" (a phrase previously used to describe the Spanish Empire and later to American influence
in the world) because the empire's span across the globe ensured that the sun was always
shining on at least one of its numerous colonies. On the one hand, the British developed a
sense of their own destiny and moral responsibility in the world, believing that many of her
colonial subjects required guidance, that it was British rule that prevented anarchy and chaos.
Positively, the education system sponsored by the British promulgated an awareness of such
values as freedom, human dignity, equality—even though those taught often observed that
their colonial masters did not practice what they preached. Negatively, peoples and resources
59
were exploited at Britain's advantage and more often than not at the cost of her overseas
possessions.
Many British thought their ascendancy providential, part of the divine plan. Anyone who
believes that history is not merely a series of accidents might well see God's hand behind the
creation of an empire that, despite all the ills of an imperial system imposed on unwilling
subjects, also left a cultural, literary, legal and political legacy that binds people of different
religions and races together.
The origin of the British Empire as territorial expansion beyond the shores of Europe lies
in the pioneering maritime policies of King Henry VII, who reigned 1485 to 1509. Building on
commercial links in the wool trade promoted during the reign of King Richard III of England,
Henry established the modern English merchant marine system, which greatly expanded
English shipbuilding and seafaring. The merchant fleet also supplied the basis for the mercantile
institutions that would play such a crucial role in later British imperial ventures, such as the
Massachusetts Bay Company and the British East India Company chartered by Henry's grand-
daughter, Elizabeth I. Henry's financial reforms made the English Exchequer solvent, which
helped to underwrite the development of the Merchant Marine. Henry also ordered
construction of the first English dry dock at Portsmouth, and made improvements to England's
small Royal Navy. Additionally, he sponsored the voyages of the Italian mariner John Cabot in
1496 and 1497 that established England's first overseas colony—a fishing settlement—in
Newfoundland, which Cabot claimed on behalf of Henry.
FRENCH EMPIRE
France had colonial possessions, in various forms, from the beginning of the 17th
century until the 1960s. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, its global colonial empire
was the second largest behind the British Empire. At its peak, between 1919 and 1939, the
second French colonial empire extended over 12,347,000 km² (4,767,000 sq. miles) of land.
Including metropolitan France, the total area of land under French sovereignty reached
12,898,000 km² (4,980,000 sq. miles) in the 1920s and 1930s, which is 8.6 percent of the
world's land area.
Currently, the remnants of this large empire are various islands and archipelagos located
in the North Atlantic, the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean, the South Pacific, the North Pacific, and
the Antarctic Ocean, as well as one mainland territory in South America, totaling altogether
123,150 km² (47,548 sq. miles), which amounts to only 1 percent of the pre-1939 French
60
colonial empire's area, with 2,564,000 people living in them in 2007. All of these enjoy full
political representation at the national level, as well as varying degrees of legislative autonomy.
In the twentieth centuries, several wars took place as colonies asserted their right to freedom
most notably in what became Vietnam and in Algeria. To some extent, this subsequently made
it difficult for France to be seen as the friend of freedom. On the other hand, relations between
France and many former colonies, where French is still widely spoken, have been positive.
Almost all former colonies belonged to the "French Community," before this was
dissolved during the war in Algeria. Traditionally, France has distanced itself from the foreign
policies of some of its closest allies, such as the United States in order both to protect its own
interests and to mediate from a more neutral stance. This has been especially true in relation
with the Arab world, where it had League of Nations mandated territory where it has
attempted to retain ties with, for example, both Syria and Lebanon despite issues about Syrian
interference in Lebanese politics. France gives considerable aid to former colonies. It has
military agreements with some. Debate continues in France about whether in teaching French
history, so-called positive aspects of the colonial enterprise should be included, such as the
building of infrastructure and the establishment of schools and health-care systems, as well as
the rule of law. Others argue that most of what can be described as "positive" mainly benefited
French settlers.[1] Whether colonialism can properly be described as having had positive
aspects or not, it created cultural and linguistic links across the globe and helped to create
consciousness that in the end all humans occupy a single planetary home, which, if not kept
healthy and sustainable, will become our common grave. The French may not have actually
spread Liberté, égalité, and fraternité throughout their empire but their own literature and
revolutionary legacy did inspire many to aspire for freedom, self-reliance, and dignity.
French imperialism stemmed partly from rivalry and competition with her neighbors,
initially Spain and Portugal and later with the British Empire and partly from commercial and
economic interests. The main period of French colonial expansion took place after the
establishment of the Third Republic in 1870. Napoleon III's war with Prussia burdened France
with reparations that had to be paid. In addition, however, the French saw themselves as
promoting the values of the Enlightenment and as extending and glorifying French culture, even
as recreating the Roman imperial space that had existed on both sides of the Mediterranean.[2]
Given France's republican identity at this time, the idea of promoting democracy—even though
democratization was very limited in the colonial space—was also a factor in France's imperial
project. Algeria, which from as early as 1848 was a department of France and so officially no
61
longer a colony, was regarded as an extension of France into Africa, which, in the tradition of
the Roman Empire, was not really seen as radically different from the European space. To some
extent, this was true of the whole of French Africa, which stretched, in a contiguous line, from
the North to the Gold Coast except (until 1914) for German Cameroon. The process of
Frenchification was meant to bind people across ethnic and racial differences into a single
Francophone and Francophile community. To some degree, racism based on skin-color was not
as rampant within the French as within other imperial spaces. In the French space, adoption of
French culture overrode ethnicity.
DUTCH EMPIRE
The Dutch Empire is the name given to the various territories controlled by the
Netherlands from the seventeenth to the twentieth century. The Dutch followed Portugal and
Spain in establishing a colonial global empire outside of continental Europe. Their skills in
shipping and trading and the surge of nationalism and militarism accompanying the struggle for
independence from Spain aided the venture. Alongside the British, the Dutch initially built up
colonial possessions on the basis of indirect state capitalist corporate colonialism, primarily
with the Dutch East India Company. Direct state intervention in the colonial enterprise came
later. Dutch merchants and sailors also participated in the surge of exploration that unfolded in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, though the vast new territories revealed by Willem
Barents, Henry Hudson, Willem Janszoon, and Abel Tasman in the Arctic and in
Australasia/Oceania did not generally become permanent Dutch colonies.
3 Colonies
 Asia  South Africa
 Dutch East India Company and the  The Americas
Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)  New Netherland
 Dutch Ceylon (Sri Lanka)  Pakistan
 Formosa (Taiwan)  Dutch West Indies
 Malacca  Suriname
 Deshima  Guyana
 New Hollan  Brazil
 Iran  Virgin Islands
 Pakistan  Tobago
62
 Europe
Motivations for colonization: The French colonized North America to create trading posts for
the fur trade.
The original intent of Dutch colonization was to find a path to Asia through North America, but
after finding the fur trade profitable, the Dutch claimed the area of New Netherlands.
The Dutch colonial empire (Dutch: Het Nederlandse Koloniale Rijk) comprised the
overseas territories and trading posts controlled and administered by Dutch chartered
companies (mainly the Dutch West India and the Dutch East India Company) and subsequently
by the Dutch Republic (1581–1795), and by the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands after 1815.
[2] It was initially a trade-based system which derived most of its influence from merchant
enterprise and from Dutch control of international maritime shipping routes through
strategically placed outposts, rather than from expansive territorial ventures.[3][2] With a few
notable exceptions, the majority of the Dutch colonial empire's overseas holdings consisted of
coastal forts, factories, and port settlements with varying degrees of incorporation of their
hinterlands and surrounding regions.[3] Dutch chartered companies often dictated that their
possessions be kept as confined as possible in order to avoid unnecessary expense,[4] and while
some such as the Dutch Cape Colony (modern South Africa) and Dutch East Indies (today's
Indonesia) expanded anyway (due to the pressure of independent-minded Dutch colonists),
others remained undeveloped, isolated trading centres dependent on an indigenous host-
nation.[3] This reflected the primary purpose of the Dutch colonial empire: commercial
exchange as opposed to sovereignty over homogeneous landmasses.
BELGIAN EMPIRE
The Belgian colonial empire consisted of three African colonies possessed by Belgium
between 1901 to 1962. This empire was unlike those of the major European imperial powers,
since 98 percent of it was just one colony (about 76 times larger than Belgium)—the Belgian
Congo—and that had originated as the private property of the country's king, King Leopold II,
rather than being gained through the political action of the Belgian state. It was, however, the
third largest colonial territory in Africa; in contrast, the possessions of Belgium's more powerful
neighbor, Germany, came sixth in size.
Leopold II became known as the "Butcher of the Congo," where millions of Africans died
as a result of the brutality of his rule. Conditions in the colonies did improve after the Belgian
government assumed direct control after 1908. However, when independence came, the
63
territories were ill-prepared for self-governance since little effort had been made to train and
equip an African leadership. Belgians, including their government, adopted an ambivalent, even
indifferent attitude towards their empire. Political instability created by tension between clan
and central leadership in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo, and tribal rivalry
leading to genocide in Rwanda are at least in part the result of a colonial legacy that took far
more from Africa than it gave. Autocratic rule did not need to find ways of negotiating how
different factions could cooperate within a sustainable, participatory system of governance or
access a fair share of resources.
Belgium, a constitutional monarchy, received its independence in 1830 after a
revolution against the Dutch government of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. By the
time Belgian independence was universally recognized in 1839, most European powers already
had colonies and protectorates outside Europe and had begun to form spheres of influence.
During the 1840s and 50s, King Leopold I tentatively supported several proposals to
acquire territories overseas. In 1843, he signed a contract with Ladd & Co. to colonize the
Kingdom of Hawaii, but the deal fell apart when Ladd & Co. ran into financial difficulties.[1]
Belgian traders also extended their influence in West Africa but this too fell apart following the
Rio Nuñez Incident of 1849 and growing Anglo-French rivalry in the region.
By the time Belgium's second king, Leopold II, was crowned, Belgian enthusiasm for
colonialism had abated. Successive governments viewed colonial expansion as economically
and politically risky and fundamentally unrewarding, and believed that informal empire,
continuing Belgium's booming industrial trade in South America and Russia, was much more
promising. As a result, Leopold pursued his colonial ambitions without the support of the
Belgian government.
Legacy
The former Belgian colonies have experienced a series of coups, civil wars and have a history of
political instability. The former colonial power cannot be solely blamed for all the atrocities and
political instability that has characterized life in its now defunct empire, but a significant degree
of responsibility is attributable. Arguably, in comparison with other colonial powers in Africa,
Belgium did less to prepare its overseas subjects for political independence, investing little in
education and training, and extracted the riches of its colonies at enormous human cost.
ITALIAN EMPIRE (1936- 1943)
 Libya
 Ethiopia
64
 Eritrea
 Somalia
The Italian colonial empire was created after Italy joined other European powers in
establishing colonies overseas during the "scramble for Africa." Italy as a unified state had only
existed since 1861, by which time Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, Britain, and France had
already carved out large empires over several hundred years, and one of the last remaining
areas open to colonization was on the African continent. At the same time, recently unified
Germany also embarked on a colonial project. However, Allied forces eventually captured
Italian overseas colonies and by the time Italy itself was invaded in 1943, its empire had all but
ceased to exist. Without denying all the negative aspects of colonialism, enduring links have
continued between some former colonies and their former colonizers. This is the case with the
French and British colonial legacies, for example. This did not happen between Italy and its
former colonies. Perhaps, while these other empires were at least partly motivated by
commerce, which tends to ensure some degree of mutual benefit (even if one party benefits
more than the other), in contrast, the Italian empire was solely motivated by the desire for
imperial glory. This raises interesting questions about how the experience of colonialism is
assessed and evaluated in terms of what lessons can be learned, if any, from this history. It may
be invidious to adjudicate that some empires were more positive, less evil, than others.
However, the world has been shaped and molded by the creation and break-up of Empires.
That the world community can speak about shared values and universal human rights to a large
degree follow from the fact that huge portions of the planet formerly lived under imperial rule.
In that some empires made a greater contribution than others did to creating awareness of
human inter-dependence, it may not be improper to evaluate them in more positive terms.
The Italian Empire was created by the Kingdom of Italy between 1861 and 1943. Italy, which
itself had only unified in 1861, very quickly sought to establish itself as a global power.
However, other European powers had established empires of their own over the centuries
prior. Italy joined in the carving up of Africa. By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy had
annexed Eritrea and Somalia, and had wrested control of portions of the Ottoman Empire,
including Libya. The Fascist government under Benito Mussolini was able to increase the size of
the empire further, taking Ethiopia in 1935, and Albania in 1939. Italy sided with Nazi Germany
during World War II and initially enjoyed some benefits, including occupying parts of France.
However, the Allies systematically captured Italy's overseas colonies and by the time Italy itself
was invaded in 1943, its empire had all but ceased to exist.
65
Over the next two decades, the pace of European acquisitions in Africa increased,
causing the so-called "Scramble for Africa". By the start of the First World War in 1914, Italy had
acquired in Africa the colony of Eritrea on the Red Sea coast, a large protectorate and later
colony in Somalia, and authority in formerly Ottoman Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (gained after
the Italo-Turkish War) which were later unified in the colony of Libya.
Outside Africa, Italy possessed the Dodecanese Islands off the coast of Turkey (following
the Italo-Turkish War) and a concession in Tianjin in China (following the Boxer War). During the
First World War, Italy occupied southern Albania to prevent it from falling to Austria-Hungary.
In 1917, it established a protectorate over Albania, which remained in place until 1920.[4] The
Fascist government that came to power with Benito Mussolini in 1922 sought to increase the
size of the Italian empire and to satisfy the claims of Italian irredentists.
In its second invasion of Ethiopia in 1935–36, Italy was successful and it merged its new
conquest with its older east African colonies to create Italian East Africa. In 1939, Italy invaded
Albania and incorporated it into the Fascist state. During the Second World War (1939–1945),
Italy occupied British Somaliland, parts of south-eastern France, western Egypt and most of
Greece, but then lost those conquests and its African colonies, including Ethiopia, to the
invading allied forces by 1943. It was forced in the peace treaty of 1947 to relinquish
sovereignty over all its colonies. It was granted a trust to administer former Italian Somaliland
under United Nations supervision in 1950. When Somalia became independent in 1960, Italy's
eight-decade experiment with colonialism had ended.
PORTUGUESE EMPIRE
An anachronous map of the Portuguese Empire
(1415-1999). Red—actual possessions; Pink—
explorations, areas of influence and trade and
claims of sovereignty; Blue—main sea
explorations, routes, and areas of influence. The
disputed discovery of Australia is not shown.
The Portuguese Empire was the earliest and longest lived of the modern
European colonial empires. It spanned almost six centuries, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415
to Macau's return to China in 1999. Portuguese explorers began exploring the coast of Africa in
1419, leveraging the latest developments in navigation, cartography and
maritime technology searching for a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice trade. In
66
1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached

India. In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral added Brazil to Portugal's "discoveries."
As skilled Portuguese sailors explored the coasts and islands of East Asia, a series forts
and trading posts soon followed. By 1571, outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki. The empire
was now global, and a source of great wealth. Between 1580 and 1640, Portugal was Spain's
junior partner in the Iberian Union. Although the Spanish and Portuguese empires were
administered separately, Portugal's became the subject of attacks by the The
Netherlands (engaged in a war of independence against Spain), England, and France. Unable to
defend the network of trading posts and factories, the empire went into decline. The loss of the
largest and most profitable colony, Brazil, in 1822 as independence movements swept through
the Americas, was a blow from which Portugal and its empire never recovered.
The Scramble for Africa from the late nineteenth century gave Portugal a handful of
African colonies. After World War II, Portugal's right-wing dictator, António Salazar, desperately
tried to keep the Portuguese Empire intact as other European countries were withdrawing from
their colonies. In 1961, the Portuguese Goa was unable to prevent Indian troops from annexing
the colony, but Salazar began a long and bloody war to crush independence movements in
Africa. This unpopular war lasted until the military coup of April 1974. The new government
immediately recognized the independence of all colonies except Macau, which was returned to
China in 1999, finally ending the Portuguese empire.
The Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) is the cultural successor of the
Empire. On the one hand, the Portuguese Empire, like most imperial projects, was exploitative
and oppressive. Former colonies inherited economies designed to benefit Portugal, while few
indigenous people had been equipped to lead their own state. On the other hand, Portugal's
empire did much to create cultural and linguistic links across the globe, helping to nurture
consciousness that in the end all humans occupy a single planetary home, which, if not kept
healthy and sustainable, will become our common grave. Their explores helped humanity to
realize that the world is one by mapping and charting its seas and continents.
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
67
The Russian Empire, which lasted from 1721 to 1917, spanned an enormous territory of
almost 14 million square miles (36 million sq km) across the eastern portion of Europe and the
continent of Asia. Ruled by an autocratic government, with its capital at St. Petersburg, its 170
million people were of over 100 different ethnic backgrounds, comprised primarily of
Christians, Muslims, and Jews. The Empire was established during the reign of Peter the Great
(r. 1694-1725) after Russia emerged victorious from the Great Northern War (1700-21) fought
against the Swedish and Polish empires.
With the majority of the population bound to serfdom, the Russian rulers attempted to
modernize along Western lines, a policy that led to the freeing of the serfs in 1861 during the
reign of Alexander II (r. 1855-81). Emancipation did not result in improved conditions for the
peasant population and internal dissension continued to fester until the last Russian czar,
Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917), was forced to abdicate on March 15, 1917, during World War I.
Attempts were made to form various Western-styled governments but these failed. In October
1917, the Bolshevik Revolution, led by Vladimir Lenin, succeeded in wresting power from their
political opponents and established the Soviet Empire.
The Russian Empire was the culmination of Muscovite Russia’s dominance over its
neighbors in Europe and Asia, where, by the end of the 19 th century, only the British Empire was
its rival in terms of size. At the height of its expansion, the Russian Empire stretched across the
northern portions of Europe and Asia and comprised nearly one-sixth of the earth’s landmass; it
occupied modern Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Finland, the Caucasus (Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Georgia), Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan), the Baltic Republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia), and significant parts of Poland and
Turkey.
The vast plains with few natural obstacles affected the Russian Empire’s expansion into
Eastern Europe and, beyond the Ural Mountains, to the Pacific Ocean, and even into Alaska and
California in North America. However, with only a coastline on north of the Arctic Ocean, the
Russian Empire continually searched for a warm-water outlet.
68
Peter the Great (r. 1694-1725) formally proclaimed the Russian Empire in 1721, which
lasted almost two centuries until Russia declared itself a republic on March 15, 1917. In
practice, the Empire started when Peter the Great became the sole ruler of Muscovite Russia in
1694 (his dim-witted half brother, Ivan V, remained co-czar but played no role in the
government and died in 1696).
Peter enacted a series of reforms to modernize Russia in every aspect of Russian life
along European lines– even relocating the capital from Moscow to a new city named after him,
St. Petersburg. Peter traveled to Europe to seek allies against the Ottoman Empire and to enlist
European technical specialists into his Empire. Although he was unsuccessful in forming a
European alliance, Peter saw an opportunity to obtain a naval port in the Baltic Sea.
The result was the Great Northern War (1700-21) between Russia and Sweden with
Peter emerging victorious and obtaining the Baltic territories for his Empire. Besides securing a
port with a direct link to Europe, Peter also reorganized Russian military, education,
government, and even the nobility’s tastes, clothing, and customs after Europe. By the end of
his reign, Peter had transformed the Muscovite state into a European empire.
SPANISH EMPIRE
Spain led European global exploration and colonial expansion in the fifteenth and sixteenth

centuries. Trade flourished across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Toppling
the Aztec and Inca civilizations, Spain laid claim to vast territories in North and South America.
The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power, dominating the oceans as well as
European battlefields. Spain enjoyed a cultural golden age in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries when silver and gold from American mines increasingly financed a long series of
European and North African wars.
The Peace of Utrecht (1713) stripped Spain of its remaining territories in the Italian
Peninsula, Sicily and the Low Countries. However, Spain maintained, and even enlarged, its vast
69
American empire until the early nineteenth century, and maintained its Asia-Pacific territories
until 1898. Spanish participation in the Scramble for Africa was negligible: Spanish Morocco was
held until 1956 and Spanish Guinea and the Spanish Sahara were held until 1968 and 1975
respectively.
Also, according to the United Nations "Spanish Sahara/Western Sahara," annexed
by Morocco in 1976, is still technically under Spanish Administration. On the one hand, the
Spanish empire was often exploitative and culturally destructive. On the other hand, it also did
much to create cultural and linguistic links across the globe, helping to nurture consciousness
that in the end all humans occupy a single planetary home, which, if not kept healthy and
sustainable, will become our common grave. Spanish explores and explorers in her service
helped humanity realize that the world is one by mapping and charting its seas and continents.
70
GLOBAL ISSUES
How are these global issues connected?
WHAT IS A GLOBAL ISSUE?

A global issue is a broad description that is often used to explain matters of great social concern
that affect human populations locally and that are shared among diverse human societies
within our global community.
71
MALNUTRITION AND FAMINE

 Malnutrition is a general term for a condition
caused by improper diet or nutrition, and can
occur in conjunction with both under and over
consumption of calories.
 Famine is a widespread scarcity of food that
may apply to any fauna species, which
phenomenon is usually accompanied by
regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic and
increased mortality.
 Starvation describes a “state of exhaustion of the body caused by lack of food”. This
state may precede death.
 Some 850 million people (one in eight of the world’s population) go to bed hungry every
night.
 Such hunger is not due to shortage of food – globally there is enough to go round and if
(a big if) we make the right decisions now, we continue to feed the world despite
population growth and climate change.
For example we can reduce the number of people that are starving by:
o Not wasting food
o Equal distribution of food (obesity)
o Every 6 seconds one kid dies of hunger
ILLITERACY AROUND THE WORLD

 Over 60% of adults in the US prison system
and read at or below to the fourth grade
level.
 85% of the US juvenile inmates are
functionally illiterate.
 Every 100,000 pupils in UK leave school
illiterate.
 In the UK the prison the population is some
85,000. More than three quarter of them
72
cannot read, write or count to the standard expected of an 11 – year old.

 West Africa has the highest number of illiterates according to a study.
 Approximately 776 million adults – most of them women – have no secure commands of
fundamentals of literacy and numeracy while 75 million children are not in school.
POVERTY
 Africa includes some of the poorest countries
in the world. In much of the Africa south of
the Sahara, harsh environmental condition
exacerbates the conditions of poverty. Dry
and barren land covers large expanses of this
region. As the poor try to make out living
through farming and other subsistence
practices, they exhaust the land, using up the
soil nutrients needed to grow crops.
 Between 12 to 14 million African children have been orphaned by HIV/AIDS.
 64% of children of Sub-Saharan Africa do not have adequate sanitation.
 Nearly one third of children in Sub-Saharan Africa are underweight.
 Slum – dweller who make up a third of the world’s urban population often live no better
– if not worse – than rural people a UN report says.
 In Sub-Saharan Africa 72% of urban inhabitants lives in slums rising to nearly 100% in
some states.
 In Latin America about 31% of urban people are classified living in slums.
 In the UK over 13 million of us live in poverty. That’s one-in-five without enough to live
on.
 By 2013 there will be 3.1 million children in poverty in the UK.
73

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Pamantasan ng Cabuyao

City of Cabuyao, Laguna, Philippines

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Afuang, John Mark

THE EARTH AND ITS BEGINNING

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Stone Age and Bronze Age

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

 People are nomadic.

 They made paintings inside caves.

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

 Sumer was the first civilization in Mesopotamia and arguably the earliest civilization in

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

GOVERNMENT IN ANCIENT GREEK

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

FACTS ABOUT SPARTA

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

ATHENS DEMOCRACY GOVERNMENT

Athenian Government & Laws

THE PELOPONESIAN WAR

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

The Founding of Rome

Romes Geography and Early Life

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

 Most Roman farmers lived in simple homes of mud or timber.

Rise of the Republic

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

In 330 A.D., Roman Emperor Constantine I chose

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

LAWS AND GOVERNMENT

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

THE FALL OF BAYZANTINE EMPIRE

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Legacy of the Byzantine Empire

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

THE THREE KINGDOMS OF WEST AFRICA: GHANA, MALI, SONGHAI

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

 Added trade cities like Timbuktu throughout empire

THE KINGDOM OF SONGHAI

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Ferreras, Raul Justine

THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

THE POWER OF THE CHURCH

2. Structure of the Church

5. The far reaching authority of the Church

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

-The Christian church become secular or wordly.

CHURCH AND CHARLEMAGNE

Church in Medieval Period

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Charlemagne (c.742-814), also known as Karl and

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Three of his major accomplishments:

2. CHARLEMAGNE WAS THE FIRST EMPEROR OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

THE RISE OF ISLAM

BACHELOR IN SECONDARY EDUCATION MAJOR IN SOCIAL STUDIES