Greenroads Manual v1 5

MANUAL
v1.5
© 2011

© 2011
Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword............................................................................................................................................................1
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................................................3
Introduction
Introduction......................................................................................................................................................7
Background.....................................................................................................................................................17
ProjectRequirements
PR1EnvironmentalReviewProcess...............................................................................................................29
PR2LifecycleCostAnalysis............................................................................................................................39
PR3LifecycleInventory..................................................................................................................................47
PR4QualityControlPlan................................................................................................................................65
PR5NoiseMitigationPlan..............................................................................................................................69
PR6WasteManagementPlan.......................................................................................................................79
PR7PollutionPreventionPlan.......................................................................................................................91
PR8LowImpactDevelopment.......................................................................................................................95
PR9PavementManagementSystem...........................................................................................................107
PR10SiteMaintenancePlan........................................................................................................................117
PR11EducationalOutreach.........................................................................................................................123
Environment&Water
EW1EnvironmentalManagementSystem..................................................................................................129
EW2RunoffFlowControl.............................................................................................................................135
EW3RunoffQuality......................................................................................................................................153
EW4StormwaterCostAnalysis....................................................................................................................173
EW5SiteVegetation....................................................................................................................................177
EW6HabitatRestoration.............................................................................................................................183
EW7EcologicalConnectivity........................................................................................................................193
EW8LightPollution......................................................................................................................................201
Access&Equity
AE1SafetyAudit..........................................................................................................................................207
AE2IntelligentTransportationSystem........................................................................................................211
AE3ContextSensitiveSolutions..................................................................................................................219
AE4TrafficEmissionsReduction..................................................................................................................231
AE5PedestrianAccess.................................................................................................................................241
AE6BicycleAccess.......................................................................................................................................245
AE7Transit&HOVAccess............................................................................................................................251
AE8ScenicViews..........................................................................................................................................259
AE9CulturalOutreach.................................................................................................................................267
ConstructionActivities
CA1QualityManagementSystem...............................................................................................................279
CA2EnvironmentalTraining........................................................................................................................285
CA3SiteRecyclingPlan................................................................................................................................291
CA4FossilFuelReduction............................................................................................................................303
CA5EquipmentEmissionReduction............................................................................................................309
CA6PavingEmissionsReduction.................................................................................................................315
CA7WaterUseTracking..............................................................................................................................321
CA8ContractorWarranty............................................................................................................................327
© 2011
Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Table of Contents

Materials&Resources
MR1LifecycleAssessment...........................................................................................................................339
MR2PavementReuse..................................................................................................................................357
MR3EarthworkBalance...............................................................................................................................375
MR4RecycledMaterials..............................................................................................................................385
MR5RegionalMaterials...............................................................................................................................403
MR6EnergyEfficiency.................................................................................................................................411
PavementTechnologies
PT1LongLifePavement..............................................................................................................................419
PT2PermeablePavement............................................................................................................................429
PT3WarmMixAsphalt................................................................................................................................441
PT4CoolPavement......................................................................................................................................447
PT5QuietPavement....................................................................................................................................455
PT6PavementPerformanceTracking..........................................................................................................465
CustomCredit
CCX[YourTitleHere]...................................................................................................................................471

© 2011
Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Foreword
FOREWORD
Welcome to the new and improved Greenroads Manual v1.5! In our fourth year of research and development, we
have plenty of news to report! We are happy to announce that we have made great progress toward refining this
continually developing system and you will see many changes in this version of the document as a result of input
from case studies, pilot projects, and thoughtful comments we’ve gathered in the last year. Plus, we are pleased to
announce that Greenroads has commercialized and is now a pending trademark of the University of Washington
(UW)! We have also formed the Greenroads Foundation, a third‐party non‐profit corporation, with a mission of
benefiting communities by promoting sustainability in transportation practice and education.
This Greenroads Manual contains ALL of the finer details of each Project Requirement (PR) and Voluntary Credit
(VC) currently included in the Greenroads Rating System. You can use this document as a reference guide while
you proceed through the design and construction phases of your Greenroads projects. For each PR and VC, this
Manual provides the goal, what needs to be done to meet that goal, the documentation to prove those things
were done, benefits, sustainability components addressed (Ecology, Economy, Equity, Extent, Expectations,
Experience and Exposure), strategies, helpful examples and a supporting body of research and references to help
you along the way. For those of you who may not have the time to read hundreds of pages of roadway research,
you may note that there is also a shorter version of this manual, the Greenroads Abridged Manual v1.5, which is
also available for download on the Greenroads website (http://www.greenroads.us). It has a green cover image.
IMPORTANT STUFF
• All 11 Project Requirements must be met and completed in order to be considered for certification. All of them.
No exceptions. They are designed not to be difficult to do, especially if you start thinking about them early.
• Current point ranges for the four available certification levels are listed in the Introduction to the Manual. The
minimum level of “Certified” means that all 11 PRs have been completed and that a minimum of 32 points have
been earned by completing a variety of Voluntary Credits (VC).
• Please do not use the Greenroads logo or “Greenroads” without written permission of UW.
• Please give credit where credit is due. If you are using Greenroads in an article or paper, please be sure to cite
appropriately. Here is a sample, in APA format:
Muench, S.T., Anderson, J.L., Hatfield, J.P., Koester, J.R., & Söderlund, M. et al. (2011). Greenroads Manual v1.5.
(J.L. Anderson, C.D. Weiland, and S.T. Muench, Eds.). Seattle, WA: University of Washington.
HOW TO SUBMIT YOUR COMMENTS

• Visit the Greenroads website: http://www.greenroads.us.
• Sign up to be a Reviewer by clicking the bottom grey and white button on the front page that says “Review the
Manual” or by following this link directly: http://www.greenroads.us/312/register‐to‐review.html
• Fill in your contact information and you will receive a confirmation email with your login credentials.
• Navigate the online version of the Manual, which is in the orange box on the right hand side of your screen
when you visit the website.
ADDITIONAL NOTES
• We fixed the pagination and have provided a table of contents in this edition.
• We have published a version 1.0.1 to v1.5 “Errata” which is downloadable from our Manual webpage. Errata
have a blue cover image and show the date of publish in their titles.
We look forward to working with you on Greenroads!
Jeralee Anderson, Craig Weiland, and Steve Muench
Editors
University of Washington © 2011 1

Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Foreword

2 University of Washington © 2011

Greenroadss™ Manual v1.5 Acknowledggments
ACKN
NOWLED
DGEMENTS
This updated version of tthe Greenroadss™ Manual wo ould not have bbeen possible w without the cooncerted effortt of
many smart individuals wwho are devote ed to making roadway designn and construcction practice m more sustainabble. In
particular, Greenroads w
would not have become whatt it is today witthout the initiaal concept fromm Martina
Söderlund. Much credit is due to Martina. Her originaal master’s theesis work, Sustaainable Roadwway Design: a MModel
for an Enviironmental Ratting System (20
007) is available at the Univeersity of Washington librariess.
AUTHOR S & CONTR IBUTORS

The editors would also like to thank the e following currrent and form
mer students annd employees aat the Universiity of
Washingtoon and CH2M H HILL, Inc. for th
heir work in ressearch, credit ddevelopment, revisions and iinitial contributions.
University of Washingto on CH22M HILL, Inc.

Stephen T.. Muench, PhD D., P.E. Martina Söderlu
M und Tim othy Bevan, P..E. Annekee Davis, P.E.
Jeralee L. A
Anderson, P.E.,, LEED®AP Jooshua Hatfield m Seskin
Sam Daniel Peterson, P.E.
Craig Weilaand Kaari Watkins, P.E. Marrcy Schwartz Cyra‐Korsgaard
Linda C d, R.L.A.
Jared Koesster Yeenyu Lin Kristtin Hull Steve M
Mader, C.E.
Eric Petersson Paaul Prigge Joe Guenther Russelll Mudgett
Maleena Scarsella Jin Woo Bae Scottt Barber, R.L.AA. Donaldd Wagner, P.E.
Steven Lam mpert Raachel Liberty Danniel Pitzler Guy Caaley, P.E.
Celeste Hooffman Adnan Shabir Robbin Senner, Ph.D. Louise Brown
Nicholas Joones Andrea Gagliano o Chu ck Blair, C.W.B B. Bloomberg, P.EE.
Loren B
David Vichitthavong Andrew Sahl Amyy Elliott, P.E. Kathleeen Penney, P.EE.
Malissa Phhok Kaatherine McInttyre
Aaron Knigght Juuliette Peyrouxx
Erika Ramirez Manisa Veeravig
M grom

RESEARC
CH SPONSO RS
Greenroad ds would also n
not have been possible at the
e University of Washington w
without fundingg and support from
our four re
esearch sponsoors.
Transporta
ation Northwe
est Statte Pavement We stern Federal Oregon Departmentt of
(TransNow
w) Techhnology Consoortium Lan
nds Highway portation (ODO
Transp OT)
(SPTTC) Diviision (WFLHD))

© 2011 3
Acknowledgements Greenroads™ Manual v1.5
SPECIAL THANKS
The editors would also like to thank the following people at the University of Washington, CH2M HILL, Inc. and
other organizations for their work in reviewing, collaboration, case studies, coordination and other efforts.
University of Washington CH2M HILL, Inc.
Joe Mahoney, PhD. Sabine Eisma Tim Neuman, P.E. Alex Chan, P.Eng.
Tim Larson, PhD. Rosslyn Luke Kirsten Pennington John Willis, P.E.
Russell Torgesen, P.E., LEED®AP Christopher Croft Mark Bastasch, P.E., Kevin Murphy, P.E.
Joyce Nuesca, M.D. Ancelmo McCarthy Mike Paddock, P.E., P.L.S. Thomas Cahill, P.E.
Bill Derry Grahm Satterwhite
Canisius Chan, P.Eng.

Others
Amit Armstrong, Ph.D., P.E., Western Federal Lands Highway Daniel Medina, Ph.D., P.E., PBS&J
Division (WFLHD) Michael Booth, P.E., Perteet, Inc.
Lyn Cornell, ODOT Jesse Thomsen, Perteet, Inc.
Kim Willoughby, P.E., Washington Department of Travis Rauscher, Perteet, Inc.
Transportation (WSDOT) Debra T. Johnson, Eco‐Edge, LLC
Jeff Uhlmeyer, P.E., WSDOT Mike Hutchinson, GeoEngineers, Inc.
Jim Weston, P.E., WSDOT Kiva Lints, AECOM, USA, Inc.
Freeman Anthony, City of Bellingham, WA Kara Swanson, Parsons Brinckerhoff, Inc.
Maureen Jensen, Minnesota Department of Transportation Steve Carter, TriCar, Ltd.
Angela Brady, P.E., PMP Seattle Department of Tom Wheeler, Transportation Corridor Agencies
Transportation (SDOT)
Mark Mazzola, SDOT
Erin Moxon, British Columbia Ministry of Transportation

Volunteer Manual Reviewers
Bob Gansauer, National Park Service Dean Potts, Caterpillar
Bob Holzheimer, National Park Service Gary Aamold, Consultant
Darin Thacker, National Park Service Skip Stothert, Green Roads Recycling, Ltd.
Dennis Nagao, National Park Service Jonathan Braadvedt, KOA Corporation
Ginger Molitor, National Park Service Lionel Lemay, National Ready Mixed Concrete
Jan Burton, National Park Service Association
Jesse Van Horne, National Park Service Tarek Eweida, Parsons International
Jessica Hendryx, National Park Service Ryan Westrom, Patrick Engineering, Inc.
Karen Vaage, National Park Service Mike Hendrix, Perteet, Inc.
Lee Terzis, National Park Service Fares Abdo, Portland Cement Association
Margaret McRoberts, National Park Service Donna DeNinno, UNI‐GROUP, USA
Robin Gregory, National Park Service Judith Rochat, US DOT / RITA / Volpe Center
Steven Culver, National Park Service
Treff Alexander, National Park Service

4 ©2011

INTRODUCTION
Greenroads Manual v1.5 © 2011 5

6 Greenroads Manual v1.5 © 2011

Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Introduction
INTRODUCTION
WHY GREENROADS™?
Didyouknowthatinordertomakeonelaneofroad,onemilelong,youwouldneedtousethesameamountof
energyusedinoneyearbyabout50averageAmericanhouseholds?In2008,theUnitedStateshadalmost8.5
millionlanemilesofpavementsand600,000bridges.So,theenergywehavealreadyusedtomakeour
transportationnetworkisover25%ofthatusedbytheentireU.S.intheentireyearin2005.Withthenationalcall
toenergyefficiencystandardsforourbuiltenvironment,whynotalsolooktoimprovehowwegetfromplaceto
placeeverydaybyrethinkingwhatweuse,howweuseit,whereitcomesfrom,andhowitallfitstogether?
Roadsandbridgesareacriticalpartofournation’seconomicprosperityandlocalcommunitywellbeing.Itmaybe
hardtobelievethatoutofthetotal100hoursAmericansspendontheroadcommutingtoworkeveryyear,almost
onewholeworkweek(36hours)islostjustwaitingforroadconstructionprojectstobefinished.Youmighteven
besurprisedtolearnthatconstructiondelayscostregularAmericansalmost$80billioninlostproductivity,
benefits,andwagesannually.Thesedelaysalsorepresent2.9billiongallonsofwastedfuelandcountlesscarbon
dioxideemissions,aswellasotherharmfulenvironmentalexhauststhatcancauseacidrainandsmog.Inbusy
cities,manypeoplemayagreethattheirlocalcongestionproblemscanbeevenworse(insomecases,theyare)!
Peopleobviouslysufferfrustrations,butournaturalenvironmentprobablysuffersevenmore.Wealldependon
howwelltheenvironmentfunctionsforourownhealth,livelihoods,andcultures.Sadly,eventheconvenient
streettoandfromyourlocalgrocerystorecouldbetoblameforlossanddestructionofsensitivehabitatsand
wetlands,undrinkablewater,collisionswithinnocentanimals,andlotsofloudnoiseandunpleasantodors.
Thegoodnewsisthatthereisnowawaytoaddressandsolvesomeoftheseproblems,oratleastawaytohelpus
managethembetterandtomaketherightdecisionswhenwearethinkingaboutbuildingnewroadsinour
communities:theGreenroads™RatingSystem.Greenroadsisatool(http://www.greenroads.us)thatcanhelp
roadbuildersworktomakebettertransportationprojectseveryday,oneprojectatatime.

FigureI.1:GreenroadsPilotProjectatNorthshoreDriveinBellingham,Washington.
PhotobyFreemanAnthony,CityofBellinghamPublicWorks

Background Greenroads™ Manual v1.5
WHAT IS GREENROADS™?
Greenroadsisavoluntarythirdpartyratingsystemforroadprojects.Aratingsystemcanbeusefulformany
reasons.Ultimately,Greenroadsseekstorecognizeandrewardroadwayprojectsthatexceedpublicexpectations
forenvironmental,economicandsocialperformance.
Fundamentally,Greenroadshelpsquantifythesustainableattributesofa WHAT IS A GREENROAD?

roadwayproject.Thisquantificationcanbeusedto: AGreenroadisdefinedasa
roadwayprojectthathasbeen
x Definewhatfeaturescontributetosustainabilityontheproject. designedandconstructedtoa
x Provideaccountabilityforsustainabilityonroadwayprojects. levelofsustainabilitythatis
x Measureandtrackspecificsustainabilitygoalsovertime. substantiallyhigherthancurrent
x Manageandimproveroadwaysustainability. commonpractice.
x Encouragenewandinnovativepractices.
x Promotecompetitiveadvantageandothereconomicormarketincentivesforsustainability.
x Communicatesustainablefeaturestostakeholdersinanunderstandableway,especiallytothegeneralpublic.
Greenroadsisanawardbased,flexibleratingsystem(sometimescalleda“performancemetric”)thatcanbeused
torank,scoreandcomparedifferentroadprojectsfortheiroverallperformancetowardbeingmoresustainable
thananaverageroadproject.EarningaGreenroadsaward,called“certification”islikewinningtheOlympicGames
forroads:projectsearnpointsforspecialactivities.Uponsuccessfulcompletion,adistinctivesigncanbeusedon
roadprojectsthatgoaboveandbeyondcurrentstandardsforenvironmentalcompliance,roadwaydesignand
constructionpractice.Theseprojectsdemonstratealevelofexcellenceinsustainabilitybeyondtheaverage
roadwayprojectandcommunicatesubstantialachievementtoprojectstakeholders.

FigureI.2:YellowstoneEastEntrancePilotProject,WesternFederalLandsHighwayDivision.
PhotobyChrisCroft

A NOTE ON COPYRIGHT AND TRADEMARK USE
Greenroadsisapubliclyavailablesystemthatcanbeusedbyanyone.However,theGreenroadslogoandname
remainthepropertyoftheUniversityofWashingtonandmayonlybeusedwithexpresspermissionoftheUWora
licensedagent.AnyuseofideasorreferencestoGreenroadsrequirespropercitationofGreenroadsastheorigin
oftheseideasandrecognitionthatUWownsthetrademark.

HOW GREENROADS™ WORKS

Greenroadsisacollectionofsustainabilitybestpracticesthatapplytoroadwaydesignandconstruction.These
bestpracticesaredividedintotwogeneraltypes:requiredandvoluntary.Greenroadsactivitiesarenotintended
tosupersedelocal,state,orfederalregulationorotherjurisdictionalordinances.
WHAT IS REQUIRED
Atminimum,everyGreenroadsprojectmustcomplete11specificactivitiesinordertoqualifyforanyaward.No
exceptions.TheseactivitiesarestraightforwardlycalledProjectRequirements(PRs)andaregroupedtogetheras
thefirstcategoryintheManual.
ThePRsareintendedtocapturesomeofthemostcriticalideasof
sustainabilityforanyroadwayprojectfromplanning,design,
constructionandoperationsandmaintenance,suchas:
x Environmentalandeconomicdecisionmaking
x Publicengagement
x Designforlongtermenvironmentalperformance
x Constructionplanning
x Planningforlifetimemonitoringandmaintenance
Notethatmany,butnotall,projectswillmeetseveralofthePR
outrightwithlittleornoadditionaleffort.Thisisbecauseunderlying FigureI.3:FernanLakeRoadPilotProject,
manyofthesecreditsareideasthatareoftenregulatedbybothfederal FernanLake,ID.WesternFederalLands
andstatelaws.However,becausestatescarryasignificantamountof HighwayDivision.
autonomyformanylaws,someofthestandardsinthePRsmaybe PhotobyChrisCroft
somewhatstricterorpossiblylessstrictthantheproject’sactualstate
laws.PRscarrynopointvalue.
WHAT IS OPTIONAL
Voluntarybestpracticesarethosethatmayoptionallybeincludedinaroadwayproject.Thesearecalled
“VoluntaryCredits”.EachVoluntaryCreditisassignedapointvalue(15points)dependinguponitsimpacton
sustainability.Currently,thereare37VoluntaryCreditstotaling108points.Greenroadsalsoallowsaprojector
organizationtocreateanduseitsownVoluntaryCredits(called“CustomCredits”),subjecttoapprovalof
Greenroads,foratotalof10morepoints,whichbringsthetotalavailablepointsto118.
ProjectteamsapplyforpointsbysubmittingspecificdocumentationinsupportoftheProjectRequirementor
VoluntaryCredittheyarepursuing.Thesedocuments,whichcanrangefromprojectspecificationstofield
documentation,areverifiedbyanindependentreviewteam.Onceaprojectiscomplete,theGreenroadsteam
verifiestheapplicationandassignsaGreenroadsscorebasedonachievingall11oftheProjectRequirementsand
thenumberofpointsearnedfromtheVoluntaryCredits.Thisscoremaythenbeusedattheowner’sdiscretion
andmayalsobetranslatedtoastandardachievementlevelor“certification”ifsodesired:themorepointsearned,
thehighertherecognition.IfaprojectreachesacertificationlevelitwillbeabletodisplaytheGreenroadslogo
andappropriatecertificationgraphiconcepermissionfromtheGreenroadsteamisgiven.TheGreenroads
certificationlevelsaredetailedinasubsequentsectionofthisdocument.
Owneragencies,developers,designconsultantsandcontractorsmaywishtopursueofficialcertificationoruse
Greenroadsinotherwaysthatareeithervoluntaryorprescriptive.Forinstance,developersanddesignersmay
wishtouseGreenroadsasalistofpotentialideasforimprovingthesustainabilityofaroadwayproject.Or,owners
maywishtouseGreenroadspointvaluesorcertificationlevelsasgoalsorbenchmarksfornewroadwayprojects
ormetricsbywhichtheycanmeasureandmanagetheirroadwaysustainabilityefforts.

IS GREENROADS RIGHT FOR ME?

Thereareanumberofstakeholderswhomayhaveinterestinaroadwaysustainabilityratingsystem.Each
stakeholderislikelytohaveopinionsonhowGreenroadsshouldwork;howeveritshouldbenotedthatnotall
pointsofviewcanbefullyaccommodated.Stakeholdersinclude:
x Roadowners:federal,state,countyandcityagenciesaswellasthegeneralpublic.
x Fundingagencies:federal,state,county,cityandotherregionalauthorities
x Designconsultants:thoseinvolvedwithcorridor,roadorevenparkinglotdesign
x Contractors:heavyconstruction,roadandpavingcontractors
x Regulatoryagencies:U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
x Sustainabilityorganizations:U.S.GreenBuildingCouncil(USGBC),GreenHighwaysPartnership,SierraClub,etc.
x Researchorganizations:universitiesandotherresearchorganizationsthatparticipateininvestigating
transportationrelatedsustainabletechnologies.
GENERAL PHILOSOPHY OF THE RATING SYSTEM

ThefundamentaltenetsthatguidethedevelopmentandwritingofGreenroadsare:
x Straightforwardandunderstandable.Nonexpertsshouldbeabletounderstandthesystem.Simplicityis
valuedoverexcessivedetailbecauseitismoreunderstandable.ProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCredits
areoftensimplisticinterpretationsofcomplexideas;theyareboundtocontainsomecontroversyhoweverthe
interpretationshouldholdtruetothefundamentalidea.
x Empiricalevidenceandexistingevaluativetechniques.ProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCreditsarebased
onapreponderanceofempiricalevidenceand,totheextentpossible,shouldbeevaluatedusingexistingtools
andtechniques.
x Pointscommensuratewithimpact.Itemsthathavehigheconomic,environmentalorsocialimpactare
assignedmorepointsthanlowimpactitems.
x Flexible.Greenroadsshouldbeabletoaccommodateabroadrangeofbothurbanandruralroadwayprojects
frompreservationoverlaystomajornewcorridordevelopment.ProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCredits
shouldbeapplicableanywhereintheU.S.Internationalversionsmayneedfurtherdevelopmentinthefuture.
x Continualevolution.Overtime,betterideas,morecompleteknowledgeandtechnologyadvanceswillrequire
Greenroadstobeupdatedandchanged.
x Minimalbureaucracy.Pursuingcertificationrequiresdocumentationbutdocumentsshouldeithercomefrom
existingdocuments(e.g.plansandspecifications)orbesimpleandinexpensivetoproducefromexisting
documents.
x Beyondminimumrequirements.Greenroadsshouldspurinnovationandencouragedesignandconstruction
decisionsbasedonsustainabilityconsiderationsthatgobeyondregulatoryrequirements.Whileregulatory
requirementsanddesignstandardscontributetosustainability,aratingsystemthatawardscreditforthese
itemsaloneessentiallybecomesamarketingtoolthatistechnicallyredundantandadministratively
burdensome.
WHO DEVELOPED GREENROADS?

GreenroadsisaresearchprojectthatoriginatedattheUniversityofWashingtonandhasdevelopedinseveral
versionssincetheinitialbeginningsofresearchworkin2007.Version0.95(2009)wasdevelopedjointlybythe
UniversityofWashington(UW)andCH2MHILL,withfurtherworkonv1.0,v1.0.1andthisversionoftheRating
SystemandManualweremanagedthroughtheUniversityofWashington,withhelpfulcollaborationfromCH2M
HILLandanumberofotherindustrygroupsandconsultantswhohavecontributeddataandcommentaryby
meansofpilotprojects,casestudiesandpubliccomments.
CurrentresearchattheUniversityofWashingtonisheadedbySteveMuench,anAssociateProfessorinthe
DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering.Workontheoriginal0.95versionofGreenroadsatCH2MHILL

wasledbyTimBevan,MountainWestRegionTechnologyandQualityManager,TransportationBusinessGroup.
Importantly,althoughUWandCH2MHILLaredevelopingthissystem,thebrandassociatedwithanyratedproject
willonlybetheGreenroadsbrand,whichisapendingtrademarkoftheUniversityofWashington.TheGreenroads
Foundation,athirdpartyindependentnonprofitorganizationincorporatedin2010,isintendedtobethesole
licenseeoftheratingsystemandwillmanagefutureupdatestomaintainandcontinuallyimproveGreenroads.
GREENROADS WEBSITE
AllGreenroadswork,includingthisManualandallofitscredits,isdocumentedontheofficialwebsite:
www.greenroads.us
Pleasevisitthiswebsitetoseethelatestnews,copiesofpresentationsgiven,ratedprojectsandotherGreenroads
relatedinformation.YoucanalsocontactGreenroadsFoundationstaffdirectlyviatheContactUsform,register
yourprojectsorvolunteertoreviewtheManual.
FigureI.4:HomepageoftheGreenroadsWebsite:http://www.greenroads.us

FUTURE CHANGES
Greenroadswillchangeinthefutureasmoreinformationisgatheredandnewindustrystandardpractices/rules
aredeveloped.Thismeansthatnewcreditscouldbeadded,oldonesremoved,pointvalueschanged,certification
levelsadjustedandmore.NomatterwhatthecurrentGreenroadsversionis,wearealreadyworkingonthenext.
Therefore,usercommentsarewelcomedandmightverywellbeincorporatedintothenextversion.Ifyouare
gettingpursuingcertificationunderoneversionoftheratingsystemwhileanothercomesout,youwillbegiven
theopportunitytoupgradetothelatestversion.

GREENROADS ESSENTIALS
ThissectiondescribestheessentialsoftheGreenroadsRatingSystem.Theseareitemsaprojectmaywanttoknow
aboutwhendecidingwhetherornottopursueGreenroadscertification.
PROJECT REQUIREMENTS
ProjectRequirementsaretheminimumstepsthatmustbecompletedinordertobeconsideredaGreenroad.They
canbethoughtofascharacteristicscommontoallGreenroads.Inordertoachievecertificationtheymustallbe
metandanadditionalnumberofVoluntaryCreditpointsmustalsobeearned.Inotherwords,regardlessofhow
manyVoluntaryCreditpointsareachieved,ifaprojectdoesnotmeetalloftheProjectRequirements,a
GreenroadscertificationlevelwillNOTbeawarded.
ProjectRequirementsarelistedintheirowncategoryatthefrontofthemanualtodistinguishthemfromthe
VoluntaryCreditcategories.TheProjectRequirementsalsoconsistofitemsorproceduresthatareoftenrelatedto
practicesthatcanachievepointsinoneormoreoftheVoluntaryCreditcategories,whichmaystrategicallyassist
projectsthatareplanningtopursuecertification.
VOLUNTARY CREDITS
InadditiontotheProjectRequirements,thereisawideselectionofVoluntaryCreditsthataprojectcanearn.Each
VoluntaryCreditisassociatedwithanumberofpoints(from1to5)dependingupontheimpactthecredithason
sustainability(asdefinedlaterinthisdocument).AprojectchoosestopursueVoluntaryCreditsonavoluntary
basis;nonearerequired.OncethosepursuedVoluntaryCreditsareverifiedbytheGreenroadsteam,thenumber
ofpointsachievedistalliedupandacertificationlevel(seenextsection),ifdesired,isawarded.
VoluntaryCreditsspanawidespectrumofprojectactionsfromculturaloutreachandmultimodalaccesstosafety
topavementmaterials.Therefore,itislikelythatnoprojectwillbeabletoachievealloftheVoluntaryCredits.
However,thegoalofGreenroadsistohaveenoughchoiceinVoluntaryCreditsthatanyroadwayprojectcouldfind
enoughrelevantcreditstoachieveatleastaminimumcertificationlevel.ThismeansthatGreenroadsshouldwork
forallroadwayprojectsfrombasicpreservationoverlaystolarge,multibilliondollarcorridorprojects.
ACHIEVEMENT/CERTIFICATION LEVELS
Greenroadsmaybeusedto“certify”aprojectbasedontotalpointsachieved.Dependingupontheappetiteofthe
project,theselevelscanbecalled“achievement”or“certification”levels.Obtainingtheselevelsisanofficial
acknowledgementbyGreenroadsthataprojecthasmetallProjectRequirementsandachievedenoughofthe118
possibleVoluntaryCreditpointstosurpassapredeterminedcertificationlevel.Therearefourcertificationlevelsas
shownbelow:
x Certified:AllProjectRequirements+3242VoluntaryCreditpoints(3040%oftotal)
x Silver:AllProjectRequirements+4353VoluntaryCreditpoints(4050%oftotal)
x Gold:AllProjectRequirements+5463VoluntaryCreditpoints(5060%oftotal)
x Evergreen:AllProjectRequirements+64+VoluntaryCreditpoints(>60%oftotal)
TheselevelsaresubjecttorevisionwithnewversionsofGreenroadsandmaychangeinthefutureasthesystemis
updated.AcertifiedroadwaycanbeconsideredaGreenroad.

SCOPE OF THE GREENROADS RATING SYSTEM

Thissectiondescribestheunderlyingideas,scopeandlimitsofGreenroads.Itisexpectedthatthebasicsystemwill
growandchangeassustainabilitythought,technologiesandregulationschange.However,thefundamental
conceptsaddressedhereareexpectedtoremainrelativelyconstant.
HOW DOES GREENROADS FIT WITH REGULATORY STANDARDS?

Greenroadsisdesignedtopromotesustainabilitybestpracticeswithinandbeyondexistingfederal,stateandlocal
regulations.Specifically,Greenroadscreditsaredesignedtoinfluencedecisionsregardingsustainabilityoptions
wheretheyarenotprecludedbyregulationorwhereregulationallowsachoicebetweenoptionsthatcouldhave
sustainabilityimpacts.
AnimportantcorollarytothisisthatGreenroadsisnotanabsolutemeasureofsustainabilitybecauseitdoesnot
includesustainabilityitemsthatarecoveredbycurrentU.S.regulation(e.g.,CleanWaterAct,CleanAirAct,
NationalHistoricalPreservationAct,AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,etc.).However,giventhatallU.S.agenciesare
governedbythesamesetoffederalregulations,GreenroadscanbeconsideredasustainabilitymetricbuiltonU.S.
standardpractice.
Greenroadsisalsomeanttoencourageorganizationstoincludesustainablepracticesintheircompanywide
strategyanddailyworkpractices.Importantly,Greenroadsisnotmeanttodictatedesignortradeoffdecisions.
Ratheritprovidesatooltohelpwithsuchdecisions.
WHAT ARE THE SYSTEM BOUNDARIES?

Greenroads,initscurrentversion,isaprojectbasedratingsystem.Thismeansthatitisapplicabletothedesign
andconstructionofneworrehabilitatedroadways,includingexpansionorredesign.Thereareshortcomingstoa
projectbasedsystemwhicharehighlightedmorebrieflybelow.Specificallythough,Greenroadsbestappliestothe
designprocessandconstructionactivitieswithintheworkzoneaswellasmaterialhaulingactivities,productionof
portlandcementconcrete(PCC)andhotmixasphalt(HMA).
IfyouarewonderingifyourprojectfitswithasystemlikeGreenroads,contactusdirectlyoryoucanalsobrowse
theAbridgedManualwithachecklistinhandtohelpyoumakethatdeterminationyourself.Chancesarethatyou
willbeabletoincorporatemanyoftheideasintoyourproject.Actually,youmayfindthatyouarealreadythinking
aboutmanyofthem,butmayhavehadtroubleseeinghowtheywouldfittogether,orhelpachieveyour
sustainabilitygoals.
WealsothinktransportationplannersandpublicworksagenciescanuseGreenroadsasahandytoolduringearly
projectdecisionmaking,internalaccountabilityprogramsorevenasapartofhighlevelplanningorlongterm
maintenanceandoperationsdecisions.However,themajorityofthecreditsintheRatingSystemdonotaddress
planningandoperationsindepth.Werecognizetheconcernthatthisappearstocreateapiecemealapproachto
sustainabilitybutalsothatanenormousenvironmentalimpacthappensimmediatelyupongroundbreakingduring
roadwayconstruction.Ourlongtermgoalistobeabletodevelopprojectspecificcreditsthathelproadway
projectssupportandinterconnectwithmanyofthenetworkleveldecisionsforsustainabilityatanyowneragency.
How Do Greenroads Projects Relate To Transportation Planning?

Decisionsregardingthelocation,type,timing,feasibilityorotherplanninglevelideasforroadwayprojectsare
excluded.Forexample,Greenroadsdoesnotanswerthequestion“shouldwebuildaroadornot?”While
planningisfundamentaltoroadwayandcommunitysustainability,thesedecisionsareoftentoocomplexor
politicaltobeadequatelydefinedbyapointbasedsystem.Projectlevelplanninghowever,intermsofproject
developmentand/orprojectdelivery,isincludedandmanyoftheProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCredits
canbeusedduringdesignanddevelopmenttohelpshapedecisionsontheproject.

How Does Greenroads Address Upstream Supply-Chain Processes?

Currently,nocreditsintheratingsystemexplicitlyaddressdirectimprovementsinupstreamsupplychain
processes.Thisisbecausetheseupstreamprocessespresentaquantificationproblemthatisfundamentally
difficulttoassignspecificallyenoughtoaroadwayproject.However,ahandfulofGreenroadscreditsdo
captureideasthatinvolvesupplychainprocesses,andalsointerconnectwitheachothertomakeasmall
contributiontowardbroadersupplychaingoals.
Anupstreamsupplychainprocessisanactivitythatcontributesonlypartlytoaroadwayproject,suchas
petroleumrefiningorcementmanufacturing.Thereasonthisisdifficulttoquantifyonaperprojectbasisis
becausetheseprocessesaremultifunctionalandhavemorethanoneproductorresult.Petroleumisusedfora
numberofthingsbeyondthegasthatfuelsvehicles,includingtheproductionofasphalt,whichisactuallya
byproduct(waste)oftherefiningprocess.Also,cementandcementproductsareusedinmanyapplications
beyondroadways,suchasinbuildings.Shouldaprojectbeheldresponsibleforalloftheasphaltorcementin
thebatch,orjustaportionofit?
Addressingtheallocationofsustainabilityimpactstosuchindustriesorothersthatcontributetoroadway
designandconstructionwouldbeadauntingtaskandwethinkitmayalsointroduceunnecessarysubjectivity
totheratingsystem.Manyupstreamchoicesinvolvetradeoffsthatareoutsidethecontrolofaratingsystem
toollikeGreenroads.Forthisreason,multifunctionalprocessesareasubjectofhotdebateanduntilthereis
establishedconsensusonhowtoallocateresponsibility,aprojectlevelcreditforsuchactivitiesisnotlikely.
Ultimately,itisnottheprimarygoalorutilityofapointbasedratingsystemforroadwayprojectstoaddress
thesustainabilityofsupplychainmanagementandthismaybebestlefttoexpertsinthosefields.
Wedotrytoimproveawarenessoftheseupstreamactivitiesandtheirimpactsandtradeoffsthrough
integrationoflifecycleinventories(LCI)andassessments(LCA)throughprovidingincentivestoinformproject
decisionmaking.However,iftherearesuggestionsonhowtoresolvesomeoftheseissuesandintegratebetter
withupstreamgoals,wewouldbegladtoentertainthemforfuturecredits.
How Does Greenroads Address Structures?

Bridges,tunnels,wallsandotherstructuresarenotexplicitlyconsideredinGreenroads,buttheyarenot
explicitlyexcludedeither.Infact,severalexamplesintheGreenroadsManualfeaturethesetypesofstructures.
Atthistimethough,nostructurallyspecificcreditshavebeenidentifiedoutsidethepavementstructureand
bridges,butcouldeasilybeincorporatedintofutureversionsofGreenroads(i.e.viatheCustomCredits).We
thinkmanyoftheexistingProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCreditsareappropriatetobridgeandtunnel
projects,becausethecreditsaredesignedtobebroadlyapplicable.
YoumaynoticethatinthiseditionoftheManualwehaveupdatedsomeofthepavementspecificcreditsto
includealternativesfordifferenttypesofstructures.Manyoftheseupdatescameoutofourcasestudyand
pilotprojectresearchonahandfulofbridgeprojects.
Nonpavement,nonbridgeroadwaystructures,suchaswalls,luminairesandbarriers,canbeincludedinsome
creditsconceptuallyasalumpofmaterials,buttherearenocreditsexclusivelyfortheseroadrelateditems.As
always,commentsarewelcomeregardingadjustmentsthatwouldneedtobemadetobemorereflectiveof
sustainableactivitiesforbridges,tunnelsandotherstructures.
What about Operations & Maintenance Projects?

WhatIsIncluded.Overlays,rehabilitations,2R,3R,4R,younameit.Ifpavementisbeingmovedina
meaningfulway,itisincluded(i.e.toandfromsite,aroundasite,etc.).Amaintenanceprojectintendedto
preservethelifeofaroadwayisaconstructionprojectforthepurposesofGreenroads.

WhatIsNotIncluded.ActivitiesthatareperformedaspartoftheSiteMaintenancePlan(seePR10),usuallyby
PublicWorksAgenciesandtheircontractors.
Maintenanceandpreservationactivitiesareakeypartinthelongtermsustainabilityofaroadway,sothere
areanumberofProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCreditsthatreflecttheseactivitiesandrequirethataplan
isinplaceforthesetobeperformedsometimeinthefuture.However,aratingsystemlikeGreenroadscannot
beusedtomonitortheseactivitiesoverthelongtermeffectively.ThismeansthatoncetheGreenroadsscore
iscalculated,essentiallythesemaintenanceandpreservationplansbecomepromisestoperform.
Thecurrentreviewprocessforcertificationdoesnotallowforensuringthatthesepromisesarekept.Ideally,
onceaprojectbecomesaGreenroad,themaintenanceandpreservationactivitieswillalsocontinuetofollow
thisframeworkwhethercertificationfortheseactivitiesispursuedornot.Werealizethisisaweaknessofthe
ratingsystemingeneralandwouldappreciatefeedbackonhowtoincorporatetheseideasinameaningful,
effectiveway.Wehavebeenthinkingaboutthisideabuthavenotbeenabletodetermineoridentifya
standardized,acceptedwaythatcurrentlymeetsalltherequirementsofourratingsystemphilosophy.Ifyou
haveideasonhowwecandothisataroadwayprojectlevel,weencourageyoutosubmitforaCustomCredit
onyourproject.
Does Greenroads Fit Pathway and Trail Projects?

PathsandtrailsmaybeabletouseGreenroadstoo.Wethinkthatthereisroomforincludingthesedesignand
constructionprojectsandthatmanyoftheideasinGreenroadswouldworkwell.Someofthecreditsmay
requiremodificationtobeapplicablethough,andearningenoughpointstobecomeCertifiedmightbedifficult
dependingonthesizeandscaleoftheproject.However,ifthereisapathwayortraildirectlyassociatedwitha
roadwayproject,itisdefinitelyincluded.Ifyouhaveapathwayprojectthatyouwanttotestoutwith
Greenroads,youcanalwayscontactGreenroadsFoundationtoinquireaboutpilotprojectopportunities.


GREENROADS RATING SYSTEM
LIST OF CREDITS (v1.5)
No. Title Pts. Description
Project Requirements (PR) – Mandatory for all projects
PR‐1 Environmental Review Process Req Complete a comprehensive environmental review
PR‐2 Lifecycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) Req Perform LCCA for pavement section
PR‐3 Lifecycle Inventory (LCI) Req Perform LCI of pavement section
PR‐4 Quality Control Plan Req Have a formal contractor quality control plan
PR‐5 Noise Mitigation Plan Req Have a construction noise mitigation plan
PR‐6 Waste Management Plan Req Have a plan to divert C&D waste from landfill
PR‐7 Pollution Prevention Plan Req Have a TESC/SWPPP
PR‐8 Low Impact Development (LID) Req Complete a LID feasibility study
PR‐9 Pavement Management System Req Have a pavement management system
PR‐10 Site Maintenance Plan Req Have a roadside maintenance plan
PR‐11 Educational Outreach Req Publicize sustainability information for project
Environment & Water (EW) – Up to 21 Points
EW‐1 Environmental Management System 2 ISO 14001 certification for general contractor
EW‐2 Runff Flow Control 1‐3 Reduce runoff quantity
EW‐3 Runoff Quality 1‐3 Treat stormwater to a higher level of quality
EW‐4 Stormwater Cost Analysis 1 Conduct an LCCA for stormwater elements
EW‐5 Site Vegetation 1‐3 Use native low/no water vegetation
EW‐6 Habitat Restoration 3 Restore habitat beyond what is required
EW‐7 Ecological Connectivity 1‐3 Connect habitat across roadways
EW‐8 Light Pollution 3 Discourage light pollution
Access & Equity (AE) – Up to 30 Points
AE‐1 Safety Audit 1‐2 Perform roadway safety audit
AE‐2 Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) 2‐5 Implement ITS solutions
AE‐3 Context Sensitive Solutions 5 Plan for context sensitive solutions
AE‐4 Traffic Emissions Reduction 5 Reduce emissions with quantifiable methods
AE‐5 Pedestrian Access 1‐2 Provide/improve pedestrian accessibility
AE‐6 Bicycle Access 1‐2 Provide/improve bicycle accessibility
AE‐7 Transit Access 1‐5 Provide/improve transit accessibility
AE‐8 Scenic Views 1‐2 Provide views of scenery or vistas
AE‐9 Cultural Outreach 1‐2 Promote art/culture/community values
Construction Activities (CA) – Up to 14 Points
CA‐1 Quality Management System 2 ISO 9001 certification for general contractor
CA‐2 Environmental Training 1 Provide environmental training
CA‐3 Site Recycling Plan 1 Have a plan to divert waste from landfill
CA‐4 Fossil Fuel Reduction 1‐2 Use alternative fuels in construction equipment
CA‐5 Equipment Emissions Reduction 1‐2 Meet EPA Tier 4 standards for non‐road equip.
CA‐6 Paving Emissions Reduction 1 Use pavers that meet NIOSH requirements
CA‐7 Water Tracking 2 Develop data on water use in construction
CA‐8 Contractor Warranty 3 Warranty on the constructed pavement
Materials & Resources (MR) – Up to 23 Points
MR‐1 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 2 Conduct a detailed LCA of the entire project
MR‐2 Pavement Reuse 1‐5 Reuse existing pavement sections
MR‐3 Earthwork Balance 1 Use native soil rather than import fill
MR‐4 Recycled Materials 1‐5 Use recycled materials for new pavement
MR‐5 Regional Materials 1‐5 Use regional materials to reduce transportation
MR‐6 Energy Efficiency 1‐5 Improve energy efficiency of operational systems
Pavement Technologies (PT) – Up to 20 Points
PT‐1 Long‐Life Pavement 5 Design pavements for long‐life
PT‐2 Permeable Pavement 3 Use permeable pavement as a LID technique
PT‐3 Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) 3 Use WMA in place of HMA
PT‐4 Cool Pavement 5 Contribute less to urban heat island effect (UHI)
PT‐5 Quiet Pavement 2‐3 Use a quiet pavement to reduce noise
PT‐6 Pavement Performance Tracking 1 Relate construction to performance data
Custom Credits (CC) – Available for all projects based on context and innovation, subject to approval
CC‐1 Custom Credit 1 1‐5 Design a new voluntary credit
CC‐2 Custom Credit 2 1‐5 Design a new voluntary credit
Greenroads Total Points: 118
Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Background
BACKGROUND
WHAT WE MEAN BY “SUSTAINABILITY”
While many of the definitions offered by other authors or political groups address the three central and well‐
recognized themes of sustainability (ecology, economy and equity, a.k.a. the “triple bottom line”), none of these
definitions are directly actionable at a project level and are of little utility when considering sustainability from the
perspective of a transportation designer or contractor. This is for two particular reasons: 1) lack of project‐level
context and specific tangible constraints, and 2) lack of incentive or drivers to progress sustainability in a
meaningful way.
However, three key broader ideas are consistent in most of the definitions: physical constraints or laws of Nature
(natural laws), satisfaction of basic human needs and desires (human values), and the idea that roadway projects
are best perceived as systems of varying degrees of complexity, interdependence, scale and context. These three
terms are clarified in detail below.
A useful, implementable definition of sustainability for roadway projects must feature these three terms because
these ideas are simple to understand and explain to project stakeholders. Importantly, how well a particular
project fits these project‐specific natural law and human value constraints is
a characteristic or trait of that system that is measurable (in terms of
quantity and/or quality). This means sustainability on one roadway project WHAT IS SUSTAINABILITY?
can be compared to other roadway projects, and ultimately, sustainability Sustainability is a characteristic
becomes manageable on both short‐ and long‐term time scales. Therefore, of a system that reflects its
sustainability is a characteristic of a system that reflects its capacity to capacity to support natural laws
support natural laws and human values.1 and human values.
This definition is essentially compatible with other definitions of sustainability or sustainable development, such as
that provided by the Brundtland Commission2 and ideas featured in reports and international policy documents
such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment3 and “Agenda 21”4. Note that processes (practices) are part of
systems as well; that they are inclusive in the above definition of sustainability, but are not explicitly included in
the definition for brevity and simplicity.
NATURAL LAWS
“Natural laws” encompass the essential idea of Ecology, which is the study of ecosystems. These concepts are
illustrated by the simple, but oxymoronic idea that ecosystems are too complex to be fully controlled or
understood by humans, and that our best control and understanding comes from basic sciences like physics,
chemistry and biology. Effectively, mathematics and sciences are the tools by which we measure the limits and
current status of our environment. These natural laws form the physical constraints within which all projects must
fit, regardless of how much control we think we may have over our own environment as humans or how complete
or certain the science is perceived to be.

1
Anderson, J. L. (2008). Sustainability in civil engineering. Thesis (M.S.C.E.)‐‐University of Washington, 2008.
2
United Nations General Assembly, 42nd Session. (1987, August 4). Report of the World Commission on
Environment and Development (WCED): “Our Common Future.” (A/42/427). Annex to Official Record. Geneva,
Switzerland, 1987. (Masthead).
3
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well‐being: Synthesis. Island Press,
Washington, DC.
4
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, 3‐14 June 1992. (1993,
January 1). Report on the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development: “Agenda 21.”
(A/CONF.151/26/REV.1[VOL.I] and Corrigendum). Vol. I., Annex II to Resolutions Adopted by the Conference. New
York, 1993. (Masthead).

Wemustunderstandthatourconventionalunderstandingofnaturallawsisatbestincompleteandatworstcould
betotallywrong.Humansliveandoperatewithinthecontextofecosystems,notviceversa(asindicatedby
currenttrendsincivildevelopment).Theparadigminwhichwelive,operateandbehavemustthereforeshifttoa
moresustainableoneunderourbestpossibleandmostcurrentunderstandingofecology,suchasthatproposed
byTheNaturalStepframework,whichoffersasystembasedapproachtosustainabilityguidedbythreebasic
principles5,6asfollows:
x SubstancesshouldnotbeextractedfromtheEarthataratefasterthantheycanberegeneratedbynatural
processes.
x Substances(waste)shouldnotbeproducedatratefasterthantheycanbedecomposedandreintegratedinto
anecosystem.
x Ecosystemsshouldnotbesystematicallydegradedorotherwisedisruptedfromequilibriumbyhuman
activities.
Conventionalroadwaydesignandconstructionpracticesandsystemsdonotsupportthesethreeaboveprinciples
consistently;however,asignificantamountofacademicandindustryresearchinavarietyoffieldsindicatesthat
theycan.
HUMAN VALUES
Similarly,“humanvalues”(basicallyRobèrt’sfourthprinciple)includebothequityandeconomy.Equitycanbe
broadlyunderstoodasseekingqualityoflifeforall:ultimatelythismeanssatisfactionofbasichumanneedswithin
aspecificculturalcontext.Humanneedshavebeenwellstudiedinpsychologyandsocialsciences.Themost
prevalentideasregardinghumanneedscanbedefinedbyeitherahierarchicalmodel,suchasthatproposedby
Maslow7orataxonomicmodel.Maslowidentifiedphysiologicalneeds,safety,belonging,esteemandself
actualizationastiersofneeds.MaxNeefetal.8identifiednineuniqueneedsthatvaryaccordingtotheprocessby
whichtheyaresatisfied(being,having,doing,andinteracting):subsistence,protection,affectionunderstanding,
participation,leisure,creation,identity,andfreedom.Forthesustainabilitypurposes,eitherpsychologicalmodelis
fittingtobestillustratetheideaofhumanvalues.Thebasicideaisthatallhumanshavethesameneeds,thevalue
oftheseneedscanchangewithtime,andthereisawidevarietyandvaryingdegreetowhichneedsaresatisfied
andmanagedindifferentcommunitiesandcultures.9
Thereareanumberoftradeoffsthatoccurwhenmeetingmorethanoneneedsimultaneously.Thesesocietal
constraints,includingregulationsandpolicy,governtheideaofEconomy,whichmeans,simply,managementof
financial,natural,manufactured,andhumancapitalresources.10,11Theconceptofeconomycanbescaleddownto
applytoprojectlevelfinancialchoicesorscaleduptomorebroadpracticesofresourcemanagementsuchas
sustainableforestry,wastemanagementorcarboncapandtradearrangements.Again,however,conventional
roadwaydesignandconstructionpracticedoesnotsupporttheseneeds,oraddresstheirdynamicsand
management,consistentlyonallprojects.

5
Robèrt,K.H.(2000).Toolsandconceptsforsustainabledevelopment,howdotheyrelatetoageneral
frameworkforsustainabledevelopment,andtoeachother?JournalofCleanerProduction.8(3),243254.
6
Robèrt,K.H.(2002).Thenaturalstepstory:seedingaquietrevolution.GabriolaIsland,BC:NewSociety
Publishers.
7
Maslow,A.H.(1943).Atheoryofhumanmotivations.PsychologicalReview.50(4),370396.
8
MaxNeef.M.A.;Elizalde,A.andHopenhayn,H.(1991).Humanscaledevelopment:conception,applicationand
furtherreflections.NewYork:TheApexPress.
9
Fisher,K.J.(2000).Awealthofnotions:reflectiveengagementintheemancipatorteachingandlearningof
economics.Unpublisheddoctoraldissertation,UniversityofWesternSydney,Richmond.
10
Hawken,P.;Lovins,A.B.andLovins,L.H.(1999).Naturalcapitalism:creatingthenextindustrialrevolution(1st
ed.).Boston,MA:LittleBrownandCo.
11
Goodland,R.(1993).InternationalAssociationofImpactAssessment(IAIA)Newsletter5(2).

SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABILITY

Clearly,asystemsbasedapproachtosustainabilityrendersadefinitionthatincludesonlyEcology,Equity,and
Economyincomplete.Inadditiontothesecomponents,sustainabilityiscontextsensitive.Specifically,aroadway
projectsystem’scontextissensitivetowhateverhumanneedsandvalues
aredefinedbythemanagementteamandstakeholdersandits
environmentalsetting.Thesearetheconstraints,orboundaries,within 7 E’S OF SUSTAINABILITY
whichprojectdecisionsmustbemade.Therefore,twomorecritical Ecology
sustainabilitycomponents,extentandexpectations,areidentified.12These Equity
twocomponentsactasthesystemboundaries,providingscopeandcontext Economy
tosustainability. Extent
Expectations
Extentrepresentstheideathataprojectsystemhaswelldefinedconstraints Experience
andlimitswithinwhichsustainabilitycanbemeasured.Extentrefersto Exposure
spatialandtemporalconstraintsofcivilprojects(suchascenterlinelength,
rightofwaydimensions,footprint,andservicelife,respectively)oftenexplicitlydefinedbynaturallaws(suchas
howgravityultimatelydefinesloadlimits).Someotherpracticalexamplesofextentareheightrestrictionsand
constructionworkinghours.
Performancecriteria,orExpectations,arethekeyhumanvalueconstraintsidentifiedfortheproject.Expectations
providetheequityandeconomiccontextwithinwhichtheoverallperformanceofthesystemismosteffectively
judged.Expectationsvarybyprojectandmayincludepracticalperformanceoftheindividualdesignelements,
overallqualityoftheconstructionprocessesofaproject,orsystemwideoutcomeslikereducedaccidentsor
improvedworkerproductivity.
WhiletheideasofExtentandExpectationsmaybeimplicit(orpresumedtobeunderstood)inthepreceding
descriptionsofnaturallawsandhumanvalues,thereisnoreasonforthemnottobeexplicitlystatedinworking
definitionofsustainability.Infact,withoutexplicitlystatingthesecomponents,itismorelikelythat
misunderstandingsofthesecriticallimits,boundaries,andconstraintswouldoccur,orthattheirimpactsand
importancewouldbeignoredordownplayed.
Furthermore,itisnotenoughtobelievethattheideaofsustainabilitywillselfpropagateandimplementitsown
paradigmshifttowardmoresustainablesystemsandpractices.Thus,thefinaltwoimportantcomponentsof
sustainability,ExperienceandExposure,translatethephilosophicalconceptofsustainabilityintoimplementable
practices.Experiencerepresentsbothwhathasbeenlearnedandthelearningprocessitself,whichisongoing.So,
experienceincludestechnicalexpertise,innovation,andknowledgeofapplicablehistoricalinformation,whichis
criticalindecisionmakingprocesses.Forexample,mostsuccessfulprojectteamsarecomprisedofinterdisciplinary
expertsthatcanbringspecializedexperiencetodesignorconstruction.
Finally,iftheconceptofsustainabilityistocauseaparadigmshiftinindividual,communityandsocietalbehavior
thenitmustincludeanactiveeducationalcomponent;ormorespecifically,ateachingoroutreachcomponent.
Exposurerepresentstheideathatimplementingsustainabilityinpracticerequiresongoingeducationaland
awarenessprogramsforthegeneralpublic,professionals,agencies,andstakeholders.Therefore,experienceand
exposuredrivetheprogressandimplementationofsustainabilitywithinaprojectsystem.Withoutthesetwo
drivingcomponents,civilengineeringsystemswouldremainstatic,andsustainabilitywouldbeabsent,
unmanageableorsimplyunrecognized.

12
Anderson,J.L.(2008).Sustainabilityincivilengineering.Thesis(M.S.C.E.)UniversityofWashington,2008.

GREENROADS BENEFITS
ThereareparticularsustainabilityrelatedbenefitsassociatedwithProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCredits.
Theseroughlycorrelatewiththeideasof“naturallaws”and“humanvalues”thatwereoutlinedinthepreceding
sections.GreenroadsidentifiesthesebenefitsforeachProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCreditmakingiteasier
toatleastlist,ifnotexactlyquantify,thebenefitsassociatedwithGreenroadscertification.Thesebenefitsare:
PrimarilyEcocentricBenefits Primarily AnthropocentricBenefits
9 ReducesRawMaterialsUse 9 ImprovesAccess
9 ReducesFossilFuelUse 9 ImprovesMobility
9 CreatesEnergy 9 IncreasesServiceLife
9 ReducesWaterUse 9 ImprovesHumanHealth&Safety
9 ReducesAirEmissions 9 ImprovesLocalEconomies
9 ReducesGreenhouseGases 9 ReducesFirstCosts
9 ReducesWaterPollution 9 ReducesLifecycleCosts
9 ReducesSolidWaste 9 ImprovesAccountability
9 RestoresHabitat 9 IncreasesAwareness
9 CreatesHabitat 9 IncreasesAesthetics
9 ReducesManmadeFootprint 9 CreatesNewInformation
Wehavelistedthese,alongwitheachofthesustainabilitycomponentsaddressed,onthefrontpageofeachPR
andVC,sothatitiseasytoidentifywhatisbeingaddressedbyactingonthatPRorVC.ThisfeatureoftheManual
maybeparticularlyhelpfulforagenciesorprojectteamsthathavepredefinedsustainabilitygoals,valuesor
internalbenchmarkstomeet.
NotethatinthepreviousversionoftheGreenroadsManualwehadmade16benefitsexplicit:nowthereare22.
BasedonfeedbackfromusersandalsoourstudentsattheUniversityofWashington,webrokeapartthese16
benefitssomewhatandchangedthewordingusedtobetterreflectwhatwemeanby“sustainabilitybenefit”in
termsthataremorecommonlyunderstoodtotransportationprofessionals.Wealsohavetriedtoidentifythemas
beingprimarilyecocentricoranthropocentricbutwerecognizethismaybedebatableinsome,ifnotall,
instances.(SeeOtherNotesonthefollowingpagesformorecommentary.)
TRACING GREENROADS PRACTICES TO SUSTAINABILITY AND BENEFITS

EachGreenroadsProjectRequirementandVoluntaryCreditcanbetracedbacktoatleastonerelevant
sustainabilitycomponentandonerelevantbenefit;mostcanbetracedtoseveral.Wecallthis“mapping”,and
believeitisimportantbecauseitprovidesthebasisbywhichaGreenroadsProjectRequirementorVoluntary
Creditcanbeconsideredtocontributeto“sustainability”andprovidebenefitsasGreenroadsdefinesthem.This
mappinginvolvessubjectivejudgmentastowhichcomponentsandwhichbenefitsmaptowhichitems.While
eliminationofthissubjectivitywouldbeideal,morecomplexsystemsformappingwouldlikelyjustconcealrather
thaneliminatethissubjectivity.
Mappingofanitembacktosustainabilityandbenefitsisdone,wherepractical,usingempiricalevidencewith
propercitations.ThegoalistocreateametricwhereeachProjectRequirementandVoluntaryCreditis,tothe
extentpossible,shownthroughexistingresearchtohaveanimpactonsustainability.
ThismappingcanassistinselectingVoluntaryCreditstopursuebasedonuservaluesordesiredbenefits.
Importantly,thenatureofsustainabilityrequiresuserstomaketradeoffsbetweendifferentaspectsof
sustainability.Forinstance,onemighthavetoselectbetweenusingrecycledmaterialthatmustbetruckedovera
longdistanceorusinglocallyprovidedvirginmaterial.Bothconcepts(recycledmaterial,localmaterial)relateto
sustainability(e.g.,ecologyandeconomy)howeveronlyonecanbechosen.

Decisionsregardingthesetypesoftradeoffsarelikelytobeatleastpartly,ifnotwholly,basedonthevaluesheld
byaproject,whichisaconglomerationofvaluesheldbyitsstakeholders,owners,designersandconstructors.
Sincethesevaluesarenotlikelytobeidenticalbetweenprojects,overtimeorbetweenstakeholders,one
predeterminedsetofvaluesincludedinaperformancemetricisprobablynotwise.Rather,Greenroadsallows
userstochoosefromalonglistofVoluntaryCreditsbasedontheirvalues.Mappingtosustainabilitycomponents
isdonebecauseusersmayfinditmorestraightforwardtochoosebetweenresourcesratherthanGreenroads
VoluntaryCredits.Forinstance,itmaybedifficulttochoosebetweenwarmmixasphaltandporouspavement
unlessatechnicalexpertisconsultedtofullyexplaineachitem.However,itmaybeeasiertochoosebetweenthe
benefitstheyoffer.
OTHER NOTES
1. Additionally,itisusefultonotethatseveralbenefitsmaybedirectlyquantifiablewhileothersaremorelikely
tobeindirectbenefits.Wherepossible,thisisdiscussedinthesupportingresearchforeachcreditinthe
Manual.Werecognizethatthisstillpresentsanincompletepictureofthebenefitsofsustainability,butour
intentistoprovideassistanceinunderstandingarelativelynewandsometimescomplexidea.
2. Also,itwouldberemissofusnottonotethatanyecologicalbenefitisalsoahumanbenefitsinceour
environmentisfundamentallywhatsupportsusaslivingbeingsandimpactsourqualityoflife.Similarly,
sometimesthereisbeneficialinteractionbetweenthesebenefitswherehumanscanimpactthequalityofnon
humanlifeinapositiveway.Forexample,pursuingCreditEW7EcologicalConnectivitycanimprovemobility
andaccessforbothhumansandwildlifesimultaneously,whileachievinganumberoftheotherbenefitsalso
listedabove.
3. Finally,werecognizethatreductionofgreenhousegasesisakeygoalofmanyagencies.Thislevelofspecificity,
sincetheyareatypeofairpollution,correlatesdirectlywiththebenefitof“reducedairemissions”and
“reducedfossilfueluse.”Wefeltitwasusefultoprovidethisaddedspecificityinlightofcurrentstateand
federalpolicygoals.

HOW GREENROADS IS WEIGHTED

TheoverallgoalofweightingistomakeeachVoluntaryCredit’spointvaluecommensuratewithitsimpacton
sustainability.Thiscannotbeachievedbyastrictlyobjectiveorempiricalapproachbecause:
x Somesustainabilitycomponentsaredifficulttodirectlycomparebecausethereisnogenerallyacceptedmetric
ofcomparison(e.g.,comparingscenicviewstostormwatertreatment).
x Traditionallyacceptedquantitativemethods,e.g.,lifecycleassessment(LCA),lifecyclecostanalysis(LCCA),
benefitcostanalysis,donotadequatelyaddressallsustainabilitycomponents.
x GreenroadsisdesignedtofunctionasasupplementtocurrentU.S.regulations.Therefore,someareasthat
mightotherwisehavebeenheavilyweightedreceivelessemphasisinGreenroadsbecausecurrentU.S.
regulationalreadyrequiresmanymandatoryactionsleavinglittleroomforsupplementalvoluntaryactions.
x Therearesomeactionsforwhichthedirectimpactonsustainabilitymaybedifficultorimpossibletomeasure,
howevertheirexecutionmayprovidevaluableinformationonwhichtobasefuturedecisions.
Weightingfollowsthegeneralframeworkdescribedhere.Asabeginningpoint,weestablishedaminimumvalueof
onepointandamaximumvalueoffivepoints.Thisrangeallowsweightstoreflectarangeofsustainabilityimpact
butlimitstheimpactofpotentialmissteps.Individualconstructionactivitiesduringinitialconstructionhavethe
lowestimpact(seediscussionlater)onsustainabilitysowestartbyassigningtheseVoluntaryCreditsonepoint
each.FromhereVoluntaryCreditpointvaluesaremodifiedbasedonthelogicpresentednext.Importantly,
weightsarebasedontherelationshipoftheirassociatedprevailingbroadconceptswhiletheactuallevelof
achievementnecessarytoqualifyforaVoluntaryCreditisbasedonanassessmentofwhatispracticallyachievable
givencurrenttechnologyandpractice.Thegoalistomakethelevelofachievementbeyondcurrentpracticebut
enticinglyattainableusingcurrenttechnology.Usingthislogic,itfollowsthatastheindustry’ssustainabilitysavvy
growsandtechnologyadvancesVoluntaryCreditrequirementsmustchange.Thefollowingsectionsdiscuss
weightingdetailsforthesystem.Thefigurebelowshowstheweightsofthecategories(withoutCustomCredits).

FigureI.5:GraphshowingthedistributionofVoluntaryCreditpoints(bypercentageofthetotal)
ineachofthe5categories.

ECOLOGY WEIGHTING
Whileitisdifficulttoplaceavalueonecosystemservices,someresearchershavetried.Oneeffort13valuedthem
atUS$1654trillion/yrwithameanofUS$33trillion/yrfor17ecosystemservices(in1994USdollars).This
comparestoaworldgrossnationalproduct(GNP)ofUS$18trillion(1994USdollars)makingecosystemservices
about1.8timestheglobalGNPifthemeanvalueisassumed.Thiseffortacknowledgesthattheestimateisonthe
lowside,incompleteandflawedbutreasonthatsomeestimateisbetterthannone.Basedonthis,weestimate
thevalueofecosystemsasaboutthreetimesthevalueofhumaneconomicsystems(representedbythebaseline
valueofonepoint)forthepurposesofweightingVoluntaryCredits.Thisusesthehighendestimate(US$54
trillion)toatleastpartiallyaccountfortheiradmittedunderestimation.Fromthis,weassignEW2,EW3,EW5,
EW6,EW7,EW8andPT2threepointseachbecausetheyareprimarilyconcernedwithecosystemservices.
EQUITY WEIGHTING
Equity,asitisreflectedinGreenroadscanprimarilybeaddressedbyportionsofwhatiscommonlycalledcontext
sensitivedesign(CSD)orcontextsensitivesolutions(CSS).Toourknowledge,nobodyhasattemptedtoplacea
monetaryvalueonCSD/CSShowever,thereissubstantialevidencesuggestingthatithascometobeviewedasan
importantifnottheessentialcomponentinU.S.roadwaydesignoverthelastdecade.WhileCSD/CSSalsoincludes
ecologicalelements,itsstrengthliesinitsapproachtoidentifyingandinvolvingstakeholdersandreflecting
communityvaluesinaproject(theequitycomponentofsustainability).WhileCSD/CSSprovidesevidenceof
equity’simportanceitdoesnotprovideanyinsightregardingitslevelofimportanceinrelationtoother
sustainabilitycomponents.Infact,itarguesthatsuchvalueiscontextsensitive.WebelievethattheU.S.move
towardsCSD/CSSanditsemphasisonacollaborativecommunitybasedapproachtodesign(versusastrictlylow
coststandardsbasedapproach)showsthatequityissuesoughttobevaluedmorethantheminimumofonepoint.
Asafirstorderapproximation,weassignequityVoluntaryCreditstwopoints.BasedonthisweassignAE1,AE5,
AE6,AE8,AE9twopointseachbecausetheyareprimarilyconcernedwithequityissues.WeassignAE3the
maximumoffivepointsbecauseitactuallygivescreditforaCSD/CSSapproach,whiletheotherAEVoluntary
CreditsaddressoutcomesofaCSD/CSSapproach.
LIFECYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA) BASED WEIGHTING

ForVoluntaryCreditsdealingwithmaterialsproduction,construction,transportationassociatedwiththe
constructionprocessandtrafficuse,weightingisbasedonlifecycleassessment(LCA)resultstothegreatest
possibleextent.SinceGreenroadsismeanttoapplytoanyroadwayproject,LCAresultsspecifictoaparticular
projectcannotbeusedalonebecausetheyareprojectspecificandnotentirelytransferrable.However,examining
arangeofspecificLCAsmayprovideinsightintosomegeneraltrendsthatcouldbeusedtoweightVoluntary
Credits.Weidentified12roadwayLCApeerreviewedjournalpapersconsistingof43assessmentsofeitheractual
orhypotheticalroadways.14FivepapersaddressedPCCpavements(10assessments),whileall12addressHMA
pavements(34assessments).Somegeneraltrendsobservedwere:

13
Costanza,R.,d’Arge,R.,deGroot,R.,Farber,S.,Grasso,M.,Hannon,B.,Limburg,K.,Naeem,S.,O’Neill,R.V.,
Paruelo,J.,Raskin,R.G.,Sutton,P.,vandenBelt,M.,(1997).Thevalueoftheworld’secosystemservicesand
naturalcapital.Nat.,387,253260.
14
Thesepapersare:
Stripple,H.LifeCycleInventoryofAsphaltPavements.IVLSwedishEnvironmentalresearchInstituteLtdreportfor
theEuropeanAsphaltPavementAssociation(EAPA)andEurobitume,2000.
Stripple,H.LifeCycleAssessmentofRoad:APilotStudyforInventoryAnalysis,SecondRevisedEdition.IVLSwedish
EnvironmentalResearchInstituteLtdreportfortheSwedishNationalRoadAdministration,2001.
Mroueh,UM,Eskola,P.,LaineYlijoki,J.,Lifecycleimpactsoftheuseofindustrialbyproductsinroadandearth
construction.WasteManagement21,2001,pp.271277.
Treloar,G.J.;Love,P.E.D.andCrawford,R.H.HybridLifeCycleInventoryforRoadConstructionandUse,J.ofConst.
Engr.andMgmt.130(1),2004,pp.4349.

x Energyuseandemissionsforconstructionfollowedthesamebasictrendsinmoststudies.Somegeneral
rulesofthumbwefoundwere:
9 Materialsproductionhas20timestheimpactofconstruction.
9 Transportation(ofmaterials)has5timestheimpactofconstruction.
9 Maintenancehas1/3theimpactofinitialconstruction.
x Fortheonestudythatquantifiedthem,roadwayoperations(e.g.,lighting,signals,etc.)over40yearshad
aboutthesameenergyuseasallconstructionactivities(initialconstructionplusmaintenance).
x Forthetwostudiesthatrelatedthem,theenergyexpendedininitialconstructionofanewroadwayis
roughlyequivalenttotheenergyusedbytrafficonthefacilityover12years.
Basedontheseideas,thefollowingweightingisused:
x Operationsvs.construction:MR6isassigned5points.
x Trafficusevs.initialconstruction:AE2,AE4,andAE7areassigned5pointseach.
x Transportationassociatedwithconstruction:MR5isassigned5points.
x Materialsproduction:MR2andMR4areassignedupto5pointseach.MR3isassigned1pointandPT3
isassigned3points.
INCENTIVE-BASED WEIGHTING
SomeVoluntaryCreditsareassignedadditionalpointstoprovideincentivetocollectdata,undertakeorganization
wideeffortsandobtainhighachievementlevels.Generally,higherlevelsofachievementwillcorrelateto
incorporatinganumberofothervoluntaryactivitiesthatmaybereflectedinothercreditstoo.Thefollowing
VoluntaryCreditsuseincentivebasedweighting:EW1,EW2,EW3,EW5,AE1,AE2,AE5,AE6,AE7,CA1,CA
4,CA5,CA7,MR1,MR2,MR4,MR5andPT5.
DEVELOPED AREA WEIGHTING

TheUrbanHeatIsland(UHI)effectis“…ameasurableincreaseinambienturbanairtemperaturesresulting
primarilyfromthereplacementofvegetationwithbuildings,roads,andotherheatabsorbinginfrastructure.”15
UHIcanimpactsustainabilitybyincreasingenergyconsumption,andrelatedemissionsandaffectinghumanhealth

13
(cont.)
Zapata,P.,Gambatese,J.A.,EnergyConsumptionofAsphaltandReinforcedConcretePavementMaterialsand
Construction.J.ofInfrastructureSystems11(1),2005,pp.920.
Rajendran,S.,Gambatese,J.A.SolidWasteGenerationinAsphaltandReinforcedConcreteRoadwayLifeCycles.J.
ofInfrastructureSystems13(2),2005,pp.8896.
AthenaInstitute.ALifeCyclePerspectiveonConcreteandAsphaltRoadways:EmbodiedPrimaryEnergyandGlobal
WarmingPotential.ReporttotheCementAssociationofCanada,2006.
TramoreHouseRegionalDesignOffice.IntegrationoftheMeasurementofEnergyUsageintoRoadDesign.Rept.to
theCommissionoftheEuropeanDGforEnergyandTransport.ProjectNumber4.1031/Z/02091/2002,2006.
Weiland,C.D.LifeCycleAssessmentofPortlandCementConcreteInterstateHighwayRehabilitationand
Replacement.Master’sThesis,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,WA,2008.
Chui,CT.,Hsu,TH.,Yang,WF.Lifecycleassessmentonusingrecycledmaterialsforrehabilitatingasphalt
pavements.Resources,ConservationandRecycling52,2008,pp.545556.
Huang,Y.,Bird,R.,Bell,M.Acomparativestudyoftheemissionsbyroadmaintenanceworksandthedisrupted
trafficusinglifecycleassessmentandmicrosimulation.TransportationResearchPartD14,2009,pp.197204.
Huang,Y.,Bird,R.,Heidrich,O.Developmentofalifecycleassessmenttoolforconstructionandmaintenanceof
asphaltpavements.J.ofCleanerProduction17,2009,pp.283296.
15
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).HeatIslandEffectwebsite.[http://www.epa.gov/hiri]Accessed9
June2009.

andwaterquality.BasedonresearchfromtheLawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory16agrossapproximationis
thatroadpavementsconstituteaboutonequarterthetotalsurfaceareacontributingtotheUHI.FromthisPT4is
assigned5points.Thisweightingisalsoconsistentwithotherconcernsthatarerelevantinurbanareas:AE4and
MR6.
DURABILITY WEIGHTING
Longlifepavementgenerallyresultsinlowerlifecyclecosts,lessmaterialandfewertrafficinterruptionsoverthe
lifecycleofapavement.Whilemoreworkneedstobedoneinquantifyingthesereductions,avalueforPT1canbe
attemptedbydrawingthelinkbetweenlessmaterialandfewertrafficinterruptionstolessenergyandlower
emissions.PT1isassigned5points.
AESTHETIC WEIGHTING
Onestudy17investigateddifferentmonetizationapproachesforthehealthimpactsfromroadnoise.Fromtheir
workweassignnoiseonethirdtheimpactoftrafficrelatedemissions.Sincetirepavementnoiseisthe
predominantsourceorroadnoiseaboveabout50km/hr(forautomobiles)achangeintirepavementnoise
resultingfromsocalled“quieterpavement”useisaboutonethirdasimpactfulasactionsresultingintraffic
relatedemissionsreduction.Noisereductioncharacteristicsofquieterpavementstendtodiminishovertime.PT5
isassigned2to3points.ThiscorrelateswithEW8,whichisalsoassigned3pointsandaddressesglareother
unwantedlightemissions.

16
Rose,L.S.,H.Akbari,andH.Taha.2003.CharacterizingtheFabricoftheUrbanEnvironment:ACaseStudyof
GreaterHouston,Texas.PaperLBNL51448.LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory,Berkeley,CA.
17
Hofstetter,P.,MüllerWenk,R.,2005.Monetizationofhealthdamagesfromroadnoisewithimplicationsfor
monetizinghealthimpactsinlifecycleassessment.J.ofClean.Production13,12351245.


PROJECT REQUIREMENTS


Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Project Requirements
ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW PROCESS

GOAL PR-1
Evaluateimpactsofroadwayprojectsthroughaninformeddecisionmakingprocess.
REQUIREMENTS
Performanddocumentacomprehensiveenvironmentalreviewoftheroadway REQUIRED
project.Thisreviewshouldclearlyandconciselydocument:
1. Projectnameandlocation.
2. Namesandcontactinformationofkeyplayersinthedecisionmakingprocess, RELATED CREDITS
including(butnotlimitedto):theowneragency,agencyrepresentatives 9 PR2LifecycleCost
responsibleforcompletingtheenvironmentalreviewprocess,otherstakeholders, Analysis
andrelevantprofessionalsinvolved. 9 PR3Lifecycle
3. Intentandpurposeoftheroadwayproject. Inventory
4. Descriptionsofpotentialenvironmental,economicandsocialimpactsofthe 9 AE3Context
intendedroadwayproject. SensitiveSolutions
5. Detaileddescriptionsoftheextentofthesignificanceoftheseimpactswithrespect 9 MR1Lifecycle
tothedecisionmakingprocessandfeasibleperformanceexpectations. Assessment
6. Descriptionofthepublicinvolvementopportunityintheenvironmentalreview
process;documentthisopportunityandtheresultsofinputinthefinaldecisions. SUSTAINABILITY
7. Anyjurisdictionalrequirementsformoredetailedenvironmentalreviewdocuments
COMPONENTS
suchasenvironmentalimpactstatements(EIS)orenvironmentalassessments(EA)
todeterminethesignificanceofenvironmentalimpacts. 9 Ecology
8. Descriptionofthefinalenvironmentaldecisionsmade. 9 Expectations
9 Exposure
Details
Anenvironmentalreviewprocessisamethodofdecisionmakingusedinproject BENEFITS
development.Thebasicintentoftheprocessistopromoteinformeddecision 9 ReducesAir
makingbyexplainingtheprojectinacomprehensive,conciseandunderstandable Emissions
way.Thisexplanationinvolvesanevaluationofenvironmental,socialandeconomic 9 ReducesWater
impactsinordertomeetexistingregulationsandpublicstakeholderneeds.These Pollution
impacts,regulations,andneedsshapebasicdecisioncriteria,varysignificantlyin 9 ReducesSolidWaste
complexitybetweenprojects,anddictatetheeffortrequiredduringthereview 9 ImprovesHuman
processandprojectimplementation.TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA) Health&Safety
providesformalguidelinesforfederallyfundedroadwayprojects,andmanystates 9 Improves
haveenvironmentalreviewprocessessimilartoNEPA. Accountability
9 IncreasesAwareness
DOCUMENTATION 9 IncreasesAesthetics
x Copyofthefinaldecisiondocumentthatdemonstratesanenvironmentalreview
processhasbeencompletedfortheproject,withallappropriateagencyor
jurisdictionrepresentativesignatures.Anyofthefollowingdocumentswillsuffice:
x ExecutivesummaryoftheEAorEIS,theRecordofDecision(ROD)orFindingof
NoSignificantImpact(FONSI),orjurisdictionequivalentofthesedocuments.
x CompletedcopyoftheWashingtonStateDepartmentofEcologyState
EnvironmentalPolicyAct(SEPA)Checklist(orlocalequivalent).Note:Dothisif
theprojectisexemptfromaformalenvironmentalrevieworisclassifiedasa
“categoricalexclusion”(CE).
PR-1 Environmental Review Process 29

Project Requirements Greenroads™ Manual v1.5
APPROACHES & STRATEGIES

x Checkifyourstatehasexistingproceduresthatstreamlinetheenvironmentalreviewprocessspecificallyfor
roadwayprojects.TheCouncilonEnvironmentalQuality(CEQ)maintainsanupdatedlistofstatesthatare
complianthere:http://nepa.gov/nepa/regs/states/states.cfm
x Identifyopportunitiestoinvolvethepublicearlyintheenvironmentalreviewprocess.Usuallythisstepismost
effectiveduringprojectplanning.
x Recognizethattheenvironmentalreviewprocesscanoftenbeiterative,especiallyduringplanninganddesign
stageswhenalternativesarestillsubjecttochange.
x Conductadetailed,multidisciplinaryliteraturereviewatthestartofaproject.Thisreviewcanhelpidentify
existingextraordinarycircumstances,suchasspecialwildlifeandplantconcernsandsocioeconomicissues.
x UsethechecklistprovidedbytheWashingtonstateDepartmentofEcologyStateEnvironmentalPolicyAct
(SEPA)asaguidelineforanenvironmentalreviewprocessinjurisdictionsnotsubjecttoNEPAorsimilarlocalor
staterequirements.Thischecklistiseasyandstraightforwardandmaybecompletedtomeettheintentofthis
ProjectRequirement.NotethatmanystatesalsooffercheckliststhatcoverthesametopicsastheWashington
SEPAchecklist,andwillalsomeettheintentofthisProjectRequirement.TheWashingtonstatechecklistis
readilyavailableanddownloadableforimmediateusehere:http://www.ecy.wa.gov/biblio/ecy05045.html.
x Maketheenvironmentalreviewdocumentationasconciseandcomprehensiveaspossible,whilealsolimiting
useofprofessionaljargon.Thiswillcreateaneasytoreadandunderstandableenvironmentalreview
documentfordecisionmakers.ThereareanumberofguidancedocumentsavailablefromtheCEQforNEPA
documents,andindividualstatesmayalsohavehelpfulresourcesavailable.TheseareavailablefromtheCEQ
here:http://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/regs/guidance.html
x Forprojectstypicallyconsideredcategoricallyexempt,wherejurisdictionalprecedenthasbeenestablishedfor
similarroadwayprojectsinpreviousenvironmentalreviewprocesses,completetheWashingtonstateSEPA
checklistforpurposesofthisrequirement.Thisprocesswillalsodemonstrate1)thatthereviewprocesshas
beencompletedandallimpactshavebeenaddressed,and2)whyyourprojecthasbeendetermineda
categoricalexclusion.
x FollowFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)andFederalTransitAuthority(FTA)guidelinesforcomplex,
detailedandlargerprojectsthatneedtoproduceEISreports.Theseguidelinesarecompiledina
straightforwardguidancedocumentlocatedhere:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/hep/section6002/.Thisdocument
includesstepsrequiredfortheNEPAprocessandalsoexemplaryprojectcasestudiesthatmeetthe
requirementsfortheenvironmentalreviewprocess.
Example: SEPA Checklists

ProjectsnotsubjecttoNEPAoranequivalentlocalorstatepolicyforenvironmentalreviewwillneedtosubmit
acompletedenvironmentalreviewprocesschecklistforpurposesofthisrequirement.Therearemany
availablefromvariousstateagenciesorDepartmentsofTransportation(DOT),checkwithyourowner/agency.
SeveralexamplesofcompletedchecklistsareprovidedinTablePR1.1.
TablePR1.1:SampleCompletedSEPAChecklists
ProjectName Owner Type WheretoFindChecklist
SR509/SR518Interchange Washington Highway http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/62
SafetyImprovementProject StateDOT improvement 4594AC5B814D62BA042D926347628C/
0/SR518SafetySEPAChecklist.pdf
2009AACProgram– SeattleDOT Resurfacing http://www.seattle.gov/transportation/docs
FauntleroyWaySWbetween (SDOT) /SEPAFAUNTLEROY.pdf
SWAlaskaStandSWHollySt
RevisedAuroraAvenueNorth SDOT, Multipurpose http://www.seattle.gov/Transportation/doc
Transit,PedestrianandSafety WSDOT, urbanarterial s/aurora/RevAurora_SEPAchecklist_
Improvements FHWA improvements SigOnFile.pdf
EagleCreekRoadImprovement Chelan Ruralroad http://www.co.chelan.wa.us/pw/data/sepa_
Project County improvements checklist.pdf
30 Environmental Review Process PR-1


Example: Federally Funded Projects and the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
FederallyfundedroadwayprojectsarerequiredtousetheNEPA(NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct)
environmentalreviewprocess(CEQ,2007).ThisincludesallroadwayprojectsmanagedbytheFederalHighway
Administration(FHWA).
NOTE:NEPAclearlystatesthattheenvironmentalreviewprocessdoesnotrequirethatagenciesorproject
teamsmakefinalprojectdecisionsbasedonanyoftheenvironmentalimpactsthatarestudiedordiscovered.
Rather,theintentoftheNEPAprocessistoinformdecisionmakersofthepotentialeffectsoftheiractions
(Caldwell,1999;CEQ,2007).
TheFHWA,AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)andtheAmericanCouncil
ofEngineeringCompanies(ACEC)havecompiledaguidancedocumentcalledImprovingtheQualityof
EnvironmentalDocumentsthathighlightsseveralcasestudiesofexemplary,easytoreadandcomprehensive
NEPAdocuments.Afewofthoseprojectsarelistedbelow:
x AlaskanWayViaductandSeawallReplacementProject(WashingtonStateDOT)
x Mon/FayetteTransportationProject,PARoute51toI376(PennsylvaniaTurnpikeCommission)
x RoutePost13(I15)Interchange(UtahDOT)
x SouthernCorridor(I15)(UtahDOT)
x US93SomerstoWhitefish(MontanaDOT)
x I69EvansvilletoIndianapolis(IndianaDOT)
x MidCurrituckSoundBridge(NorthCarolinaDOT)
Detailedinformationoneachproject(andothernonroadwaytransportationprojects)isincludedinthe
completedreportfortheNationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)2525Task1(2005).This
NCHRPreportalsocontainsdescriptionsofwhythesereportsareexemplaryofasuccessfulNEPAprocess.
Accordingtoregulationsupdatedin2001fromtheFHWA,manytransportationprojectsforbothroadwaysand
bridges,specificallyrehabilitationactivities,areconsideredtobecategoricallyexempt(CEs)becausetheyhave
beendeemedtomeet40CFR§1508.4basedonpastprecedent.Accordingly,thesecertainprojecttypes:
x Donothavesignificantenvironmental,plannedgrowthorlanduseimpacts
x Donotneedrelocationofmanypeople
x Donothaveimpactonnatural,cultural,recreational,orhistoricresources
x Donothaveair,noise,orwaterqualityimpacts
x Donothavesignificantimpactsontravelpatterns
x Donot,eitherindividuallyorcumulatively,haveanysignificantenvironmentalimpacts
See40CFR§1508.4and23CFR§771.117.Forpurposesofthisrequirement,projectsthatqualifyasNEPACEs
mustcompleteachecklistequivalenttothoseshowninTablePR1.1.
Example: States with Environmental Review Processes

Somestates,regionsandterritoriesoftheUnitedStatesrequireanenvironmentalreviewprocessthatis
similartoNEPA.TheselocationsarelistedinTablePR1.2.Additionally,somelocalandregionaldepartmentsof
transportation(DOT),orprojectsfundedbythoseagencies,mayalsorequireanenvironmentalreviewprocess
thatisgenerallybasedontheNEPA.Completingsuchanowner/agencyprocessmeetsthisrequirement,
providedthatitaddressesallthestepsnoted.Notethatsomeowners/agenciesmayhavestrictercriteriathan
NEPA.Also,guidancedocumentsandexamplesatthefederallevelcanoftenprovideahelpfulresourceor
templateforstateleveldocumentation.

TablePR1.2:U.S.LocationswithExistingEnvironmentalReviewProcesses1
California Montana
Connecticut Nevada/California–Tahoe
DistrictofColumbia NewJersey
Georgia NewYork
Guam NorthCarolina
Hawaii PuertoRico
Indiana SouthDakota
Maryland Virginia
Massachusetts Washington
Minnesota Wisconsin
1
http://nepa.gov/nepa/regs/states/states.cfm
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Projectsthataretypicallyclassifiedas“categoricalexclusions”underNEPA(orequivalent)mayneedtoexpend
extraefforttoachievetheintentofthisrequirement.
2. Inadequateorineffectivepublic,stakeholder,andagencyinvolvementduringprojectscoping,leadingtoa
poorlydefinedorincompletesolution.
3. Leadagenciesareresponsibleforthescopeoftheenvironmentalreview,butconsultantsordevelopersare
oftenrequiredtopayforandperformtheworkinvolved(CEQ,2007).
4. Climatechangeisnotoftenadequatelyaddressedbytheenvironmentalreviewprocess,whichhasoccasionally
resultedinlitigation(Clark,1994;Lemons,1998).
5. Inadequatemitigationofindirectandcumulativeeffectsbecauseofjurisdictionallimitationsorlackofscientific
data(Clark,1994;Lemons,1998).
RESEARCH
Anenvironmentalreviewprocesshastwomainpurposes:providinganavenueformoreinformeddecisionmaking
andallowingpublicinvolvementinagencyprojectsthatmayhaveadverseimpactsontheenvironment(CEQ,
2007).Generallyspeaking,itisthefirststeptowardachievingageneralmarkofroadwaysustainability;thisstep,
whentakenattheoutsetofdesignandconstruction,allowscomprehensiveconsiderationofelementsthat
contributetooverallsustainabilityatthemostbasiclevelofprojectdecisionmaking.
Completionofanenvironmentalreviewprocessensuresthattheprojecthasreceivedearlyscrutinyandguidance
fromthepublic,stakeholders,andappropriateagenciesandjurisdictionsbeforeitisdesignedandbuilt.However,
importantly,theprocessdoesnotdictatethefinaldecisionsmade.Inotherwords,someimpactsthatare
consideredadversemayactuallybeimplementedbasedonweighinganumberoftradeoffs.Thisway,stakeholder
valuesandlocalregulationsprovidetheenvironmental,social,economicandotherpoliticalparameterswithin
whichaprojectmustfit.
WhyistheenvironmentalreviewprocessarequirementinGreenroads?
Nomatterhowsmalltheroadwayprojectis,itstillhasanimpact,evenifitisconsideredatsomeregulatorylevel
tobean“insignificant”one.Greenroadsseekstorecognizethoseprojectsthathavebeensubjecttotherobust
publicandregulatoryagencyreviewprocessimposedbytheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)orastate
levelequivalentprocedure.Toclarify,inparticular,manyroadwayprojectshavebeenclassifiedasCategorical
Exclusions.Suchregularexclusionofthisprocessrequirementdetachestheimpactsthatareperceivedas
insignificantonaprojectbasisandatapracticallevelactuallyhasapotentiallylargeaggregateenvironmental
impact.Passingoffinsignificantimpactsdoesnotprecludethevalueoftheprocessinadecisionmakingsituation,
especiallyforthebroadrangeofimpactthatroadwayprojectshave.Also,byconsideringusingametriclike
Greenroadsinprojectlevelplanning,wefeelthattheenvironmentalreviewprocessmaybeaugmentedby
considerationofsomeoftheideasattheprojectconception.

Whyisenvironmentalreviewimportantforroadways?
Roadwayconstructionandmaintenanceactivitiesplaceanincredibledemandonnationalenvironmentaland
financialresources.However,currentroadwaydesignandconstructionpracticedoesnotalwayssystematicallyor
holisticallyaddressenvironmentalimpactsorenvironmentalquality.Formanyprojects,oftenitisdifficultto
conceptualizetheenvironmentalimpactsorinfluencethataroadwayhasonitssurroundings.Thiscouldbedueto
threegeneralproblems:1)decisionmakersareunabletounderstandthecomplexityofecosystemsandhow
manmaderoadwaysfitwithinthiscontext;2)thedecisionrequiresthoughtfulnessthatgoesbeyondconventional
wisdomortraditionalassumptions3)decisionmakersfailtounderstandthelimitsofcontrolthathumanshaveon
ecosystemmanagement(Caldwell,1999).Also,notallprojectsarecoveredbyNEPAoranequivalentstateorlocal
policy;sometimesexistingpoliciesrequirenomorethanacursoryevaluationofenvironmental,socialand
economicimpacts.Inthesecases,manycriticalimpactsareunintentionallyoverlookedorignoredandthese
impactsmayhavelongtermconsequencesfortheenvironmentandlocalcommunities.Approachesthatdonot
addressdirect,indirectandcumulativeeffectsofroadwaydesignandconstructiondemonstrate,atbest,weak
stewardshipefforts,andareinadequatetowardachievingsustainabilityduetotheirlackofcomprehensiveness.
Forexample,evaluationofprojectairemissions,totalenergyuse,orsurroundingecosystemsisrarelyextended
outsideofregulatorycompliance,suchasmeetingrequirementsforacumulativeeffectsassessmentinNational
EnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)documents.TheBureauofTransportationStatistics(2007)reportsthat
approximately$54billionwasspentonpavementmaterialsalonein2006.Production,transportandplacement
ofcommonpavementmaterials,suchashotmixasphalt(HMA)andportlandcementconcrete(PCC),represent
themajorityoflifecyclegreenhousegasemissionsandenergyusageassociatedwithroadways(Zapataand
Gambatese,2005).Additionally,theU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)hasattributedseveraldirect,
cumulativeandlongtermenvironmentalimpacts,suchasecosystemdegradation,fragmentationandhabitatloss,
duetothelinearanddecentralizednatureofthefourmillionmilenetworkofroadwaysintheU.S.(1994)
Performinganenvironmentalreviewonaroadwayprojectprovidesameansofinvestigatingthesespecial
environmentalimpactsinamoredetailedmannerinordertomakebetterenvironmentaldecisionsforroadway
development.
Whatarethestepsintheenvironmentalreviewprocess?
Generally,therearethreegenericstepsintheenvironmentalreviewprocess.Forprojectswithnoenvironmental
reviewprocesswithintheirjurisdiction,theseareguidelinesprovideageneralideaoftheprocess.
1. Completetheinitialpermittingprocessforthegoverningjurisdiction.Usuallythisinvolvessomereviewof
historicaldocumentationfortheareawheretheprojectwillbelocated.
2. Determineifanenvironmentalreviewisneeded.Usually,aprojectfallsintoacertainclassificationwhichhas
specificenvironmentalreviewrequirements.
3. Ifneeded,performanenvironmentalreviewandsubmitforapprovalbythegoverningagency.
Thesethreestepsmaybeiterativedependingonthecomplexityoftheproject.TheeightstepsofthisProject
Requirementmatchthisgeneralframework,inslightlymoredetail,andwithouttheagencypermits.
Howistheenvironmentalreviewprocessusedfordecisionmaking?
Roadwaydesignandconstructionisacomplexprocessthatrequiresexperiencedprofessionalsandclearly
definedexpectationsandvalues.Theenvironmentalreviewprocessisanimportantpartofdecisionmakingin
roadwayprojectsbecauseultimately,ithelpstellthewholeprojectstoryinaneffectivemanner.Determining
stakeholderexpectationsandneeds,spatialandtemporalbounds(Clark,1994),feasibleoptionsandtheir
environmentalimpacts,andwhichchoicesaremostsensiblebasedonallknowncostsandbenefitsarecritical
stepsinapproachingtheprojectinameaningfulandcomprehensiveway.Further,withoutdefiningthesesame
values,effortstowardprojectsustainabilitywouldbeineffective.
Whatisthepublicinvolvementrole?
Publicinvolvementplaysakeyroleinacomprehensiveenvironmentalreviewprocessbecausethepublicisone
ofthelargeststakeholdersinmostroadwayandtransportationrelatedprojects.Itplaysacomplementaryrole

tothetechnicalknowledgeandexperienceoftheinterdisciplinaryprofessionalsinvolvedinthedesignand
constructionoftheroadway.Openconsensusbasedpublicparticipationstrategiesprovideacriticalavenuefor
exchangeofimportantinformationaboutneeds,opinions,expectationsandlocalvaluesbetweenthepublic
andprojectdecisionmakers.Essentially,thispartoftheenvironmentalreviewprocessengagesthepeople
whowillbemostlikelytobeimpactedbythedecisionsmade.
TheFHWAprovidesseveralpublicationsandguidancematerialsoncreatingandimplementingsuccessful
publicinvolvementcampaignsforroadwayprojects.http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/pi_pubs.htm
Whatisconsideredinanenvironmentalreviewprocess?
TheWashingtonstateDepartmentofEcology(DOE)SEPAchecklistprovidesacomprehensiveexampleofwhatis
typicallyincludedinanenvironmentalreviewprocess.BasictopicscoveredincludethoseshowninTablePR1.3.
TablePR1.3:TopicsAddressedbyanEnvironmentalReviewProcess
Earthenmaterials Sitetopography,soilconditions,gradingquantities,erosionpotential,impervioussurfaces
Air Expectedonsiteandrelevant offsiteairemissions
Water Waterbodiesinvicinity,inwatergradingquantities,surfaceandgroundwaterconditions,
floodplainstatus,expectedpointandnonpointdischarges,stormwatermanagement
Plants Nativevegetation,vegetationmanagement,landscapingplan,endangeredspecies
Animals Nativewildlife,migratoryhabits,endangeredspecies
Energy Energytypesneededandused,renewableenergysources,conservationefforts(ifany)
Humanhealth Exposuretotoxicchemicals,riskoffireandexplosion,spill,or hazardouswaste,emergency
andsafety servicesneeded,hazardcontrolsinplace,safetyissuesandneedsbeingaddressed.
Noise Traffic,equipment,operation (shortterm,longterm),timesofexpectednoise,
Landand Currentuse,existingstructures(anyplanneddemolition),agriculturalstatus,zoningand
shorelineuse masterplan,currentanddisplacedpopulations,environmentalsensitivity,
Housing Additionorlossofhousingunits
Aesthetics Structureheight,viewsinarea
Lightandglare Timeofdayforexpectedglare,safetyconsiderations,offsiteglare,
Recreational, Typesofopportunitiesinvicinity,existingregistrations(ifany),anydisplacementof
historic,cultural recreational,historical,orculturalopportunitiesasaresultofproject
resources
Transportation Accessfromotherpublicstreetsandhighways,transitfacilities,parking,typeofconstruction
expected,nearnesstoairandrailmodes,peaktrafficvolumes,tripgeneration
Publicservices Typesofpublicservicesandutilitiesneededorimpacted,newservicesorutilitiesproposed
andutilities

Generally,documentationoftheenvironmentalreviewprocessforroadwayprojectsrequiresthatsourcesofall
potentialenvironmental,economicandsocialimpacts,expectednatureandextentoftheseimpacts,andthefinal
decisionsmadeinlightoftheseimpactsarestatedconciselyandclearly.
WhatisNEPA?
TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)isabroaddeclarationofenvironmentalvaluesintendedto
encouragechangesinattitudesandsocialbehaviorsatanationallevel(Caldwell,1999).NEPAwasinstitutedas
federallawintheUnitedStatesin1969andpublishedintheFederalRegisterinJanuary1970.(CFR42§4321)The
fulltextoftheactisavailableonlineathttp://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/nepanet.htm.CompliancewithNEPAis
managedbytheCouncilofEnvironmentalQuality(CEQ,2007).Asalaw,NEPAmandatesthataninterdisciplinary
andtransparentapproachistakenduringalternativeselectioninthedecisionmakingprocess.Projectsare
requiredtostateallknowndirect,indirect,andcumulativeenvironmental,socialandeconomicimpactsthatmight
resultfromimplementingtheproject(CEQ,2007).

NEPAappliestoallfederallyfundedprojects,whichcommonlyincludesprojectssuchasroadwaysmanagedbythe
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA),environmentalremediationeffortsthroughtheEPA,government
buildingsandotherinfrastructureprojectsreceivingfederalfunding.Becausemanyroadwayprojectsareatleast
partlyfundedbyfederalmoney,manyagenciesandconsultantsarelikelytobeexperiencedwiththelevelofdetail
expectedduringtheNEPAprocess.Additionally,manystatesmayhaveregulationsthatmapdirectlybacktoNEPA
orhavemorestringentenvironmentalreviewexpectationsduetolocalorstatewidepolicyorotherspecial
environmentalconditions.
Ingeneral,therearefiveclassificationsofprojectsthataresubjecttoenvironmentalreviewunderNEPA.Theseare
shownwithabriefdescriptionofthedocumentationneededandproducedtomeettherequirementsofNEPA
processinTablePR1.4.SignificantlymoredetailregardingeachtypeofreportinthetextoftheActitselfandfrom
CEQathttp://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/nepanet.htm.
TablePR1.4:TypesofNEPAEnvironmentalReviews
NEPAClassification DocumentationNeeds HowtoMeetNeeds
SignificantEffects EnvironmentalImpactStatement (EIS) FollowNEPAProcessguidelinesforgenerating
Identified RecordofDecision(ROD) anEIS.EPAreviewsEIS.
EffectsUncertain EnvironmentalAssessment(EA) FollowNEPAProcessguidelinesforgenerating
FindingofNoSignificantImpact anEA.ResultsofEAmaydictateamoredetailed
(FONSI)orfollowEISprocedure EISisrequiredfortheroadwayproject.
ListedCategorical Letterfromthegoverningjurisdiction Providecopyofexistingstatementof
Exclusion(CE) statingtheexistingCEforproject. CategoricalExclusion(CE)
FHWAlistsCEsin23CFR§771.117
NoCElistedbyAgency EnvironmentalAssessment(EA) FollowNEPAProcessguidelinesforgenerating
FindingofNoSignificantImpact anEA.ResultsofEAmaydictateamoredetailed
(FONSI)orEISandROD EISisrequiredfortheroadwayproject.
Extraordinary EnvironmentalAssessment(EA) FollowNEPAProcessguidelinesforgenerating
circumstancefora FindingofNoSignificantImpact anEA.ResultsofEAmaydictateamoredetailed
listedCE (FONSI)orEISandROD EISisrequiredfortheroadwayproject.
CriticismsofNEPA
SomeofthecommoncriticismsofNEPAareoutlinedbyNCHRPReport2525(01)(TransTechetal.,2005).Most
complaintsarisefromlossofmeaningfulnessintheenvironmentalreviewprocessduetotwocoupledissues,
thevaguenessofthelanguageusedintheActandthebureaucraticapprovalprocessrequiredoftheNEPA
documentation.
ThelanguageintheActisverybroadcomparedtootherU.S.regulations,andoftentherequirementsforNEPA
areconsideredunclearbycomparison.IntervieweesintheNCHRP2525initialsurveycitedtheneedforclearer
language,lessjargon,consistentstylesandformats,andtheneedtobesuccinct(TransTechetal.,2005).
However,themeaningoftheprocessisnotlikelylostintheprocessitself,butratherintheunnecessarily
verbosedocumentsthataregenerated.Manysectionsoftencontainduplicateinformation.Thisproblemhas
spurredtheguidancedocumentsavailablefromFHWA,AASHTO,andACEC(notedintheprecedingExamples
section)whichstressbrevityandclarityinfinalNEPAdocuments.
Historically,documentationoftheNEPAprocesshasalsobeenconsideredunwieldyandarduousbecause
projectteamsoftentrytopresentasmuchinformationinasbroadoflanguageaspossible,inordertoaddress
thelackofspecificityintheActandavoidpossiblelitigationforerrorsandomissions(Clark,1994;Lemons,
1998).Intervieweesfrequentlymentionedthatdemonstratinglegalsufficiencyisthemainreasondocuments
byDOTsaresolong(TransTechetal.,2005).Consequently,theselengthydocumentsrequirelengthyreviews.
ThereviewprocessiscomplicatedfurtherifaprojectdoesnotbegintheNEPAenvironmentalreviewinearly
stagesofdecisionmakingorifdocumentationisnotproperlytracked.

Athirdcomplaintthathasactuallyresultedinrecent(andcomplicated)litigationistheNEPArequirementfor
cumulativeenvironmentaleffectassessment,specificallyrelatedtoglobalclimatechange.Smith(2008)notes
thattheNEPAhastraditionallynotincludedanyclimatechangeanalysesintheenvironmentalimpact
assessmentprocess.Recentlythough,climatechangehasappearedasacommentfromtheleadagencyon
reviewsofenvironmentalimpactstatementsandenvironmentalassessments.However,Lemons(1998,p.89)
states“Becauseofthesignificantamountofscientificuncertaintyinpredictiontheenvironmentalimpactsof
humanactivities[suchasclimatechange],opponentsofagencydecisionshaveoftenbeensuccessfulin
challengingagencydecisionsiftheycandemonstratethattheagencydidnotrigorouslyconsidercertain
impactsoriftheycandemonstratethatanagencydidnotfollowprescribedstepsindealingwithscientific
uncertainty.Alternatively,ifanagencyhasfollowedtheseprescribedsteps,thenopponentsofanagency’s
decisionwillhaveadifficulttimefulfillingtheburdenofproofrequirementstooverturnthatdecision.”For
example,Smith(2008,p.76)identifiesthelandmarkcase,CenterforBiologicalDiversityv.NationalHighway
TrafficSafetyAdministration,asthe“mostsignificantNEPAclimatechangecourtdecisiontodate”relatedto
NEPAandtransportation.Inthisdecision,theNationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministrationfailedtoidentify
thecumulativeeffectofincrementalemissionsonclimatechangeintheEAprocess.However,inthisand
similarcases,eventhebestscientificknowledgeforecosystemrelatedconsequencescanbetoovariableand
uncertaintobeconsideredsignificantevidenceinacourtoflaw.Statisticalsignificanceinscienceand
engineering,unfortunately,doesnottranslatetobeyondareasonabledoubtinlaw.
Clark(1994,p.322)echoesthisdifficultyandstatesthatthe“lackofconsensusconcerningtheapplicationof
cumulativeimpactanalysismethodologyisprimarilyassociatedwithissuesoftemporalandspatialboundsand
thedifficultyofreachingagreementuponthegeographicalboundariesofthestudyareaandhowfarintothe
futureandhowfarintothepastonemustlooktoadequatelyassessthecumulativeimpacts.”Inessence,the
realissueisthatmostprojectteamsareunabletodefineregionalandglobalproblemsinacontextrelevantto
projectleveldecisions.Mostofthecumulativeeffectassessmentsfortransportationprojectsmissthepoint(if
completedatall),andmoredata(easytocollect)isoftenprovidedwithoutcompletelysynthesizingthe
informationinameaningfulway(becauseanalysisismoredifficult)(TransTechetal.,2005).Guidelinesforthe
levelofdetailrequiredandprocesssuggestionsforcumulativeeffectsstudiesoftransportationprojectsare
providedinNCHRP2525(01).
AmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009andNEPA
TheNEPAprocessisrequiredforanytransportationinfrastructureimprovementprojectapplyingforor
grantedfundsundertheAmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009(ARRA).AccordingtotheCEQ
(2009c),NEPAreviewsarerepresentativeofthesustainabilityandenvironmentalstewardshipgoalsembedded
inARRA.AsofSeptember2009,infrastructureprojectsthroughtheUnitedStatesDOTamountedto9%ofthe
totalfundedprojectsinARRA.NEPAwasnotapplicableforonlytwooftheseprojectsfundedforUSDOTin
2009(CEQ,2009c).
ResourcesforProjectEnvironmentalReviews
x BlankcopiesoftheWashingtonstateDepartmentofEcologySEPAchecklistareavailableanddownloadablefor
usehere:http://www.ecy.wa.gov/biblio/ecy05045.html.
x InformationforhighwayproposalsandSAFETEALUrequirementsisavailablefromtheFHWAat
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/safetealu.
x A“Citizen’sGuidetoTransportationDecisionMaking”and“TheMetropolitanTransportationPlanningProcess:
KeyIssues.ABriefingNotebookforTransportationDecisionmakers,Officials,andStaff”areavailablefromthe
FHWAathttp://www.fhwa.gov/planning/citizen/index.htm.
x TheFHWAprovidesanEnvironmentalReviewToolkitthatisausefulresourceformanyprojects:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/metro/index.htm
x DetailedquestionsandanswersforenvironmentalreviewprocessesarespelledoutintheSAFETEALUFinal
Guidance,availablehere:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/hep/section6002/

x TheFHWAalsohasguidanceforcreatingeffectivepublicInvolvementprograms.AusefulresourceisPublic
InvolvementTechniquesforTransportationDecisionmaking,availableonthewebat:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/REPORTS/PITTD/cover.htm
x TheTransportationResearchBoard(TRB)hasacommitteefocusedonpublicinvolvementwithseveraluseful
resources:http://www.trbpi.com/
x TheAASHTOCenterforEnvironmentalExcellencehasmanyguidelinesandresourcesforaddressingNEPA
compliance,includingaguidebookforSAFETEALUEnvironmentalReviewProcesses.
http://environment.transportation.org/center/products_programs/practitioners_handbooks.aspx
GLOSSARY
ACEC AmericanCouncilofEngineeringCompanies
AASHTO AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials
ARRA AmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009
CategoricalExclusion(CE) Adecision,project,oractivitythathasnosignificantsingleorcumulative
outcomethatunderminesthequalityoftheenvironmentandrequiresno
environmentalassessmentorenvironmentalimpactstatement.(40CFR
§1508.4and23CFR§771.117)
Categoricallyexempt SeeCategoricalExclusion(CE)
CEQ CouncilonEnvironmentalQuality
EA EnvironmentalAssessment(40CFR§1508.9)
EIS EnvironmentalImpactStatement(40CFR§1508.11)
Environmentalreviewprocess Amethodofinformeddecisionmakingusedinprojectdevelopment
Extraordinarycircumstance Anyspecialsituationthatmayindicateaneedforamoredetailed
environmentalassessment(EA),including(butnotlimitedto):impactsto
habitatforendangeredspecies,archaeologicallysensitiveareas,wetlands,
lowincomecommunities,etc.
FHWA FederalHighwayAdministration
FONSI FindingofNoSignificantImpact(40CFR§1508.13)
Leadagency TheagencyheldresponsibleforNEPAcompliance (40CFR§1508.16)
NCHRP NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram
NEPA NationalEnvironmentalPolicyActof1969
NHTSA NationalHighwayTransportationSafetyAgency
ROD RecordofDecision
SEPA StateEnvironmentalPolicyAct.Notethatsomestateshavedifferent
acronymsfortheirenvironmentalpolicies.

REFERENCES
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials.(2006,May)ImprovingtheQualityof
EnvironmentalDocuments:AReportoftheJointAASHTO/ACECCommitteeinCooperationwiththeFederal
HighwayAdministration.RetrievedAugust24,2009from
http://environment.transportation.org/pdf/nepa_process/QUALITY_NEPA_DOCS.pdf
BureauofTransportationStatistics.U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,ResearchandInnovativeTechnology
Administration.(2007).FIGUREG8PublicExpendituresonConstructionofHighwaysandStreets:19952007.
TransportationStatisticsAnnualReport,2007.RetrievedOctober21,2009from
http://www.bts.gov/publications/transportation_statistics_annual_report/2007/html/chapter_02/table_g_08.
html
Caldwell,L.K.(1999).TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct:anagendaforthefuture.Bloomington:IndianaUniv.
Press.209pp.

Clark,R.(1994.)Cumulativeeffectsassessment:atoolforsustainabledevelopment.ImpactAssessment.12(3):
319331.
CouncilonEnvironmentalQuality,OfficeofthePresident.(2007,December).ACitizen’sGuidetotheNEPA:Having
YourVoiceHeard.RetrievedAugust24,2009fromhttp://nepa.gov/nepa/Citizens_Guide_Dec07.pdf.
CouncilonEnvironmentalQuality,OfficeofthePresident.(2009a,March19).StateEnvironmentalPlanning
Information.RetrievedAugust24,2009.Availableathttp://nepa.gov/nepa/regs/states/states.cfm
CouncilonEnvironmentalQuality,OfficeofthePresident.(2009b,November1)NEPAnetCEQTaskForce.Available
athttp://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/nepanet.htm
CouncilonEnvironmentalQuality,OfficeofthePresident.(2009c,November2)TheThirdReportontheNational
EnvironmentalPolicyActandProgressforAmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009Activitiesand
Projects.Availableat:http://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/reports_congress_Nov2009.htm
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.OfficeofFederalActivities.(1994,April)Evaluationofimpactsfromhighway
development.(EPAPublicationNo.300B94006.)Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2008).EnvironmentalReviewToolkit.FHWA,USDepartmentof
Transportation.AccessedJuly25,2008.Availableathttp://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2005).Safe,Accountable,Flexible,EfficientTransportationEquityAct:A
LegacyforUsers.FHWA,USDepartmentofTransportation.AccessedAugust24,2009.Availableat
http://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov.
Lemons,J.(1998.)BurdenofProofRequirementandEnvironmentalSustainability.Chap.6,pp.75103,in:J.
Lemons,L.Westra,andR.Goodland.EcologicalSustainabilityandIntegrity:ConceptsandApproaches.Boston:
KluwerAcademicPublishers.315pp.
Smith,M.D.(2008).NEPAandClimateChange.EnvironmentalPractice.10(2),7577.
TransTechManagement,Inc.&Parsons,BrinckerhoffwithAkin,Gump,Strauss,Hauer&FeldLLP.(2005,January).
SynthesisofDataNeedsforEAandEISDocumentation–ABlueprintforNEPADocumentContentRequestedby:
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)StandingCommitteeonthe
Environment.NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram2525/Task01.Availableat:
http://www.trb.org/NotesDocs/2525%281%29_FR.pdf
UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,42ndSession.(1987,August4).ReportoftheWorldCommissionon
EnvironmentandDevelopment(WCED):“OurCommonFuture.”(A/42/427).AnnextoOfficialRecord.Geneva,
Switzerland,1987.(Masthead).Availableathttp://www.worldinbalance.net/agreements/1987brundtland.php
Zapata,P.&Gambatese,J.A.(2005).EnergyConsumptionofAsphaltandReinforcedConcretePavementMaterials
andConstruction.JournalofInfrastructureSystems.11(1),920.

LIFECYCLE COST ANALYSIS

GOAL PR-2
Determinethelifecyclecostfortheroadwayprojecttoaidindecisionmaking.
REQUIREMENTS
Performalifecyclecostanalysis(LCCA)oftheroadwayproject.LCCAmustcontainat REQUIRED
leastagencycosts(listedbelow)andworkzoneusercosts.
LCCAcanbeperformedwithmanualcalculationsorbyusingrecommendedsoftware
(notedbelowforpavementsandbridges).Initialvaluesforcalculationsshouldbe RELATED CREDITS
consistentwithexistingowneragencypoliciesandsoftwareshouldreport 9 PR3Lifecycle
probabilisticratherthandeterministicresults.Wherenoowneragencypolicyexists Inventory
forLCCA,dooneormoreofthefollowingtodetermineinputvaluesforsoftware: 9 EW4Stormwater
CostAnalysis
x Justifytheuseofanydefaultinputs 9 MR1Lifecycle
x Usehistoricaldataasrepresentativevalueswhereavailable Assessment
x Useengineeringestimates
x Usevaluesrecommendedforselectsoftwarewherenotedbelow SUSTAINABILITY
COMPONENTS
Forprojectswithpavements:
PerformaLCCAoftheproject’spavementstructure(comparisonofmultipledesign 9 Economy
alternativesisencouragedbutnotrequired)inaccordancewiththemethoddescribed 9 Extent
intheFHWA’sInterimTechnicalbulletin,LifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavementDesign 9 Expectations
(1998,currentlybeingrevised).Thismaybecompletedmanuallyorbyusingthe
FHWA’sRealCostsoftwareavailableforfreeat: BENEFITS
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/asstmgmt/lccasoft.cfm
9 ReducesLifecycle
Cost
UseparametersfortheLCCAthatareconsistentwithexistingowneragencypolicies.If
9 Improves
noowneragencypolicyexists,userecommendedvaluesshowninTablePR2.1forthe
Accountability
FHWA’sRealCostsoftware.

Forprojectswithbridges:
PerformaLCCAoftheproject’sbridges(comparisonofmultipledesignalternativesis
encouragedbutnotrequired)accordingtotheguidanceintheNationalCooperative
HighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)Report483(Hawk,2003)andthesoftware(called
BLCCA)developedforthisstudy.Thereportprovidesstandardinputvaluesforawide
rangeofpotentialbridgeprojectsandreferencedsourcesforotherinputdata.Other
lifecyclecostanalysissoftwaremayalsobeusedatthediscretionoftheproject
manager,includingRealCost,withsomeminoradjustmentstothespreadsheet.A
BLCCAmayalsobecompletedbyhand.TablePR2.1mayprovidesomeusefulinputs
forusercostsandtrafficdata.
x Useagencyandusercostparametersthatareconsistentwithagencypolicy,ifone
exists(thoughaccordingtothebodyofresearchsuchpoliciesforbridgesarerare.)
x Usethesamenumberofyearsforservicelifethatisusedfordesignofstructural
memberssubjecttolongtermloadingeffects.
PR-2 Lifecycle Cost Analysis 39

Forprojectswithadditionalfeatures:
PerformaLCCAoftheproject’smajorfeatures(comparisonofmultipledesignalternativesisencouragedbutnot
required)inaccordancewithgenerallyacceptedengineeringeconomicspractices.Majorfeaturesmayinclude
tunnels,retainingwallsandotheritems.
Details
TypicalLCCAsandBLCCAsincludeagencyandusercosts,definedbelow.Occasionally,thirdpartycosts(suchas
monetizedenvironmentaldamagesorhazards)areincluded,butarenotrequiredforthisProjectRequirement.
Acostbenefitanalysis(CBA)thatincludestheminimumcomponentsbelowisacceptable.Assumptionsused
foragencyandusercostsshouldbeconsistentineachanalysisforprojectswithmultiplemajorfeatures.
AgencyCosts.Costsfromtheplanning,constructionandoperationoftheroadwayandstructures.
x PreliminaryEngineering.Planninganddesigncosts.
x ContractAdministration.Biddingandcontractoversight.
x Initialconstruction.Costsincurredduringtheinitialconstruction.
x ConstructionSupervision.Constructionmanagement,inspections,and
x Maintenance.Potholepatching,cracksealing,restriping,etc.
x Rehabilitation.Coststomaintainandrehabilitateorretrofitanassetthroughoutitsservicelife.
x AdministrativeCosts.Costofpavementmanagementandotheradministrativecosts.
x Salvagevalue.Expectedvalueofmaterialsandequipmentatendofservicelife.
UserCosts.Thosewhousethefacilityincurcostsduringnormaloperationandduringconstructionperiods
(e.g.,time,safety,fuelandothervehicleoperatingcosts).
x NormalOperation.OftenignoredinLCCA,astheymaybethesamebetweenalternatives.
x WorkZone.Costsincurredbytheuserfromworkzonedelays.
TheFederalgovernmentmandatedLCCAintheNationalHighwaySystemDesignationActof1995butthen
changedittoavoluntarystandardinTEA21.Section1305(c)statesthatLCCAisnotrequiredbuttasksthe
“…SecretaryshalldeveloprecommendationsfortheStatestoconductlifecyclecostanalyses.”Mostrecently,
theSafe,Accountable,Flexible,EfficientTransportationEquityAct:ALegacyforUsers(SAFETEALU)seta
fundingthresholdthatmandatestheuseofLCCAorothervalueengineeringtoolsforbridgeprojectsUS$20
millionormore.AnothermandatethresholdissetatUS$25millionforanyfederalaidproject(FederalHighway
Administration,n.d).
Manyroadwayprojectshavebothpavementsandstructuresincludedinthescopeofwork.Forsuchprojects,
thelifecyclecostanalysispreparedforthiscreditmustreflecteachsubstantialprojectfeatureforitsentire
servicelife.ItmayalsobedesirabletoperformaLCCAontheentireroadwayproject(e.g.,includeall
earthwork,traffichardware,structures,etc.)butcurrentlynostraightforwardmeansofdoingthisexists.
Manystatedepartmentsoftransportations(DOTs)alreadyincorporateLCCAintoaformalpavementtype
selectionprocessorprojectalternativeselectionprocess,andthusalreadyhaveaformalLCCAprocessinplace
forpavements.However,aformalizedalternativeselectionprocessusingBLCCAdoesnotappeartobein
widespreaduseforbridgeorotherstructuralprojects(Özbayetal.2004;Thompson,2004).
DOCUMENTATION
x AcopyoftheLCCAand/orBLCCAcalculations(ifdonebyhand)orthereportproducedbytheanalysis
software,includingasummaryofinputsandoutputs.
x AlinktoorcopyofagencypolicyonLCCAand/orBLCCAifoneexists.
x Ashort1paragraphnarrativedescribingwhichalternativewasselectedandtheprincipalreasonsforselection.
40 Lifecycle Cost Analysis PR-2

TablePR2.1:RecommendedLCCAInputValuesforRealCostifNoStandardAgencyPolicyExists
AnalysisOptions Probability Distribution Value
Analysisperiod NA 40years
DiscountRate† Triangular min=1.7%,mostlikely=2.7%,max=3.7%
Includeagencycostresidualvalue NA Yes
Includeusercostsinanalysis NA Yes
Usercostcomparisonmethod NA Calculated
Trafficdirection NA BothorInboundorOutbound
Includeusercostresidualvalue NA Yes
TrafficData
AADT NA Bestestimate
Singleunittrucksas%ofAADT NA Bestestimate
Combounittrucksas%ofAADT NA Bestestimate
Annualgrowthrateoftraffic Normal Bestestimate
Speedlimitundernormalconditions NA Predominatespeedlimitinproject
Lanesopenineachdirectionunder NA Bestestimate
normaloperation
Freeflowcapacity NA Calculatedbysoftware
Queuedissipationcapacity Normal average=1818vphpl,st.dev.=144vphpl
MaximumAADTbothdirections NA Bestestimate
Maximumqueuelength NA Bestestimate
Rural/Urban NA Bestestimate
ValueofUserTime††
Valueoftimeforpassengercars Triangular min=$10,mostlikely=$11.50,max=$13
Valueoftimeforsingleunittrucks Triangular min=$17,mostlikely=$18.50,max=$20
Valueoftimeforcombinationtrucks Triangular min=$21,mostlikely=$22.50,max=$24
HourlyTrafficDistribution
Usedefaultvaluesifnoregionorprojectspecificinformationavailable.
AddedVehicleTimeandCost
Usedefaultvaluesifnoregionorprojectspecificinformationavailable.
Alternatives
Alternativedescription NA Fillin
Activitydescription NA Fillin
Agencyconstructioncost Normal average=bestestimateofcost
st.dev.=10%oftheaverage
Activityservicelife Triangular Bestestimate
Maintenancefrequency Triangular Bestestimate
Workzonelength NA Bestestimate
Workzonecapacity NA Bestestimate,ifnodataconsiderusingFigure
3.4inWallsandSmith(1998)
Workzoneduration NA Bestestimate
Workzonespeedlimit NA Postedvalue
Numberoflanesopenineachdirection NA Best estimate
duringworkzone
Workzonehours NA Plannedhours
†DiscountrateshouldbedeterminedfrommostrecentOMBCircularA94.AppendixCcontainsrealinterestratesfortreasurynotesand
bondsofvariouslengths.Treasurynotematuritythatmostcloselymatchestheprojectanalysisperiodshouldbeused.Useminimumand
maximumvaluesof±1%.
††DollarvaluesinthistablearetakendirectlyfromWallsandSmith(1998)andaregiveninAugust1996dollars.ThesevaluesMUSTbeinflated
todollarvaluesintheyearthatconstructionisscheduledtostartusingtheU.S.BureauofLaborStatistics(BLS)ConsumerPriceIndex(CPI)U.S.
cityaverageforallurbanconsumers(notseasonallyadjusted).Thevalueforthisindexin1996was156.9.TheBLSCPIInflationCalculator
(http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm)canbeusedtodothisconversionquickly.


x CompletetheLCCAearlyenoughintheprojectsothatitsresultscanbeconsideredinselectingbetween
projectalternatives.Thisgenerallymeansitshouldhappenduringtheplanningstageandnotthedesignor
constructionstage.
x NotethatRealCostandBLCCAsoftwarearenotrequiredforthiscredit;howeveranyothermethodusedmust
conformtotheFHWA’sInterimTechnicalbulletinforpavements,LifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavementDesign
(Walls&Smith,1998)andNCHRP483forbridges.
x IncludeLCCAconsiderationsinthetechnicalscoreofbiddersforpavementprojectsinorderforittobe
consideredinselectingadesignalternativeforDesignBuildcontractdeliverymethods.Thisisbecausethe
actualpavementdesignisoftenusedaspartofadesignbuildteam’stechnicalscoreindeterminingcontract
award,aLCCAofalternativedesignscannotbeperformedbytheagencyuntilafterthebidcompetitionis
complete.Whilethiscanbedone,LCCAresultsshouldbeproperlyweightedsothattheyinfluencecontract
awardinamannerconsistentwithownerwishes.Unfortunately,GransbergandMolenaar(2004)showedthat
designbuildawardalgorithmsoftendonotweightLCCAconcernsheavilyenoughforthemtobeasignificant
factorincontractaward.
x IncorporateresultsofotherRelatedCredits,suchasProjectDevelopment:EconomyandCostBenefitAnalysis,
intotheLCCAforconsistencyacrossthewholeproject.
Example: Case Studies of LCCA

Rangarajuetal.(2008)reportonLCCAeffortsoftheSouthCarolinaDOTandlistseveralcasestudiesin
AppendixE(page117)thatdealwiththeinfluenceofdiscountrateandanalysisperiodonLCCAoutcomes.
Theentirereport,LifeCycleCostAnalysisforPavement(Rangarajuetal.2008)canbedownloadedat:
http://www.clemson.edu/t3s/scdot/pdf/projects/SPR656Final.pdf.
Example: Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) LCCA Protocol

WSDOTfollowsastandardLCCAprotocolwhenselectingpavementtypefornewfacilities.Thisprotocolis
basedontheFHWA’sLifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavementDesign(WallsandSmith,1998)andusesRealCost
softwareforcalculations.ItincludesspecifiedinputsforWSDOTanalysisandhowtoconsiderresults.Ofnote,
costdifferencebetweencompetingalternativesthatarelessthan15percentareconsideredequalbasedon
theuncertaintyofinputvalues.
TheWSDOTPavementTypeSelectionProtocol(2005)isavailablefordownloadhere:
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/biz/mats/Pavement/Technotes/PTSP_Jan2005.pdf.
Example: Caltrans LCCA Procedures Manual

Caltranshasdevelopedamanual(Caltrans2007)thatdescribesLCCAproceduresforuseinCaltrans.The
manualisbasedonRealCostsoftwareandprovidesstandardinputvaluesforawiderangeofpotential
projects.CaltranshasadoptedanaggressivepolicytowardsusingLCCAmandatingthatitbeused“…forall
projectswithincludepavementworkontheStateHighwaySystemregardlessoffundingsource…”(Land2007)
Themanualcanbedownloadedat:http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/LCCA.html.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. WhileLCCAisafairlystandardeconomicanalysistool,thepotentialexiststoinputincorrectorirrelevant
numbersandmisuseitsresults.UsersshouldbefamiliarwiththeFHWA’sLifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavement
DesignInterimTechnicalBulletin(WallsandSmith1998,currentlybeingrevised)beforeconductinganLCCA
withRealCostorBLCCA.
2. ALCCAassumesthatthebenefitsassociatedwithprojectalternativesareequal.Thus,itonlyanalyzescosts.
Projectswithdifferentbenefitsbetweenalternativesmaydesireamorecomprehensivecostbenefitanalysis.

3. ThemeaningfulnessofLCCAoutputsreliesheavilyongoodestimatesoffuturepavementlife,rehabilitation
costsandtheintervalbetweenfuturerehabilitationefforts.Theseallrelyongoodengineeringjudgmentand
pasthistoryratherthaneconomictheoryorprincipals.
4. LCCAisbasedonestimatedoftotalcostandcanbeeasilymanipulatedbychangingassumptionsandinput
values.Forthisreasontheresultsshouldnotbeweightedtooheavilyinthechoiceofdesignalternatives.
5. Thiscreditdoesnotcontainarequirementtouseorimplementthelowestlifecyclecostprojectalternative.
Therefore,itshouldbeviewedasacreditthatcreatesinformationthatisusefulindecisionmakingrather
thanadecisionmakingtool.Itdoesnotguaranteealowestlifecyclecostdecision.
6. ThiscreditdoesnotrequiretheLCCAtobedoneduringtheplanningstagewhereitwouldbemostlikelyto
influenceprojectdecisions.Therefore,itcouldbedonelateindesign,orevenduringconstruction,meaningit
wouldbeundertakenfornootherreasonthantomeetthiscredit,whichmissesthepoint.
7. Somerehabilitationeffortsandevenothereffortsthattakeasystematicapproachtochoosingtheproper
projectfeatures(e.g.,apavementmanagementsystem),theremaynotbeachoicebetweentwoormore
alternatives.ThismaybebecausesuchasystemalreadyincorporatesaformofLCCA,oritmaybebecauseno
otheralternativeisreasonablyfeasible.
8. Otherprototypesoftwareprogramsforbridgelifecyclecostanalyseshavebeendevelopedbutdonotappear
tobeinwidespreaduse,suchastheNationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology’sBridgeLCCsoftware
whichwaslastupdatedin2003(availableathttp://www.bfrl.nist.gov/bridgelcc/welcome.html).Forpurposes
ofthiscredit,anysoftwarecanbeusedsolongastheinputsandresultsarejustifiable,reasonable,and
validatedbytheprofessionalsworkingontheproject.
RESEARCH
Lifecyclecostanalysis(LCCA)isaprocessforevaluatingthetotalcostofaproject,facilityorproductoveritsuseful
lifetime.Forroadwayprojects,thismeansaccountingforinitialconstructioncosts,maintenanceandrehabilitation
costs,roadwayusercostsandthirdpartycosts.LCCAcancontributetothesustainabilityofaroadwayprojectby
allowingprojectpersonneltoaccountfortotallifecyclecostswhenmakingkeyprojectdecisions.
AnimportantdistinctionmustbemadebetweenLCCAandlifecycleassessment(LCA)asthesetermsuse
confusinglysimilaracronyms.Bothhavesimilarutilityinthedecisionmakingprocess,buttheunderlyingpurpose,
scopeandmathematicalmodelforeacharedifferent.Forthisreason,LCAisdiscussedindetailinothercreditsin
theGreenroadsManual(seePR3LifecycleInventoryandMR1LifecycleAssessment)whileLCCAisdiscussedhere.
LifecycleCostAnalysisMethod
LCCAissimplyamathematicalaccountingtoolthatcanbeusedtocomparethevalueofmoneyatdifferenttimes.
UnderlyingtheLCCAprocessarebasicprinciplesofbusinessfinance,whichusescompoundinterestformulas(and
tables)andreasonableassumptionsaboutthefuturetotranslatedifferenteconomicvaluestoanequalreference
pointintime.LCCAmaybequitefamiliartomanytransportationprofessionalsintheformofcostbenefitanalysis
(CBA)orcommonlyjust“engineeringeconomics.”Thehowtoofbusinessfinanceandengineeringeconomicscan
befoundinaplethoraoftextbooksandwillnotbediscussedindepthhere.
LCCAisausefulprocessinroadwaydesignbecausetheresultsquantifythetotallongtermvalueofproject
alternatives.Thisprocessallowsforstraightforwardcomparisons,usuallyintermsofatotallifetimecostoratotal
lifetimebenefits.ThekeyroleofthedecisionmakerinLCCAisdeterminingappropriateassumptionsandscopefor
thecomparison,aswellasinterpretingandactingonthequantifiedresults.
Forabasicexample,consideraroadwayprojectwithtwodesignalternatives;oneisathinpavementsectionand
theotherhasthickersection.Theinitialconstructioncostofthefirstalternativeislowerthanthesecond,butthe
firstalternativerequiresadditional,morefrequentexpendituresformaintenancethroughoutitslifetime.The
projectmanagercompletesanLCCAoneachalternative.Theresultsshowthatwhilefirstalternativeisless
expensiveforinitialconstruction,thesecondalternativeactuallyhasamuchlowerlongtermcost.Thesecond
alternativehasahigherupfrontcostforinitialconstruction,butsavestheprojectownermoremoneyovertime.

Becausethiscomparisonisnotlimitedtoupfrontcostsalone,aprojectmanagercanbetterunderstandhowtheir
designandconstructionchoicescontributetotheoveralleconomicimpactoftheproject.
LifecycleCosting,RoadwaysandSustainability
ThereissubstantialwritingtosuggestthatLCCAcontributestosustainability.Mosteffortsarecenteredon
buildings;however,theFHWAdoescontributesomeusefulinformation.Consideringbuildings,theFederal
FacilitiesCouncilrecognizedtherelationshipbetweenlifecyclecostingandsustainabledevelopmentbystating:
“Guidancerelatedtolifecyclecostingandvalueengineeringwasrecognizedasbeingsupportiveof
sustainabledevelopment,inparticularwhenusedintheconceptualplanninganddesignphasesof
acquisition,wheredecisionsaremadethatsubstantiallyaffecttheultimateperformanceofa
buildingoveritslifecycle(FederalFacilitiesCouncil,2001).”
Inessence,theywereconcernedthatfeaturesthatenhancedsustainabilitywouldbeexcludedtosaveoninitial
costswithoutconsideringlifecyclecoststhatcouldshowsuchfeaturestobewarranted.TheFHWAbelievesLCCA
shouldbeusedbecause“…transportationinvestmentdecisionsshouldconsiderallofthecostsincurredduringthe
periodoverwhichalternativesarecompared(FHWA,2002).”Thismeansconsideringthetotalcosttotheowner,
usersandexternalitiesratherthanjustthefirst,orconstruction,cost.
x Initialconstruction.Costsincurredduringtheinitialdesignandconstruction.
x Preservation.Coststomaintainandrehabilitateanasset.
x Users.Thosewhousethefacilityincurcostsduringnormaloperationandduringconstructionperiods(e.g.,
time,safety,fuelandothervehicleoperatingcosts).
x Externalities.Coststhatindirectlyimpacttheusersortheenvironmentdueto,forexample,airemissionsora
naturalhazard.
PrevalenceofLCCAandBLCCA
Accordingtothecomprehensivestateofthepracticereviewoftheapplicationsoflifecyclecostinginpracticeby
Özbayetal.(2004),LCCAhasbeeninusetosomeextentforalmost40yearsforpavementselection.Theauthors
completedathreeyearstudythatsurveyedthedivisionat39statedepartmentsoftransportation(DOTs)which
usedLCCAthemost.ThemajorityofrespondentsinthesurveyindicatedthatLCCAisappliedby:
x Researchanddesigndivision(68%)
x Materialsandpavementsdivision(37.5%)
x Bridgeoffices(12.5%)
Additionally,theauthorsfoundthatallagenciessurveyeduseLCCAonsomeformofpavementprojects.Infact,
60%oftherespondingagencieshaveadoptedformalguidelinesforpavementLCCA.However,only25%ofthose
surveyedbyOzbayetal.(2004)indicatedthatBLCCAmightbeusedonbridgeprojectsattheirstateagencieswhile
100%indicatedthatitmightbeusedonpavementprojects.
StateofthePracticePavements
AmorerecentstudyfortheSouthCarolinaDepartmentofTransportation(Rangarajuetal.,2008)foundthat
moststates(i.e.statedepartmentsoftransportation)conductLCCAbuttovaryingdegrees.Theirsurvey,
completedin2005,hadresponsesfrom33statesand2CanadianProvincesandfound:
x 94%(33of35)oftheagenciesuseLCCAaspartoftheirdecisionmakingprocess.Thisappearstobean
increaseinpercentageoveranearlierlimited2001surveythatfound8of16respondingstatesusedLCCA.
x 69%(24of35)ofrespondentsincludeorareplanningtoincludeusercostsinLCCA.Typicallythisisdoneby
quantifyinguserdelaycostsduringconstructiononly.
x Few(only2outof32)usedafullyprobabilisticapproachtocalculatinglifecyclecostswhileothersdid
conductsensitivityanalysestodeterminehowchangesinassumedparametersaffectedanalysisoutcome.

StateofthePracticeBridges
Ehlen(1997)providesastrong,practicalargumentfortheutilityofsystematicapplicationofBLCCAand
Thompson(2004)alsoprovidesagoodsummaryofthestateofBLCCAinbridgepractice.Henotesthat
streamlinedtoolswillexpandapplicationopportunitiesforBLCCA,especiallyintermsofnetworklevelbridge
managementsystems,butmuchmorerefinementmaybenecessaryforuncertaintiesandassumptionstobe
unifiedfromprojecttoproject.Muchofthelifecycleliteratureforbridgesappearstoberelevantto
optimizationoftheprojectandnetworklevelbridgemanagementsystems.Thesereferencesarediscussedin
moredetailinPR9PavementManagementSystem.
However,todate,themostcomprehensiveworkonBLCCAwascompletedaspartoftheNationalCooperative
HighwayResearchProgramReport483:BridgeLifecycleCostAnalysis(Hawk,2003).Thisreportcontains
detailsonspecificmethodologiesthatmayberelevanttobridgedesigners,aswellaslimitations,assumptions,
examples,andasoftwaretoolcalledBLCCA.
SomeofthemostrecentworkthatisrelevanttosustainabilityincludesearlyBLCCAworkbyEhlen(1999),who
attemptstoaccountforthirdpartycosts(whichhedefinesascostsofenvironmentaldamages)duetothe
lifecycleofbridgeprojects.However,valuesofzerowereusedforthesecostsinhismodel.Lately,BLCCA
literaturehasfocusedmoreonreliabilitystudiesforcatastrophicandlongtermenvironmentalstressors
includingworkbyLee,Cho,andCha(2006),Hosseretal.(2008)andPadgett,Dennemann,andGhosh(2010).
ThelatterauthorsappliedLCCAprinciplesusingariskbasedanalysisofseveralbridgeretrofitoptionssubject
toseismichazards.Thestudymaybeparticularlyrelevanttopractitionerstryingtomodeltheirbridgeto
determineanappropriateretrofitsolutionandmaintenanceschedule.
ImpactofLCCA
GiventhatmoststatesuseLCCAinsomeformalreadythiscreditmayhavethelargesteffectinthreeareas:
1. LocalagenciesorotherownerswhodonottypicallyconductLCCAs.RealCostandBLCCAarefairly
straightforwardfreesoftwaretoolsthatshouldbeabletoprovideanswerswithreasonableeffort.
2. StateorfederalprojectsconsideredtoosmallforLCCA.Someprojects(e.g.,overlaysorotherpreservation
efforts)aregenerallydeemedtoosmallforLCCAandhavehistoricallyomittedthisprocessindecisionmaking.
3. Nonpavementprojects.Thiscreditmayencouragethewideradoptionoflifecyclecostingonnonpavement
projectssuchasbridgesandothermajorstructures,intelligenttransportationsystems,orothertypesofassets
whereLCCAapplicationsarenotcommonpractice.
GLOSSARY
Agencycost Acostincurredbytheagencyofaroadwaysuchasmaintenance,repair,
rehabilitation,improvement,andreplacement(Thompson,2004)
BLCCA BridgeLifeCycleCostAnalysis
Externality Anindirectcostincurredbyanypartyduetotheproject,suchasdamageto
theenvironment,whichishardtoquantifyusingtraditionalaccounting.
LCCA LifeCycleCostAnalysis
Salvagevalue Theestimatedmonetaryvalueofanassetattheendofitsusefullife.
Thirdpartycost SeeExternality.
Usercost Acostincurredbytheusersofaroadwaysuchascollisionrisk,detours,and
timedelay(Thompson,2004)
REFERENCES
CaliforniaDepartmentofTransportation(Caltrans).(2007).LifeCycleCostAnalysisProceduresManual.Stateof
CaliforniaDepartmentofTransportation,PavementStandardsTeam&DivisionofDesign.
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/LCCA.html.Accessed11November2008.

Ehlen,M.A.(1997).LifeCycleCostsofNewConstructionMaterials.JournalofInfrastructureSystems.3(4),129
133.
Ehlen,M.A.(1999).“Lifecyclecostsoffiberreinforcedpolymerbridgedecks.”J.Mater.Civ.Eng.113,224–230.
FederalFacilitiesCouncil.(2001).SustainableFederalFacilities:AGuidetoIntegratingValueEngineering,LifeCycle
Costing,andSustainableDevelopment.FederalFacilitiesCouncilTechnicalReportNo.142,NationalAcademy
Press,Washington,D.C.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2002).LifeCycleCostAnalysisPrimer.OfficeofAssetManagement,
FHWA,U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,WashingtonD.C.
FederalHighwayAdmnistration(n.d).“FactSheetsonHighwayProvisions,”SAFETEALUFactSheets–Stewardship
andOversight.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/safetealu/factsheets/stewardover.htmAccessed31
December31,2010.
Gransberg,D.D.&Molenaar,K.R.(2004).LifeCycleCostAwardAlgorithmsforDesign/BuildHighwayPavement
Projects.JournalofInfrastructureSystems,Vol.10,Issue4,pp.167175.
Hawk,H.(2003).Bridgelifecyclecostanalysis.NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgramReport483.
Washington,D.C:TransportationResearchBoard,NationalResearchCouncil.
Hosser,D.,Klinzmann,C.,&Schnetgoke,R.(2008).Aframeworkforreliabilitybasedsystemassessmentbasedon
structuralhealthmonitoring.StructureandInfrastructureEngineering,4,4,271285.
Land,R.D.(2007).UseofLifeCycleCostAnalysisforPavements.MemorandumtoDistrictDirectorsfromtheState
ofCaliforniaDepartmentofTransportationChiefEngineer.Availableat
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/UseofLCCAforPavements.pdf.Accessed11November2008.
Lee,K.M.,Cho,H.N.,&Cha,C.J.(2006).Lifecyclecosteffectiveoptimumdesignofsteelbridgesconsidering
environmentalstressors.EngineeringStructures,28,9,12521265.
Özbay,K.etal.(2004).Lifecyclecostanalysis:Stateofthepracticeversusstateoftheart.TransportationResearch
Record,1864,6270.
Padgett,J.E.,Dennemann,K.,&Ghosh,J.(2010).Riskbasedseismiclifecyclecostbenefit(LCCB)analysisfor
bridgeretrofitassessment.StructuralSafety.32(3),165.
Rangaraju,P.R.;Amirkhanian,S.&Zeynep,G.(2008).LifeCycleCostAnalysisforPavement.ReportbyClemson
UniversityfortheSouthCarolinaDepartmentofTransportation,Columbia,SC.Availableat
http://www.clemson.edu/t3s/scdot/pdf/projects/SPR656Final.pdf.Accessed17October2008.
Thompson,P.D.(2004).BridgelifecyclecostinginIntegratedEnvironmentofDesign,RatingandManagement.
TransportationResearchRecord.
Walls,J.&Smith,M.R.(1998).LifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavementDesign.InterimTechnicalBulletin.ReportNo.
FHWASA98079.FHWA,U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,Washington,D.C.
WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2005).PavementTypeSelectionProtocol.
EnvironmentalandEngineeringProgramsDivision,MaterialsLaboratory,WSDOT,Olympia,WA.
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/biz/mats/Pavement/Technotes/PTSP_Jan2005.pdf.Accessed11November2008.

LIFECYCLE INVENTORY
GOAL PR-3
Incorporate energy and emissions information into the decision‐making process for
pavement design alternatives.
REQUIREMENTS REQUIRED
Complete a lifecycle inventory for the final pavement design alternative for the project
using the software tool Roadprint, created by Dr. Yen‐Yu Lin at the University of
Washington, or approved equal. Report only results for total energy use and global
warming potential (GWP) (in carbon dioxide equivalent emissions, CO2e) for the final RELATED CREDITS
pavement design alternative. The following input values are required for Roadprint:  PR‐2 Lifecycle Cost
Analysis
 Total weight and types of virgin materials. This includes aggregates, binders, base  PR‐9 Pavement
materials, and structures. These amounts can be design estimates or constructed Management System
totals.  PR‐10 Site
 Total weight and types of recycled materials. Roadprint models emissions and Maintenance Plan
energy for several types of materials.  MR‐1 Lifecycle
 Expected transportation distances for all materials. This means distances from Assessment
source to production as well as from production to site. Transportation of waste to
disposal is also included. SUSTAINABILITY
 Expected construction vehicle types. These include, but are not limited to, pavers, COMPONENTS
mixers, hauling vehicles, excavators, rollers, and finishing equipment.
 Estimated design life. Use the same input data as used in the PR‐2 Lifecycle Cost  Ecology
Analysis.  Equity
 Scheduled years and expected type of maintenance. Use the same input data as  Extent
used in the PR‐2 Lifecycle Cost Analysis. This information should also match the  Expectations
project specifications provided to meet the requirements for PR‐9 Pavement  Exposure
Maintenance Plan and PR‐10 Site Maintenance Plan.
BENEFITS
Details  Improves
There are several built‐in limitations to the Roadprint tool, which are discussed in Accountability
detail in the modified tool documentation. We recommend use of this tool because  Increases Awareness
we are aware of these limitations, we have checked the data sources, we know that  Creates New
the software reports the two requested pieces of information reliably for both Information
asphalt and concrete pavements (even with a variety of recycled materials), and we
find it relatively easy to use. The tool is available on the Greenroads website
(http://www.greenroads.us) for download.
There are a few other software tools that are available for developing lifecycle
inventories, both free and proprietary. These tools are also acceptable if they are
able to produce energy use and GWP outputs and use a transparent interface that
clearly references data sources used to compute these values.
DOCUMENTATION
 A copy of the input/output page for Roadprint. If other software is used, provide a
list of data sources in addition to the input list and output values for total energy
use and GWP.
PR-3 Lifecycle Inventory

QUALITY CONTROL PLAN

GOAL PR-4
Haveaprocessinplacetomonitorandimproveconstructionquality.
REQUIREMENTS
Theprimecontractorshallestablish,implement,andmaintainaformalconstruction REQUIRED
QualityControlPlan(QCP).TheQCPmustaddressthefollowingqualitycontrol
elements:
1. Keyqualitycontrolpersonnel,theirresponsibilitiesandtheirqualifications RELATED CREDITS

(résumés,certifications,etc.). 9 CA1Quality
2. Proceduresusedtocontrolqualityduringconstructionincluding(asaminimum): ManagementSystem
9 CA8Contractor
a. Itemstobemonitored(includingpavementmixdesigns) Warranty
b. Testingtobedone(includingtestingstandardsandfrequency) 9 PT1LongLife
c. Whencorrectiveactionisrequired(actionlimits) Pavement
d. Procedurestoimplementcorrectiveaction 9 PT6Pavement
e. ProcedurestomodifyQCPifineffectiveorwhenmodificationsarenecessary Performance
Tracking
Details
Somestateandlocalowneragenciesalreadyhaverequirementsforsuchplans SUSTAINABILITY
writtenintotheirstandardspecifications.Suchexistingrequirementsshouldbe COMPONENTS
abletomeettherequirementsabove,howeversomeonlyaddressconstruction
9 Economy
qualityforhotmixasphalt(HMA)orPortlandcementconcrete(PCC)pavingand
9 Extent
notconstructionoftheoverallproject.Testingfrequencyandtestprocedures
9 Expectations
shouldnotbebasedonminimumownerrequirementsforacceptance.
Somestatehighwayagenciesusecontractortestingintheiracceptanceprocess.In BENEFITS
thesecasestheindependentassurancetestsmustbeperformedonsamplesthat 9 IncreasesServiceLife
aretakenindependentlyofqualitycontrolsamples.Qualitycontrolplansare 9 ImprovesHuman
requiredinthesecases,asdefinedinCFR637,Title23. Health&Safety
9 ReducesLifecycle
TheQualityControlPlanshouldcoverallprojectconstruction;notjustthe Costs
pavement.Subcontractorsneedtobeincludedinthisplan,whichtypicallymeans 9 Improves
identifyingaresponsiblepartyandobtainingaqualitycontrolprocedurefromthe Accountability
subcontractor.
Alargedocumentthatrepeatslanguagefromthecontractspecificationsshouldnot
begeneratedforthisProjectRequirement.Rather,thedocumentshouldclearly
identifythemajoraspectsoftheprimecontractor’splantocontrolproject
constructionqualityandwhoisresponsibleforimplementingthoseaspects.A
reasonableQualityControlPlanforatypicalroadwayproject(i.e.,lessthan$10
millioncontractprice)canbewritteninabout6to12pages(FLHD,1998).AQuality
ControlPlanshouldbeapprovedbytheownerbeforeconstructionbegins.
DOCUMENTATION
x CopyofthecontractorQualityControlPlan.
PR-4 Quality Control Plan 65


x WriteaQualityControlPlan.Oftenthiscanbeaccomplishedbyhavingaprimecontractorwithanestablished
qualitycontrolmanualandthenwritingaplanthatreferstothatmanualforproceduresandidentifieskey
personnel,materialsandprocessesassociatedwiththeparticularprojectinquestion.
Example: Agencies with Quality Control Plans

ManyownersalreadyrequireQCPsintheirstandardspecifications.Followingareexamplesofboth
comprehensiveQCPsthatcoverallofconstructionandsomethatjustrefertopavingoperations.
QCPsCoveringAllofConstruction
TheseplansdomeettherequirementsforPR4.
x FederalLandsHighwayDivision.ThisdocumentdiscussesaQCPthatcoversallconstructionaspectsand
providesafictitiousexample:http://www.wfl.fhwa.dot.gov/resources/construction/field
notes/documents/d0215.pdf.
x FloridaDepartmentofTransportation(FDOT).FDOT’sConstructionProjectAdministrationManual(2007)
describesFDOTrequirementsandhowtouseacontractor’squalitycontrolmanualtosupplementaQCPin
Section3.3.Section68oftheFDOT2007StandardSpecificationsforRoadandBridgeConstructionrequires
acontractorqualitycontrolprogram:
http://www.dot.state.fl.us/construction/manuals/cpam/CPAMManual.shtm
x SaskatchewanHighwaysandTransportation:TheStandardTestProcedureManual(1994)StandardTest
400(lastupdatedin1994)describeswhataqualitycontrolplandoesanditsminimumelements:
http://www.highways.gov.sk.ca/standardtest
QCPsCoveringPavingOperationsOnly
TheseplansdonotmeettherequirementsforPR4.
x AlabamaDOT(ALDOT)ALDOT37591:http://www.dot.state.al.us/NR/rdonlyres/A1E8B299F51841BF
B0A92326C1177C91/0/ALDOT375ApprovedFHWAOctober202008_.pdf
x IllinoisDOTHMAQCPtemplate:
http://www.dot.state.il.us/aero/PDF/HMA%20QC%20plan%20template.pdf
x NorthCarolinaDOTSection609oftheStandardSpecifications:
http://www.ncdot.org/doh/preconstruct/ps/specifications/english/s609.html
x UnifiedFacilitiesGuideSpecifications,Section3.10:
http://www.wbdg.org/ccb/DOD/UFGS/UFGS%2032%2012%2016.pdf
ManyotherorganizationsalsohaveguidesandspecificationsforcontractorQualityControlPlans.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. ItisnotpossibletodeterminefromthecontentoftheQCPwhetherqualityconstructionwillresult.Therefore,
thiscreditdoesnotguaranteequalityconstructioninanyway.
2. AcontractorQualityControlPlanthatonlyaddressespavingoperationsisnotsufficienttomeettheintentof
thiscredit.Forsomeowners,standardspecificationlanguagemayonlyrequireaQualityControlPlanforthe
pavingoperation.WhilepavingneedstobecoveredintheQualityControlPlan,allothermajorcomponentsof
construction(e.g.,structures,earthwork,drainage,trafficcontrolitems,etc.)mustalsobecovered.
3. TheQualityControlPlanshouldnotbearepeatofthetechnicalspecifications.Rather,theplanshouldaddress
whoisresponsibleforqualitycontrolforaparticularitemorprocess,whenkeyinspectionsaremade,when
correctiveactionsaretobetakenandhowtheyaretobetaken.
4. Aformalprocessformonitoringandimprovingconstructionqualityshouldnotconflictwithminimumquality
standardsthataremaintainedbytheroadwayowner.
66 Quality Control Plan PR-4

RESEARCH
Constructionqualitycansignificantlyinfluencefinalprojectqualityandperformance.Poorconstructioncanleadto
earlyandexcessivemaintenanceand/orearlyreplacement.Thiscostsmoremoneyandusesmoreresources
leadingtoalesssustainableproject.Unfortunately,thereisagenerallackofempiricalevidencetodocument
theseitemsastheyareoftentakentobeintuitivelyobvious.Thissection,therefore,presentsadiscussionof
severalpavementitemssincefortheseitemsthereissubstantialevidencethatconstructionqualityimpacts
performanceandcost.
SubgradeandBaseCompaction
Subgradeorbasematerialthatisnotadequatelycompactedmaysettleovertime,whichinturncausesthe
overlyingpavementtosettleandcrack.Thiscanleadtoroughnessandearlypavementfailure.Oftenadequate
subgradedensityisdescribedintermsofrelativedensity(e.g.,90or95percentofmaximumdensity).
HotMixAsphalt(HMA)Density
Compactionisthegreatestdeterminingfactorindensegradedhotmixasphaltperformance(Scherocman&
Martenson,1984;Scherocman,1984;Geller,1984;Brown,1984;Bellet.al.,1984;Hughes,1984;Hughes,1989).
Inadequatecompactionresultsinapavementwithdecreasedstiffness,reducedfatiguelife,accelerated
aging/decreaseddurability,rutting,raveling,andmoisturedamage(Hughes,1984;Hughes,1989).
HMAAggregateSegregation
Basedonseveralarticles(Kennedyetal.,1987;Brown&Brownfield,1988;Williamsetal.,1996aand1996b;
Khedaywi&White,1996;AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials:AASHTO,1997)the
commonlyacceptedqualitativedefinitionofaggregatesegregationis“thenonuniformdistributionofcoarseand
fineaggregatecomponentswithintheasphaltmixture.”ThechiefdetrimentaleffectsofsegregationonHMA
performanceare:reducedfatiguelife,rutting,raveling,andmoisturedamage.Theseeffectscancauseasevere
reductioninpavementlife.MoreinformationonsegregationcausesandcurescanbefoundinSegregationCauses
andCuresforHotMixAsphalt(QIP110)byAASHTOandtheNationalAsphaltPavementAssociation(NAPA).
HMATemperatureDifferentials
HMAtemperaturedifferentialsarelargemattemperaturedifferencesresultingfromplacementofasignificantly
coolerportionofHMAmassintothemat.Thiscoolermasscomesfromthesurfacelayer(orcrust)typically
developedduringHMAtransportfromthemixingplanttothejobsite.Thesecoolerareaswillreachcessation
temperaturemorequicklythanthesurroundingmat.Rollerpatternsdevelopedbasedongeneralmat
temperaturesmaynotbeadequatetocompactthesecoolerareasbeforetheycooltocessationtemperature
resultinginisolatedspotsofinadequatecompaction.Thus,temperaturedifferentialscancauseisolatedareasof
inadequatecompactionresultingindecreasedstrength,reducedfatiguelife,acceleratedaging/decreased
durability,rutting,raveling,andmoisturedamage(Hughes,1984;Hughes,1989).
PortlandCementConcrete(PCC)Consolidation
ConsolidationistheprocessofmakingthefreshlyplacedPCCintoamoreuniformandcompactmassby
eliminatingundesirableairvoidsandcausingittomovearoundpotentialobstructions(suchasreinforcingsteel).
Thisisusuallyaccomplishedusingvibrators.Inadequateconsolidationcanleadtoundesirableairvoidsthatcan
weakenPCCorbeunsightly.
PavementRoughness
Pavementroughnessisanexpressionofirregularitiesinthepavementsurfacethatadverselyaffecttheride
qualityofavehicle(andthustheuser).Roughnessaffectsnotonlyridequalitybutalsovehicledelaycosts,fuel
consumptionandmaintenancecosts.TheWorldBankfoundroadroughnesstobeaprimaryfactorintheanalyses
andtradeoffsinvolvingroadqualityvs.usercost(UMTRI,1998).Otherstudies(e.g.,Papagiannakis&Delwar,
2001;Barnes&Langworthy,2003)haveattemptedtoquantifythecostofvehicleoperationinrelationto
pavementroughness.
PR-4 Quality Control Plan 67

GLOSSARY
Aggregatesegregation thenonuniformdistributionofcoarseandfineaggregatecomponentswithin
theasphaltmixture(Kennedyet.al.,1987;BrownandBrownfield,1988;
Williamset.al.,1996aand1996b;KhedaywiandWhite,1996;American
AssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials:AASHTO,1997)
Consolidation theprocessofmakingthefreshlyplacedportlandcementconcreteintoa
moreuniformandcompactmassbyeliminatingundesirableairvoids
HMA Hotmixasphalt
NAPA NationalAsphalt PavingAssociation
Pavementroughness anexpressionofirregularitiesinthepavementsurfacethatadverselyaffect
theridequalityofavehicle(andthustheuser)
PCC Portlandcementconcrete

REFERENCES
AlabamaDepartmentofTransportation(ALDOT).(2008).ALDOT37591:ContractorQualityControlSystemfor
HotMixAsphalt.Revision10/20/2008.FromtheALDOTBureauofMaterialsandTestsTestingManual.
Accessed11November2008.Availableathttp://www.dot.state.al.us/NR/rdonlyres/A1E8B299F51841BF
B0A92326C1177C91/0/ALDOT375ApprovedFHWAOctober202008_.pdf.
FederalLandsHighwayDivision(FLHD).(1998).ContractorQualityControlPlans:ContractorGuidelinesand
ExampleQualityControlPlan.FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA),FederalLandsHighwayOffice,
EngineeringandOperationsDivision(HFL20),Washington,D.C.Accessed11November2008.Availableat
http://www.cflhd.gov/resources/construction/documents/qc_plans.pdf.
FloridaDepartmentofTransportation(FDOT).(2007).ConstructionProjectAdministrationManual(CPAM).700
000000.OfficeofConstruction,FDOT.Accessed11November2008.Availableat
http://www.dot.state.fl.us/construction/manuals/cpam/CPAMManual.shtm.
FloridaDepartmentofTransportation(FDOT).(2007).StandardSpecificationsforRoadandBridgeConstruction
2007.Accessed11November2008.Availableat
http://www2.dot.state.fl.us/SpecificationsEstimates/Implemented/CurrentBK/Default.aspx.
IllinoisDepartmentofTransportation(IDOT).(nodate).HotMixAsphalt(HMA)QualityControlPlantemplate.
IDOTDivisionofAeronautics.Accessed11November2008.Availableat
http://www.dot.state.il.us/aero/PDF/HMA%20QC%20plan%20template.pdf.
SaskatchewanHighwaysandTransportation.(1994).ContractorQualityControlPlan.StandardTestProcedure400
fromtheStandardTestProceduresManual,QualityAssurancesection.Accessed11November2008.Available
athttp://www.highways.gov.sk.ca/standardtest.
U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers(USACE).(2008).UnifiedFacilitiesGuideSpecifications.UFGS321216.Accessed11
November2008.Availableathttp://www.wbdg.org/ccb/DOD/UFGS/UFGS%2032%2012%2016.pdf.
68 Quality Control Plan PR-4

NOISE MITIGATION PLAN

GOAL PR-5
Reduceoreliminateannoyanceordisturbancetosurroundingneighborhoodsand
environmentsfromroadconstructionnoise.
Establish,implement,andmaintainaformalNoiseMitigationPlan(NMP)during
constructionfortheprimecontractor.TheNMPmustaddress,atminimum,the
followingelements:
RELATED CREDITS
1. Responsiblepartyfornoisemitigationactivities,contactinformation,their 9 PR1Environmental
responsibilitiesandtheirqualifications.IncludeinformationforNMPpreparer,if ReviewProcess
applicableorcompletedbyanoutsideparty. 9 PT5QuietPavement
2. Projectlocationanddistancetoclosestreceptorofnoise.Includeadescriptionof
thesurroundingzoningandparcelinformation(i.e.,commercial,residential, SUSTAINABILITY
hospitals,schools,parks,sensitivehabitat).
COMPONENTS
3. Alistofproposedconstructionactivities(e.g.demolition,excavation,paving,bridge
foundations,finishing). 9 Equity
4. Datesandworkinghoursofproposedconstructionactivities. 9 Expectations
5. Alistofnoisegeneratingdevicesusedduringeachconstructionactivitylistedin#3. 9 Experience
6. Alistofnoisemitigatingdevicesusedduringeachconstructionactivitylistedin#3, 9 Exposure
includingpersonalsafetyequipmentrequirementsforallsiteemployees.
7. Noisepermitnumbers,agencyorlocalauthoritypoliciesassociatedwith BENEFITS
constructionwork,asapplicable.
9 ImprovesHuman
8. Descriptionofnoisemonitoringstandards,methods,andacceptablelevels.
Health&Safety
9. Descriptionofcorrectionproceduresfornoncompliantnoiselevels.
9 Improves
10. Signatureofresponsibleparty.
Accountability
Details
9 IncreasesAesthetics
TheNMPshouldcoverallofconstruction,includingsubcontractorworkactivities.
Somestateandlocalowneragenciesalreadyhaverequirementsforsuchplans
writtenintheirstandardspecifications.However,awrittenspecificationrequiring
theprimecontractortohaveaNoiseMitigationPlanisinsufficient,especially
becausemanylocalauthoritiesandowneragenciesoffercertainexemptionsto
theirpolicies,suchasdaylightworkschedulesorprojectswithminimalareasof
landdisturbingactivities.
Alargedocumentneednotbegeneratedforthisrequirement.Forprojectsthatare
deemedlocallyexempt(asnotedabove),showthattheprimecontractorhas
completedareviewofnoiseaspartofprojectplanning.TheNewYorkDepartment
ofEnvironmentalProtection(NYDEP2008)offersa4pagecheckliststyleNMPthat
addressesalloftheelementsabove,exceptforitems9and10,whichcanbeeasily
addressedin1page:http://nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/noise_mitigation.pdf.
DOCUMENTATION
x CopyoftheNoiseMitigationPlan.
x Acopyofanyapplicablenoisepermits,oragencyorlocalauthoritynoisepolicies(a
livehyperlinktoanylargepolicydocumentsissufficient).
PR-5 Noise Mitigation Plan 69


x ReadtheFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)HighwayConstructionNoiseHandbook(Knaueretal.,2006)
tounderstandtheaspectsofconstructionnoisethatcouldberelevanttoyourproject.TheHighway
ConstructionNoiseHandbookisavailableasawebdocumentat:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/handbook/index.htm.TheHandbookisarelativelyshortread—
Chapters58maybeespeciallyhelpfulforprimecontractorsorprojectleadsnotfamiliarwithNMPs.
x CompletetheNMPduringtheenvironmentalreviewprocess,whentheenvironmentaldocumentationisbeing
generated.Mostenvironmentalreviewregulationsatfederalandstatelevels,includingtheNational
EnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA),includeaninvestigationofnoiserelatedprojectimpactstosurrounding
communities,andtheseimpactsoftencanbeaddressedinshortnarrativeform(Knaueretal.,2006).
x UsethecheckliststyleNMPavailablefromtheNYDEPasatemplatetocreateandassemblecustomowner
agencyNMPsforuseonfutureprojects.TheNYDEPchecklistisavailablehere:
http://nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/noise_mitigation.pdf
x EstimatenoiselevelsfromyourconstructionprojectbyusingtheRoadwayConstructionNoiseModel(RCNM)
softwareavailablefromtheFHWA(Rehemanetal.,2006).Auser’sguideforthesoftwareprogramisalso
availableaspartoftheHighwayConstructionNoiseHandbookasanAppendix.Mostprojectswillnotneed
comprehensiveordetailednoisemodelingandsimplifiedmanualnoiseanalysiswillbeadequate(Knaueretal.,
2006).However,localnoiseordinancesmaybemorestringentthanwhatiscalledforintheenvironmental
reviewrequirementsandmayneedmoredetailedanalysis.(Knaueretal.,2006)TheRCNMsoftwaretoolis
availableforfreedownloadhere:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/cnstr_ns.htm.
x Communicatetostakeholdersthatnoisemitigationisactivelybeinginvestigatedonyourprojectandthata
planisbeingdeveloped.Thismayhelpquellthepotential“politicalnoise”thatoftenstemsfromtoomuch
“constructionnoise”(Thalheimer,2000),especiallyforhighimpact,highdollar,orsensitivepublicprojects.
x HireanacousticalengineeringfirmorotherqualifiedprofessionaltocompletetheNMP.
x Delivernoiseawarenesstrainingregardingthenoisemitigationstrategiesandnoisesafetyeffortsemployedon
theprojecttoallconstructionprojectemployees,includingsubcontractoremployees.Thistrainingwillhelp
ensurethattheNMPisimplementedeffectively.
x Reviewindividualstateandlocaljurisdictionnoiseordinancesandanypermitsoragencycoordinationefforts
duringtheprojectdevelopmentprocess.Sometimestheseordinancescontainrestrictionsassociatedwith
constructionnoiselevels,eventhoughtherearecurrentlynofederalregulationsfornoiselevels.
x Identifynoiseabatementopportunitiesduringprojectdesign.Suchthingsaslocatingstorageareas,stationary
equipment,haulroadsanddetoursawayfromsensitivereceivers,planningforconcurrentconstruction,
maintainingexistingnoisebarriersforuseduringconstructionandschedulingtheconstructionofnewnoise
barriersearlyonintheproject,canreducenoiseimpacts.
x Achievemitigationofnoiseatthesourcebyspecifyinguseoflessnoisyequipment,requiringmufflersystems
onequipment,employingshieldsandmodifyingvehiclesandequipmenttoreducenoiselevels.
x Achievepathmitigationbybuildingnoisebarriers,usingtieredorlayeredvegetativebarriers(Anderson,
Mulligan&Goodman,1984),orusingexistingbarrierswhereappropriate.
x Achievereceivermitigationbysealingintakesofsensitivereceivers,acousticwindowtreatments(Thalheimer,
2000)or,wherefeasible,bytemporarilyrelocatingresidents.
Example: Noise Mitigation Plan Sample Forms – City of New York, NY

TheNewYorkCityDepartmentoftheEnvironmentalProtection(NYDEP,2008)enactednewnoiserulesin2007
forconstructionactivitiesrequiringthatuniquenoisemitigationplansareadopted,posted,applied,and
monitoredonconstructionprojectswhenspecificdevicesareusedorcertainactivitiesareperformedwithin
citylimits.Theirmunicipalcoderuleslisttypicalequipment,activities,andotherdevicesthatproducenoise,
andalsoestablishminimumnoiselevelsallowedforconstructionactivities.Theintentofthenoise
requirementsis“toinformtheuseroftherequiredplanelementsthataresponsiblepartymustincludewhen
thelisteddevicesarebeingusedonsite,andthemitigationstrategiesandbestmanagementpracticesthatare
beingemployed”(NYDEP,2008).Alternativenoisemitigationplans(ANMPs)mayalsobefilediftheproject
70 Noise Mitigation Plan PR-5

cannotcomplywiththesoundlevelcriteriawithoutunduehardshipandcanreduceorexemptcertainactivities
fromnoncompliancepenalties.
x TheNYDEPSampleNoiseMitigationPlanisavailablehere:http://nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/noise_mitigation.pdf
x TheNYDEPSampleAlternativeNoiseMitigationPlanisavailablehere:
http://nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/noise_alternative_mitigation.pdf
AdditionalinformationaboutNYDEP’snoisecodeandnoisemitigationplanningrulesforconstructionprojectsare
availableat:http://nyc.gov/html/dep/html/noise/index.shtml
Example: Case Study — Central Artery/Tunnel (“The Big Dig”) in Boston, MA

ThiscasestudysummarizesthearticlebyThalheimer(2000),whichdescribesthenoisecontrolprogramforthe
CentralArtery/Tunnel(CA/T)projectinBoston,Massachusetts.TheCA/Tmaybemorecommonlyrecognized
bythepublicasthe“BigDig,”anditwasanengineeringmegaprojectwith“themostcomprehensiveand
stringentconstructionnoisecontrolspecificationofanypublicworksprojectinthecountry.”Thesheersize
anddurationofitsconstructionimpactsontheBoston’sresidentsandbusinessesmadenoisemitigationa
crucialaspectoftheproject.Notethatmostprojectswillnotneedtoprovidenearlythelevelofdetailasthat
requiredfornoisemitigationontheCentralArtery/Tunnel(CA/T),howevertheapproachesandstrategiesused
forthisprojecthelpeddevelopmanyoftheguidancedocumentsthatareavailableonconstructionnoise,such
astheFHWAHighwayConstructionNoiseHandbook(Knaueretal.,2006).
TheprojectwaschampionedbytheformerMassachusettsTurnpikeAuthority(MTA),whichiscurrently
managedbytheMassachusettsDepartmentofTransportation(MassDOT)HighwayDivision.Construction
beganin1991andwasconsideredcompletein2006,withamultibilliondollarpricetag.Moreinformation
abouttheBigDigprojectcanbefoundatthefollowingsite:
http://www.massdot.state.ma.us/Highway/bigdig/bigdigmain.aspx.
Theproject’snoisecontrolprogramhadtwomaingoals:1)meetthecommitmentsformitigating
environmentalnoiseasstatedintheenvironmentalimpactreportand2)controlconstructionnoisewithout
posinghardshiptolocalcommunities,projectbudgetorconstructionscheduletothemaximumextent
feasible.Meetingthesegoalsposedasignificantchallengebecauseconstructionactivityoccurredatalltimes
ofdayinmanyareasofBoston,andsometimesinverycloseproximity(with10feet)ofresidencesand
sensitivelocations.Additionally,theprojectwascriticalpolitically:functionofBoston’scoreinfrastructure
dependedontheoutcomeandthelevelofstakeholderinvolvementwasextraordinarilyhigh.
TheNoiseMitigationProgramfortheCA/Tinvolvedestablishinglotlineandequipmentemissionnoisecriteria
limits,definingoperationaland/orequipmentrestrictionsandalsorequiredthesubmissionofnoisecontrol
andmonitoringplans,baselineandcompliancenoisedata,equipmentnoisecertificationtests,anddesignsfor
proposednoisemitigationmeasures.“Mitigationmeasureswereimplementedonlywhenjustifiedbasedon
carefulconsiderationofallrelevanttechnical,costandpolicyissues.”
TheNMPprioritizedmitigationmeasuresasfollows:sourcecontrol,pathcontrol,andfinallyreceptorcontrol.
Sourcecontrolwasmosteffectiveandeasiesttomonitor,butwherethiswasnotpossible,pathcontrol
measureswereimplementedtoblocksounddirectedatreceptors.Pathcontroloptionswereconsideredcost
effectiveonlyiftheycouldpreventnoiseatmultiplereceptors.Receptorcontrolwasalsousedinsomecases,
suchaswindowtreatmentsonbuildings,andthesuccessofthisprogramwasduelargelytoaneffectivepublic
involvementprocessaswellaspartnershipsdevelopedduringprojectdesignandplanning.
NoisecontrollessonslearnedfromtheCA/Tprojectthatmaybeapplicabletoprojectsdevelopingtheirown
noisemitigationplansinclude:

x Upholdingnoisepolicycommitmentsandgoals.Tobeeffective,itiscrucialthatnoisepoliciesare
communicatedfromthetoplayersoftheprojectteamandappliedprojectwide.
x Engagingthepublicforactivefeedback.Informingthepubliciscriticaltotheoverallsuccessoftheproject
noisemitigationplan,anda24hourhotlineforcommunicationwasusedsuccessfullyontheCA/Tproject.
x Establishinganambientlevelandmonitoringconstructionnoise.Equitablenoisepoliciescannotbe
createdwithoutfirstestablishingabaselinenoiselevel.Noisecontrolsarenotaseffectiveifnotmonitored
onacontinuousbasis.
x Engagingprofessionals.Noisetechnicianscanoftenpreemptnoiseproblemsandcanquicklyrespondto
complaintsgivenproperauthority.
x Addressingthebiggestcomplaints.Thebiggestpubliccomplaintwasvehiclebackupalarmsduringnight
work,whichwasaddressedbymandatinginstallationofinvehiclecontrolsthatweremanuallyadjustable
orambientsensitiveandprohibitingalarmuseinespeciallysensitiveareasatnightwithadditional
supervisionfromsafetypersonnel.
x Implementingcomprehensiveandconcisespecifications.Contractspecificationlanguageforcontractors
thatisclearandunambiguousisessentialformanagementofcontractorsandforimplementationofa
noisecontrolplan.
x Usingmultiplecontrols.Noisemitigationmeasuresmustbeflexibleandincludemanyalternativesand
combinationsofmethodstomeetnoisepolicygoals.
x Targetingreceptorcontrols.Preventionofnoiseatthereceptor,suchasacousticaltreatmentsfor
windows,canbecosteffectivesolutions.
x Usingsoundbarriersasvisualbarriers.Publicperceptionsofconstructionnoiseandlevelofnuisanceor
annoyancedependonsoundlevelsoftheactivityaswellasvisibilityoftheactivity.Thalheimer(2000)
statesthatnoisebarrierswereeffectiveinreducingthelevelofannoyanceperceivedontheCA/Tproject.
However,AylorandMarks(1976)andAnderson,MulliganandGoodman(1984)demonstratethatthis
perceptionisextremelyvariablewithlocale,typicalambientnoiselevels,typeofbarrier,howmuchofthe
activityisobscuredbythebarrier,familiarityofsound,andpublicexpectations.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Itisnotfeasibletoeliminateallconstructionnoise,butitisoftenfeasibletocontrolmostorallofit.
2. Multipleworksitesmayrequireavarietyorcombinationofdifferentcontrols.Somespecialareasofworksites
mayrequirecloseranalysisormodeling,whichmaybecostandtimeintensive.
3. Noisemitigationplansandprojectpoliciesapplytoallcontractorsandsubcontractorsonaconstructionsite.
Trainingmaybenecessaryforsomepartieswhoareotherwiseunfamiliarwithnoisemitigationorpolicies.
4. Thesubjectivityinvolvedwithperceptionsofsoundandnoisepresentsanissueformanagingpublicopinion
andexpectations.
5. Mostjurisdictionsprovideanexemptionfromnoiseassociatedwithdaytimeconstructionactivities.For
GreenroadsallprojectsmustcreateanNMP,evenifexemptfromnoisepoliciesandlocalordinances.
RESEARCH
Noiseissuesonmostroadwayprojectsareinitiallyaddressedduringtheprojectenvironmentalreview(seePR1
EnvironmentalReviewProcess).ThisProjectRequirement(PR)focusesonplanningforandmanagementofnoise
generatedbytheroadwayprojectthroughoutitsconstructionandoperationphases.
WhatisNoise?
Noiseisdefinedasunwantedsound(EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,1973).Soundispartofthescienceof
acoustics,whichisacomplexfielddealingwithsoundgeneration,propagationandreception.Thiscreditdoesnot
gointodetailonsoundphysics.However,someterminologyisusefulforabasicunderstandingofnoise.
Asourceisthepointwhereasoundisgenerated.Sourcescanbemobileorstationary.Forexample,trafficnoise
sourcesaremobile,whileconstructionnoiseisgenerallyamixtureofstationaryandmobilesources.Thereceptor
(also,receiver)istheendpointwheresoundisobserved.Theroutealongwhichsoundpassesfromthesourceto

thereceptorisknownasthepath.Thelengthofthepathisimportant,asistherateofchangeinlengthofthe
path.Generally,perceptionofsoundchangesalongapathaccordingtothe“inversesquarelaw”:asthedistance
betweensourceandreceiverincreases,thesounddecreasesinproportiontotheinversesquareofthepath
length.(NewYorkDivisionofEnvironmentalPermits,2001)Thepathlengthofsoundfrommobilesourceschanges
withtime(thisisperceivedbythehumanearaswhatiscommonlyknownastheDopplerEffect).
Thefollowingsoundtermsarebrieflydescribed(Sandberg&Ejsmont,2002):
x Soundpressure.Soundtravelsthroughthesurroundingmedium(oftenair)aspressurewaves.Measuring
soundinvolvesmeasuringthepressureofthesewaves.Thusacommonmeasureofsoundisinunitsof
pressure.Theperceivedloudnessofsoundvarieswithpressure.Higherpressuresaregenerallyassociatedwith
soundsweperceiveofaslouder.
x Soundpressurelevelandthedecibel(dB).Soundpressurevariesoversuchawiderangethatitiscommonly
measuredinalogarithmicunitcalledthedecibel(dB)soreportednumbersareeasiertoworkwith.Usingthe
dBscale,adifferencein10dBroughlycorrespondstoadoublingorhalvingofourhearingperceptionofthat
sound.Also,1dBisaboutthesmallestdifferenceinsoundpressurethathumanscanperceive.Finally,iftwo
incoherentsoundsofequalsoundpressurelevel(e.g.,70dB)areaddedtogether,theresultingoverallsoundis
3dBgreater.Thus,70dB+70dB=73dB.
x Frequencyweighting.Soundcanoccuroverawiderangeoffrequencies.Thehumaneardoesnotperceiveall
ofthesefrequenciesequally.Generally,forsoundatagivenpressurelevel,lowandveryhighfrequenciesare
interpretedasquieterthanmidrangefrequencies.Therefore,forsoundmeasurementstobemostmeaningful
tohumanhearing,thefrequenciesofsoundneedtobefilteredsuchthatthesoundpressurelevelsoflowand
veryhighfrequenciescountlessthanthesoundpressurelevelsofmidrangefrequencies.Agood
approximationtohumanhearingisthe“Afilter,”thussoundisoftenreportedasan“Aweightedsound
pressurelevel,”dB(A)ordBA.
Itisimportanttoemphasizethecomplexityinanalyzingsoundandthedifferenceofsoundperceptioninhumans
tothephysicalmeasurementsofsoundpressure.Theresponsetoanysoundisasubjectiveexperienceandcan
dependonage,health,familiarity,timeofdayandmoreinadditiontothecharacteristicofthesounditself.This
complexitymakesitsomewhatdifficulttoexpressandcomparesoundlevelsusingsimplifiednumbersoraverages
suchastheAweighteddecibelscale(dBA)thatistypicallyusedtodescribetransportationnoise.
UndesirableConsequencesofNoise
Noisecanhaveaneffectonhumanhealthandalsoonthegeneraldesirabilityofalocationbasedonitsexposure
tonoise.Noiseimpactshumanhealthandwellbeingbyincreasingstress,causinghearingloss(inthecaseofloud
noise),disruptingsleep,causingfatigue,hindersworkefficiency,interruptingactivities,andinterferingwith
speechcommunication(PasschierVermeer&Passchier,2000;EPA,1978).Noisecanalsoproduceunwanted
vibrationsthatmaycausehumandiscomfort(sonicfatigue)ordisturbactivities(EPA,1973).Inadditiontothe
physiologicalandemotionalresponsesofnoise,transportationnoiseinparticularcanalsoimpactrealestate
valueshenceimpactingacommunity’ssocial,economicalanddevelopmentstatus.
Noiseimpactsfromhumanactivitiesdonotonlyaffecthumanpopulations.KaselooandTyson(2004)synthesized
theecologicalinformationonnoiseimpactstowildlifepopulationslivingnearroadwaysanddeterminedthereis
sufficientevidencethatnoiseeffectspopulations,breedinghabits,andbiodiversity.However,thereisverylittle
conclusivedatarelativetoroadnoiseandpopulationsoffish,amphibians,reptiles,andinvertebrates.Burrowing
speciesmaybeimpactedduetoroadnoiseandnoisevibrations,butthisareaalsorequiresfurtherstudy.Bird
populationsappeartobethemostnegativelyimpacted,withimpactsproportionaltothelevelsoftrafficnoiseand
volume.Inmanylocationsthereisclearevidenceofdecreasedbirdbreedingactivityandpopulationdeclinesnear
rightsofway(however,thismayberelatedtodisplacementofpreyorvegetationchange).Largeandsmall
mammalsmayalsoberepelledbyroadwaynoise.
Wildlifecanexperiencesimilaradversehealtheffectsandstressesbecausethestructureandfunctionofmost
animalearsissimilartothehumanear(EPA,1978).Notonlydosoundlevelrangesheardbyanimalsdifferfrom

whatisheardbyhumans(EPA,1978),buttheirsensitivitytoandcorrespondinghealthimpactsfromsoundalso
vary.Physiologicaleffectsofnoiseonwildlifeincludestressestoendocrine,digestive,cardiovascular,andimmune
systemsaswellasreproductivefunction(Kaseloo&Tyson,2004).Roadwaynoisecanalsoimpactvocalizationand
communicationbetweenwildlifespecies,especiallywhereroadwaynoisemaycausebackgroundnoiseacross
distances(Kaseloo&Tyson,2004).
ConstructionNoise
Constructionnoiseistemporarybutmayadverselyaffectnearbypropertyowners,residentsandwildlife.The
FHWAprovidesguidanceinitsHighwayConstructionNoiseHandbook(Knaueretal.,2006).Manyofthe
recommendationsforthisguidancedocumentweregeneratedbytheCentralArtery/TunnelprojectinBoston
(featuredintheExamplessectionabove),andweredocumentedbyThalheimer(2000)priortobeingpublishedby
theFHWA.
Roadconstructionnoiseistypicallygeneratedbythreesourcetypes:mobileequipment,stationaryequipmentand
blastingactivity.Noiselevelsforindividualequipmenttypicallyusedonroadconstructionprojectsarepresentedin
TablePR5.1.
TablePR5.1:MaximumSoundLevelofConstructionEquipmentActivityMeasuredat50feet.(Adaptedfrom
Thalheimer,2000;Knaueretal.,2006)
Equipment dBA Equipment dBA Equipment dBA
AugerDrillRig 85 FlatBedTruck 84 Rivetbuster/Chippinggun 85
Backhoe 80 FrontEndLoader 80 RockDrill 85
BarBender 80 Generator 82 Roller 85
Blasting 94 Gradall 85 SandBlasting(SingleNozzle) 85
BoringJackPowerUnit 80 Grader 85 Scraper 85
ChainSaw 85 Grapple(onbackhoe) 85 Shears(onbackhoe) 85
ClamShovel(dropping) 93 HorizontalBoringHydraulicJack 80 SlurryPlant 78
Compactor(ground) 80 HydraBreakRam 90 SlurryTrenchingMachine 82
Compressor(air) 80 ImpactPileDriver 95 SoilMixDrillRig 80
ConcreteBatchPlant 83 Jackhammer 85 Tractor 84
ConcreteMixerTruck 85 ManLift 85 VacuumExcavator 85
ConcreteSaw 90 MountedImpactHammer(hoeram) 90 VacuumStreetSweeper 80
Crane 85 PavementScarifier 85 VentilationFan 85
Dozer 85 Paver 85 VibratingHopper 85
DrillRigTruck 84 PickupTruck 55 VibratoryConcreteMixer 80
DrumMixer 80 PneumaticTools 85 VibratoryPileDriver 95
DumpTruck 84 Pumps 77 WarningHorn 85
Excavator 85 RefrigeratorUnit 82 Welder/Torch 73

TherelativeAweightednoiselevelsofcommonsoundsmeasuredintheenvironmentandindustryforvarious
qualitativesoundlevelsareprovidedinFigurePR5.1.

NoiseSource(GivenDistance) SoundLevel(dbA) Qualitative Response Description

150
Carrierdeckjetoperation 140
Painfullyloud
130
Limitofamplifiedspeech
Jettakeoff(200feet) 120
Danceclub
Autohorn(3feet) Maximumvocaleffort
Rivetingmachine 110
Jettakeoff(2000feet)
Shout(0.5feet) 100
NewYorksubwaystation Veryannoying
Heavytruck(50feet) 90 Hearingdamage(8hr,continuousexposure)
Pneumaticdrill(50feet)
80 Annoying
Freighttrain(50feet)
Freewaytraffic(50feet)
70 Telephoneusedifficult
Intrusive
Airconditioningunit(20feet) 60
Lightautotraffic(50feet) 50 Quiet
Livingroom
Bedroom 40
Library
Softwhisper(5feet) 30 Veryquiet
Recordingstudio
20
10 Justaudible
0 Hearingthreshold
FigurePR5.1:TypicalSoundLevelsMeasuredintheEnvironmentandIndustry
(AdaptedfromBarksdale,1991).
TrafficNoise
AdiscussionontrafficnoisesourcesisprovidedinCreditPT5QuietPavement.
RegulationofNoise
In1981,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)OfficeofNoiseAbatementandControl(ONAC)wasabolished
andnoisemanagementauthoritywasgrantedtoindividualstatesandmunicipalities.However,the1972NoiseAct
andthe1978QuietCommunitiesActarestillvalidbutunfunded(EPA,2009).PriortothedisintegrationofONAC,
EPAdidestablishbaselineguidancedBAlevelsforbothindoorandoutdoorreceiversandexposuretimecriteria
forpreventingorlimitinghearingloss(EPA,2009).Theselawswereprimarilyputinplacetoprotectnoisesensitive
receivers.Anoisesensitivereceiverisalocationwherepeopleorendangeredwildliferesideorwherethe

presenceofunwantedsoundcouldadverselyaffectthedesignateduseofthelandorhabitat(Knaueretal.,2006).
Typically,noisesensitivereceiversincluderesidences,hospitals,placesofworship,libraries,schools,andmay
includenatureandwildlifepreservesandparks.Forexample,“Levelsof45decibelsareassociatedwithindoor
residentialareas,hospitalsandschools,whereas55decibelsisidentifiedforcertainoutdoorareaswherehuman
activitytakesplace.Thelevelof70decibelsisidentifiedforallareasinordertopreventhearingloss.”(EPA,2009).
Roadwayprojectsneartheselocationsmayberestrictedbymorestringentnoisepoliciesduringbothconstruction
andoperation(Knaueretal.,2006).
Therearecurrentlynofederallyregulatedlevelsofconstructionnoise;howevertheFHWAhassetsomestandards
fortrafficnoiselevels.“Theregulations[23CFR§772]containnoiseabatementcriteriawhichrepresenttheupper
limitofacceptablehighwaytrafficnoisefordifferenttypesoflandusesandhumanactivities.Theregulationsdo
notrequirethattheabatementcriteriabemetineveryinstance.Rather,theyrequirethateveryreasonableand
feasibleeffortbemadetoprovidenoisemitigationwhenthecriteriaareapproachedorexceeded.”(2006).In
general,federallyfundedhighwayprojectsarerequiredtofollowathreestepprocessduringprojectdevelopment
fornoiseabatementinvolvingidentificationandmitigationofnoiseimpacts,aswellaslanduseplanning
coordinationwithlocalofficials.Longtermnoisecontrolandmitigationmeasuresfortrafficnoisearecurrently
assessedviatheenvironmentalreviewprocessandassociateddocumentationfortheNationalEnvironmental
PolicyAct(NEPA)of1969under23CFR§772.However,inSeptember2009,theFHWApublishedaNoticeof
ProposedRulemaking(NPRM)toamendthecurrentfederalnoisepolicycontainedin23CFR§772whichcould
meanhighwayagencieswillneedtoreviewtheirexistingnoisepolicies,revisethem,andobtainapprovalbythe
FHWA.(USDOT&FHWA,2009)
OccupationalexposurestonoiseforconstructionworkersarecloselyregulatedbytheOccupationalHealthand
SafetyAdministration(OSHA).FormoreinformationonOSHAnoiseandhearingsafetystandards,visit:
http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/noisehearingconservation/
ConsiderationsforMitigatingNoise
Manydesignandprojectplanningmethodscanreduceengineorblastrelatednoisefromconstructionprojects.
Also,certaintechniquesandroadwaysurfacingmaterialscanbeusedtoreducetirepavementnoise.TheFHWA
HighwayConstructionNoiseHandbook(Knaueretal.,2006)describesthefollowingelementsforeffectivecontrol
ofhighwayconstructionandoperationalnoisewhichareapplicabletoallroadwayprojects.
x Alternativedesignoptions.Avoidgenerationofnoisealtogether.Examplesaredesignatedconstructiontraffic
routes,speciallylocatingstorageareas,orpossiblyevenselectionofanentirelydifferentroadwayalignment.
Anotherdesignoptionwouldbeconsideringalternativeconstructionapproaches,suchasvibratorypiledriving
insteadofimpactpiledriving.Alternativedesignsareusuallyveryeffectiveapproaches,buttheyarenotalways
costeffectiveorpractical.
x Mitigationatthesource.Reduce,minimizeoreliminateinitialnoisegeneration.Anexamplewouldbe
installingmufflersorbafflesonconstructionequipmentoronamotorvehicleusingtheroadway.Contract
specificationsandspecialprovisionsareanexcellentmeansofsourcemitigation,suchasrequiringcontractors
tousequieterequipmentorsettingstrictnoiselimitsforspecifictypesofequipment.Additionally,
constructionemployeetrainingisconsideredasourcemitigationtechnique.Quietpavements,wheretire
pavementnoiseisreducedatthesource,maybeaviablestrategyformitigatingoperationaltrafficnoise(see
CreditPT5QuietPavement).Sourcereductionisthemosteffectiveandoftenalsomostcosteffectivetypeof
mitigationstrategy,becauseitiseasiesttoobserveandinspect(Thalheimer,2000).
x Mitigationalongthepath.Reduceorminimizenoisepropagation.Noisebarriersandshieldscanbenatural
suchasgradechangesorpermanentsuchassoundwalls.Pathmitigationistheleasteffectivemitigation
strategy,andhasanumberofdisadvantages,especiallyifmanmade.Pathmitigationmethods,suchassound
barrierstructures,areonlyeffectiveatcertaindistancesandgeometriesinrelationtotheroadway.Commonly,
thesearepermanentmanmadestructuresthattendtoreducevisualquality,arehighcost,energyintensive,
materialsintensive,andmaypotentiallyfragmentorobstructnaturalhabitatsdependingontheirplacementin
therightofway.

x Mitigationatthereceiver.Reduce,minimizeoravoidnoisereception.Someexamplesarenoise“masking”
whereunpleasantsoundiscovereduporinterferedbyamorepleasantsound,buildingenvelope
improvements,andtemporaryrelocationofresidents.Dependingonthescaleandlocationoftheproject,as
wellasthelevelofpublicandstakeholderinvolvementandprojectacceptability,receivermitigationmethods
varyincost.However,thesemethodsaremoreeffectiveatreducingnoisereceivedbythehumanearthan
pathmitigation,especiallyintargetedsensitivereceptors(Thalheimer,2000).
Mostnoisemitigationplanscreatedforroadwayprojectswillincludeacombinationofmanyofthesestrategies.
GLOSSARY
ANMP AlternativeNoiseMitigationPlan
CA/T CentralArtery/Tunnelproject.AlsoknownastheBigDig.
CFR CodeofFederalRegulations
dB Decibel
dBA Aweighteddecibels
EPA EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
HMA Hotmixasphalt
Masking usingacousticaltechniquestocoveruporinterferewithunpleasantsound
MassDOT MassachusettsDepartmentofTransportation
MTA MassachusettsTurnpikeAuthority
NMP NoiseMitigationPlan
Noise Unwantedsound,undesirablesound
Noisesensitivereceiver Alocationwherepeople orendangeredwildlife resideorwherethepresence
ofunwantedsoundcouldadverselyaffectthedesignateduseofthelandor
habitat(Knaueretal.,2006)
NYDEP NewYorkCityDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection
Path Theroutealongwhichsoundpassesfromthesourcetothereceptor
Receptor(receiver) Anendpointwheresoundisobserved
Source Apointwhereasoundisgenerated
USDOT UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation

REFERENCES
Anderson,L.M.,Mulligan,B.E.,&Goodman,L.S.(1984).Effectsofvegetationonhumanresponsetosound.Journal
ofArboriculture.10(2),4549.
AylorDE,&MarksLE.(1976).Perceptionofnoisetransmittedthroughbarriers.TheJournaloftheAcoustical
SocietyofAmerica.59(2),397400.
Barksdale,R.D.(1991).TheAggregateHandbook.Washington,D.C.:NationalStoneAssociation.
CityofNewYork,DepartmentofEnvironment.(2009)DEPAir,Noise&Asbestos.AccessedDecember22,2009.
Availableathttp://nyc.gov/html/dep/html/air/index.shtml
CommonwealthofMassachusetts,DepartmentofTransportation(MassDOT),HighwayDivision.(2009).MassDOT
HighwayDivision:TheCentralArtery/TunnelProjectTheBigDig.AccessedDecember23,2009.Availableat
http://www.massdot.state.ma.us/Highway/bigdig/bigdigmain.aspx

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(1973,July)PublicHealthandWelfareCriteriaforNoise.(550/973002).
OfficeofNoiseAbatementandControl(ONAC).Washington,D.C.:EPA,ONAC.AccessedJanuary1,2010.
Availableathttp://www.nonoise.org/epa/Roll1/roll1doc3.pdf
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(1978).Noise:AHealthProblem.EPA,OfficeofNoiseAbatementand
Control,Washington,DC.OfficeofNoiseAbatementandControl(ONAC).Washington,D.C.:EPA,ONAC.
AccessedJanuary1,2010.Availableathttp://www.nonoise.org/epa/Roll15/roll15doc152.pdf
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2009,August12).EPAIdentifiesNoiseLevelsAffectingHealthand
Welfare|EPAHistory|USEPA.[PressRelease:April2,1974].AccessedJanuary1,2010.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/noise/01.htm
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2006,April).HighwayTrafficNoiseintheUnitedStates:Problemand
Response.(FHWAHEP06020).Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighway
Administration.AccessedJanuary2,2010.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/probresp.htm
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2008,December16).FHWARoadwayConstructionNoise.Accessed
December22,2009.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/cnstr_ns.htm
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2009,October1).NoiseRegulations,Policy,andGuidance.Accessed
January2,2010.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/mem_nois.htm
Kaseloo,P.A.&Tyson,K.O.(2004)SynthesisofNoiseEffectsonWildlifePopulations.(FHWAHEP06016)
Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.AccessedNovember25,
2008.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/effects/index.htm
Knauer,H.S.etal.(2006).FHWAhighwayconstructionnoisehandbook.(FHWAHEP06015)Washington,DC:U.S.
DepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.AccessedNovember25,2008.Availableat
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/handbook/index.htm
PasschierVermeer,W.&Passchier,W.F.(2000).Noiseexposureandpublichealth.EnvironmentalHealth
Perspectives.108,12331.
Reherman,C.N.etal.(2006).FHWARoadwayConstructionNoiseModel,Version1.0User’sGuide.(FHWAHEP05
054)Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.Accessed
November25,2008.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/rcnm/rcnm.pdf
Sandberg,U.andEjsmont,J.A.(2002).Tyre/RoadNoiseReferenceBook.InformexEjsmont&Sandberg
Handelsbolag,Sweden.
Thalheimer,E.(2000).ConstructionnoisecontrolprogramandmitigationstrategyattheCentralArtery/Tunnel
Project.NoiseControlEngineeringJournal.48(5),157165.

Greenroadss™ Manual v1.5 Project Requireements
WASTTE MAN
NAGEMEENT PLA
AN
GOAL PR
R-6
Create an aaccounting and
d managementt plan for road
d construction w
waste materiaals.
REQUI REMENTS
S
Establish, iimplement, and maintain a fo
ormal Construction and Dem molition Waste REQUIRED
D
Manageme ent Plan (CWM
MP) during roaddway construction. The CWM MP should be
included in
n the project co
ontract docum
ments and identtify, at minimuum, these item
ms:
• Type off construction waste REL ATED CRED ITS

• Expecte ed (or actual) ttonnage 9 P
PR‐7 Pollution
• Costs aand fees for lan
ndfills, recoverry facilities, and hauling P
Prevention Plann
• Contact information o of responsible party for hauling 9 P
PR‐10 Site
• Destinaation of waste (e.g. recycling facility, landfill, contractor’ss backyard) M
Maintenance P Plan
• Contact information o of responsible party for dispo osal site 9 M
MR‐2 Pavemen nt
• Management strategy for waste generated from m mobile office aactivities and R
Reuse
personal worker (hou usehold) waste e 9 M
MR‐3 Earthworrk
B
Balance
Detai ls 9 M
MR‐4 Recycled
M
Materials
The CWWMP is typically completed by the prime co ontractor, subm mitted to the oowner 9 C
CA‐3 Site Recyccling
agencyy for approval, and implemen nted by all partties on the con struction site. P
Plan
“Construction and deemolition waste” (C&D waste e) constitutes aany material th hat
must be hauled off‐siite for disposall or reprocessin
ng, or, if dispo sed (stockpiledd)
SUSSTAINABILITTY
within the project Rigght‐of‐Way (ROOW) is not inteended for use aas structural m material
(e.g. paavements, emb bankments, shoulders, base m materials, and fill). Materialss that COMMPONENTS
leave the ROW for reprocessing (recycling) activitties are consideered C&D wastte 9 EExpectations
becausse they are not used in their p
pre‐constructio on form at the site. See moree 9 EExposure
details under Credits MR‐2 Paveme ent Reuse and M MR‐4 Recycledd Materials.
BEN
NEFITS
Types o
of C&D for road may include (b ut is not limiteed to):
dway construcction projects m
9 RReduces Solid WWaste
• Pavving process waaste (e.g. asphalt, concrete) 9 RReduces Manm made
• Milling waste, con ncrete slough aand grindings, cobble FFootprint
• Metals (e.g. waste e steel rebar, m
metal guardrails, pipes, luminnaires, signs, 9 RReduces First C
Costs
alumminum, and vaarious househo old metals) 9 RReduces Lifecyccle
• Plasstic (e.g. waste
e plastic pipes) CCosts
9 Immproves
• Excavated soil cutttings and boulders
AAccountability
• Sed
diment remove ed from tempo orary construction settling poonds
9 CCreates New
• Land clearing deb bris or excess to
opsoil
Innformation
• Hazzardous materiials, including lliquids
• Woood and paper products (e.g. packaging matterials, cardbo ard and palletss)
• Glass
DOCUM
MENTATIO
ON
• Copy of the project C
CWMP
PR-6 Waste Management

M Pl an 79

• Integrate the CWMP with a Site Recycling Plan to earn credit CA‐3 Site Recycling Plan.
• Modify, as appropriate for roads, versions of waste management plan specifications developed for building
contractors by the Construction Materials Recycling Association (CMRA). The California Integrated Waste
Management Board (CIWMB) provides Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) MasterFormat templates for
Sections 01151 (New Construction) and 02060 (Demolition) for buildings construction debris. These tools were
developed by the CMRA with funding from the Environmental Protection Agency and are available for free
download and project‐specific use at: http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/conDemo/specs/CMRA.htm.
• Keep accurate records and retain all waste handling invoices and receipts. The site listed above also includes
spreadsheet templates that contractors may use for tracking waste during construction.
• Specify a project diversion rate goal that may help establish appropriate waste handling procedures.
• The Construction Materials Recycling Association (CMRA) provides links to a variety of localities that offer
construction and demolition waste recycling services. The list can be accessed at http://www.cdrecycling.org/.
• Include the Waste Management Plan in agency contract documents, bid packages, and/or specifications.
• Set waste reduction goals and explicitly state them in the Waste Management Plan
• Locate receptacles in easily accessible or highly frequented locations on the jobsite. Receptacles should not be
placed in areas where they may cause harm to workers or the local environment. See Pollution Prevention Plan
for more information.
• Hire a contractor with an Environmental Management System (EMS) in place. See Credit EW‐1 Environmental
Management System. These employers already have internal office procedures established to reduce office‐
related pollution and may be familiar with local agency waste management efforts.
• Develop and deliver training to workers to educate them on waste recovery efforts being implemented onsite
and compliance with the general CWMP. This step will be critical to all projects. See Credit CA‐2 Environmental
Awareness Training for more approaches and strategies for education programs.
• Hire an experienced waste transport company to manage site waste and monitor waste streams for
unacceptable materials.
• Identify local facilities that accept recyclables or salvaged materials. This is important in designating type of
waste to separate, and in making arrangements for drop‐off or delivery of materials.
• The 2007 Contractor’s Guide by the King County Solid Waste Division and Seattle Public Utilities provides many
helpful waste management and reduction strategies for the entire project. A sample waste management plan
adapted from this guide is provided in the examples below.
Example: Sample CWMP Template with Materials Recovery

The following example content has been adapted from the 2007 Seattle/King County Contractor’s Guide, which
is available here: http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/documents/ConGuide.pdf. Project
teams should consider customizing the CWMP information based on project goals and owner expectations.
80 Waste Management Plan PR-6

Greenroadss™ Manual v1.5 Project Requireements
WASTE MA
ANAGEMEN
NT PLAN
Genera al Contractor:
Projectt Name:
Site Wa aste Coordinattor:
Phone::
Debris Collection Ageency:

Waste Management Goals:

Steps tto inform contractors/subcontractors of W Waste Managem ment Plan policies.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

C&D Materials
C Expected to b be Generated
The fo
ollowing charts identify materials expected to be generateed by this project and the plaanned method
d for
ng these materrials for disposaal and/or recyccling.
handlin
DECONSTRUCTIION & DEMOLLITION PHASE
Materiial Quanttity (units) Haul Methodd & End Locatio
ion Handliing Procedure

CONST
TRUCTION PHA ASE
Materiial Quanttity (units) Haul Methodd & End Locatio
ion Handliing Procedure

Figure PR‐6.1 Sample
e CWMP Temp
plate. (Adaptedd from King Co
ounty Solid Waaste Division &
& Seattle Publiic
Utiltiess, 2007)

Examp
ple: Case Sttudy - City of Vancouvver, British Columbia R
Recycling In
nitiative
In 2005
5, the City of Vancouver, British Columbia ccreated a new engineering brranch in their ggovernmental
agencyy strictly for maanagement of iinfrastructure waste, such ass waste generaated from road dway, water annd
sewer ddevelopment ((see Figures PR R‐6.2 and PR‐6..3). The estimaated amount o of this infrastructure waste
exceedded 400,000 tonnes (MT: abo out 441,000 ton ns) annually. TThis waste had been previoussly been dispossed in
Vancouuver Landfill, taaking up massive and preciouus volume in thhis limited locaal resource.
PR-6 Waste Management

M Pl an 81
Project Reqquirements Greenroads™ Manuual v1.5
The inffrastructure waaste included aapproximately 300,000 MT off excavated sooil, 35,000 MT o
of hot mix asph
halt
pavement grindings, and 90,000 MTT of concrete e excavations. Thhe latter amou
unt is estimated
d to provide en
nough
subbasse material for 46 kilometers (almost 29 miles) of road.
After th
his initiative, so
ome remarkab
ble results were
e achieved throough waste management activities that weere
implemmented during the constructio on of roadwayys and infrastruucture:
• 100
0% of annual hot mix asphalt milling waste is now recycleed.
• 100
0% of annual co oncrete curb, ssidewalk and ro
oadway slab mmaterial is now
w recycled.
• Stockpiles of soil, asphalt, and concrete are no
ow available foor more projeccts after reproccessing and
extrraction of new
w aggregate is ooften avoided.

Figure PR‐6.2: Typica way construction
al pile of roadw Figurre PR‐6.3: Boullders excavateed during roadway
waste. (Bremner & C City of Vancouvver, 2006) utilityy work. (Brem
mner & City of V
Vancouver, 20006)

• Transportation off waste materiaals was reduce ed by over 22,5500 dump truck trips, resultin
ng in substantial fuel
cost savings, emisssions reductioon, and paveme ent wear.
• Total cost savingss for all measurres has an estim
mated value off over CN$5000,000 annually (approximately
13,000 in 2005 U.S. dollars).
$41
The infformation in thhis case study ccomes from the e report produuced by Bremn ner and the Cityy of Vancouverr

(2006).. The City of Vaancouver recyccling initiative w
was consideredd for nominatiion by the Tran nsportation
Associaation of Canadaa for their 2005 Environmenttal Achieveme nt Award. Morre information n about the pro
oject,
includinng reprocessinng and storage activities that are also part oof this initiativee, can be found
d at:
http://www.tac‐atc.cca/english/reso ourcecentre/re eadingroom/coonference/conf2006/docs/s0 007/bremner.ppdf
POTENTI AL ISSUES
1. Specifyying and creatin ng documents for waste man nagement pracctices may be u unfamiliar to ro
oadway design ners
and decision‐makers who do not no ormally managge waste. Theree may be a steeep learning curve, as there iss little
data avvailable to offeer examples on how to monittor and measurre road‐related d waste streamms. This requireement
may mean that additional people frrom outside aggency engineerring departments (such as en nvironment, eccology
or wastte divisions) neeed to be included on the pro oject team to iimplement a C CWMP effectiveely.
2. Potential exists for tracked data to be measured inconsistently, either because of how the m measurement iis
done or where in the waste stream it is measured d. In order to a ddress this, th
his requirement clearly notes that
any maaterial that leavves the boundaaries of the roaadway project site, even if inntended for reu use later, is
conside ered “waste.” TTherefore, pro obably a good p place to measuure the waste ggenerated is acctually at the
source,, and before it leaves the site e. This way, quantities are moore likely to bee captured andd representativve of
the prooject.
3. If disturbed or cut/fill material is sto
ockpiled on‐sitte and not inteended for use oon the roadwayy project,
measurrement may be e more difficult if not monito
ored by trucklooads (e.g. mateerial is excavateed in a large
stockpiile and left in p
place). Volume measurementts, such as exp ected cut voluumes, may be m more appropriaate
82 Waste Management
M Pl an PR-6
units of measure than mass. Some ingenuity may be required to determine an appropriate solution to account
for on‐site solid waste.
4. Careless behavior or lack of stewardship may be an issue that can result in recyclables being disposed in waste‐
only receptacles, or vice versa, especially if objectives of a WMP are not meaningful or communicated well to
workers. This behavior can contaminate the recyclables stream and make an entire receptacle unsuitable for
reprocessing or salvage, or accidentally send recyclables to a landfill.
5. Proper handling of recyclable materials is a key safety issue for new and unfamiliar recycling activities.
Communication and training is critical to minimize risk and preserve safety.
6. Safety and security considerations should be taken into account relative to storage on‐site of recoverable
materials of high value. Opportunities for theft may be increased, especially for some types of metals that are
commonly used in infrastructure or electrical utilities like copper wire.
7. At this time, points are not available for achieving waste reduction based on percentage of total waste. This is
due to lack of data regarding waste management for roadway construction activities.
RESEARCH
“Solid material waste generation is one of the many environmental burdens associated with the roadway life
cycle.” (Rajendran & Gambatese, 2007, p. 88). Waste management, especially as recycling, minimization or reuse,
is one of the cornerstone principles of sustainable development and pollution prevention programs. Both
municipal solid waste (MSW) and building industry construction and demolition (C&D) waste are well‐
characterized. These types of waste are monitored and measured by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and many state agencies. Remarkably little is known about quantities and types of solid waste generated by the
transportation industry during road and bridge construction and rehabilitation activities (EPA, 2009a; Rajendran &
Gambetese, 2007; Rajendran & Gambetese, 2005; Aquino, 2003; Northeast Waste Management Officials’
Association, 2009). A key component is also very unclear: where the waste actually ends up.
This may be partly due to the relative ease with which hot mix asphalt, concrete, soil and cobble waste is
recovered and reprocessed. Facilities that manage C&D waste are relatively unregulated parts of the waste
management industry, even though they may receive a very large volume of materials from road and bridge
construction. Bloomquist et al. (1993; cited in Rajendran & Gambatese, 2007) state in their report to the U.S.
Department of Transportation (USDOT) and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) that approximately 75%
of highway pavement materials are recovered. Note that this data is nearly 20 years old (or more) and no
significant progress on characterizing road construction waste has been made, except at very few local agencies
(see Examples noted above) where the focus is on cost‐reduction and the savings associated with incorporating
recycled materials into design standards.
What is Construction and Demolition (C&D) Waste?
The definition of what is considered construction and demolition (C&D) waste varies by state and local jurisdiction.
The EPA definition is just as broad: materials that consist of “debris generated during the construction, renovation,
and demolition of buildings, roads, and bridges” (EPA, 2009e). Construction debris is considered to be a specific
type of solid waste, which is clearly defined under the 1984 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) to
the United States 1972 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Title 40 CFR § 261.2 (EPA, 2009d; ICF,
1995b). It is also considered industrial waste to differentiate its origin in the commercial and institutional sectors
from MSW, which is mostly residential in origin (EPA, 2009b). Most of the waste is perceived as inert, however,
some can be considered hazardous, such as structural elements with lead‐based paint.
C&D waste is generated from “construction, renovation, repair, and demolition of structures such as residential
and commercial buildings, roads, and bridges” and in general is comprised of a variety of materials (ICF, 1995b).
The most common material in building C&D landfilled waste streams is waste wood, hot mix asphalt (from parking
lots), drywall and masonry (ICF, 1995b); clearly the waste stream from roads and bridges has a different
composition. For example, in Vancouver, British Columbia, earthen materials composed over half of the
infrastructure demolition of the waste stream, followed by concrete and hot mix asphalt pavement materials in
lesser quantities (Bremner, 2006). Franklin Associates (1998) justifies omitting roadway construction and
PR-6 Waste Management Plan 83

demolition debris from their report to the EPA on C&D waste because it was not easily characterized and no point‐
source data was available for their study. Generally, data for percent composition of roadway waste stream
materials is not available from any reliable source and it is clearly rarely tracked in a meaningful way. The waste
stream for every roadway project will be unique in both volume and composition and end point, due to many
factors such as: project size, location, material type, construction or demolition means, schedule, contractor site
waste management practices (ICF, 1995b).
How Much C&D Waste Is There?
In March 2009, the EPA released 2003 data on construction and demolition waste from the building industry,
which generated an estimated 170 million tons (EPA, 2009a), up from 136 million tons stated in 1996 (Franklin
Associates, 1998; EPA, 2008b) The EPA notes that “Significant additional quantities of C&D materials are generated
from the construction of roads and bridges, from land clearing at construction sites, and at military installations”
(EPA, 2008b). The most recent waste stream characterization study funded by the EPA and conducted by the
Northeast Waste Management Officials’ Association (NEWMOA, 2009) characterized the 2006 C&D waste stream
for several New England states. Interestingly, this study specifically excluded aggregated data relevant to the hot
mix asphalt, brick and concrete (ABC) waste generated from road, bridge and land clearing projects because “the
quantity of ABC material generated by road and bridge projects often dwarfs the quantity generated from other
sources and can significantly bias the data on overall management of C&D wastes.” (p. 2). This is, in part, due to
the variations between C&D facilities relative to waste handling practices and types and quantities of materials
that they receive, and the tendency to classify road ABC waste as “aggregate” in the waste stream reports. In
addition, the report justifies its exclusion of transportation waste because roadway project material is often
recycled into new aggregate for road base or pavement sections and processing often occurs on‐site or at
specialized facility (NEWMOA, 2009).
Gambetese and Rajendran (2005) note that little research is available on lifecycle impacts of roadway waste
material, especially at end‐of‐life of the pavement sections, and have attempted to model this road waste. These
same authors (2007) provide a good summary of road C&D waste estimates from various agencies and authors,
and include what is known about waste quantities and percentages throughout the world for roadways. However,
importantly, they note that “no exact estimates of C&D waste from the transportation industry are available” and
that existing literature indicates road and bridge waste contributes significantly to the waste stream, more so than
the building industry. William Turley, Executive Director of the Construction Materials Recycling Association
(CMRA) estimated in 2003 that the annual C&D waste generated in the United States was roughly 320 million tons
(Aquino, 2003). Following the publishing of the EPA 2009 report on 2003 building industry waste, Turley noted
(Johnson, 2009) that the total waste stream is more realistically estimated at 325 to 350 million tons (for 2003)
after infrastructure waste is accounted in the total. This would mean transportation‐related construction,
demolition, and rehabilitation activities generate and dispose of C&D waste at approximately the same rate as the
building industry.
Based on available lifecycle process data and their collected end‐of‐life waste statistics for road waste, Rajendran
and Gambetese (2007) conducted a quantitative lifecycle inventory (LCI) model of typical hot mix asphalt and
concrete pavement sections from extraction of materials to end‐of‐life to estimate the waste contributions from
each pavement type. Their model showed that over 50% of the lifecycle waste was generated from end‐of‐life
waste disposal practices for both pavement models. However, their models did not include any recycling or
reprocessing activities because these processes are not well‐characterized. Waste generation rates at end‐of‐life,
and during construction (scraps and refuse) are shown in Table PR‐6.1.


Table PR‐6.1: Roadway Material Waste Rates at End‐of‐Life and Construction
(Adapted from Rajendran & Gambetese, 2007)
Waste Rate at End‐of‐Life Waste Rate during Placement of New Road
Pavement Material Type
(% of Material) (% of Material)
Concrete Pavement 25 2.5
Concrete Pavement – Cement ‐ 2.45
Concrete Pavement – Aggregates ‐ 3.0
Steel Rebar 55 1.79
Asphalt Pavement 18 0.102
Asphalt Pavement – Asphalt ‐ 0.86
Crushed Stone Base 17.1 0.88
Crushed Gravel Base 18.5 0.88
Granular Subbase 23 0.80
Subgrade 12.8 ‐

The EPA (2009c) notes that Industrial processes contributed to a total of 7.6 billion tons of non‐hazardous solid
waste generated in the U.S. in 2006. These processes include pavement material production such as asphalt and
cement manufacturing. These wastes are outside the scope of Greenroads (at this time) because they occur earlier
in the supply chain than materials produced (mixed) after ground‐breaking for the roadway project. However,
agencies and contractors are encouraged to work with industries that demonstrate responsible waste
management practices.
Where Does It Go?
Most roadway, bridge and land clearing debris is managed by the same C&D landfills and reprocessing facilities as
the building industry and represent a very large portion of the total C&D waste received by these facilities (Franklin
Associates, 1998). Approximately 1,500 C&D landfills were operational in the United States in 2004 (EPA, 2009a).
However, while building C&D waste composition and volume is monitored, the EPA admits that commercially
generated C&D waste, such as from transportation and industry, is not because it is typically collected and
disposed by the private sector. This makes managing these processes more difficult for municipalities, who have
been slow to target this waste stream (EPA, 2009b). Also, the EPA reports that “Unknown amounts of C&D
materials are also believed to go to combustion facilities or unpermitted landfills.” (2008c).
Many states also accept exported wastes from other states, which complicates tracking recovery activities
(NEWMOA, 2009). States also differ in waste management practices: in some cases the majority of C&D waste is
sent directly to landfill while other states will pre‐process the waste before it gets landfilled. “There is no common
standard as to how C&D wastes are processed at facilities in different states or even within a single state.”
(NEWMOA, 2009). The type of receiving facility varies and can be C&D only landfills, C&D recovery facilities (which
still dispose unrecoverable materials into landfills eventually), municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills, or combined
C&D and MSW facilities (EPA, 2008a; EPA, 2008c). The type of landfill where C&D waste might be received for your
project depends on local opportunity, and no federal regulation specifically dictates where it must go. Facilities in
the U.S. that accept C&D waste, sorted by EPA Regions, are provided by the Construction Industry Compliance
Assistance Center (CICA): http://www.cicacenter.org/.
Costs of Roadway Waste
Generally, road waste materials, like aggregate, asphalt and concrete, are heavy and, therefore, costly to
transport. Reprocessed inert waste products are often cost‐competitive with virgin aggregate because many waste
recovery facilities will crush and resell these wastes to avoid transport to landfill (NEWMOA, 2009), but this may
not be the case where there is open landfill space, low tipping fees, or other low‐cost or virtually‐free disposal
options available (William Turley qtd. in Aquino, 2003). Essentially, this likely makes waste management
commonplace in the transportation industry, because it is a cost‐effective best practice.

In 1995, the EPA issued a report (ICF, 1995a) on environmental damages associated with C&D landfills, specifically
to collect available data on groundwater or surface water pollution and ecosystem or habitat impacts, and to
determine if these impacts can be attributed to specific types of C&D waste, landfill operations and environmental
location. The study found that minimal data was available, many sites lacked basic environmental controls (like
liners), and focused on only 11 C&D landfill sites. On‐site groundwater contamination was present at several of
these sites that exceeded acceptable levels of inorganic contaminants for state secondary groundwater quality
standards (i.e. taste). Additionally, several sites were found to have inorganic surface water contamination that
exceeded either state levels or EPA Ambient Water Quality Criteria for freshwater aquatic life. Some of these
impacts were attributed to characteristics of the landfill location such as shallow groundwater or permeable soils
(ICF, 1995a). Notably, there are many other impacts associated with long‐term environmental degradation, using
open space or habitat for landfills, and social and economic impacts that are not easily quantifiable. Current data
on existing C&D landfill capacity in the United States is not available from any reliable source. Also, due to the high
variability of size, location, capacities, and facility types lumped in industry census statistics for waste management
does not adequately characterize the costs of landfilling large volumes of roadway waste.
How is C&D Waste Regulated?
While MSW regulations are a core part of the RCRA and governed at a federal level by the EPA, most of the
regulations regarding C&D waste are generally non‐specific and managed by states and local jurisdictions.
However, the 1995 draft report created for the EPA Office of Solid Waste, indicates that all 50 states have some
regulations for the C&D landfill facilities not located on private property, though many are not as strict as those for
MSW facilities, which are covered under RCRA Title 40 CFR § 257 and 258. Additionally, “Executive Order 13423
requires all federal construction, renovation, and demolition projects to achieve a 50% recycling rate where
markets or on‐site recycling opportunities exist.” (EPA, 2009a). The most detailed review for the EPA regarding the
variability of landfill regulatory requirements is given in the 1995 draft report from ICF Incorporated.
In Departments of Transportation across the U.S., the story is similar: regulations are varied and often vague or
non‐existent. In fact, most Departments of Transportation (DOTs) do not have any management control over the
waste and typically, road‐related waste is handled by a different state agency (environmental or ecology, for
example). The lack of consistency in characterizing and regulating this massive waste stream fundamentally
demonstrates a large opportunity for both source reduction and waste minimization management protocols for
roadway C&D waste.
Waste Management Planning
Waste management planning may be an unfamiliar consideration for roadway design agencies, engineers or
contractors because traditionally this is not one of their professional responsibilities. However, Kibert (2005) notes
that proper planning and quality assurance plans are imperative to the successful construction and continued
performance of building industry projects, and the same may be said for roadway projects. Poorly defined
parameters for C&D waste, including what it is and what it is not, are necessary for an effective waste
management plan. Another key part of waste management is measurement. Consistency in any measurement
program should include clear identification of where the waste is to be measured (i.e. leaving the construction
site) and by what unit of measure (volume or mass) (ICF, 1995b). Responsible treatment of waste materials, if the
wasteful practices themselves cannot be eliminated, is a necessity for reducing the long‐term need for landfill
space filled with inert, reusable materials.
Kibert (2005) also notes that with thoughtful planning and engineering, final contract documents can often
anticipate sources of construction waste and generally generate less of it (as well as having fewer errors and
change orders throughout the process). Specifications will also require a clear definition of what C&D waste means
for the project. He states that source reduction (reduced need for materials) is most effective in minimizing waste,
especially for new projects. Such success was demonstrated by the Examples from TxDOT and the City of
Vancouver (Bremner, 2006), which were achieved largely through contract language (including specific instructions
for recyclability, salvagability and special handling) and assignment of waste management responsibilities to
various parties. Since the pavement engineer is responsible for the main material components project, i.e. the

largest portion of the mass, there is an indirect responsibility to handle the selection process for these materials by
keeping the end of the design life in mind.
Additional Resources
• The report from the EPA called RCRA in Focus: Construction, Demolition and Renovation is a freely available
report that provides suggested strategies for inclusion in a waste management plan without violating
regulatory requirements and discusses special materials‐handling issues in C&D waste. It is available here:
http://www.epa.gov/waste/inforesources/pubs/infocus/rif‐c&d.pdf
• Two organizations that compile information for waste management activities relevant to roadway design and
construction are the Construction Materials Recycling Association (http://www.cdrecycling.org) and the Green
Highways Partnership (http://www.greenhighwayspartnership.org/).
GLOSSARY
C&D Construction and demolition
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CMRA Construction Materials Recycling Association
Construction & demolition waste Material that must be hauled off‐site for disposal or reprocessing, or, if
disposed within the project ROW, is not intended for engineered use on‐site
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
HSWA Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 to RCRA
MSW Municipal solid waste
MT Metric ton (tonne)
NEWMOA Northeast Waste Management Officials’ Association
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1972)
ROW Right‐of‐Way
TxDOT Texas Department of Transportation
USDOT United States Department of Transportation

REFERENCES
Aquino, J.T. (2003). C&D Waste: A Sometimes Bumpy Road to More Attention. MSW Management. July‐August
2003. Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.mswmanagement.com/july‐august‐2003/cd‐
waste‐recycle.aspx
Bloomquist, D., Diamond, G., Oden, M., Ruth, B., & Tia, M. (1993). Engineering and Environmental Aspects of
Recycled Materials for Highway Construction. FHWA‐RD‐93‐088, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, VA
and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
Bremner, P. & City of Vancouver Engineering Services. (2006) Road construction waste: to landfill or recycle? There
is no question. In proceedings of Transportation Association of Canada 2006 Annual Conference and Exhibition.
Session: 2005 TAC Environmental Achievement Award Nominations. Accessed October 22, 2008. Available at
http://www.tac‐atc.ca/english/resourcecentre/readingroom/conference/conf2006/docs/s007/bremner.pdf
California Integrated Waste Management Board (CIWMB). (2009, October 27). Recycle: CIWMB. Accessed
December 21, 2009. Available at: http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Recycle/
California Integrated Waste Management Board. (2009, June 22) C&D Recycling: CMRA Master Specifications.
Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/conDemo/specs/CMRA.htm.

Construction Industry Research and Information Association. (2004, April 28). CIRIA: Construction Waste and
Resources. Design and Construction Good Practice Pointers. Accessed December 21, 2009. Available at:
http://www.ciria.org.uk/cwr/good_practice_pointers.htm
Construction Materials Recycling Association. (2009a). CMRA: Home. Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at
http://www.cdrecycling.org/
Construction Materials Recycling Association. (2009b). 2009 C&D Recycling Excellence Honored By CMRA [Press
Release]. April 6, 2009. Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.cdrecycling.org/news
Davio, R. United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. (2000) Lessons Learned:
TxDOT’s Efforts to Increase the Use of Recycled Materials. Public Roads. 64(1). Accessed December 16, 2009.
Available at http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/julaug00/recyctx.htm
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2008, October 2) Landfills | C&D Materials | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed
December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/industrial/cd/cdlandfill.htm
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2008a, September 11) Landfills | Municipal Solid Waste | Wastes | US
EPA. Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/landfill.htm
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2008b, October 2) Basic Information | C&D Materials | Wastes | US EPA.
Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/industrial/cd/basic.htm
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2009b, March 13) Industrial Wastes | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed
December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/osw/nonhaz/industrial/index.htm
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2009c, March 13) Non‐Hazardous Wastes | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed
December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/index.htm
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2009d, July 1) Definition of Solid Waste | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed
December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/dsw/index.htm
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2009e, November 16) C&D Materials | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed
December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/imr/cdm/index.htm
Environmental Protection Agency. (2004, September) RCRA in Focus: Construction, Demolition, and Renovation.
(EPA530‐K‐04‐005). Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/waste/inforesources/pubs/infocus/rif‐c&d.pdf
Environmental Protection Agency. (2008b, September 30). Climate Change and Municipal Solid Waste Fact Sheet |
Pay‐As‐You‐Throw | US EPA. Accessed December 21, 2009. Available at
http://www.epa.gov/waste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.htm
Environmental Protection Agency. (2008c, November 13). Municipal Solid Waste | Wastes | US EPA. Accessed
December 21, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/index.htm
Environmental Protection Agency. (2008e, December 3). P2 Resource Exchange | Pollution Prevention | US EPA.
Accessed December 21, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/p2/pubs/p2rx.html.
Environmental Protection Agency. (2009a, March) Estimating 2003 Building‐Related Construction and Demolition
Materials Amounts. (EPA530‐R‐09‐002). Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at:
http://www.epa.gov/waste/conserve/rrr/imr/cdm/pubs/cd‐meas.pdf

Environmental Protection Agency. (2009a, September 14). Waste Home | General Information on the Link
Between Solid Waste and Climate Change | Climate Change ‐ What You Can Do | US EPA. Accessed December
21, 2009. Available at http://www.epa.gov/climate/climatechange/wycd/waste/generalinfo.html
Environmental Protection Agency. (2009c, November) Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal
in the United States: Facts and Figures for 2008. (EPA‐530‐F‐009‐021) Available at
http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/msw2008rpt.pdf
Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery. (2009b, November). Municipal
Solid Waste Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the United States: Detailed Tables and Figures for 2008.
Available at http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/msw2008data.pdf
Franklin Associates, Inc. (1998, June). Characterization of Building‐Related Construction and Demolition Debris in
the United States. Report prepared for Environmental Protection Agency Municipal and Industrial Solid Waste
Division, Office of Solid Waste. (EPA530‐R‐98‐010). Prairie Village, KS: TechLaw, Inc. Available at
http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/generation/sqg/c&d‐rpt.pdf
Gambatese, J. A., & Rajendran, S. (2005). Sustainable Roadway Construction: Energy Consumption and Material
Waste Generation of Roadways. In Proceedings of the ASCE Construction Research Congress 2005: Broadening
perspectives, April 5‐7, 2005 (San Diego, Ca). Reston, Va: American Society of Civil Engineers.
Green Highways Partnership, Global Environment & Technology Fund. (2008). Green Highways Partnership.
Accessed December 16, 2009. Available at http://www.greenhighwayspartnership.org/
ICF Incorporated. (1995a, May 18). Environmental Damages Cases from Construction and Demolition Waste
Landfills [DRAFT]. Report prepared for Environmental Protection Agency. Available at
http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/generation/sqg/damages/dam‐pdf/damage.pdf
ICF Incorporated. (1995b, May 18). Report on Construction and Demolition Waste Landfills [DRAFT]. Report
prepared for Environmental Protection Agency. Available at
http://www.epa.gov/waste/hazard/generation/sqg/const/cdrpt.pdf
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2007) Pachauri, R.K & Reisinger, A. eds. Climate Change 2007:
Synthesis Report. “Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment. Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.” IPCC: Switzerland, 2007. 104 pp.
Johnson, J. (2009, March 30). EPA estimates C&D debris up 25%. Waste Recycling News. Accessed December 16,
2009. Available at http://wastenews.texterity.com/wastenews/20090330//Print_su#pg1
Kibert, C. (2005). Sustainable construction: green building design and delivery (1st ed.). Hoboken N.J.: John Wiley &
Sons.
King County Solid Waste Division & Seattle Public Utilties. (2007). 2007 Contractors Guide ‐ King County Solid
Waste Division. Available at: http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/documents/ConGuide.pdf
King County Solid Waste Division. (2008, October 2). Design specifications and waste management plans for green
building projects in King County, WA. Accessed December 20, 2009. Available at:
http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/construction‐recycling/specifications‐plans.asp
King County Solid Waste Division. (2009, October 20) Green Building ‐ King County Solid Waste Division. Accessed
December 20, 2009. Available at: http://www.greentools.us

Kourmpanis, B., Papadopoulos, A., Moustakas, K., Stylianou, M., Haralambous, K., & Loizidou, M. (2008).
Preliminary study for the management of construction and demolition waste. Waste Management & Research.
26 (3), 267‐275.
McDonough, W. & Braungart, M. (2002). Cradle to cradle: Remaking the way we make things. New York: North
Point Press.
Northeast Waste Management Officials’ Association (NEWMOA). (2009, June 30). Construction & Demolition
WasteManagement in the Northeast in 2006. Boston, Ma: NEWMOA. Available at
http://www.newmoa.org/solidwaste/CDReport2006DataFinalJune302009.pdf
Poon, C. S., Yu, A. T. W. & Ng, L. H. (2001). On‐site sorting of construction and demolition waste in Hong Kong.
Resources, Conservation, and Recycling. 32 (2), 157.
Rajendran, S. & Gambatese, J. A. (2007). Solid Waste Generation in Asphalt and Reinforced Concrete Roadway Life
Cycles. Journal of Infrastructure Systems. 13 (2), 88.
Schultmann, F. & Sunke, N. (2007). Energy‐oriented deconstruction and recovery planning. Building Research &;
Information. 35 (6), 602‐615.
Seydel, A., Wilson, O. D. & Skitmore, R. M. (2002). Financial Evaluation of Waste Management Methods. Journal of
Construction Research. 3 (1), 167‐179.
Sustainable Sites Initiative. (2009) The Sustainable Sites Initiative: Guidelines and Performance Benchmarks 2009.
Available at http://www.sustainablesites.org/report/
United States Green Building Council (USGBC). (2009) LEED 2009 for New Construction and Major Renovations
Rating System. Available at http://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=220
WasteCap Resource Solutions. WasteCap Resource Solutions ‐ Construction & Demolition. Accessed December 21,
2009. Available at http://www.wastecapwi.org/resources/construction‐demolition/

POLLUTION PREVENTION PLAN

GOAL PR-7
Reducepollutionandassociatedeffectsfromconstructionactivities.
REQUIREMENTS
CreateandimplementacomprehensiveStormwaterPollutionPreventionPlan REQUIRED
(SWPPP)orTemporaryErosionandSedimentationControl(TESC)planthatconforms
totherequirementsofthecurrentEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)
ConstructionGeneralPermitORthelocalorstateConstructionGeneralPermitinareas
thatmanagetheirownpermittingplan,whicheverismorestringent.TheSWPPP/TESC RELATED CREDITS
mustaddresswaterqualitycontrolanddustcontrolactivitiesusedduringconstruction 9 PR4QualityControl
oftheroadwayproject. Plan
9 PR6Waste
Details ManagementPlan
9 PR8LowImpact
Note:ASWPPPforconstructionactivitiesisalsosometimescalledaTemporary
Development
ErosionandSedimentationControl(TESC)PlanorPollutionPreventionPlan(PPP)
9 EW1Environmental
dependingonlocaljurisdictions.
ManagementSystem
9 EW2RunoffFlow
ThisrequirementappliestoALLGreenroadsprojects,regardlessofsize.
Control
9 EW3RunoffQuality
DOCUMENTATION 9 CA1Quality
x CopyoftheStormwaterPollutionPreventionPlan(SWPPP)orTemporaryErosion ManagementSystem
andSedimentationControlPlan(TESC)signedbythecertifiedErosionand 9 CA2Environmental
SedimentControlinspectororauthorizedspecialistfortheprojectupon Training
completionofconstruction.
SUSTAINABILITY
COMPONENTS
9 Ecology
9 Expectations
BENEFITS
9 ReducesAir
Emissions
9 ReducesWater
Pollution
9 ReducesSolidWaste

PR-7 Pollution Prevention Plan 91


x Evaluatefederal,stateandlocalrequirementsformoststringentpollutionpreventionstandards
x Identifyanyhighriskpollutionrelatedelementsoftheprojectearlyindesign.
x Usedesignandconstructionstaffproperlytrainedinpollutionprevention.
x Considersitetopographycarefullyduringplanningforconstructionstagingareasandstorageareasfor
aggregates,wastesandothermaterials.
x Createthepollutionpreventionplanduringprojectdevelopment.(USGBC,2009)
x Usemorethanonestrategytopreventpollutiononyourprojectsuchas(SustainableSitesInitiative,2009;
USGBC,2009):
x Temporaryandpermanentseeding
x Mulching
x Earthdikes
x Sedimenttraps
x Sedimentbasins
x Filtersocks
x Compostbermsandblankets
x Secondarycontainment
x Spillcontrolequipment
x Hazardouswastemanifests,and
x Overfillalarms.
x Siltfencing
x Sealpavementonlywhenweatherisnotrainy.(SustainableSitesInitiative,2009).
x Donotconductmassgradingoperationsbeforelargestormsareforecast(SustainableSitesInitiative,2009).
x Coordinatestagingactivitieswithacontractorduringdesignwherepossible.
x Usecarewhensequencingconstructionactivities,especiallyforinstallationoflowimpactdevelopment(LID)
infiltrationsystems(SustainableSitesInitiative,2009).
x HaveanenvironmentalmonitoronsitetomakesurethattherequirementsoftheSWPPParebeingfollowed.
Example: EPA SWPPP Templates and Guidance

TheEPAprovidesasignificantamountofguidancetoaidindevelopingstormwaterpollutionpreventionplan
forconstructionactivities.Anumberoftoolsareavailable,suchas:
x SWPPPTemplateforstatesauthorizedtoimplementNPDES:
http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sw_swppp_template_authstates.doc
x SWPPPTemplateforjurisdictionsnotauthorizedtoimplementNPDES(Alaska,Massachusetts,Idaho,New
Mexico,NewHampshire,theDistrictofColumbia,U.S.Territories,andIndianland):
http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sw_swppp_template_unauthstates.doc
x HelpfulguidanceondevelopingSWPPPsforyourconstructionsite,DevelopingYourStormwaterPollution
PreventionPlan:aGuideforConstructionSites:http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sw_swppp_guide.pdf.
Moretools,sampleplans,inspectiontemplatesandotherhelpfulinformationareavailableat
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/Stormwater/swppp.cfm.(EPA,2008)
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. TheEPAonlyrequiresConstructionGeneralPermitsforlanddisturbingactivitiesgreaterthanoneacreinsize.
However,everyGreenroadsprojectmusthaveaplanforcontrollingconstructionstormwaterrunoff,
regardlessofsize,becausesizedoesnotdictategoodpracticeorinsignificanceofpollutiongeneratedbythese
constructionactivities.Theprecedenceforthisrequirementhasbeenestablishedbyothersustainabilityrating
92 Pollution Prevention Plan PR-7

systems,suchasthe2009SustainableSitesInitiative(see“Prerequisite7.1Controlandretainconstruction
pollutants”)andtheLEED™2009GreenBuildingRatingSystem(see“Prerequisite1ConstructionActivity
PollutionPrevention”inthe“SustainableSites”creditcategory).
2. ForsmallprojectsthatdonotnormallyneedtocompleteaSWPPP,aSWPPPwillneedtobegenerated.This
couldrequireadditionalmanhoursfortheproject,especiallyiftheSWPPPdevelopmentprocessisunfamiliar.
3. SomejurisdictionsmayhavestormwaterrequirementsinplacethataresimilarbutnotidenticaltotheNPDES
requirements.Insuchcases,additionalsupportingdocumentationmayberequestedtodemonstratethatthe
projectSWPPPinplaceisequaltoormorestringenttherequirementsfortheEPAConstructionGeneral
Permit.However,thisrequirementdoesnotintendtogenerateextrapaperwork,sowherepossible,linksto
currentagencypoliciesmaybeprovidedinsupportofthisProjectRequirement.
RESEARCH
Providinganerosionandsedimentcontrolplanduringtheconstructionofinfrastructureholdsbothcontractors
andownersaccountabletoprotectthesurroundingenvironmentfromnegativeeffectsofexcesssedimentand
pollutioninstormwater.
Providingerosionandsedimentationcontrolduringconstructionofroadwayinfrastructureprevents:
x Degradationofaquatichabitatsoffishandinsects(EPA,1999)aswellasotherwildlifecommunities.
x Increasedsedimentloadinginnearbystreamsandoutfalls(EPA,1999).
Theincreaseinsedimentfoundinrunoffonconstructionsitescanbeattributedtolandthathasbeenclearedof
vegetationleavingexposedsoil.Increasedsedimentloadinginriversandstreamsisthemostcommonproblemfor
waterquality(EPA,2009b).Ifraineventsoccur,thiscancauseerosion,andiferosionisnotcontainedusingthe
stormwaterbestmanagementpracticesoutlinedintheNPDES,sedimentcanthenbemixedwithstormwater.At
constructionsites,thesehaveoftenbeenfoundtocontainmetalsandorganicmaterial,whichcancausedamage
towetlandhabitats(EPA,1999).Furthermore,excessivesedimentationdegradeshabitatsandcausesignificant
decreasestothefishandinsectpopulationsofawatershed.
TheUnitedStatesEPArecommendskeepingcurrentwaterhabitatstothesamequalityastheywerebefore
constructiontakesplace.Theintentofthisistoensurethewaterqualitypreconstructionisthesameasthewater
qualitypostconstruction,meaningitisimportanttoensurethesamevolumesofwaterarebeingdischarged
naturallybeforeandafterdevelopment(EPA,1999).IntheEPA’sreporttocongressin1999theagencyshowsa
clearmessagethattheintentofthesepermitsistopreventanyandallnegativeimpactstostreams:
”Inmanycases,considerationoftheincreasedflowrate,velocityandenergyofstormwater
dischargesfollowingdevelopmentunavoidablymustbetakenintoconsiderationinordertoreduce
thedischargeofpollutants,tomeetwaterqualitystandardsandtopreventdegradationofreceiving
streams.”(EPA,1999)
TheNPDESconstructiongeneralpermitisthegoverningpermitsetforthbytheUnitedStatesEPAforthe
dischargeofconstructionstormwater.Thispermitregulatestheeffluentlimitsforbothsedimentandpollution
andisavailableathttp://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/cgp2008_finalpermit.pdf.However,localorstateregulations
mayincludemorestringentrequirements.MoststatesareauthorizedbytheEPAtomanagetheirownstormwater
pollutioncontrolactivities(allbutfiveandtheDistrictofColumbia:Massachusetts,NewHampshire,NewMexico,
AlaskaandIdaho).TheEPAalsogovernstheseactivitiesinterritoriesandIndianCountry(EPA,2009a).
TheUnitedStatesEPAoutlinestheprovisionsnecessarytocomplywithPhaseIandPhaseIIoftheNational
PollutantDischargeEliminationSystem(NPDES)program.Themajordifferencebetweenthetwophasesisinthe
sizeofthefootprint.ThePhaseIIpermitappliestoallsitesinwhichbetweenoneandfiveacresoflanddisturbing
activityoccur(IllinoisEPA).WhilePhaseIencompassesallconstructionsitesdisturbingfiveacresormore(Illinois
PR-7 Pollution Prevention Plan 93

EPA).InformationontheEPA’sNPDESprogramisavailableathttp://cfpub2.epa.gov/npdes/index.cfm(EPA,
2009b).
GLOSSARY
Effluent Outflowingwater
Erosion Aphysicalprocessthatremovessolidmaterialsfromtheirsourceand
transportsthemtoanotherlocation
NPDES NationalPollutionDischargeEliminationSystem
Sedimentation Theaccumulationofsoilparticlesinwaterbodies
Stormwater Waterfromrainfallevents
SWPPP StormwaterPollutionPreventionPlan
TESC TemporaryErosionandSedimentationControlPlan

REFERENCES
IllinoisEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,(2002).WhatisPhaseIIoftheNPDESstormwatermanagement
program?Springfield,IL.Availableathttp://www.epa.state.il.us/smallbusiness/phasetwo/
SustainableSitesInitiative.(2009)TheSustainableSitesInitiative:GuidelinesandPerformanceBenchmarks2009.
Availableathttp://www.sustainablesites.org/report/
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,(2008,November4).EPA|StormwaterPollutionPreventionfor
ConstructionActivities.Availableathttp://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/Stormwater/swppp.cfm
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,(2009a,February26).EPA|AuthorizationStatusforEPA’s
StormwaterConstructionProgram.Availableat
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/authorizationstatus.cfm
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,(2009b,November4).EPA|GeneralConstructionPermit.
Availableathttp://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/stormwater/cgp.cfm
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,(1999).Nationalpollutantdischargeeliminationsystem—
regulationsforrevisionofthewaterpollutioncontrolprogramaddressingstormwaterdischarges(FRL6470
8).Washington,DC:FederalRegister.Availableat
http://yosemite.epa.gov/OPEI/Sbrefa.nsf/0728e3a1cc2339df85256cf4005020db/9762f1aedc3fbe4585256cef0
07b0599/$FILE/pnl03f.pdf
UnitedStatesGreenBuildingCouncil(USGBC).(2009)LEED2009forNewConstructionandMajorRenovations
RatingSystem.Availableathttp://www.usgbc.org/DisplayPage.aspx?CMSPageID=220
94 Pollution Prevention Plan PR-7

LOW IMPACT DEVELOPMENT

GOAL PR-8
Uselowimpactdevelopment(LID)stormwatermanagementsolutionswhere
appropriatetobettermimicpredevelopmenthydrologicalconditions.
DeterminethefeasibilityofLIDbestmanagementpractices(BMPs)forstormwater
managementintherightofway(ROW).CompleteabasicLIDhydrologicevaluation
accordingtothestepsoutlinedinChapter3,“LIDHydrologicAnalysis,”ofthe1999
LowImpactDevelopmentDesignStrategies:AnIntegratedApproach(“LIDManual”)by RELATED CREDITS
thePrinceGeorge’sCounty,Maryland,DepartmentofEnvironmentalResources, 9 PR7Pollution
ProgramsandPlanningDivision(PGC).Ifanalternativeapproachisusedtoinvestigate PreventionPlan
LID,showthatitmeetsthegeneralstepsprovidedinthereferencedguideline.The 9 EW2RunoffFlow
PGCguidelineisavailablehere: Control
http://www.lowimpactdevelopment.org/pubs/LID_Hydrology_National_Manual.pdf. 9 EW3RunoffQuality
9 EW4Stormwater
Details CostAnalysis
9 EW5SiteVegetation
Lowimpactdevelopment(LID)isatermthatdescribesabroadcollectionof
9 EW6Habitat
engineeredcontrols,stormwatermanagementfacilities,andotherland
Restoration
developmentBMPsthatattempttomimicpredevelopmenthydrologicconditions
byemphasizinginfiltration,evapotranspiration,orstormwaterreuseforlongterm
flowcontrolandrunofftreatment.Hydrologicanalysisisasystematicwayto SUSTAINABILITY
evaluateexistingstormwatercontrolsandnewstormwatermanagementor COMPONENTS
improvementopportunities.TheLIDManualstates:
9 Ecology
9 Expectations
Thepurposeofthehydrologicevaluationistodeterminethelevelofcontrol
9 Experience
requiredtoachievethestormwatermanagementgoalsforLIDsites.The
9 Exposure
requiredlevelofcontrolmaybeachievedthroughapplicationofthevarious
hydrologictoolsduringthesiteplanningprocess,theuseofIMPs,and
supplementalcontrols.Thehydrologicevaluationisperformedusinghydrologic BENEFITS
modelingandanalysistechniques.Theoutputofthehydrologicanalysis 9 ReducesWater
providesthebasisforcomparisonwiththefourevaluationmeasures(i.e.,runoff Pollution
volume,peakrunoff,frequency,andwaterqualitycontrol).(PGC,1999) 9 ReducesSolidWaste
9 ReducesManmade
Note:ThisProjectRequirementdoesnotmandatetheuseofLIDtechniquesonthe Footprint
roadwayproject.Instead,itisintendedtoinformthedecisionmakingprocess. 9 IncreasesAwareness
Therefore,anypreexistingprocedurethatmeetsthestatedobjectiveswillsuffice.
Projectsthatarenotchangingthetotalexistingsurfaceareaoftheroadwayfacility
(i.e.mostrehabilitationorresurfacingprojects)mustalsocompletethis
requirement.ThisisdiscussedinfurtherdetailinlatersectionsofthisProject
Requirement.Also,forprojectswithonlyminorstormwaterimprovements,the
hydrologicanalysisorLIDevaluationmaybescaledaccordingly(i.e.simplified).
DOCUMENTATION
x CopyofthecompletedLIDhydrologicevaluation.Scopesofstandarddrainageor
geotechnicalreportsmayalreadymeettheseevaluationrequirementsorneedonly
minorchangestoincludeLID.AseparatedocumentisNOTrequiredinthiscase.
PR-8 Low Impact Development 95


MeetingthisProjectRequirement
x EvaluatetheopportunitiesonsiteforusingLIDtechniques.Chancesarethattherearemanyopportunities
availableforeveryproject.Thisingeneralmeansthatfourstepsarecompletedaspartoftheevaluation:
a. Topographicalassessment(i.e.forests,floodplains,etc.)
b. Soilsassessment
c. Hydrologyassessment
d. Existingvegetationandwaterfeatures(i.e.wetlands,riparianareas,etc.)
x Followthestatedguideline,orfollowanyotherguidelinethatusesasystematicsiteassessmenttoevaluate
geologicalandhydrologicalconditionsandmeetsthegoalofthisProjectRequirement.Forexample,thePrince
George’sCountyrecommendationshavebeenspecifiedinmoretechnicaldetailforthePugetSoundregionof
WashingtoninthePugetSoundPartnership’sLowImpactDevelopmentTechnicalGuidanceManualforPuget
Sound(Hinman,2005).ThisProjectRequirementreliesontheformerbecauseLIDwaspioneeredinpracticeby
PrinceGeorge’sCountyandtheirLIDManualisthedefaultguideformanyorganizations(EPA,2000).
x Evaluatethesiteforpotentialstormwaterimprovementseveniftheprojectinvolvesbasicsurface
maintenanceactivitiesorisotherwiseconsideredtobecategoricallyexcludedfromstormwaterconsiderations.
Itmaybethataparticularprojectcannotfeasiblyimplementanystormwaterimprovements,eitherbycost,
existingregulations,etc.Theintenthereisthat(1)stormwaterimprovementsareconsideredsystematicallyas
anopportunityforallroadwayprojectsand(2)thatanydecisionsmadenottoimplementstormwater
managementaredocumented.Allprojectshavesomeimpact,eveniftheyaredeterminedtobeinsignificant
orcategoricallyexcludedfromenvironmentalreview,orlocalpoliciesareconsidered“notapplicable”to
certainprojecttypes.Itmaybecosteffectiveforowneragenciestoimproveexistinginfrastructurein
conjunctionwiththeroadwayproject,evenifstormwatermanagementisnotintheinitialscope.
x UsedesignandconstructionstaffproperlytrainedinstormwaterLIDdesign.
x IdentifyopportunitiesforstormwaterrelatedBMPselementsearlyinprojectdevelopment.
SomePotentialLIDOpportunities
x Minimizeimpacttoexistingundisturbedsoilandvegetationthroughavoidance,reducedprojectfootprints
elements(e.g.lanewidths,shoulderwidths,slopes).
x Usepermeablehardsurfaces(e.g.porousasphalt,porouspavers,porousconcrete)insteadofconventional
impervioussurfaces.
x Useamendedorengineeredsoilsinsteadofconventionalcompactedsoils.
x Incorporatedispersed,evapotranspiration(ET)andinfiltrationbasedpractices(e.g.dispersion,bioretention)
insteadofencloseddrainagesystems.
x TheFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA),EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),theAmerican
AssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)CenterforEnvironmentalExcellence,and
theNationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)aswellasmanystateagenciesoutlineavariety
ofprovisionsincorporatingLIDmeasuresintoroadways.Avarietyofresourcesarelistedattheendofthis
creditforreference.
Example: Case Study — High Point Subdivision, Seattle, WA

TheHighPointsubdivisionintheWestSeattleneighborhoodofSeattle,Washingtonisoneofthefirst
comprehensiveinstallationsofaNaturalDrainageSystemsschemeforstormwatermanagementinalarge
scaleurbanenvironment.(InSeattle,streetsideLIDisreferredtoas“NaturalDrainageSystems”todistinguish
thesefacilitiesfrominlotinstallations.)HighPointwasajointeffortofSeattlePublicUtilitiesandtheSeattle
HousingAuthority(SPU,2009)andwasalargescalelowincomedevelopmentcommunitythatredeveloped
landfromaformermilitarybase.
96 Low Impact Development PR-8

HighPointincorporatesasuiteofLIDtechniquesincludingbioswales,infiltrationbasinsandpermeable
pavements(sidewalksandheavilytraveledresidentialstreets).SeeFigurePR8.1.TheseLIDtechniqueshelped
theCityofSeattleachievesomeofitsstormwatermanagementgoals.Somehighlightsoftheprojectinclude:
x 10percentofthewatershedforLongfellowCreek(aprioritywatershedforCohosalmon)isaccommodated
bycontrolsinHighPoint.
x Predevelopmentconditionsweremimickedthroughbioswalesandlandscapedpondsthatbecame
amenitiestothecommunity.
x Whilestandarddetentionbasinswerestillrequiredforemergencyandfirepurposesforthesubdivision,the
sizeofthedetentionfacilitywasscaleddownto25%ofwhatwouldhavebeenneededbyconventionally
designedcontrols.
x HighPointstormwaterfunctionssimilartothepredevelopedconditionsofaforestmeadow.

FigurePR8.1:ThreeLIDtechniquesarefeaturedinthisphototakenatHighPointSubdivisioninSeattle,WA.
Thegrassyarea(farleft)isactuallyturfplacedoveralargeinfiltrationbasin.Abioswale(center)isfeatured,
andstillinearlygrowth.Also,thesidewalk(left)andthestreet(right)arepavedwithpermeableconcrete.
(PhotobyJ.Anderson)

MoreinformationaboutHighPointLIDtechniquesareavailableat:
http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Drainage_&_Sewer_System/GreenStormwaterInfrastructure/Natural
DrainageProjects/HighPointNaturalDrainageSystem/index.htm
Example: Case Study — SEA Street, Seattle, Washington

AnotherexamplefromSeattle,“SEAStreet,”wasactuallyoneofthefirstpilotprojectsforlowimpact
developmentinfrastructureinSeattle.(Here,SEAstandsforStreetEdgeAlternatives)(SPU,2009).TheSEA
streetprogramfocusedonimprovingnaturaldrainageofexistingresidentialstreetareasthroughthreemain
LIDtechniques:
x Narrowerstreets(whichalsoprovideatrafficcalmingeffect).SeeFigurePR8.2.(Notethatnarrowstreets
aretypicallyconsideredtobeanapproachin“conservationdesign”)(EPA,2000).

x Addedvegetation(forincreasedinfiltrationandpublicamenities).
x Vegetatedfilterstrips.Comparetheconventionalasphaltlinedchannel(FigurePR8.3)withthenew
vegetatedfiltersstripsinstalledalongthesidewalks(FigurePR8.4).

FigurePR8.2:Thisstreetwasdesignedtobenarrowerinordertoproduceatrafficcalmingeffectforthis
residentialarea.(PhotobyJ.Anderson)

FigurePR8.3:Aconventionalasphaltlinedchannel FigurePR8.4:AbioswaleonSEAStreetbetweenthe
nearSEAStreet.(PhotobyJ.Anderson) sidewalkandstreet.(PhotobyJ.Anderson)


MoreinformationaboutSEAStreetisavailablefromSeattlePublicUtilitiesat:
DrainageProjects/StreetEdgeAlternatives/index.htm
Example: City of Kirkland, Washington Surface Water Low Impact Development

TheCityofKirklandrequirestheuseofsurfacewaterlowimpactdevelopment(LID)techniquesasfeasibleon
newdevelopment.TheCityhasadoptedtheKingCountySurfaceWaterDesignManual(KCSWDM),which
requiresthatdevelopmentprojectsperformasurfacewaterLIDfeasibilitystudyandinstallstormwaterLIDto
themaximumextentfeasibleandtoinstallatleastoneelementforsurfacewaterrunoffinallsituations(City
ofKirkland,2010).TheKCSWDMcanbefoundhere:
http://www.kingcounty.gov/environment/waterandland/stormwater/documents/surfacewaterdesign
manual.aspx.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. MostsiteswillbeabletoincorporatesomeLIDtechniques;however,soilconditionsineveryprojectwillbe
different.Ingeneral,therewillbeatradeoffbetweenfunctionandcostforimplementingLID.
2. Somesiteshaveexistingsoilorwaterpollutionissueswhereinfiltrationthroughsoilsandintogroundwater
tablesorotheraquifersmaynotbeallowedorisnotadvisable.
3. Someregulationsorurbanplanningpoliciesmaybeinplaceinsomeareasthatdictateanumberofurban
improvements,suchaswideningsidewalksoraddingwidthtolanes.Theseaddimpervioussurface,anddonot
allowmuchroomforLIDintherightofway.Oftentheseregulatoryimplicationswillbedifficulttoovercome
(EPA,2000).Ingeneral,areviewofexistingpolicyshouldbepartoftheLIDevaluation.
4. TheLIDManualreferencedinthiscreditreferstothe“HydrologicAnalysis”byPrinceGeorge’sCounty,
Maryland.Asitturnsout,thisparticularprocessisoutlinedintwodifferentdocumentsbyPGC.Eitheris
acceptableforthisProjectRequirementbecausetheyareequivalent.TheLowImpactDevelopmentHydrologic
AnalysisisanabridgedversionoftheonespecifiedhereanditisavailablefromtheAASHTOviatheEPAat:
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/lid/lid_hydr.pdf.
5. ThisProjectRequirementappliestoallprojects,eventhosethattypicallydonotconsiderstormwaterasoneof
theirmainprojectobjectives.Thereisdocumentedevidencethatshowsconsiderationofstormwaterinproject
planningforurbanroadscanoftenresultinstrategicbenefitsforurbanenvironmentswherestormwater
managementisincreasinglyaproblem(CityofSeattle,2009).Additionally,whereroadwaysarelocatedin
watershedswithtotalmaximumdailyload(TMDL)requirements,LIDtechniquesarebecomingonewaythata
roadwaystormwatermanagementsystemcanhelpreducethenonpointsourcewaterpollutionimpactonthe
receivingwatersfromstormwatergeneratedontheimpervioussurface(EPA,2008).Inessence,thisProject
RequirementisnotrequiringthatLIDisimplemented;instead,itisrequiringthatitisconsidered.Some
projectswillspecificallyavoidstormwaterissuesjusttosavecost,butthispracticedoesnotultimatelyagree
withthegoalsandintentsofGreenroads.
RESEARCH
Lowimpactdevelopment(LID)isawelldocumentedapproachtostormwatermanagement.Thebestwayto
describeLIDisasacollectionofdecentralized,smallscale,engineeredstormwatercontrolsthatcollectandtreat
stormwateratthesourceasitisgenerated(EPA,2000;Huberetal.,2006;Hinman,2005;CityofSeattle,2009).A
numberofhydrologicalobjectivesareachievedbythisapproach,becauseitreliesheavilyonthenatural
ecosystemprocessesinfiltration(IF)andevapotranspiration(ET).Surfaceflowsarereducedandalsoattenuated,
somelevelofwaterqualitytreatmentisoftenprovided,andgroundwatertablescanberecharged,whichhelp
maintainstreamflows:allofthesethingshelpan“unnatural”(i.e.manmade)systemsuchasabuildingora
roadwaymoreeffectivelymimicthenaturalecosystem’spreexistinghydrology(relativetoitsundeveloped
condition).LIDstrategiesthuscombinetobecomeaneffectiveandefficientstormwatermanagementschemethat
resultsinanoverallsmallerecosystemfootprint.

Generally,thisiscontrarytothephilosophybehindmostconventionalstructuralstormwatersystems,which
collectandconveystormwatertomeetonlyanefficiencyobjective,i.e.removeitfromthesiteandtreatit
elsewhere(anendofpipeapproach)oftenusingalotofmaterialalongthewaytoconstructtheneeded
infrastructuretoperformthesetasks(EPA,2000).
Sometimes,LIDisalsocalled“greeninfrastructure”orGI(EPA,2009),oralso“NaturalDrainageSystems”(SPU,
2009)andalsousuallyincludessomeelementsofanotherdevelopmentapproachknownas“ConservationDesign”
orCD(EPA,2000).
HowDoLIDTechniquesWork?
Putsimply,LIDworksbyminimizingtheamountofimperviousareaonasite,sometimescalledthe“effective
imperviousarea”(EIA)thoughthisnomenclaturevaries(EPA,2000).Animpervioussurfaceis“ahardsurfacearea
thateitherpreventsorretardstheentryofwaterintothesoilmantleorcauseswatertorunoffthesurfacein
greaterquantitiesoratanincreasedrate”(Tilley&Slonecker,2006).Developedareashavehighlevelsof
impervioussurfacescomparedtotheirotherwiseundevelopedconditions(i.e.“predevelopment”).Accordingtoa
recentstudyforFederalHighwayAdministrationbytheUnitedStatesGeologicalService(Tilley&Slonecker,2006),
roadsandsidewalksaccountedforanaverageofabout31.5percentofthetotalimpervioussurfaceinsixstudied
urbanandsuburbanwatersheds.
Becauseincreasedimpervioussurfacesleadtohighervolumesofsurfacerunoff(athighervelocitiesandfaster
timestopeakflows),streamsandwatershedscanbedamagedwitherosionproducingflows.Erosiveflowsare
characterizedbyhighersedimentloadsthatdegradeaquatichabitats.Conventionalstormwatercontrol
techniquestendtodecoupletherainfalleventfromoneofitsmainhydrologicalfunctions:groundwaterrecharge
(EPA,2000).FigurePR8.5showsthisphenomenongraphically.
(Schueler, 1992)

FigurePR8.5:Comparisonofpredevelopmenthydrologyanddevelopedhydrology.(FromSchuler,1987)

Stormwatermanagement,then,inanyenvironment(ruralandurban),playsanenormousroleinsustainabilityor
maintainingexistinghydrology.LIDtechniquescanhelprestorethepredevelopmenthydrologicalbalanceinareas
thathavebeenultraurbanized(CityofSeattle,2009;EPA,2009)andcanalsohelpmaintainaclosematchfor
existinghydrologicalfunctioninareasthathavenotbeendeveloped.
Ingeneral,LIDtechniqueshavethefollowingcommonfeatures(Hinman,2005):
x Infiltrationandevapotranspirationaretheprimarymodesofrunoffcontrols

x Impermeablesurfacesareavoidedorsignificantlydecreased
x Naturalsoilsareused,oftenwithorganiccompositions(organics)insteadofengineeredoroffsitefill
x Nativevegetationisused(forsomeselecttechniques)
x Usuallytheyareusedincombination.
x Usuallynotallofthemareappropriateforeverysite.
Dependingonflowcontrolobjectives,thereareavarietyofLIDdesigntechniquestoincreaseretention,increase
timeofconcentrationandreducetotalvolume(primarilythroughIFandET).Consequently,beforeLIDisusedon
anysite,thatsitemustbeassessedforsuchthingsassoilproperties,existinghydrologicalInordertodetermineif
LIDisappropriate(PGC,1999).
WhatarethebenefitsofLID?
ThereisalaundrylistofbenefitsassociatedwithLID,includinghumanhealthandaestheticbenefitsthatgohand
inhandwithanumberofenvironmentalbenefits.
x Flowcontrolforvolumeandtimeofconcentration(reducederosiveflows,andreducedloadonmunicipal
stormwaterfacilitiestoo)(EPA,2009)
x Groundwaterrechargethroughinfiltration(ibid.)
x Improvedwaterquality(ibid.)
x Reducedseweroverflow(ibid.)
x Increasedcarbonsequestrationthroughincreasedvegetation(ibid.)
x UrbanHeatIslandmitigationandreducedenergydemandsincitiesanddevelopedareas(ibid.)
x Improvedairqualityprimarilythroughincreaseduseofvegetation,alsoincludesacoolingeffect(ibid.)
x Creationofhabitatandrecreationalspace(ibid.)
x Improvedhumanhealththroughconnectiontoplaceandthenaturalenvironment(ibid.)
x Increasedpropertyvaluesduetoaddedaestheticsandperformance(ibid.)
x Reducedcostandsizeforsupplementalconventionalstormwaterinfrastructure(EPA,2000)
x Easilyincorporatedintoanumberofurbanizedfeatures,suchasparkingspacesandstreetsides(EPA,2000)
LIDLimitations
WhileLIDisabestmanagementpractice,itisthemeanstoanendforeverystormwatermanagementissue.Like
anypracticeortechnology,therearecertainlimitationstoLIDtechniquesthatmustbeunderstoodpriorto
implementingthemonaroadwayproject.
1. Someespeciallysensitivewatershedsmayhaveobjectives(i.e.qualityandflowcontrol)thatcannotbe
achievedviaLIDalone.Somelargerstructuralmeasuresmaybenecessaryforsomeprojects(EPA,2000).
2. TheoverallperformanceofLIDelementsonaprojectisverysitespecific(EPA,2000).Thismeansthata
comprehensivesiteevaluationisanextremelyimportantstepinaneffectivestormwatermanagementscheme.
3. LongtermmaintenanceofLIDelementscanbeanissue,usuallybecauseofcontractorunfamiliarity.Also
frequencyofmaintenanceactivitiesusuallyishigherthanforconventionalcontrols,whichcancauselongterm
fundingissues(EPA,2000).
4. LackofmaintenancecanoftenbeverydetrimentaltoLIDperformanceandfunction(Hinman,2005).
5. ConstructionofLIDelementsrequiresspecialcareforsomefacilities.Forexample,overcompactionof
infiltrationbasinsoilsoramendedsoilscanleadtopoorperformanceforflowcontrol(Hinman,2005).
6. SomesitesmaybeidealcandidatesforLIDBMPs,butregulatorystandardsdisallowthemandrequirethat
impervioussurfacesareinstalledinstead.Thesecouldbesubdivisioncodes,zoningrules,parkingandstreet
widthsandsidewalkrequirements,andotherdevelopmentstandardsthatcanessentiallytrumpgood
stormwaterdesignopportunities(EPA,2000;Hinman,2005).
7. LIDtechniquesarenotthebestforhandlinglargestormevents.Usually,theybehavemuchthesameasnatural
hydrologicalfeaturesinthesesituations.Sometimes,LIDmeasureswillneedtobesupplementedby
conventionalconveyanceasacontingency(Hinman,2005).

8. Huberetal.(2006)notethattheroadrightofwaycanrestricttheabilityoftheengineertoincorporateLID
practicesdue,simply,tolackofspace.
WhyisaLIDevaluationarequirementforGreenroads?
Theenvironmentalimpactsofstormwatergeneratedfromroadwayfacilitiesarenottobeignored.The
decentralizednatureofLIDtechniquesfitswellwiththeenvironmentofmanyroads,eveninurbanenvironments.
However,manyroadwayfacilitiesdonottakeadvantageofthehydrologicalbenefitsofIFandETinstandard
designpractice.ItistheintentofthisProjectRequirementtoprovideanopportunitytoevaluatethesedesign
approaches,whichrepresentahigherlevelofpracticeformanagingstormwater.
WhatHappensIfInfiltrationIsNotAppropriateForMyProject?
ForthisProjectRequirement(PGC,1999),themainstepsrequiredinthisstudyare:
a. Identifytheprojectwatershedandmicrowatershedareas
b. Definedesignstormsorlongtermperformancerequirements
c. Definemodelingtechniquestobeemployed
d. Compileinformationforpredevelopmentconditions
e. Evaluatepredevelopmentconditionsanddevelopbaselinemeasures
f. Evaluatesiteplanningbenefitsandcomparewithbaseline
g. EvaluateBMPs
h. Evaluatesupplementalneeds
IfinfiltrationandETarenotappropriatefortheproject,orcannotbeusedinaneffectivecomprehensive
manner,thenclearlyconventionalstructuralstormwatercontrolswilllikelyrequireconsiderationfor
stormwatermanagement.ThisrequirementdoesnotdictatethatLIDmustbeused.However,othercreditsin
Greenroadsmaybecomemoredifficulttoearn,suchasEW2RunoffFlowControl,EW3RunoffQualityand
EW4StormwaterCostAnalysis.
HowMuchDoesLIDCost?
Ingeneral,costscanvaryforLIDstormwatercontrols.SeethediscussionincludedinCreditEW4StormwaterCost
Analysis.Manyprojectshavebeenshowntobecheaperconventionalconveyanceandtreatmentsystems.
However,thereislittlereliablecostinformationregardingperformanceofsuchLIDsystemsinahighway
environment.WhiletheideaofusingLIDiswelldocumentedforhighwayenvironments(seeHuberetal.,2006),
thelongtermperformanceofLIDonhighways,ifpracticed,isnot.However,manylocalagenciesinurbanareas
havefoundthatroadmaintenanceandrehabilitationprojectsofferauniqueopportunitytoimprovestormwater
infrastructureinthesecities(e.g.Seattle,Washington;PrinceGeorge’sCountyMaryland).
SomeExamplesofLIDTechniques
ThereareanumberofLIDTechniquesthatarebecomingmorecommonplace.Manyofthem,however,aremore
appropriateforbuildingsoronparcelsinsteadofinroadways(i.e.greenroofsandrainwatercisterns).Thereare
stillseveraltechnologiesthatcaneasilybeimplementedinmostrightofwaysforroads.Also,theselectionof
BMPultimatelymustalignwithprojectobjectives,i.e.flowcontrol,waterqualitytreatment,aesthetics,thermal
effects,orairquality(Hinman,2005).Ashortlistisprovidedbelowwithabriefdescription(thislistisnot
exhaustive).
x Bioretentionswalesorponds.Thesefacilitiescanalsobeknownas“raingardens”(smallscale)or
“constructedwetlands”(verylargescale);sometimes“bioinfiltration”or“bioswale”isalsoused.Generally,the
purposeofbioretentionfacilitiesistoincorporateanumberofrunoffcontrolsintooneengineeredfacilityby
providingamixofvegetation,amendedsoils,anddifferentdrainageconfigurationstoachieveflowcontroland
qualityperformance(CityofSeattle,2009).
x Vegetatedorgrassedwetanddryswales.Wetanddryswalesarebasicallylinearizedbioretentionfacilities,
commonly“bioswales”asnotedaboveor“filterstrips”(EPA,1995b).The“wet”or“dry”notationindicatesthe
typeofplantlifethatisincorporated(CityofSeattle,2009).Theyarenotquitethesameasaroadsideditch,as

theyareusuallycomposedofamendedsoilsandaselectvarietyofplantstoachieveaspecificlevelof
infiltration.Theycanalsobedesignedtohaveweirsforaddedretentiononsomesteepergradesandslopes.
SeeEW2foraphoto.
x Permeablepavements.Thereareanumberofdifferentkindsofpermeablepavements.Thesearediscussedin
detailinCreditPT2PermeablePavement.
x Infiltrationbasins.Thesecanbefoundinanumberofforms,includingtrenches,fields,ordepressions.In
generaltheruleofthumbisthatthelargerthearea,themoreinfiltrationcantakeplace.InfiltrationbasedLID
BMPsoftensufferfromconstructabilityissuessuchasovercompaction(CityofSeattle,2009).
x Trees.Treesfunctionasastormwatercontrolbyincreasinginfiltrationdemand.Theyalsoprovidetranspiration
andparticipateactivelyinthehydrologiccycle.Theymayalsobeanaestheticamenity,especiallyinurban
environments.Generally,preservationoftreedareasisagoodpractice(CityofSeattle,2009).
x Dispersion.Someexamplesaresplashblocksorgraveltrenches.Generally,theseareameansofdistributing
theenergyinrunoffflowintoavegetatedinfiltrationarea(CityofSeattle,2009).Dependingontheirdesign
andlevelofattenuation,checkdamsandterracingeffortsalsofithere(EPA,1995b).
BriefReviewofExistingRegulatoryRequirements
WhiletherearenospecificmandatesforusingLIDinroads,highwaysandbridges,thereareanumberoffederal
regulationsandpoliciesinplacetoaddressthenonpointsourcepollutiongeneratedbytheseentities(mostly
waterqualityrelated).Theseare,inbrief,theCoastalZoneManagementActof1972,theSafe,Accountable,
Flexible,EfficientTransportationEquityAct:ALegacyforUsers(SAFETEALU,currentlyexpiredandnotreplaced
legislativelyasofthiswriting),andseveralsectionsoftheCleanWaterAct.Additionally,boththeFederalHighway
Administration(FHWA)andtheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)have
policiesinplaceformanagingstormwaterrunoffandprovideguidancedocuments(EPA,1995b;Strecker,Mayo,
Quigley&Howell,2001;AASHTO,2009).TheAASHTOguidancedocumentprovidesabriefreviewofstateswith
existingBMPmanualsforstormwaterrunoffandrecommendstheLIDhydrologicalevaluationfromPrince
George’sCountythatisspecifiedinthisProjectRequirement(AASHTO,2009).
AdditionalResources
ThereisawidebodyofliteratureonLIDforstormwatermanagement.Afewselectdocumentsarehighlighted
here.MorespecifictechniquesforstormwatermanagementareaddressedinCreditsEW2RunoffFlowControl
andEW3RunoffQuality.
x FHWA(Shoemaker,Lahlou,Doll&Cazenas,2002)providesguidanceonultraurbanBMPselectionand
monitoringavailableat:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/ultraurb/3fs10.htm
x AASHTOCenterforEnvironmentalExcellence’sEnvironmentalIssueConstructionandMaintenancePractices
Compendium,Chapter3,Section7providessomedesignguidanceonLIDavailableat:
http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/construct_maint_prac/compendium/manual/3_
7.aspx
x Huberetal.(2006)compiledacomprehensivereviewofhighwayrunoffcontrolprogramsaspartofthe
NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)Report565:EvaluationofBestPracticesforHighway
RunoffControl.ThisreportisavailableinPDFformat,withsupplementalappendices,at:
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_565.pdf
x TheCityofSeattlerecentlypublishedaBAS(BestAvailableScience)Reviewaspartoftheupdatestotheir
stormwatercode.ThisisavailableinWordFormatat
http://www.seattle.gov/dpd/static/BAS%20Review_FINAL_30JUN09_LatestReleased_DPDP017711.doc
x TheLowImpactDevelopmentTechnicalGuidanceManual(Hinman,2005)forPugetSoundisavailableand
offersasomewhatmorestructuredapproachtohydrologicanalysisthanthePrinceGeorge’sCountyLID
Manual,andincludesmanydifferentsiteconsiderations,primarilyusefulinurbanareasandforlot
development:www.psp.wa.gov/downloads/LID/LID_manual2005.pdf

GLOSSARY
BMP Bestmanagementpractice
CD Conservationdesign
EIA Effectiveimperviousarea
Evapotranspiration thecombinedeffectsofevaporationandtranspirationinreducingthe
volumeofwaterinavegetatedareaduringaspecificperiodoftime(Huber
etal.2006)
GI Greeninfrastructure
Impervioussurface ahardsurfaceareathateitherpreventsorretardstheentryofwaterintothe
soilmantleorcauseswatertorunoffthesurfaceingreaterquantitiesorat
anincreasedrate(TilleyandSlonecker,2006)
Infiltration thedownwardmovementofwaterintothesoilaftersurficialentryand
percolationthroughporespaces(Huberetal.2006)
Lowimpactdevelopment abroadcollectionofengineeredcontrols,stormwatermanagementfacilities,
andotherlanddevelopmentBMPsthatattempttomimicpredevelopment
hydrologicconditionsbyemphasizinginfiltration,evapotranspiration,or
stormwaterreuseforlongtermflowcontrolandrunofftreatment
NDS Naturaldrainagesystems
SEA StreetEdgeAlternatives

REFERENCES
AASHTOCenterforEnvironmentalExcellence.(2009).CenterforEnvironmentalExcellencebyAASHTO
EnvironmentalIssueConstructionandMaintenancePracticesCompendium.AccessedJanuary13,2010.
Availableat
http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/construct_maint_prac/compendium/manual/
CityofKirkland,Washington.(2010).SurfaceWaterLowImpactDevelopment.Availableat
http://www.ci.kirkland.wa.us/depart/Public_Works/Storm___Surface_Water/Surface_Water_Low_Impact_De
velopment.htm
CityofSeattle,SeattlePublicUtilities,DepartmentofPlanningandDevelopment.(2009,June30).Environmentally
CriticalAreas:BestAvailableScienceReview.AccessedNovember14,2009.Availableat
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(1995,November).Erosion,SedimentandRunoffControlforRoadsand
Highways.(EPA841F95008d).OfficeofWater.Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Available
athttp://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/education/runoff.html
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(1995,November).PollutionControlProgramsforRoads,Highwaysand
Bridges.(EPA841F95008c).OfficeofWater.Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/education/control.html
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2000,October).LowImpactDevelopment(LID):ALiteratureReview.(EPA841
B00005).OfficeofWater.Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008,March7).NPSCategories|Roads,HighwaysandBridges|Polluted
Runoff(NonpointSourcePollution)|USEPA.AccessedJanuary13,2010.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/roadshwys.html

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2009,April1).ManagingWetWeatherwithGreenInfrastructure|NPDES|US
EPA.AccessedJanuary13,2010.Availableathttp://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=298
Hinman,C.(2005).Lowimpactdevelopment:TechnicalguidancemanualforPugetSound.Olympia,WA:Puget
SoundActionTeam.Availableat
http://www.psparchives.com/publications/our_work/stormwater/lid/LID_manual2005.pdf
Huberetal.(2006).NCHRPSynthesis565:Evaluationofbestmanagementpracticesforhighwayrunoffcontrol.
NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP).Washington,D.C.:TransportationResearchBoard.
Availableathttp://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_565.pdf
KingCounty.(2010).2009KingCountyStormWaterDesignManual(SWDM).Availableat
http://www.kingcounty.gov/environment/waterandland/stormwater/documents/surfacewaterdesign
manual.aspx
PrinceGeorge’sCounty,Maryland,DepartmentofEnvironmentalResources.(1999,July).LowImpact
DevelopmentHydrologicAnalysis.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/lid/lid_hydr.pdf
PrinceGeorge’sCounty,Maryland,DepartmentofEnvironmentalResources.(1999,June).LowImpact
DevelopmentDesignStrategies:AnIntegratedApproach.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/lidnatl.pdf
Schueler,T.R.1987.ControllingUrbanRunoff:APracticalManualforPlanningandDesigningUrbanBest
ManagementPractices.MetropolitanWashingtonCouncilofGovernments,WashingtonD.C.
SeattlePublicUtilities.(2009).SeattlePublicUtilities–NaturalDrainageProjects.AccessedJanuary13,2010.
Availableat
http://www.seattle.gov/util/About_SPU/Drainage_&_Sewer_System/GreenStormwaterInfrastructure/
Shoemaker,L.,Lahlou,M.,Doll,A.&Cazenas,P.USDepartmentofTransportation.FederalHighway
Administration.(2002).StormwaterBestManagementPracticesinanUltraUrbanSetting:Selectionand
Monitoring.AccessedNovember30,2009.Availableat
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/ultraurb/3fs10.htm
Strecker,E.,Mayo,L.,Quigley,M.&Howell,J.(2001,June).GuidanceManualforMonitoringWaterQuality.
(FHWAEP01022).UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.Officeof
NaturalEnvironment.Washington,DC:UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation.
Tilley,J.S.&Slonecker,E.T.(2006).Quantifyingthecomponentsofimpervioussurfaces.Reston,Va:U.S.
GeologicalSurvey.



PAVEMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

GOAL PR-9
Makeroadwaycapitalassetslastlongerandperformbetterbypreservingand
maintainingthem.
Haveassetmanagementsystemsineffectthatincludethepavementandcritical
structuralfeaturesonaproject,suchasbridges.Assetmanagementsystem(s)must
servetheroadwayprojectandinclude,atminimum,theseactivities:
RELATED CREDITS
1. Measureconditionsofpavementstructureandbridgestructuresatleastonce 9 PR2LifecycleCost
everytwoyears. Analysis
2. Possessdocumenteddecisioncriteriafortimingpreservationactions. 9 PR10Site
3. Recordwhenpreservationeffortsoccur. MaintenancePlan
4. Storeinformationfrom#13inaretrievableformat. 9 MR2Pavement
5. Displayinformationfrom#13totheroadwayuser. Reuse
9 PT1LongLife
Generally,thismeanstheowneragencyoftheroadwayshouldhavepavement Pavement
managementsystems(PMS)andbridgemanagementsystems(BMS)inplaceforthe 9 PT6Pavement
extentoftheirroadwaynetwork.Projectswithbothpavementsandmajorstructures Performance
mustdemonstratethatbothtypesofassetmanagementsystemsareinplaceand Tracking
operationalforallsuchfeatures.
SUSTAINABILITY
Details
COMPONENTS
An“assetmanagementsystem”isaformalsystematicprocessofmaintaining,
9 Extent
upgradingandoperatingaparticularstructureornetworkofstructures.Asset
9 Expectations
managementsystemstypicallyinvolvetheuseofoneormoredecisionsupport
9 Experience
tools(oftencomputerbased)toorganizethefiveactivitiesdetailedabove.For
purposesofthiscredit,wereferprimarilytopavementmanagementsystems(PMS)
andbridgemanagementsystems(BMS).“Preservation”referstoasetof BENEFITS
maintenanceandrehabilitationpracticesusedtoimproveroadwayconditionand 9 IncreasesServiceLife
extendroadwaylifeandalsoappliestobothpavementsandbridges. 9 ImprovesHuman
Health&Safety
Theoretically,any“asset”onaroadwayprojectcanbemanagedusingthe 9 ReducesLifecycle
principlesoutlinedhere.Whiletherearealsoseparateassetmanagementsystems Costs
andtoolsforsiteinfrastructure,trafficcontrols,standaloneretainingwallsand 9 Improves
vegetation,forpurposesofthisProjectRequirementsuchmanagementsystems Accountability
arenotrequired.Projectsthathavesuchsystemsinplaceshoulddetermineifthe 9 IncreasesAesthetics
systemsmeetthefivecriteriaaboveandapplyforaGreenroadsCustomCredit.
DOCUMENTATION
x Asignedletterfromanowner’srepresentativestatingthefollowing:
1. APMSandBMS(whereappropriate)iseitherinplaceorwillbeputinplaceforthe
projectpavementand/orbridges.
2. Theagencywillmanagetheprojectpavement(s)and/orbridge(s).
3. Theproposedmeansofaccomplishingthefiveactivities(e.g.thenamesofthe
consultantorsoftwaresysteminuse).
PR-9 Pavement Management System 107


x Ensurethattheprojectroadwayispartofaneworexistingmanagementsystem.Itislikelythatthereis
alreadyasysteminusebytheroadwayowner,whichmeansthatprovisionsfortheprojectpavementtobe
includedneedtobemade.
x Forpavements,adoptapavementmanagementsystemthatincorporatestheprojectpavement.Thisis
generallynotpracticalunlessthepavementmanagementsystemincorporatesotherpavementsalsomanaged
bytheowner.
Example: Pavement Management Systems

All50stateshavesomeformofpavementmanagementprograminplace(Finn,1998).Manylocalpavement
owneragenciesalsohavepavementmanagementsystemsthatvaryincomplexity.Whilethereisno
requirementthattheybecomputerbased,mostcurrentsystemsare.Afewexamplesfollow.
x DynatestPavementManagementSystem.Anexampleofacommerciallyavailableproduct(thereare
many),thissystemisintegratedwiththeconditionassessmentequipmentthatDynatestalso
manufactures.
x StreetSaver.AnewonlineprogramdevelopedbytheBayAreaMetropolitanTransportationCommission
(MTC)forusebylocalgovernments.Itisusedbyanumberofowneragencies,manyofwhicharein
CaliforniaandOregon.TheinterfaceiswebbasedandhasbeenintegratedwithArcGISbyFarallon
Geographics,Inc.AnexampleisChulaVista,CA:
http://www.chulavistaca.gov/city_Services/Development_Services/engineering/pavementmgmtsystem.asp
x MicroPAVER.AdesktoppavementmanagementsystemfromtheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers.Itis
availableforfreeandiswidelyusedbytheU.S.militaryandotheragencyowners.Informationat:
http://owww.cecer.army.mil/paver/Paver.htm.
Example: Case Study – Washington State Pavement Management System (WSPMS)

TheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)pavementmanagementsystem(WSPMS)isan
exampleofaninternallybuiltsystemandisoneoftheoldestsystemsintheU.S.WSDOTbegancollectingdata
in1963(Muenchetal.,2004)anddevelopedamanagementsystemin1982(FHWA,2008).Moredetailsare
giveninthecasestudyexamplebelow.Adescriptionofthesystemcanbefoundat:
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Research/Reports/300/315.2.htm.
ArecentFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)casestudy(2008)highlightedtheWashingtonState
PavementManagementSystem(WSPMS)anditscontributiontooverallconditionandlifecyclecostsof
pavementsmanagedbytheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).Whilethecasestudy
doesnotseparatetheleveloffundingfromtheuseofWSPMS,itmakesacasethatWSPMShascontributedto
amarkedshifttowardspavementsingoodconditionsince1971(FigurePR9.1).
108 Pavement Management System PR-9


FigurePR9.1:TrendsinpoorandgoodpavementconditionofWashingtonStatehighways,
1971–2005,followingadoptionofapavementconditionsurveyin1969andapavement
managementsystemin1982(FHWA,2008).
WSDOTusesWSPMStonotonlytrackpavementconditionbutalsotochoosewhenandbywhatmeansthe
pavementshouldbepreservedand/orrehabilitated.WSPMShassimplebuiltinmodelsthatpredictfuture
pavementconditionbasedoncurrentandpastcondition.Thisway,WSDOTisabletopredictwithreasonable
accuracywhenpreservation/rehabilitationneedtooccur.In1993WSDOTreceivedlegislativemandatethat
theirprojectselectioncriteriashouldbebasedonlowestlifecyclecost,whichfurtherreinforcedtheir
pavementmanagementapproach.Overall,FigurePT9.2showstheconditionofWSDOTpavementsfrom1969
2005andgivesclearevidencethatpavementconditionhasimprovedmarkedlyoverthis36yearstretch.

FigurePR9.2:TrendsinWashingtonStatepavementstructuralcondition,1969–2006(FHWA,2008).
Datasource:WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportationMaterialsLaboratory.

Example: Michigan DOT Bridge Management System

MichiganDOT(MDOT)hasdevelopedaBridgeManagementSystem(BMS),oneofsixcomponentsoftheir
TransportationManagementSystem.TheBMSisthedecisionsupporttoolresponsibleformanagingthe
inspection,analysisandmaintenanceofthenumerouscomponentsthatmakeupabridge.MDOTutilizes
softwareAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)hasdevelopedcalled
“Pontis”toaidtheirBMS.Adescriptionofthesystemcanbefoundat:
http://michigan.gov/documents/bridge_16549_7.pdf
Example: Virtis and Opis – Bridge Management System Tools

AASHTO’sBRIDGEWare,asoftwaredesignsystem,developedcomprehensivebridgeratinganddesigntools
calledVirtisandOpis.“TheOpisbridgedesignpackageandtheVirtisbridgeload–ratingpackagesharea
detaileddatabaseofstructuredescriptionsthatisintegratedwiththedatabaseofthePontisbridge
managementdata”(Thompson,2004).Moreinformationisavailableat:
http://aashto.bakerprojects.com/virtis/VirtisOpisBrochure0303.pdf
POTENTIAL ISSUES
ThisProjectRequirementasksforassetmanagementsystemsbutdoesnotverifyexecutionofthatmanagement
system.Therefore,thepossibilityexiststhatamanagementsystemcouldbepresentedandthennotexecuted.
RESEARCH
PavementManagementSystems
TheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)definespavementmanagement
as“…theeffectiveandefficientdirectingofthevariousactivitiesinvolvedinprovidingandsustainingpavementsin
aconditionacceptabletothetravelingpublicattheleastlifecyclecost”(AASHTO,1985).Pavementmanagement
consistsof3majorcomponents(PavementManagement,2007):
1. Pavementlifecycle.Thisincludeshowpavementsarebuilt,howtheirconditionchangesovertime,andhow
thisprocesscanbeaffectedbydifferentformsofmaintenance,rehabilitationandreconstruction.
2. Costsassociatedwiththepavementlifecycle.Thisincludesthecostsofinitialconstruction,maintenanceand
rehabilitation,assessingendoflifepavementsalvagevalue,anddeterminingusercostsincurredthroughout
thelifecycle.
3. Pavementmanagementsystems.Thisincludesallthedifferentsystemsusedtodeterminethemost
appropriatetimetorehabilitatepavement,whatthemostcosteffectivemethodis,andhowmanydollarsit
willtaketomaintainaroadwaysystematadesirableconditionlevel(WSDOT,1994).
Thefundamentalideaisthatpavementmanagementwillleadtoloweroveralllifecyclecostsforapavementor
networkofpavementsandthusbeamoresustainableapproach.Thisideahasbeentheoreticallyshownmany
times(e.g.,Scrivneretal.,1968;Hudsonetal.,1979;MAPC,1986;Kayetal.,1993;Pierceetal.,2001)buthasnot
beenshownbydirectcomparisonofamanagedsystemandonethatisnot.Acorollary,thatsomebelieveistrue
buthasyettobeshownbyempiricalevidence,isthatpavementmanagementwillalsoleadtoloweruseofnatural
resources,lessenergyinputandfeweremissionsassociatedwithapavementnetwork.
Abasicassetmanagementsystemshouldincludethefollowing5components(Peterson,1987):
1. Roadwayconditionsurveys.Asurveyoftheroadwaystructuretoassesscurrentconditionandstrength
2. Databasecontainingallrelatedroadwaystructureinformation.Informationaboutotheraspectsofeach
roadwaysectionincludingthingslikelocation,pavementthickness,ownership,datelastconstructed,etc.
3. Analysisscheme.Algorithmsusedtointerpretroadwayconditionandotherdatainameaningfulwayand
produceinformationsuchascostanddeteriorationmodelsthatassistinprogrammingroadway
preservation/rehabilitation/maintenanceefforts.Recentsoftwarecancombinethedatabase,analysisscheme

anddecisioncriteriainonepackage.Recentresearchhasfocusedonadvancingorrefininglifecyclecosting
analysis,optimizationalgorithmsandperformanceprediction.
4. Decisioncriteria.Rulesdevelopedtoguideassetmanagementdecisions.Asassetmanagementsystemshave
evolved,decisioncriteriahavebecomemorecomplexandnowaccountforitemssuchasuserdelay,vehicle
operatingcostsand,inlimitedcases,environmentaleffects.Forbridges,thiswouldincludeoptimizationand
analysismodels.
5. Implementationprocedures.Methodsusedtoapplymanagementdecisionstoroadwaysections.
Implementationisapolitical,budgetaryorproceduralissue.
PavementManagementLeadstoLowerLifeCycleCosts
Choosingtheoptimaltimingofpreservationeffortscanleadtolowerlifecyclecosts.Inturn,lowerlifecyclecosts
canbeoneoftheoutputsofamoresustainableroadway.Thus,thereisanindirectrelationshipbetweena
pavementmanagementsystem,whichcanhelpindeterminingthebesttimingofpreservationefforts,and
sustainability.
Ingeneral,pavementdeterioratesaspicturedinFigurePR9.3.Deteriorationisslowatfirstandthenincreasesat
anincreasingrate.Preservationeffortsprovideastepincreaseinpavementconditionandessentiallyresetthe
deteriorationprocess.Preservationeffortsappliedtoosoondonotachievemuchimprovementinconditionfor
theircostwhilethoseappliedtoolate(FigurePR9.4)achieveanimprovementinconditionatsubstantialcost
(Stevens,1985;FHWA,2008).

FigurePR9.3:Pavementconditionillustration.

FigurePR9.4:Rehabilitationtimevs.cost(basedonanillustrationinStevens,1985).

BridgeManagementSystems
TheFederalHighwayAdministrationrecognizestheimportanceofmaintenanceandpreservationofbridge
sturcturestoo.Forroadways,bridgesareconsideredcriticalpointsor“nodes”alonganotherwisecontinuous
networkofpavements.However,similartopavementmanagementsystems,agenciesusuallydevelopaBMSthat
istailoredtotheirorganizational,financial,managerial,political,andtechnicalmodesofoperation.
Currently,allstateDOTshaveabridgemanagementsystem(Özbayetal.,2004).EachBMSmayvarydueto
(Markow&Hyman,2009):
1. Differentphilosophiesofbridgemanagement;
2. Differentapproachestoplanning,programming,andbudgeting;
3. thecharacteristicsofeachagency’stransportationsystemanditsinfrastructures;and
4. Thepolicy,financial,technical,andinstitutionalenvironmentinwhicheachagencyoperates.
AstudybytheTransportationResearchBoard(TRB)in1994,foundthatonly6of33statesrespondingtoasurvey
saidtheyweresatisfiedwiththecostdatatheyhadavailabletoprovidetotheirbridgemanagementsystems
(Thompson,2004).Thismaysuggestthatagenciesconsidertheaccuracyandavailabilityofcostandmanagement
dataandotherinformationrequiredtodevelopacomprehensiveassetmanagementsystemtobeinadequate.
In1994,a20pagequestionnairewasdistributedto52departmentsoftransportation(DOT)inthe50states,the
DistrictofColumbia,andPuertoRico(Thompson&Markow,1996).Atotalof33stateDOTsprovidedusable
responses.
x 76%(25of33)oftheagenciesusePontisaspartoftheirbridgemanagementsystem;
x 12%(4of33)aredevelopingtheirownsystem;and
x 10%(3of33)areundecided.
ThepercentageofthoseusingPontisisdecreasingasnewtechnologiesemergeandbecomemoreaccurateand
reliable.Morerecentstudiesshowthatanincreasingnumberofagenciesareresortingtodevelopingtheirown
systeminconjunctionwithcurrentdesignsoftware.
In2009,MarkowandHymanpreparedadetailedsynthesisreportonBMSfortheNationalCooperativeHighway
ResearchProgram(NCHRP),Report397.Currently,thisisthemostuptodateandcomprehensiveinformationon
thestateofthepracticeofbridgemanagementsystemsandtheneed,utility,levelofimplementationandcost
implicationsatvariousstateagencies.ItalsoincludesasurveyofDOTsforprevalenceofuseofBMS,butthere
weresimilarresultstothe1994studymentionedaboveandfewerrespondentstothesurvey.
BridgeManagementSoftware
Duringtheearly1990s,FHWAandCambridgeSystematicsandOptima,Inc.developedabridgemanagement
systemcalledPontis.CambridgeSystematicsandOptima,Inc.(2010)describePontisasadecisionsupport
softwaretoolthatincludesastructuralinventoryforuseinpreservationandmaintenanceactivities.Pontis
providesawayforbridgemanagerstodocumentinspectionsbystructuralelementanddevelopcosteffective
plansformaintenanceactivitiesinanexistingbridgenetwork.NewersoftwaresuiteslikeAASHTO’s
BridgeWARElineofproductsincorporateadditionaltoolslikeVirtisandOpiswhichcanassistinloadratingand
designthatutilizethePontisdatabase(TransportationResearchBoard,CommitteeonBridgeManagement
Systems,2003;Thompson,2004).
BridgeManagementSystemsandLifecycleCostAnalysis
Bridgemanagementsystemsandlifecyclecostanalysis(seePR2LifecycleCostAnalysis)arecomplementary
toolsforlongtermdecisionmakinginbridgemaintenance,preservationandoperation.Muchofthecurrent
literatureoverlapsatoptimizationmodelsforintegratinglifecyclecostingintonetworklevelBMSaswellasat
theprojectlevel(Morcous,2007;Frangopol&Liu,2007;Estes&Frangopol,2001;Frangopol,2004;Hegazy,
Elbeltagi,&ElBehairy,2004;Okasha&Frangopol,2009)aswellasforpreservationandmaintenancedecisions

(List,2007;Straussetal.2007;Naus&Johnston,2001).Morerecentresearchhasbeenintheareaofreliability
andriskanalysisforlifetimeweatheringandotherhazards,(Lee,Cho,&Cha,2006;Hosseretal.2008;Padgett,
Dennemann,&Ghosh,2010).Foracomprehensivereviewofbridgelifecyclecostanalysis(BLCCA)andits
potentialapplicationsatprojectandnetworklevelBMS,thereaderisreferredtoNCHRPReport483(Hawk,
2003),whichprovidesthemostcomprehensiveinformationonintegrativelifecyclethinkingforbridges.
OtherTypesofAssetManagementSystems
Ancillarystructures.Currently,theFederalHighwayAdministrationisinvestigatingdevelopmentofdecision
supporttoolsfordatamanagementandpreservationeffortsforancillarystructuressuchasluminares,sign
trusses,andothernonbridgeandnonpavementfeatures.ThecurrentprogrameffortisledbytheOfficeofBridge
Technology,whichprovidesafreehelpfulguidancemanualforthesefeaturescalledGuidelinesfortheInstallation,
Inspection,MaintenanceandRepairofStructuralSupportsforHighwaySigns,Luminaires,andTrafficSignals
(FHWA,2005).
Tunnelsandretainingwallstructures.Tunnelandwallstructuresareaverysmallpercentageofstructural
roadwayfeatures.Muchoftheresearchontunnelmaintenanceandpreservationismanagedunderthepurview
oftheFederalHighwayAdministration’sOfficeofBridgeTechnologyandintegrateswithhighwayandrailtransitin
theirwebbasedguidancedocumentfromthe2005Highway&RailTransitTunnelMaintenance&Rehabilitation
Manual(FHWA,2007).
Vegetation.Additionally,thereisawealthofinformationavailableonvegetationmanagementpracticessuchas
streettrees,nativevegetation,pesticideandherbicideuse,andmaintenanceofotherlandscapingfeatures,
especiallywithregardtomanagementofaboveandbelowgroundutilities.However,aconsensusdoesnotappear
toexistoncomputerizedtoolsforsystematicimplementationofsuchvegetationmanagementstrategiesand
practices.AASHTO’sCenteronEnvironmentalExcellenceprovidessomeguidanceonmanagementofthesetypes
oflivingassetsonroadsidesatthislinkunder“IntegratedRoadsideVegetationManagement:”
http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/invasive_species(AASHTO,2011).
GLOSSARY
Assetmanagementsystem aformalsystematicprocessofmaintaining,upgradingandoperatinga
particularassetornetworkofassets,suchaspavementsandbridges
Preservation asetofmaintenanceandrehabilitationpracticesusedtoimprovecondition
andextendlifeofastructure(s)
REFERENCES
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).(1985).GuidelinesonPavement
Management,AASHTOJointTaskForceonPavements,AASHTO,Washington,D.C.,1985.
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).(2011).CenterforEnvironmental
ExcellencebyAASHTO:InvasiveSpecies/VegetationManagement.Availableat:
http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/invasive_species/AccessedJanuary31,2011.
CambridgeSystematics,Inc.(2010).PontisBridgeManagementSystemVersion4.4.Availableat
http://www.camsys.com/pro_inframan_pontis.htm.AccessedMay26,2010.
Estes,A.C.,andFrangopol,D.M.2001.“Minimumexpectedcostorientedoptimalmaintenanceplanningfor
deterioratingstructures:Applicationtoconcretebridgedecks.”Reliab.Eng.Syst.Saf.,73,281–291.
FederalHighwayAdministration.(2008).PavementManagementSystems:TheWashingtonStateExperience.
TransportationAssetManagementCaseStudies.FHWA,U.S.DOT.Availableat
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/asset/if08010/index.cfm.

FederalHighwayAdministration.(2010).MoreAboutPontis.Availableat
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/asstmgmt/pontmore.cfm.AccessedMay26,2010.
FederalHighwayAdministration.(2005).GuidelinesfortheInstallation,Inspection,MaintenanceandRepairof
StructuralSupportsforHighwaySigns,Luminaires,andTrafficSignals.[FHWANHI05036].FederalHighway
Administration.U.S.DOT.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/signinspection.pdf
FederalHighwayAdministration.(2007,June7).HighwayandRailTransitTunnelMaintenanceandRehabilitation
Manual:2005Edition.U.S.DepartmentofTransportation.Availableat
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/tunnel/maintman00.cfm.AccessedJune5,2010.
Finn,F.(1998).PavementManagementSystems–Past,Present,andFuture.PublicRoads,Vol.62,No.1.Available
athttp://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/julaug98/pavement.htm.
Frangopol,D.M.,&AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers.(2004).Lifecycleperformanceofdeterioratingstructures:
Assessment,design,andmanagement.Reston,VA:AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers.
Frangopol,D.M.,&Liu,M.(January01,2007).Maintenanceandmanagementofcivilinfrastructurebasedon
condition,safety,optimization,andlifecyclecost.Structure&InfrastructureEngineering:Maintenance,
Management,LifeCycleDesign&Performance,3,1,2941.
Hawk,H.(2003).NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram.NCHRPReport483:Bridgelifecyclecost
analysis.Washington,D.C:TransportationResearchBoard,NationalResearchCouncil.
Hegazy,T.,Elbeltagi,E.andElBehairy,H.(2004).BridgeDeckManagementSystemwithIntegratedLifeCycleCost
Optimization.TransportationResearchRecord,1866,TransportationResearchBoard,NationalResearch
Council,44–50.
Hosser,D.,Klinzmann,C.,&Schnetgoke,R.(2008).Aframeworkforreliabilitybasedsystemassessmentbasedon
structuralhealthmonitoring.StructureandInfrastructureEngineering,4,4,271285.
Hudson,W.R.;Haas,R.andPedigo,R.D.(1979).NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgramReport215:
PavementManagementSystemDevelopment.TRB,NationalResearchCouncil,Washington,D.C.
Kay,R.K.;Mahoney,J.P.andJackson,N.C.(1993).TheWSDOTPavementManagementSystem–A1993Update.
ReportNo.WARD274.1.WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation,Olympia,WA.
Lee,K.M.,Cho,H.N.,&Cha,C.J.(July01,2006).Lifecyclecosteffectiveoptimumdesignofsteelbridges
consideringenvironmentalstressors.EngineeringStructures,28,9,12521265.
List,G.(2007).Amodelforlifecycleevaluationofhighwayinvestments.Structure&InfrastructureEngineering:
Maintenance,Management,LifeCycleDesign&Performance,3,2,95101.
Markow,M.J.&Hyman,W.A.(2009).BridgeManagementSystemsforTransportationAgencyDecisionMaking.
NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram.NCHRPSynthesis397.TransportationResearchBoard,
NationalAcademyofSciences,WashingtonD.C.
MetropolitanAreaPlanningCouncil(MAPC).(1986).PavementManagement:AManualforCommunities.Contract
numberMDPW23892.FederalHighwayAdministrationandtheMassachusettsDepartmentofPublicWorks.
Availableathttp://ntl.bts.gov/DOCS/pave.html.

Morcous,G.(2007)ParetoAnalysisforMulticriteriaOptimizationofBridgePreservationDecisionsTransportation
ResearchRecord:JournaloftheTransportationResearchBoard,1991,TransportationResearchBoardofthe
NationalAcademies,Washington,D.C.,62–68
Naus,D.J.andJohnston,M.W.(2001,October).InternationalRILEMWorkshoponLifePredictionandAging
ManagementofConcreteStructures.ProceedingsoftheInternationalRILEMWorkshopTechnicalCommittees,
Cannes,France,1617,October2000.MaterialsandStructures,RILEM,34,458466.
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maintenanceconsideringsystemreliability,redundancyandlifecyclecostusingGA.StructuralSafety,31,6,
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PavementManagementPractices.NCHRP,TRB,NationalResearchCouncil.Washington,D.C.
Pierce,L.M.,Mahoney,J.P.,&Sivaneswaran,N.(2001).AnAssessmentoftheBenefitsoftheWashingtonState
PavementManagementSystem.PaperpresentedattheFifthInternationalConferenceonManaging
Pavements,Seattle,Washington,August11–14,2001.
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Problem.ResearchReport13211.TexasTransportationInstitute,TexasA&MUniversity.
Stevens,L.B.(1985).RoadSurfaceManagementforLocalGovernmentsResourceNotebook.PublicationNo.DOT
I8537.FederalHighwayAdministration.Washington,D.C.
Strauss,A.,Bergmeister,K.,Hoffmann,S.,Pukl,R.,&Novak,D.(January01,2008).AdvancedLifeCycleAnalysisof
ExistingConcreteBridges.JournalofMaterialsinCivilEngineering,20,1,9.
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Thompson,P.D.(2004).BridgeLifeCycleCostinginIntegratedEnvironmentofDesign,Rating,andManagement.
TransportationResearchRecord:JournaloftheTransportationResearchBoard,No.1866,51–58.
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BridgeWAREProducts.TransportationResearchCircularNumberEC049.9thInternationalBridgeManagement
Conference,OrlandoAirportMarriottOrlando,FloridaApril28–30,2003.Availableat
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/circulars/ec049.pdf.



SITE MAINTENANCE PLAN

GOAL PR-10
Maintainenvironmentalqualityandaestheticsoftheroadwayprojectduringuse.
REQUIREMENTS
Haveandimplementacomprehensiveongoingsitemaintenanceplanthataddresses REQUIRED
(ataminimum)responsibleparties/organizations,standards,schedule,methodstobe
usedandfundingsource(s)forthefollowingitems(listedbymajortopics):
x Roadwaymaintenance RELATED CREDITS

x Pavementpatching,repairandcracksealing 9 PR9Pavement
x Shoulder/sidewalkmaintenanceandrepair ManagementSystem
x Stormwatersystemcleaningandrepair 9 EW2RunoffQuality
x Roadsidevegetation 9 EW3RunoffFlow
x Landscaping Control
x Controlofnoxiousweedsandnuisanceplants 9 EW4Stormwater
x Snowandicecontrol CostAnalysis
x Trafficcontrolinfrastructure 9 EW5SiteVegetation
x Pavementmarkingmaintenanceandrepair
SUSTAINABILITY
x Signmaintenanceandrepair
x Safetydevicemaintenanceandrepair COMPONENTS
x Trafficsignalmaintenanceandrepair 9 Ecology
x Roadwaylightingmaintenanceandrepair 9 Extent
x Intelligenttransportationsystemmaintenanceandrepair 9 Expectations
x Cleaning 9 Experience
x Pavementsweepingandcleaning
x Littercontrol BENEFITS
x Trashcollection 9 ImprovesHuman
Health&Safety
Ifanyitemsarenotapplicabletheyshouldbelistedassuchandaccompaniedwitha 9 ReducesLifecycle
shortreasonforthe“notapplicable”listing.Thesitemaintenanceplanshouldcover Cost
theexpectedlifetimeoftheroadwayfacility. 9 Improves
Accountability
Details 9 IncreasesAesthetics
Itislikelythatsomeoralloftherequiredactivitiesareaddressedbydifferent
documentsorbydifferentorganizations.Aseparatestandalonesitemaintenance
planisnotrequired;referencestorelevantexistingdocumentsaresufficient.
DOCUMENTATION
x Acopyofthestandalonesitemaintenanceplanorcopiesofexisting
documentationorplansthataddresstheitemsnotedabove.
OR
x Alistofeachitemthataddressesresponsibleparties/organizations,schedule,
methodsandfundingsource(s).
PR-10 Site Maintenance Plan 117


x Usestandardagencymaintenanceguidelinesandspecifications.
x Seekalongtermmaintenancecontractorpartnership.Longtermmaintenanceagreementscanbeaneffective
maintenancesolutionandimprovecostefficiencyoverthelifetimeofthefacility.
x Initiatediscussionsanddocumentthepublicinvolvementprocessofoutliningdesignelementsinrelationto
maintenancerequirementsduringprojectplanning.Discusshowmaintenancepartnershipsareformedand
explorethebenefitsofsuccessfulmaintenanceguidelines.(Thismayincludeinitiationofapublic
involvement/volunteerprogram.)
x Establishapublicinvolvementprogramandmarketingstrategy.Forexample,communitysupportedand
volunteerprogramslikeAdoptaHighwaycanbeaneffectiveapproachtolitterandgraffiticontroland
increasecommunityownershipoftheinfrastructure.
Example: Documentation
Thisisanexampleofdocumentationthatmeetstheintentofthisrequirement.Theexampleisforafictional2
laneroadbeingexpandedintoamultimodalfacility(e.g.,bicycles,pedestrians,newtwowayleftturnlane)in
thegreaterSeattle,WAareafortheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).Thissite
maintenancerequirementismetbyexistingprogramswithinWSDOT.Therefore,documentationneedonlycite
theseprogramsandtheirrelevantmanualsandprocedures.NotethatFiguresPR10.1andPR10.2showmore
thantherequiredinformationof“fundingsource(s)”becausetheybreakdownallfundingsourcesforthe
entireWashingtonStateTransportationbudget(notjustthefundingsourceforsitemaintenance)andthe
entiredistributionofstatecollectedtransportationrevenuesandfunds(notrequired).
Documentation
Forthisparticularproject,WSDOTistheowneragencyandisresponsibleforsitemaintenance(asdefinedby
thisrequirement).Thisistrueinmanyjurisdictionsbutnotall.Insomejurisdictions,theowneragency
contractsouttoprivatecompaniesforportionsofsitemaintenance.Theoverarchingdocumentthatdescribes
WSDOTsitemaintenanceresponsibleparties,scheduleandmethodsistheWSDOTMaintenanceManual(M
5101)(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Publications/Manuals/M5101.htm).TheWSDOTMaintenancePerformance
Measureswebsite(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Maintenance/Accountability/default.htm)describesthe
standardsandtargetsforcurrentandpastyears.Additionalguidanceonroadsidevegetationisgiveninthe
NorthwestRegion,Area5:IntegratedRoadsideVegetationManagementPlan
(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Maintenance/Roadside/mgmt_plans.htm).Additionalguidanceonsnowandice
controlisgivenintheStatewideSnowandIcePlan:20092010
(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/winter/SnowIcePlan.htm).InWSDOT’s20092011transportationbudget,“Highway
Maintenance”isfundedat$355.4million(about6.1%ofthetotalWSDOTbudget).FiguresPR10.1andPR10.2
describethecollectionanddistributionoffunds.
118 Site Maintenance Plan PR-10

FigurePR10.1:TransportationRevenuesandFundsCollectedbytheState(WSDOT,2009).

FigurePR10.2:DistributionofStateCollectedTransportationRevenuesandFunds(WSDOT,2009).


MoreabouttheWSDOTMaintenanceAccountabilityProgram(MAP)
TheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)hasdevelopedaMaintenanceAccountability
Program(MAP)designedtotrack,measure,andcommunicatetheresultsofmaintenanceactivitiesonstate
roadways(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Maintenance/Accountability).Theprogramwasdevelopedin1996out
ofnecessityasaresponsetoimpendingbudgetcutsbytheWashingtonStatelegislatureforroadmaintenance.
TheMAPexiststocomprehensivelymeasuretheperformanceofroadmaintenancewithinthestateby
providingtoolsthatlinkstrategicplanning,thebudgetanddeliveryofservice,andanalyzingtheresults
quantitatively.TodothistheMAPisdividedinto33distinctcategoriesthataimtocomprehensivelycoverthe
scopeofroadmaintenance.Analysisisderivedfromdatacollectedbyrandomlysamplingroadwaystwicea
yearviacomprehensivesamplingprocedures,andfromrecordsofaccomplishedwork.Thedataisthen
comparedwiththeestablishedstandardstoarriveatalevelofservice(LOS)designationforeachcategory.
TheseLOSdesignationsarethencomparedwithWSDOTgoalsandtargetstoresponsiblytrackprogressand
maintainaccountabilityinallfacetsofmaintenanceoperations.
ThesuccessoftheMAPhasbeentothebenefitofWSDOTandtheirmaintenancedivisionasthemaintenance
budgetisnowperformancebased.ThoroughanalysisofprogramsuccessesandfailuresallowsWSDOTto
analyzebudgetproposalsandaccuratelyprojecttheconsequencesofbudgetdecisionsonroadmaintenance
performance,fromwhichtheycanlobbythelegislaturetosecureadequatefunding.Thus,bybeingcareful,
logical,anddoingtheirresearch,WSDOTisabletosecurethemoneynecessarytokeeptheirroadway
investmentsingoodworkingcondition,obviouslytothebenefitofallresidentsofthestate.Furthermore,ifthe
finalbudgetfallsshortoffundingeverythingthatWSDOTdesires,theycaneffectivelyscalebacktheirgoals
andtargetstoproduceonesthatmaximizetheproductivityoftheroadinfrastructureandaccuratelyevaluate
theperformanceofmaintenancebasedonthefundingprovided.
TheMAPisconsideredtobeasuccessfulprogram.Ithasbeenheavilyborrowedforuseinotherstates,andits
measurementtechniquesweresosuccessfulthatpartoftheprogramwasusedasthepilotforperformance
basedbudgetinginWashingtonState.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Someresponsibilities,standards,schedules,methodsandfundingsourcesmaynotbeknownorarenot
documented.Suchdocumentationmayneedtobecreatedabovetheindividualprojectlevel.
2. Fundingforsitemaintenancemaynotbesecuredlongterm.Whilethisiscertainlyrecommended,listingthe
currentfundingsourceisadequateforthisrequirement.
3. Thisrequirementonlyspecifiesthatasitemaintenanceplanexist.Itdoesnotensurethatsitemaintenanceis
actuallydone.
4. Thisrequirementonlyspecifiesbroadcategoriesofsitemaintenance.Itdoesnotspecifyeffectiveness,costsor
utilityofindividualefforts.
RESEARCH
Maintenancecanincreasetheusefullifeofmostinfrastructurecomponents,promotespublicsafety,andbenefits
bothpublicandecosystemhealth.Thefollowingisaseriesofbriefdiscussionsonthevalueandnatureof
infrastructuremaintenancebrokendownbygeneralcategory.
StreetCleaning&LitterRemoval
Streetcleaningandlitterremovalretainthevalueoftheroadwaybysustainingtheenvironmentalandaesthetic
benefitsoveritslifespan.Duringitsoperatingcycletheroadwaywill,duetouseandnature,necessarily
accumulatevariousdebristhat,leftalone,willnegativelyimpacttheroadway’srelationshipwithitsenvironment.
Bothdirtanddangerouspollutants(e.g.phosphorus,nitrogen,lead)willcollectontheroadwayovertimeand
posealegitimatethreattovegetationandwaterqualityinthearea(Hyman,1999).Streetsweepinghas
traditionallybeenviewedaseffectiveagainstdirtanddustcontrolonly,butadvancementsinsweepertechnology

haveshownittobeveryeffectiveinremovingsmallpollutantsaswell(James,1997).Removalofdirtanddust
fromtheroadwayalsoimprovessafetybymaximizingthesurfaceareaoftiresthemeettheroadsurfaceand
enhancestheaestheticsofthesiteforitsusers(Hyman,1999).Similarly,litteronthesitecanbeaneyesoreanda
gatewaytopollutionofearthandwater.Volunteerlitterremovalprograms,suchasAdoptahighway,havebeen
showntobethemosteffectivemethodofcombatinglitteraccumulation(Hyman,1999).
VegetationMaintenance
Nativevegetationgrowthneartheroadwayisnecessaryfortheroadwaytomaintainagoodrelationshipwithits
environment,butuncheckedvegetationgrowthcannegativelyaffecttheperformanceandsafetyoftheroadway.
Maintainingvegetationlimitsimprovesafetyandtrafficflowbymaximizingsightdistancefordrivers,providing
moreaccessibleshouldersforemergencies,andpreventingdamagetoandinterferencewithroadsidestructures
andsigns(WSDOT,2009;MassTran,2003).Furthermore,keepingvegetationgrowthclearoftheedgeofthe
roadwayhelpspreventthepoolingofwater,prolongingthelifeofthepavement(WSDOT,2009).Thekeyisto
maintainvegetation,sincerootsystemscanprovidenecessarysupportandstabilizationofembankments
supportingtheroad(MassTran,2003).Foranexamplediscussionofthemethodsofvegetationmaintenance
includingimportantsustainabilityaspects,seetheIntegratedRoadsideVegetationManagementProgramof
MassHighway(2003).
PavementRepair
Despiteourbestefforts,useoftheroadwayoveritslifetimewillcauseittobegintobreakdown,resultinginsmall
pavementfailuresthatcannegativelyimpacttheperformanceofaroadway.Maintenanceontheroadwayhas
twomaineffects:itimmediatelyimprovestheconditionofthepavementandslowstherateoffuture
deterioration(Deighton,1997).Theseeffectsmaintainlifeoftheroadforalongerperiodoftime,maximizingthe
capitalinvestment.
Asidefromeconomicconcerns,unmaintainedpavedsurfacescanalsobecomeverydangeroussafetyrisksto
drivers,passengers,andpedestriansbydamagingvehiclesandrequiringadditionaldriverattention.Whilebest
managementpracticesforpavementmaintenancearewidespread,comprehensivesupportingresearchisnot.
However,theprocessofretainingthevalueandfunctionoftheroadwayovertimerepresentsasignificantportion
ofthatroadway’ssustainabilitybenefit,sowelldesignedmaintenanceproceduresmustbeconsidered(Wei,
2004).Foracomprehensivediscussionofpavementmaintenancebenefits,definitions,costs,methods,and
referencesseePavementInteractiveathttp://www.pavementinteractive.org.
StormDrainMaintenanceandCleaning
Drainagestructures,essentialforanenvironmentallysensitiveandfunctioningroadway,requireperiodic
maintenancetomaintainefficiency.Withoutmaintenance,significantdeclinesinperformanceandflowrateshave
beenwelldocumented(Hyman,1999).Bestmanagementpracticesarealsowelldocumented,andincluderoutine
maintenance(especiallyrightbeforearainyseason)anddatacollectiontotrackwhenandwherestormdrains
tendtofailinanefforttocleanand/orfixthembeforefailureoccurs.Hyman(1999)hasagoodbaselinesampling
ofsomeeffectivebestmanagementpractices.
CostAnalysis
Whilethebenefitsofsitemaintenanceonaroadwayhavebeenrelativelywelldocumented,costanalysesofthese
proceduresaremuchlessso.Sinceroadmaintenancecostsvaryconsiderablybyroadwaytype,roadusepatterns,
regionalweatherfactors,andchosenbestmanagementpracticesbylocalagencies,thereisnoeasydefinitionfor
themaintenancecostofanyspecificroadway.However,therearesomecommonlycitedcostsofsitemaintenance
thatcanprovideanunderstandingoftheresourcesrequiredtomaintaintheasset.
TheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)has$355.4millionallocatedinthe20092011
budgetforhighwaymaintenanceofroughly7,000centerlinemilesofroadway.Furthermore,theirMaintenance
AccountabilityProgramdividesthatmoneyinto33distinctactivitieswithinsitemaintenancetomeasureresource
distributionmoreaccurately.Subbudgetsinclude$137millionforroadwaymaintenance,includingpavement
patching&repair,shoulderrepair,andcleaning&sweeping;$27millionfordrainagemaintenanceandslope

repair;and$35millionforroadsideandvegetationmanagement,includinglitterpickupandcontrolofintrusive
andinterferingvegetation(WSDOT,2008).
REFERENCES
Deighton.(1997).PavementCondition,vol.3.VideotapefromthedTV(DeightonTelevision)Libraryvideoserieson
pavementmanagementsystemtopics.DeightonAssociated,Ltd.Bowmanville,Ontario.
Hyman,W.A.&Vary,D.(1999).NCHRPSynthesis272:BestManagementPracticesforEnvironmentalIssues
RelatedtoHighwayandStreetMaintenance.TransportationResearchBoard,Washington,D.C.
James,W.(Ed.).(1997).AdvancesinModelingtheManagementofStormwaterImpacts,Volume5.CRCPress.
MassachusettsHighwayDepartment(MassTran).(2003).VegetationManagementPlan20032007.Accessed15
December2009.Availableathttp://www.mhd.state.ma.us/downloads/vmp/appendixE.pdf.
WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2008).MaintenanceManual.M5101.WSDOT,
Olympia,WA.
WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2008).WSDOTMaintenancePerformanceMeasures.
Accessed30December2009.Availableathttp://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Maintenance/Accountability/default.htm.
WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2009).NorthwestRegion,Area5:IntegratedRoadside
VegetationManagementPlan.Accessed30December2009.Availableat
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Maintenance/Roadside/mgmt_plans.htm.
WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2009).Washington’s0911TransportationBudget.
Accessed30December2009.Availableathttp://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Finance/budget/BudgetPieCharts.htm.
WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2009).WSDOTMaintenanceOperations.Accessed30
December2009.Availableathttp://www.wsdot.wa.gov/maintenance.
Wei,C.andTighe,S.(2004).DevelopmentofPreventativeMaintenanceDecisionTreesbasedonCostEffectiveness
Analysis:AnOntarioCaseStudy.TransportationResearchBoard,Washington,D.C.

EDUCATIONAL OUTREACH
GOAL PR-11
Increasepublic,agencyandstakeholderawarenessofroadwaysustainabilityactivities.
REQUIREMENTS
Incorporateacomprehensivepubliceducationaloutreachprogramintothe REQUIRED
operationalphaseoftheroadwayfacilityproject.
Aminimumofthreeoutofthefollowingeighteducationalelements,tobeinstalled
withintheroadwayprojectlimitsorwithinthepurviewoftheleadagency,mustbe RELATED CREDITS
completedtomeettheintentofthisprojectrequirement: 9 PR1Environmental
ReviewProcess
1. Installandmaintainapermanentprojectorientedsignageprogramalongthe 9 CA2Environmental
roadwayrightofway.Duringconstructionregisteredprojectsmayusetemporary Training
signstodisplayfactualinformationabouttheGreenroads™certificationlevelbeing 9 AE8ScenicViews
pursued,asnotedintheGreenroadstrademarkpolicy(availableonthewebsite). 9 AE9Cultural
2. Installandmaintainatleastoneoffroad,permanentpointofinterestkioskthat Outreach
displaystheGreenroadscertificationlevelpursued,projectinformation,andthe
certificationlevelactuallyachieved. SUSTAINABILITY
3. Provideapubliclyavailableandmaintainedinformationalprojectwebsitewith COMPONENTS
capacityforsubmittingfeedbackandcomments.
4. Developanagencyand/orstakeholderguide,specification,orpolicythat 9 Equity
incorporatesorotherwiseclearlyreferencesandreflectstheidealsandintentsof 9 Expectations
Greenroads. 9 Exposure
5. Instituteaninternalagencycontinuingprofessionaleducationandtrainingprogram
relatedtoGreenroads. BENEFITS
6. Performatleasttwopresentationsabouttheprojectforprimaryandsecondary 9 IncreasesAwareness
schools.
7. Performoneprofessionaltechnicalpresentation.
8. DocumenttheprojectexperienceusingGreenroads(i.e.conductadetailedcase
studyfortheroadwayproject).
Details
NotethattheofficialGreenroadslogomayonlybeusedonprojectsigns,public
installationsorprojectdocumentsbypermissionofGreenroads.
DOCUMENTATION
Thefollowingcorrespondtothenumberedsequenceintheprecedingsection.
1. Providephotosoftemporaryandpermanentsignsinstalledintherightofway.
2. Provideatextorprintedcopyoftheinformationofferedatthekiosk(i.e.brochure
orstaticinstallation)ANDaphotoofthekioskstructureandlocationasinstalled.
3. Providethewebsiteaddress.(Note:hyperlinksmustbelive.)
4. Provideacopyoftheagencyguide,manualorspecification.
5. Provideacopyofthelearningobjectivesandscheduleforthetrainingprogram.
6. Provideacopyofeachpresentationandthetimeanddateofthepresentation.
7. Provideacopyoftheabstractalongwiththetechnicalpaperand/orpresentation.
8. Provideacopyofthecompletedcasestudy.
PR-11 Educational Outreach 123


x Usetheenvironmentalreviewprocess(seePR1)asastartingpointforestablishingpublicawarenessneeds.
x Involvebusinessdevelopmentpersonnel,marketingprofessionals,andpublicrelationsofficersearlyinthe
projectplanningprocess.
x ExpandconstructionteamhealthandsafetytrainingmeetingstoincorporateGreenroadsgoalsfortheproject
(seeCA2).
x Identifypeoplewithintheprojectteam,agencyorcompanywhomaybeinterestedinleadingexternaland
internaleducationaleffortsrelativetoincorporatingGreenroadsandsustainabilityintheorganization.
x Considercollaborationwithprofessionalwebsitedevelopers.
x ContacttheGreenroadsTeamifinterestedinparticipatinginacasestudy.Resources,suchasreporttemplates
andscorecards,areavailablebyrequest.
x Followtheguidelinesforactiveoutreach(andrelatedpublicinteractiontopics)outlinedinthe“Public
InvolvementTechniquesforTransportationDecisionmaking”(FHWAPD96031).Thisdocumentcontainsa
numberofpotentialactivitiesthatcouldbeusedaloneorincombinationtomeettheintentofthisProject
Requirement,aswellasseveraladditionalusefulreferencesandresources.
Example: Kickinghorse Canyon Project — British Columbia Ministry of Transportation

TheKickinghorseCanyonProjectontheTransCanadaHighway(Highway1)bytheBritishColumbiaMinistryof
Transportationoffersanexcellentexampleofacomprehensivepubliceducationaloutreachprogram.
Thisprojecthasadetailedwebsite(http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/index.htm),aprintablefactsheet
(availablehttp://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/updates/KHCP_Fact_Sheet.pdf),andhascompletedacase
study(availablebywrittenrequest).Additionally,thecompletedprojectincludesimprovementstoarestarea
whichwillincorporateprojectandhistoricalinformationforthesite.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Graffitioninstalledsignsorpublicinformationkiosks.
2. Potentiallyinflammatoryoroffensivecommentsorspamonprojectwebsites.
RESEARCH
AttheheartoftheGreenroadsprogramisencouragementofbroadsustainabilityeducationforpeoplewhouse,
design,andbuildtransportationinfrastructure.Publicoutreachprogramsareencouragedatmosttransportation
agenciesandoftenrequiredonmanyprojectsaspartoftheinitialplanningprocess(suchasduringenvironmental
review).However,mostoftheseopencommunicationorientedinitiativesarerelevantonlyduringthedecision
makingprocessandarenotdeliberatelyeducationaloverthelongtermlifeoftheproject.Greenroadsseeksto
supportroadwayprojectsthatofferbuiltineducationalresourcesforthebenefitofpublicinterestand
professionallearninganddevelopment.
Need&Opportunity
TheBrundtlandReportnotes“…thechangesinattitudes,insocialvalues,andinaspirations….willdependonvast
campaignsofeducation,debateandpublicparticipation”(WCED,1987,p.16).Sustainabilityhascertainlybecome
apopularliteraturetopic,butthevolumeofresearchoneducationistoovasttosummarizehere.Manyauthors
onsustainabilityaswellasotherenvironmentalorganizationssuggestorexplicitlystresstheimportanceof
sustainabilityeducation(Edwards,2005;Benyus,2002;WCED,1987;USGBC,2009;Wilson,2002;Daly,2005;
Robèrt,1997,2002;Kibert,2005),butfewofferactionablesolutionsorimplementation.Inmostcases,current
educationaleffortsoccurinternallywithincompaniesoragencies,oraredirectedtowardchildrenandyoung
adultsinelementaryschoolsthroughcollege.Specificacademicresearchoneitherthesuccessorfailureof
implementingroadwaybasedpublicoutreachprogramsforsustainabilityeducationisdifficulttofind(or,more
likely,itsimplydoesnotexistyet).
124 Educational Outreach PR-11

Roadwayspresentauniqueopportunitytointeractwiththeirmainstakeholder,thepublic,throughoutthelifeof
theproject.Over100hoursperpersonperyeararespentcommutingtoworkintheUnitedStates(Buckner&
Gonzales,2005).Thisexceedstheamountofpersonalvacationtimeformosttraditionalsalariedpositions,istwice
aslongasspringbreaksformostschools,andistwotofivetimestheamountoftimethatmoststatesrequirefor
ContinuingEducationUnits(CEU)forlicensedprofessionalslikeengineers,doctors,andlawyers.Clearly,time
spentonaroadwayprovidesampleopportunityforExposuretodifferentsustainabilitytopics,aswellastimefor
reflection,repetitionandreinforcementonanearlydailybasisformostcommuters.However,whentheproject
ownershipchangesintothepublichands,oftenanylearningopportunitiespertainingtotheproject(suchashowa
newpavementtechnologywasimplemented,howenergyusewasreducedinthelighting,orwhattypesof
stormwatertreatmentswereused)arelost.
Inadditiontoinstitutionallearning,professionalandtechnicalorganizationsalsoplayavitalroleinfurthering
knowledgeofsustainabilitythroughouttheirmembership.OrganizationsliketheTransportationResearchBoard
(TRB),whosemissionstatementisorientedtowardpromotinginformationexchangeandinterdisciplinaryresearch
(TRB,2009),andothergovernmentbodiespromotecontinuingeducationofthetransportationprofessional
community.Conferencepresentations,technicalpapers,andpresentationstolocalschoolsareallconsideredtobe
worthwhileeffortsmadetoforwardsustainabilityeducationthroughoutreach.
Finally,ratingsystemslikeGreenroadsofferuniqueopportunitiesforagenciesandorganizationstotrackand
measureinternalprocesses.Usingasustainabilityratingsystemisasimplewaytomeasureprogressand
improvementsoverthelongtermandstimulateinnovationwithinanagency.Casestudiescanprovidevaluable
snapshotsofoverallperformanceontheprojectandbeusedtodevelopagencyspecificbenchmarksfor
sustainabilityforfutureprojects.
PrecedenceinBuildings
TheLEED®GreenBuildingRatingSystemawardsonepointinallofitsratingsystemprogramsforinstitutinga
projectorientedEducationalOutreachprogramthatmeetstheintentofthecreditcategorycalledInnovationin
Design,whichrewardssuperiorperformanceandcreativeimplementationofideasortechnologies(USGBC,2008).
Thiscreditawardedforthebuiltenvironmentestablishesprecedencefortheneed,validityandacceptanceofsuch
educationalprogramsandpublicawarenessprograms.Transportationandinfrastructurehaveasimilarneedfor
suchprecedence.
Further,thoughusingabuildingasamodelforcostofroadwaysisnotideal,theavailabilityofaneducational
opportunitysuchasaroadsidepointofinterestorsignsliningthestreetmaybeperceivedasalargevalueadded
benefitforthepublicataveryminimaladdedcosttothedesignbudget.Acostanalysisofsucheducational
programs,signageand/ordisplaysincorporatedinLEEDratedbuildings(usingagenericbuildingmodel)showed
onlyminoraddedcostsforimplementationtotheprojectbottomline(StevenWinterAssociates,2004).
Additionally,thisstudyshowedthatmostofthesecostsare“softcosts”thataretypicallyadministrativeinnature.
Theprimarymodeofestablishingandcommunicatingpublicvaluesintransportationandinfrastructureis
consensusbasedpoliticalmandateorotherregulatoryrulings.Also,afederalmandatewasrecentlyinstitutedfor
highperformanceandgreenbuildingsasExecutiveOrder(EO)13423:StrengtheningFederalEnvironmental,
Energy,andTransportationManagement(2007).EOSection3(c)makesfederalagencyleadsaccountablefor
establishmentofinternalagencyprogramsforenvironmentaltraining,includingmanagement,complianceand
audit,andleadershiprecognition.Thiscouldbeconsideredapremonitionformandatedsustainabilitytrainingand
educationinroadwaysystemprojectsandforinternalprogramsintransportationagenciesandorganizations.
Ongoingsustainabilityeducationprogramscanteachpeopletounderstandtheconsequencesoftheiractions,
suchastheimpactofpersonalresourceuse,andtorelatetheirvaluesandbehaviorstocurrentpoliticaland
environmentalconditions(Palmer,1998).Roadsarehighlyaccessibletothepublic;thus,roadscanofferacreative
meansofexposuretosustainabilityconceptswhichcanhelpusersmakemoreinformeddecisionsregarding
sustainabilityintheirdailylives,communitiesandcultures.Greenroadsaddseducationasanothersteptoward
establishingaconnectionbetweenpeopleandtheplacesthattheylive,travel,workandrecreate.
PR-11 Educational Outreach 125

GLOSSARY
EO UnitedStatesExecutiveOrder
Kiosk Asmallstructurethatcanbeusedtoaccessinformation,suchasanewsstand
orcomputerterminal
LEED LeadershipinEnergy&EnvironmentalDesign,aratingsystemforgreen
buildingsbytheUnitedStatesGreenBuildingCouncil
TRB TransportationResearchBoard
USGBC UnitedStatesGreenBuildingCouncil
REFERENCES
Buckner,S.&Gonzales,J.UnitedStatesCensusBureauPublicInformationOffice.(2005,March30).Americans
spendmorethan100hourscommutingtoworkeachyear,CensusBureaureports.U.S.CensusNews[Press
Release].RetrievedSeptember29,2010from
http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/american_community_survey_acs/cb05ac02.html
Daly,H.E.(2005).Economicsinafullworld.ScientificAmerican.293(3),1007.
Edwards,A.R.(2005).Thesustainabilityrevolution:Portraitofaparadigmshift.Gabriola,BC:NewSociety.
Exec.OrderNo.13,42372Fed.Reg.(2007).(tobecodifiedat3C.F.R.§102)
Howard/SteinHudsonAssociates,Inc.andParsonsBrinckerhoffQuadeandDouglas.(1996,September).Public
involvementfortransportationdecisionmaking.(FHWAPD96031)Washington,DC:U.S.Dept.of
Transportation,FederalHighwayAdministration.PostedDecember1996.RetrievedOctober12,2009from
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/REPORTS/PITTD/contents.htm.
Kibert,C.(2005).Sustainableconstruction:greenbuildingdesignanddelivery(1sted.).HobokenN.J.:JohnWiley&
Sons.
Palmer,J.(1998).Environmentaleducationinthe21stcentury:theory,practice,progressandpromise.London,UK;
NewYork,NY:Routledge.
Robèrt,K.H.(2002).Thenaturalstepstory:seedingaquietrevolution.GabriolaIsland,BC:NewSociety
Publishers.
StevenWinterAssociates,Inc.(2004,October).GSALEEDCostStudy:FinalReport.U.S.GeneralServices
AdministrationDoc.No.GS11P99MAD0565/P0002CY0065.Washington,DC:U.S.GovernmentPrinting
Office.RetrievedOctober12,2009fromhttp://www.wbdg.org/ccb/GSAMAN/gsaleed.pdf
TransportationResearchBoard.(2009).EducationandTrainingResearchatTRB.EducationandTraining.Retrieved
October15,2009fromhttp://www.trb.org/EducationTraining/Public/EducationandTraining1.aspx
U.S.GreenBuildingCouncil.(2008b,March21).USGBC:LEEDReferenceDocuments.LEEDIDCreditCatalog.
RetrievedDecember11,2008,fromhttp://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=3569
UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,42ndSession.(1987,August4).ReportoftheWorldCommissionon
EnvironmentandDevelopment(WCED):“OurCommonFuture.”(A/42/427).AnnextoOfficialRecord.Geneva,
Switzerland,1987.(Masthead).RetrievedNovember2,2008,from
http://www.worldinbalance.net/agreements/1987brundtland.php
Wilson,E.O.(2002).Thefutureoflife(1sted.).NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.
126 Educational Outreach PR-11

ENVIRONMENT & WATER



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Environment & Water
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

GOAL EW-1
Improveenvironmentalstewardshipbyusingacontractorthathasaformal
environmentalmanagementprocess.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS 2 POINTS

Theprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirmshallhavea
documentedenvironmentalmanagementsystem(EMS)fortheentirecompanyorat
leasttheportion(s)ofthecompanyparticipatingintheproject.TheEMSmustbein
placeforthedurationofprojectconstruction.Asaminimum,theEMSandits RELATED CREDITS
documentationshallmeettherequirementsofInternationalStandardsOrganization 9 PR1Environmental
(ISO)14001:2004. ReviewProcess
9 PR10Site
Details MaintenancePlan
9 CA1Quality
Theprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirmis
ManagementSystem
consideredtohaveadocumentedEMSifithas:
9 CA2Environmental
Training
x ISO14001:2004certification.
x AnEMSthatmeetsISO14001:2004requirementsbutisnotformallycertified.
SUSTAINABILITY
DOCUMENTATION COMPONENTS
Submitone(1)ofthefollowingitems: 9 Ecology
9 Extent
1. DocumentationoftheISO14001:2004certificationfortheprimecontractor, 9 Expectations
designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirm. 9 Experience
2. Acopyoftheprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirm’s 9 Exposure
EMSdocumentationtoinclude:
BENEFITS
x Environmentalpolicy 9 ReducesWaterUse
x Environmentalobjectivesandtargets 9 ReducesFossilFuel
x Identifiedregulatoryrequirementsandcompliancewithrequirements Use
x Definedrolesandresponsibilities 9 ReducesRaw
x Employeetrainingplan Materials
x Listingofdocumentedprocesses 9 ReducesAir
x Preventiveactions Emissions
x Correctiveactions 9 ReducesGreenhouse
x Emergencyprocedures Gases
9 ReducesWater
Pollution
9 ReducesSolidWaste
9 ImprovesHuman
Health&Safety
9 Improves
Accountability

EW-1 Environmental Management System 129

Environment & Water Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

x HaveaprimecontractorwithISO14001:2004.
x HaveaprimecontractorwithadocumentedEMSthatmeetstherequirementsofISO14001:2004.
Example: Environmental Management System (EMS) Manuals

WhileitisnotpossibletopresentanentireEMS,therearemanyexamplesofkeyEMSdocumentsavailableon
theWebincludingthefollowingEMSmanuals:
x U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,PhiladelphiaOffice:
http://www.epa.gov/region03/ems/philly_manual.htm
x RobinsAirForceBase:http://205.153.241.230/ems/basics/emsrobins.pdf
x TheCityofSanDiego(containsPowerPointpresentationsonkeyISO14001facets):
http://www.sandiego.gov/environmentalservices/ems/emp_manual.shtml
x MassHighway:http://www.mhd.state.ma.us/downloads/projdev/emsmanual.pdf
x NorthCarolinaDepartmentofEnvironmentandNaturalResources(theyhaveagenericguideEMSmanual
forusebythosewishingtocreateone):http://www.p2pays.org/ref/08/07378/0737829.pdf
x TheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)maintainsanEMS
implementationguidewebsiteat:
http://environment.transportation.org/documents/ems_implementation_guide.asp.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. SmallerfirmsmaynotbeabletoaffordtheISOcertificationprocess.
2. DocumentationofanEMSisnotthesamehashavinganeffectiveEMS;howevercollectionofdocumentation
(inlieuofanactualaudit)isanefficientwayofgatheringevidenceofaneffectiveEMS.
RESEARCH
AccordingtoISO(2009)anEMSisamanagementtoolthat“…providesaframeworkforaholistic,strategic
approachtotheorganization'senvironmentalpolicy,plansandactions.”Oneofthemorecomprehensive
descriptionsofsuchasystemcomesfromISOintheir14000familyofstandards.
ISO14000
TheISO14000familyofdocumentsaddressesvariousaspectsofenvironmentalmanagement.ISO14001andISO
14004specificallyaddressEMSrequirementsandguidelinesrespectively.Essentially,itisaformaldescriptionof
anEMSandallthatisinvolvedinitscreation,implementationanduse.TheISOisastandardpublishingbody
similartoASTMInternationalortheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).
Certification:ISO14001
TherequirementsforcertificationarecontainedinISO14001.Therefore,organizationsarecertifiedin
accordancewithISO14001;thenumberisappendedwiththeyearofthestandardthatappliedwhenthe
organizationwascertified.ThemostcurrentversionisISO14001:2004.
ISOdoesnotcertifyorganizationsitself.Mostcountrieshaveformedformalgroupsor“certificationbodies,”
whichauditorganizationsapplyingforISO14001certification.Throughmutualagreementsthesebodies
ensurethatcertificationauditstandardsarerelativelythesameworldwide.Certification,oncegranted,must
berenewedatstandardintervals,oftenthreeyears.
ISOdoesnotrequirecertificationandmanyorganizationsjustchoosetofollowISO14000requirementsbut
foregocertification.However,itiscommonpracticeinmanypartsoftheworld(e.g.,WesternEurope,China,
India,etc.)torequireISOcertificationasaprerequisitefordoingbusiness.Therefore,countriesthatrequire
thisusuallyseethehighestcertificationrates.
130 Environmental Management System EW-1

ArgumentsforCertification
Argumentsforcertificationtypicallycitethegeneralideathatproperandactivemanagementofacompany’s
impactontheenvironmentcanresultinbetterregulatorycompliance,betterbusinessopportunities,less
impactontheenvironmentandimprovedsafety.Typicallytheseitemsaremeasuredbycountingregulatory
violations,marketshare,salesgrowth,reducedinjuriesandothermetrics.
ArgumentsagainstCertification
Opponentsofcertificationarguethattheactualactofcertificationandexistenceofdocumentationdonot,in
andofthemselves,guaranteeimprovedenvironmentalimpacts.Further,theypointoutthatISO14001
certificationcanbeanexpensiveandburdensomeprocessthatdoesnotnecessarilyproduceresults.
CertificationCost
AccordingtoChristinietal.(2004),itcostonemajorU.S.constructionfirmabout$1milliontoachieve
certification.Mostresearch(e.g.,Zengetal.2003;Oforietal.;2000)tendstoinvestigatereasonsforISO14000
adoptionandnottheactualcost.
WorldwideISO14001Certification
Datafrom2006showworldwideISO14001certificationsat129,199in140differentcountriesandgrowing(Figure
EW1.1).InDecember2006theU.S.had5,585certifications,whichrankedseventhworldwide(FigureEW1.2).ISO
14001certificationisfarmorecommoninEuropeandEasternAsiawith44%and41%ofworldwidecertifications
respectively.NorthAmerica(consistingofonlytheU.S.,CanadaandMexico)comprisedalmost6%ofthe
worldwidetotal.
135,000
129,199
NumberofISO14001Certifications Worldwide
130,000
125,000
120,000
115,000
111,162
110,000
105,000
100,000
2005 2006
Year

FigureEW1.1:ISO14001certificationworldwidegrowth20052006(datafromISO2006).


NumberofISO14001Certifications inDecember2006
5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Japan 22,593
China 18,842
Spain 11,125
Italy 9,825
UK 6,070
SouthKorea 5,893
USA 5,585
Germany 5,415
Sweden 4,411
France 3,047

FigureEW1.2:Top10countriesintermsofnumberofISO14001certificationsin2006(datafromISO2006).

ISO14001CertificationintheU.S.ConstructionIndustry
ISO14000enjoysgrowingworldwidepopularity,howeverrelativelyfewU.S.constructionfirmsarecertified
(Christinietal.2004).ReasonsforthelowpopularityintheU.S.aresomewhatnonspecificbutperhapscanbe
attributedtoalackofanygovernmentrequirement,noinsistencebyclients,implementationcosts,anda
subcontractingsystemthatmakesitdifficulttouseanEMSonaparticularjob(Tse2001).
EvidencetosupportthepositiveoutcomesofISO14001certificationgenerallycomesfromsurveysorcasestudies
ofcontractorsthatarelargelyalreadyISOcertified(e.g.,Christinietal.2004;ValdezandChini2002;Oforietal.
2000)orsegregatethecertifiedfirmsandthenaskthemwhatthebenefitsweretheywereseekingincertification
(Zengetal.2003).ItisnotsurprisingthatresultsindicateageneralbenefittoISO14001certification.Evenso,
thereisevidencetosuggestthatISO14000canreducelandfilledwasteandproducefinancialsavings(Christiniet
al.2004).
GLOSSARY
ISO InternationalStandardsOrganization
EMS environmental managementsystem
REFERENCES
Christini,G.,Fetsko,M.,andHendrickson,C.(2004).EnvironmentalManagementSystemsandISO14001
CertificationforConstructionFirms.JournalofConstructionEngineeringandManagement,130(3),330336.
InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO).(2004).ISO14001:2004Environmentalmanagementsystems
Requirementswithguidanceforuse.ISO,Geneva,Switzerland.
InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO).(2009).ISO14000essentials.ISOwebsite.
http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_14000_essentials.Accessed11January2010.

Ofori,G.,Briffett,C.,Gang,G.,andRanasinghe,M.(2000).ImpactofISO14000onconstructionenterprisesin
Singapore.ConstructionManagementandEconomics,18,935–947.
Tse,R.Y.C.(2001).TheimplementationofEMSinconstructionfirms:casestudyinHongKong.J.Environ.
AssessmentPolicyManagement,3(2),177194.
Valdez,H.E.andChini,A.R.(2002).ISO14000StandardsandtheUSConstructionIndustry.Commentary.
EnvironmentalPractice,4,10–219.
Zeng,S.X.,Tam,C.M.,Deng,Z.M.andTam,V.W.Y.(2003).ISO14000andtheConstructionIndustry:Surveyin
China.JournalofManagementinEngineering,19(3),107115.



RUNOFF FLOW CONTROL

GOAL EW-2
Mimicpredevelopmenthydrologicalconditionsintherightofway(ROW)andminimize
offsitestormwatercontrols.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS 1-3 POINTS

1. Developastormwatermanagementplanforthesiteusingstormwaterbest
managementpractices(BMPs)forflowcontrol.Explicitlystatethegoalsofthisplan
andhowperformancewillbemeasured.
2. Uselowimpactdevelopment(LID)BMPstothemaximumextentfeasibleas RELATED CREDITS
determinedinProjectRequirementPR8byalicensedprofessional. 9 PR8LowImpact
3. Computethe90thpercentileaverageannualrainfalleventvaluesforthefollowing Development
predevelopmentandpostconstructionconditions: 9 PR10Site
x VpreROW=insideROWpredevelopmentvolumeofrunoff MaintenancePlan
x Vpreout=outsideROWpredevelopmentvolumeofrunon 9 EW3RunoffQuality
x Vtotalpre=VpreROW+Vpreout=totalpredevelopmentvolume 9 EW4Stormwater
x Qpre=predevelopmentflowratemeasuredatwaterbodyreceivingeffluent CostAnalysis
fromthesite,basedonVtotalpre
x VpostROW=insideROWpostconstructionvolumeofrunoff SUSTAINABILITY
x Vpostout=outsideROWpostconstructionvolumeofrunon COMPONENTS
x Vtotalpost=VpostROW+Vpostout=totalpostconstructionvolume
x Qpost=postconstructionflowratemeasuredatthesamelocationasQpre,based 9 Ecology
onVtotalpost 9 Extent
4. ProvideBMPsforstormwaterflowcontrol.Listthetypes,manufacturers,total
volumesandflowratescontrolledbyBMPswithintheROWoroutsideoftheROW. BENEFITS
5. DemonstratethattheplannedBMPsmeetthefollowingflowcontrolcriteria: 9 ReducesWater
x BMPsconformtoallapplicableminimumflowcontrolstandardsforall Pollution
effluentleavingtheROWsetbythegoverningjurisdictionforvolume,flow 9 ReducesSolidWaste
controlandtimeofconcentration.Statetheminimumrequirements,including 9 ReducesManmade
criticalerosiveflowcriteria,andprovidereferenceddocumentorpolicy. Footprint
x RV=RatioofVolumeAchieved=Vtotalpost/Vtotalpre1.20
x RF=RatioofFlowRateAchieved=Qpost/Qpre1.20
x PointsareawardedperTableEW2.1basedontypeofalignment,locationof
BMPsandlevelofcontrolachieved.UseRVandRF,whicheverishigher,to
determineifpointshavebeenearned.
TableEW2.1:PointsforFlowControlAchievement
Typeof Locationof VtotalpostIncludes HigherofRV orRF
Alignment BMPs Runon? 1.20 – 1.10 1.10 – 1.00 1.00
New WithinROW No 0 0 2
Yes 0 0 3
OutofROW No 0 0 1
Yes 0 0 2
Existing WithinROW No 0 1 2
Yes 1 2 3
OutofROW No 0 0 1
Yes 0 1 2
EW-2 Runoff Flow Control 135

Details
Stormwaterflowsaremeasuredbyflowrate,timeofconcentration,andvolume.“Predevelopmentconditions”
aretheestimatedvaluesofthesethreevariablesthatexistedintheROWatapriortimerelativetoregional
historic,naturalorundevelopedconditionsasdefinedbythegoverninglocalwatershedauthority.Ifnolocal
authorityornoexistingdefinition,usethedefinitionforgreen,grayandbrownfieldsprovidedinthe2009
SustainableSitesInitiative(SSI)Credit3.5“Managestormwateronsite.”Whilecontinuousstormwater
simulationmodelsaremostappropriateforthiscredit,themodifiedcurvenumbersprovidedinSSICredit3.5
maybeusedtosimplifycalculations.“Postconstruction”meanstheexpectedperformanceofthedesigned
BMPsinthestormwatermanagementplan.
DOCUMENTATION
Acopyoftheexecutivesummaryoftheprojectdrainagedesignreportthatincludes,atminimum,thefollowing:
x Shortnarrativethataddresseseachofthecreditrequirements.
Asneeded,supportingcalculationsforrunoffareas,runoffvolume(outputfromanyrainfallmodelingsoftware
usedisadequate),andtreatmentlevelsmayberequested.

x TheSustainableSitesInitiative(2009)modifiedcurvenumber(CN)approachisacceptableandmaybeusedto
achievethiscredit.Newalignmentsandrehabilitation(orwidening)ofruralroadswillfallunder“greenfield"
CNswhilealmostallotherprojectswilluse“grayfield”CNs.(Seeadditionalnotesinthe“PotentialIssues”
section.)TheguidelinesforSustainableSitesareavailablehere:http://www.sustainablesites.org/report/
x Preservenativevegetation.
x Protectsoilswithgoodinfiltrationcapacity.
x Minimizecompactionofsoilstopreservenaturalinfiltrationcapacity.
x Distributestormwatercontrolsthroughouttheprojectareainsteadofusingafewrelativelylargecentralized
facilities.
x Assessthefeasibilityofinfiltrationandevapotranspirationtoreducetheneedfordetentionpondsoutsidethe
rightofway.
x Reducelandareaimpactsbyavoidingtheuseoftraditionaldetentionponds.
Example: Northshore Drive, Bellingham, WA - Case Study

TheNorthshoreDriveprojectislocatedintheSilverBeachareaoftheCityofBellingham,Washingtononthe
northshoreofLakeWhatcom.TheprojectincludesallofNorthshoreDrivefromtheDakinStreetintersection
totheBrittonRoadintersection.ThedesignwaslooselybasedonarecentprojectbytheCityofOlympiacalled
RWJohnsonBoulevardthatusedporousbikelanesandsidewalksalongatraditionalroadway.Northshore
Drivereceivedanasphaltoverlayaftersurfacegrindingtheexistingroadwayandmakingminoralignment
modifications.Lanewidthswerereducedto11feettoaccommodatenewbikelanesandsidewalks.Anew
stormwaterdrainagesystemwasalsoinstalled.
1. CalculatePerviousandImperviousArea
AlabamaAvetoSilverBeachStore
Totalsegmentlength=2450ft
Totalwidthofcrosssection=37.5ft
Existing: 29ftimpervioushotmixasphalt(HMA) Area1=29ftx2,450ft=71,050sf

8.5ftofperviousgrass/gravel Area2=8.5ftx2,450ft=20,825sf

136 Runoff Flow Control EW-2

Proposed: 22.5ftimperviousHMA,intersections,aprons,curb Area3=22.5ftx2,450ft=55,125sf

15ftperviousHMA Area4=15ftx2,450ft=36,750sf

Totalnewandreplacedimpervioussurfaceforsegment=Area3=55,125sf
Decreaseinimpervioussurfaceforsegment=Area1–Area3=15,925sf
SilverBeachStoretoBrittonRoad
Totalsegmentlength=1,550ft
Totalwidthofcrosssection=29ft(excludesexistinggutterpan)
Existing: 27ftimperviousHMA Area5=29ftx1,550ft=41,850sf

2ftofperviousgrass/gravel Area6=2ftx1,550ft=3,100sf

Proposed: 29ftimperviousHMA Area7=29ftx1,550ft=44,950sf

Totalnewandreplacedimpervioussurfaceforsegment=Area7=44,950sf
Increaseinimpervioussurfaceforsegment=Area7–Area5=Area6=3,100sf
ProjectTotals
TotalExistingImperviousSurface=Area1+Area5=112,900sf
TotalNewandReplacedImperviousSurface=Area3+Area7=100,075sf
9 NetChangeinImperviousSurface=112,900sf–100,075sf=12,825sf(Decrease)
TotalExistingPerviousSurface=23,925sf
TotalNewPerviousSurface=36,750sf
9 NetChangeinPerviousSurface=36,750sf–23,925sf=12,825sf(Increase)
2. MinimumRequirementsfrom2008WSDOTHighwayRunoffManual(HRM)
Figures3.1,3.2,and3.3oftheHRMareusedtodeterminetheminimumrequirementsapplicablefora
project.*Section32.2oftheHRMlistspossibleexceptionsforthisproject.**Nospecialexceptionsapplybut
theprojectdischargesdirectlyintoanexemptwaterbody(LakeWhatcom)whichdoesnothaveflowcontrol
requirements.However,WSDOTrequiresthatregardlessofanexemption,onsiteBMPsneedtobeusedto
infiltrateasmuchrunoffasreasonablypossible.
3. DetermineFlowControlValues
Timeofconcentration,flowratesandrunoffvolumeswerenotrequiredtobecomputedforexemptprojects
forflowcontrol,norweretheycomputedforqualitytreatmentpurposesbecauseanetdecreaseinimpervious
surfaceoccurred.
4. ApplyStormwaterBestManagementPractices
Thisprojectusedpermeablepavementswithunderdrainsforbikelanesandsidewalks.Infiltrationratesare
showninTableEW2.2fromtheprojectgeotechnicalreport.
TableEW2.2:Estimatedlongtermdesigninfiltrationrates(NorthshoreGeotechnicalreport)
USDATextural InfiltrationRate
SampleDepth
Classification (in/hr)***
T.P.1@2.0’3.0’ Loam 0.13
T.P.4@1.5’2.5’ SandyLoam 0.25
5. DetermineFlowControlAchieved
SincetotalimpervioussurfaceontheprojectwasreducedfromexistingsurfaceareasandBMPs,greaterthan

100%ofpredevelopmentflowcontrolratesandvolumeswereachieved.Theprojectearns3points.
Notes:
*Thesefiguresmakeupadecisiontreeusedtoguidetheengineerintheapplicableminimumrequirementswhendesigningastormwater
managementfacilitybasedonknownsurfaceareas,relativeperviousness,andpollutiongeneratingcapacity.
**Generally,iftheamountofimpervioussurfacesisgreaterthanaspecifiedminimumvalue,certainrequirementsmustbeappliedtothat
impervioussurface.Thesevaluesarecalled“minimumrequirements.”
***IncludestherecommendedcorrectionfactorspresentedintheSWMM.

Figure1:NorthshoreDriveinBellingham,Washington.Cyclistsusingpermeablepavementbikelanesadjacentto
permeablesidewalk.PhotobyC.Weiland


Example: Bioswale with Flow Control Weirs

FigureEW2.2showsasetofstreetsideflowcontrolweirsinabioswaleBMP.Thisswaleprovidesflowcontrol
benefitsofincreasedinfiltration,increasedretention,andflowattenuation.

FigureEW2.2:Abioswalewithflowcontrolweirs.(PhotobyJ.Anderson)
Example: Continuous Modeling Scenarios

Theeffectoflowimpactdevelopment(LID)stormwatercontrolstowardrestoringtheoriginalhydrologycanbe
illustratedanalyzingtheerosivepotentialofflowsundervariousscenarios.Streamerosioniscausedby
excessiveshearstressappliedbytheflowonthestreambanksandbed.Forthisexample,asuiteofLID
methodsweremodeledaspartofanalternativesstudyforroadwayrealignmentandassociatedstormwater
managementoptionsfortheInterstate70expansionproject.
FigureEW2.3onthefollowingpageshowstheaveragedistributionofshearstressinastreamnearColumbia,
Missouri.Ideally,thedistributionafterdevelopmentshouldremainclosetothepredevelopmentcurve.The
graphicshowsseveralkeythings:
x Detentionbasinsdesignedtocontrolextremeevents(e.g.,thosewithreturnperiodsof2to100years)do
littletorestoretheshearstressdistributionwhencomparedwiththepostdevelopedscenario.
x Basinsdesignedtocontrolwaterqualityandprotectchannels(i.e.,designedforthe1yearstorm)dolower
theshearstressbutnotablychangethedistributionovertime.
x Inthisspecificcase,LIDcontrols,althoughstillnotexactlyreplicatingthepredevelopmentcondition,
affordtheclosestmatch.
FigureEW2.3wascreatedwithCH2MHILL’sLIFE™continuousmodelingsoftwareforLIDrunoffcontrols.


POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Therearenumerousmethodstocalculaterunoffvolume.Manyareapplicabletostormsoflargemagnitude
andunderestimatetherunoffgeneratedbysmallstorms,whichoccurmorefrequentlyandrepresentmostof
theannualrunoffvolume.Averageannualrunoffvolumeshavebeenspecifiedforuseinallofthestormwater
relatedcreditsinGreenroadstoprovideconsistencybetweencredits.
2. TheLIDevaluationprocessthatisrequiredtomeetProjectRequirementPR8doesnotrequireanaverage
annualrunoffmodel.Infact,itrecommendstheuseofdesignstormstomodelpeakflow.Thispracticeisnow
outdatedandthepreferredapproachtorunoffquantitymanagementisthroughflowcontrolmethods.(Cityof
Seattle,2009)
3. Continuousmodelingcanbetimeintensiveandcostlyandthiscanvarygreatlybetweenprojectsandbysizeof
project.The2009SustainableSitesInitiative(SSI)providesanalternativemodelthatcanbeusedtomeetthe
intentofthiscredit.ItisbasedontheoldTR55softwaremodelfromtheNationalResourceConservation
Service(NRCS)incombinationwithacontinuousmodelingprogrambasedontheStormwaterManagement
Model(SWMM)softwarebytheEPA.The2009SSIcreditprovideschartsandtargetcurvenumbersfor
achievingcertainpointsinthatratingsystem.(Ingeneral,probablyagoodruleofthumbisthatpointsforthe
SSIcreditareworth5,7,and10pointswhichprobablycorrespondto1,2,and3pointsinGreenroads,
respectively.However,Greenroadsalsorequiressupportingcalculationstoshowthatflowcontrol
performanceguidelineshavebeenmetaccordingtothiscreditandtodatenoprojectshaveattemptedthis
creditortheSSIapproach.)
4. Anymodelsthatareusedinherentlyhavesomelimitationsandassumptions.Somearebetterthanothers
dependingonprojectlocation.Thiscreditdefaultstotheintegrityofthedesignertochoosetheappropriate
modelingsoftware.
RESEARCH
Alteringtheimperviousnessofthelandtomakewayforroadscanhavemajorimpactsonthephysicaland
chemicalintegrityofawatershed(Southerland,1994;FormanandAlexander,1998;EnvironmentalProtection
Agency:EPA,2007).ThisGreenroadscreditprimarilyaddresseschangestophysicalintegrityofwatershedsbased
onphysicalquantitiesofrunoffgeneratedbyaroadway;however,manyofthetopicsareinherentlytiedtowater
qualityissuesbecauseallbestmanagementpracticesthataddressflowcontrolalsoaddresswaterquality(Quigley
etal.,2009).CreditEW3RunoffQualityaddresseschemicalrunoffcharacteristics(waterquality)whileanoften
ignoredcomponentofwatershedhealth,biologicalintegrity,isaddressedbyCreditEW6HabitatRestoration.
PhysicalImpactsfromStormwaterRunoff
Thegeneralrelationshipbetweenvolumeofwaterandvelocityofflowsonstreambedsseemsintuitive—more
waterandfasterflowsmeansmoreerosionandthushighersedimentloads—however,therelationshipbetween
volume,pollutant(sediment)transport,andaquaticbiologicalintegrityisactuallyquitecomplex.Muchofthis
complexitystemsfromthescaleoftheproblem.Toillustratethisissue,in2007,therewereactuallymoremilesof
roadwayintheUnitedStates(almost4.1million)thanthereweredocumentedriverandcoastalandlakeshoreline
miles(about3.6million)(FederalHighwayAdministration:FHWA,2008;EPA,2010).TheEPAnotes(2007):
“Theeffectthataroadnetworkhasonstreamnetworkslargelydependsontheextenttowhichthe
networksareinterconnected.Roadnetworkscanbehydrologicallyconnectedtostreamnetworks
whereroadsurfacerunoffisdelivereddirectlytostreamchannels(atstreamcrossingsorviaditches
orgulliesthatdirectflowofftheroadintoastream)andwhereroadcutstransformsubsurfaceflow
intosurfaceflow(inroadditchesoronroadsurfacesthatdeliversedimentandwatertostreams
muchmorequicklythanwithoutaroadpresent).Thecombinedeffectsofthesedrainagenetwork
connectionsareincreasedsedimentationandpeakflowsthatarehigherandarrivemorequickly
afterstorms.Thiscanleadtoincreasedinstreamerosionandstreamchannelchanges,especiallyin
smallwatersheds.”

FigureEW2.3belowshowshowinterconnectedbothofthesesystemsactuallyareintheUnitedStates.Notethat
thescaleofthisimageonlyallowsalevelofdetailthatshowsmajorInterstatesandmajorwatershedstreams;
localorarterialroadsandsmallerwatershedsarenotshown:thesesmallerwatershedsaremostsensitiveto
nearbyroadwayprojectimpacts.

FigureEW2.3:UnitedStatesstreams(blue)andtheInterstatehighwaysystem(lightred).(Enviromapper,n.d.)

FigureEW2.3suggeststhatasignificantamountofhydromodificationisattributabletoroadways.
HydromodificationisatermusedbytheEPAtomean“alterationofthehydrologiccharacteristicsofcoastaland
noncoastalwaters,whichinturncouldcausedegradationofwaterresources.”(EPA,2007)Hydromodification
encompassesriverengineeringactivitiesforimprovingriverchannels(i.e.dredging)andalsobuildingdams.Italso
includesforestrypractices,recreationandindustrialuse,constructionsitesandotherpointsourceactivities,anda
plethoraofurbanrunoffissuesincludingstreamrestorationpractices(EPA,2010).Roadsareinnatelytiedtoeach
oftheseactivities.
Theprimaryconcernswithhydromodificationare:
x Pollutantgenerationandtransport
x Habitatdegradationandlossofhabitat
x Speciesloss
x Streambankslopestability
x Erosionofchannelsorchangesinflowpathofstreams
x Flooding
Amajorityoftheliteratureregardingstormwatermanagementandroadsandbridgesaddressestheissuesof
waterpollution(waterquality)andcontrollingpollutanttransport.Importantly,sedimentisconsideredtobeone
oftheprimarypollutantsforwaterbodiesthatthreatenaquatichabitatsandspecies(EPA,2008).Together,these
issuescanbroadlybetermed“watershedhealth."(Pollutantsandimpactsassociatedwithpollutionarediscussed
furtherinCreditEW3.Itisimportanttonotethataneffectiveflowcontrolmeasurealsohasthecobenefitof
reducingpollutantloadsduetothehierarchicalnatureofphysicalprocesses.Additionally,notethatsomebest
managementpracticesappliedforflowcontroloffermoreeffectivemitigationofpollutantsthanothers.)
Watershedhealthisdirectlyrelatedtonearbyeffectiveimpervioussurface.(EPA,2008;TilleyandSlonecker,2007;
CityofSeattle,2009;EPA,2010)Itfollowsthatwatershedhealthisdirectlyrelatedtomanagementofstormwater
runoffquantitiesgeneratedbythoseimpervioussurfaces.

Bankstability,erosionandflooding,however,areprimarilyflowcontrolconcernsassociatedwithphysicalimpacts
ofrunoff,notquality.Theseareoftenconsidered“drainageissues”andhavehistoricallybeentheprimary
applicationofstormwatermanagementgovernedbyEPApermitsupuntil1987,whenrunoffqualitycametobe
addressedaswell.(PittandMaestre,2005)Thesephysicalattributesofrunoffcanimpactsensitivewatershed
habitatsandaquaticlifeinbothurbanandruralenvironments(Southerland,1994;CityofSeattle,2009).For
example,“Whenastreamchangesitsphysicalconfigurationandsubstrateduetoincreasedflows,habitatsare
altered….Thebiologicalcommunitiesinwetlandsarealsoseverelyimpactedandalteredbythehydrological
changes.Relativelysmallchangesinthenaturalwaterelevationfluctuationscancausedramaticshiftsin
vegetativeandanimalspeciescomposition”(CityofSeattle,2009).Furthermore,in2007,approximately73%of
theroadsintheUnitedStatesweredesignatedas“rural”bytheFHWA(2008);43%ofruralroadsareunpaved.
TheEPA(2007)states:
“Roadsbuiltinruralareas,suchasforestandrecreationalroads,alterthenaturallandscapeandcan
destroyriparianhabitat.Ifnotproperlyinstalledandmaintained,thesetypesofroadserodeand
supplyincreasedsedimentandpollutantstoadjacentstreams.Additionally,roadsmayincrease
imperviousness,whichleadstoflashierrunoffevents.Streamcrossingsassociatedwithruralroads
canblockfishpassage,trapdebrisduringstorms,andleadtoincreasedstreambankerosionin
nearbyareas.”
Inurbanenvironments,theproblemissometimesworse.Morewaterandfasterflowsinthiscasemeanthatan
aginginfrastructuresysteminanalreadydegradedwatershedcaneasilybecomeoverloadedwithincreasing
developmentinsurroundingareas.Muchofthestormwaterinfrastructureincitiesisbuiltintandemwithroadsin
thepublicrightofway.Thismeansthat(1)manystormwaterinfrastructureprojectsalsobecomeroadway
projects,andmoreimportantlyforGreenroads,(2)flowcontrolclearlypresentsbothachallengeanda
stormwatermanagementopportunitytoroadwayprojects.
HydromodificationandRoads:TheSmokingGun
TheEPA’sdefinitionofhydromodificationisquitebroad—whileitisimpossibletoisolatehydromodification
impactswithroadwaysaloneforanumberofreasons,itisalsodifficulttoarguethattheydonotcause
hydromodification.Whichiscorrectseemstobeamatterofphilosophicaldebate(FHWA,1990;EPA,2008).
Watercoursesaredynamicbynatureandrespondtostressors,changingpathsanderoding“naturally.”
(Wilcock,PitlickandCui,2009)Thebehaviorofriversandstreamsisultimatelygovernedbyprinciplesof
geomorphologyandhydraulics,notbyhumans.Itappearsthatthecoreissueisoneofvaluesandhowone
definessomethingas“natural.”Forexample,itistruethatmorewaterandfasterflowsaregeneratedfrom
higherlevelsofimpervioussurfaces(MaestreandPitt,2005),whichcanpreventorimpede“natural”
groundwaterrechargeandhaveanumberofthus“unnatural”effectsonstreamflowsinlocalizedareasof
watersheds(EPA,2007;EPA,2008).Itisalsotruehowever,thatevenstreamrestorationactivitiesare
accountedforinthelistofhydromodificationimpactsassociatedwithdegradationofwatersheds(EPA,2008).
So,streampreservationviamanmadecontrolsintendedtorepairastreamtowhatisconsidered“natural”may
actuallyhaveunintendedconsequencesoffurtherdegradation.Thereislittleevidencetoshowthatthestream
wouldnothaveactedthatwayonitsown,buttheconverseisalsotrue.
Thestressorsofconcern,then,arereallyhumanactivitiesthemselves.Inparticular,thestressiscausedby
urbanizationordevelopment(twomoreverybroadterms).Theinteractionbetweenhumanactivitiesandthe
hydrologiccycleisalsocomplex.Itisimportanttonotethatmanyimportantrelationshipsarenotwellenough
understoodtobeabletoquantifythetotalaccountabilityforroadsandbridgesforhydromodificationbeyond
indirectassociation.Manyuncertaintiesandvariabilityarise,forexample,duetolackofunderstandingof:
x Theamountofstreambankerodability(Morrissey,Rizzo,Ross,andYoung,2009)thatoccursdueto
upstreamchanges
x Thelevelofchangebetweensurfaceandbaseflowsassociatedwithdifferenthydrauliccontrols(i.e.storm
Sewers,catchbasinsandponds)(TilleyandSlonecker,2007)

x Amountsofsedimentandsedimenttransportcapacityofdifferenttypesofriverandstreamflows(Wilcock,
PitlickandCui,2009)
x Inconsistenciesandvariabilityinmonitoringandassessmentofwatersheds(Strecker,Mayo,Quigley,and
Howell,2001)
x Thebiologicalintegrityofreceivingwatersheds(CityofSeattle,2009)
Urbanization,HydromodificationandRoads
Development,includingroads,changesthehydrologicprofileofasiteorareausuallybyincreasingthetotal
impervioussurfacearea.ThiscorrelationwasconfirmedinarecentstudybyMaestreandPitt(2005)anda
graphisshowninFigureEW2.4thatillustratestheclearrelationshipbetweenvolumetricrunoffcoefficients
andpercentimperviousnessofasurface.
TheUnitedStatesis5%developedwithrangesofimperviousbetween2080%insomeareas.(EPA,2008)
Thoughpreviouslyestimatedatmuchhigherpercentages,roadsandsidewalksmakeupabout33%ofthetotal
impervioussurfaceinaverageurbanandsuburbanareas(TilleyandSlonecker,2007).Inruralenvironments,up
to100%ofthetotalimpervioussurfaceareacanbeattributedtoroadsandhighwaysdependingonthescale
ofthewatershedbeingstudied.
Therefore,hydromodification(bankstability,erosion,flooding,andrelatedwaterqualityissues)canbedirectly
attributedtoincreasesinrunoffdischargesfromimpervioussurfacesduetourbanization.GregoryandChin
(2002)composedabrieflistthatprovidesagoodsummaryofhowquantitiesofstormwaterdischargeare
relatedtourbanizationandavarietyofhydromodificationhazards.Awarenessoftheseeffectscanassistin
developmentofappropriatestormwatermanagementplans.TheseareshowninFigureEW2.5.

FigureEW2.4:Dischargequantitiesaredirectlyproportionaltoimpervioussurfaces.(Maestre&Pitt,2005)



FigureEW2.5:Urbanchannelhazardsrelatedtourbanizations.(Gregory&Chin,2002)
DesignAlternativesforRoadwayFlowControl
Hydrologicconditionsateachroadwaysitearehighlyvariable,evenwithinthesamesite.Granato,Zenone,and
Cazenas(2003)note“Stormwaterflowsresponddifferentlytodifferenttypesofstormsandmayrespond
differentlytothesametypeofstormindifferentseasonsoftheyear.”Justliketheinterconnectednessof
roadwaysandwatersheds,stormwaterflowcontroldesigncanbecomplexandeasilylendsitselfto
oversimplification.Thisisperhapsexemplifiedwiththefluctuationsforflowcontrolstandardsinthepastthirty
years(CityofSeattle,2009).Avarietyofapproacheshavebeenused,includingpeakflowdesignsthatlimitedflow
ratestocontrolerosiveflows,settingcertainpercentagesofthoseratestothosesupposedtobemore
representativeofpredevelopmentpeaks,andfinallyflowdurationstandards.Thisshiftinpracticerepresenteda
shiftfromeventbasedmethodsatamicroscaleleveltocontinuoussimulationmodelingatawatershedscale.
Typically,allowableregulatorylevelsforcertainflowsandcertaintypesofroadwayprojectsaresetand“flow
control”reallymeansapredeterminedsuiteorrangeofallowableflowvolumes,ratesandtimestoconcentration
thatareconsideredtoposeanacceptableriskoferosionreceivingwaters.(CityofSeattle,2009)Thesethreshold
levelsareprimarilydetermined“basedontheamountofnewandreplacedimpervioussurfaces,…whichcanalso
bedependentonthetypeofproject,sizeofproject,andthedrainagebasininwhichtheprojectislocated.”(City
ofSeattle,2009)Thereisamountingbodyofevidencehowevertosuggestthatsingleeventdesignapproaches
areinsufficienttomaintainstreambankandchannelintegrityandstructure.(CityofSeattle,2009;Bledsoe,2002;
Huberetal.2006).Bledsoe(2002)notes:

Tofullyaddressthepotentialforchannelresponse,itisnecessarytoexpandstandarddesign
approachestoaddressthetemporaldistributionoferosiveforcesrelativetobothbedmaterialsand
bankconditions.Singleeventtechniquesformaintainingthecumulativebedloadtransportvolume,
unlessmodifiedtoaccountfordifferentialtransportbysizefractionsacrossabroaderrangeofflow
events,mayalterpredevelopmentfluvialprocessesandaffectchannelmorphologyandthequalityof
instreamhabitat.Giventhesensitivityoffinegrainedstreamstoinflowingbedmaterialload,
reproducingthepredevelopmenthydrographwillnotnecessarilyensurestabilityifthereisa
sufficientlongtermreductioninsedimentdelivery.Thus,stormwatermanagementstrategiesshould
becarefullyweighedintermsoftheirlongtermgeomorphicimplicationsinadditiontofloodcontrol
andpollutantremovalfunctions.
Eventbasedmethodsoftenresultinoverlyconservativedrainagedesigns(Huberetal.2006)andingeneraldonot
meetstreamchannelprotectionobjectives(Booth,1991;BoothandJackson,2007).Huberetal.(2006)notesthat
thoughmostofthehyetographs(graphsofrainfalldistributionsovertime)fromeventbaseddesignscanbe
appliedtomonitoredrainfalldata,theyaregenerallynot;andtheyarealsosensitivetoinitialconditionsand
assumptionsaswellasstoragecapacityandinfiltrationcapabilitiesofthesite.Theseimperfecttraitsand
limitationsthengetadoptedintowaterqualitydesigns,whichareconsequentlyalsooverlyconservative,orworse,
ineffective.Despitethedisadvantagestoeachoftheseapproachesandtheresearchtojustifythatsyntheticstorm
eventbasedmethodsareinefficienttomodelactualrainfallevents(CityofSeattle,2009;Huberetal;2006),
“thesemethodsareembeddedinseveralversionsofcommercialsoftwareandareroutinelyacceptedbythe
hydrologicengineeringprofessioninspiteoftheissuesjustmentioned.”(Huberetal.2006).FHWAandthe
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)andmoststatedepartmentsof
transportationstillrecommenduseofthetraditionaldesignstormsforhydrologicandhydraulicdesignof
roadways,presumablyduetothesingleevent,catastrophicnatureoffloodevents.(FHWA,2009;AASHTO,2005)
Someregulatoryagenciesnowrequire2,10and100yearsinsteadofoneorother(FHWA,2009;WSDOT,2008).
Currently,lowimpactdevelopment(LID)methodshavebecomethepreferredstandardofpracticeforthebuilt
environmentandforsitedevelopment(CityofSeattle,2009).Themostappropriatewaytoemulatethe
performanceofLIDmethodsisthroughcontinuousmodeling(CityofSeattle,2009;Huberetal.,2006).Continuous
hydrologicalmodelinghasitsowndisadvantages,primarilyintimeintensiveness(andthuscost)andunavailability
ofdata(Huberetal.,2006;CityofSeattle,2009).Ingeneral,theseLIDmethodsarebeingpushedmostlyinurban
areastohelpmanagetheincreasingimperviousnessandtheassociatedwaterqualityissuesincitiesas
populationsinthesecommunitiesgrowtorelievestressonexistinginfrastructureandattempttoachieve
“natural”conditionsasabaselineforperformance.However,duetothehighconcernoffloodingimpactson
roadways,itmaybemostappropriatetouseacombinedapproach,whichmayrequireacombinationofbothLID
andconventionalmethodsinordertomeetfloodcontroldemandsandalsomaintainwaterqualitystandards.
(WashingtonDepartmentofTransportation:WSDOT,2008)
LowimpactDevelopmentforFlowControl
AbriefintroductiontoLIDtechniqueswasprovidedinProjectRequirementPR8.TherelevantconceptsforLID
methodsinflowcontrol(allofferqualitybenefitsunlessotherwisenoted)arebrieflydescribedbelow.(Cityof
Seattle,2009)MostLIDtechniquesincorporatemorethanone.
x Infiltration.Runoffispercolatedintoreceivingsoils.Theinfiltrationcapacityiscloselyrelatedtothehydraulic
conductivityandcapacityofthesoils.Evaporationisoftenalsopresentaswellastranspirationasthese
facilitiesareoftenvegetated.
x Evaporation.Runoffisvaporizedandabsorbedintotheair.
x Transpiration.Runoffisabsorbedbyplantsandthenreleasedasvapor.
x Dispersion.Runoffareaisincreasedtodelaytheflow.
x Interception.Rainfallistrappedbytheleavesofplants.
x Storageandrelease(retentionanddetention).Runoffiscollectedtemporarilyandreleasedviaacontrolled
outflow.(Trueretentionfacilitiesrelyoninfiltrationandevaporationandnooutflow.)

x Storageandreuse.Runoffiscollectedandstoredforstoredforotheruses(commonly“harvestingrainwater”).
Oftenstoragefacilitiesarevaultsbeneathroadwaysandtheirflowcontrolutilityisbasedontheirtotalvolume
andopeningsizes.
ThePrinceGeorge’sCountyLIDManual(1999)presentsamoredetaileddescriptionoftheLIDmethods:the
readerisreferredtotheManualformoredetailedinformation.Asummaryoftheflowcontrolattributesofsome
commonLIDtechniquesisshowninFigureEW2.6.(Formostroadwayfacilities,storagewillbeunderground.)

FigureEW2.6ThesuiteofflowcontrolattributesforLIDmethods.(PrinceGeorge’sCounty,1999)

FlowControlbyAvoidance
TheEPA(2007)suggeststhatthegeometricdesignofaroadcandomuchtoaidinflowcontrol,howeverthe
primaryobjectiveoftheir“nonerodingroadway”designconceptistostabilizeandorienttheroadbedto
minimizeproductionofsedimentduetoerosionofslopes,basematerialsandsurfacecoursesandavoid
uncontrolleddrainageofpollutantsintosensitiveareas.Furtherdesignconsiderationsincludenotslopingthe
roadwaytowardwetlandareas(unlessthewetlandsarepartofthetreatmentscheme)orplanningalignments
tofallasfaraspossibleawayfromexistingwatercourses.Nevertheless,theshapeandsurfacecoursematerial
designisclearlytiedtotheamountofrunoffgeneratedbytheroadway.Thedesignapproachisespecially
criticalforunpavedroadswhereerosionandsedimentationoftheroaditselfisanimportantissue.(EPA,2007)
FlowControlbySoilAmendment
“Soilamendment”isaprocessthatdescribesaddingorganiccontentsuchascompostormulchtonativeand
fillsoils.Theorganiccontentaidsinflowcontrolbyprovidingadditionalstoragethroughabsorption,higher
infiltrationandevapotranspirationfromincreasedsurfaceareaoffinersoilparticles,improvedgroundwater
rechargeandalsoimprovedaffinityforvegetation.Italsooffersseveralpollutantreducingbenefitsandcan
offerurbanbenefitssuchasreducedirrigationandfertilizerneeds.(CityofSeattle,2009)Timeof
concentrationisincreasedandpeakflowsareattenuatedandreducedthroughthismethod.Manyofthe
compostamendedsoilapproachesareoutlinedinsitedevelopmentguidancedocumentsforbuildings;
however,SwissengineersPiguet,ParriauxandBensimon(2008)offeraroadspecificdesignapproachcalled
“infiltrationslopes”thatallowsimplementationofsoilamendmentthatmaintaintheoverallimpermeabilityof
theroadwayforfastrunoffremovalwithoutpromotingwaterintrusioninroadwaysubbasematerials.Their
modelsofinfiltrationslopesareshowninFigureEW2.7withvariousslopeandmaterialconfigurationsusing

differentsoilsandgeotechnicalreinforcments.Theauthorsfoundincreasedinfiltrationcapacity,improved
groundwaterrecharge,increasedevapotranspirationandimprovedflowcontrol.

FigureEW2.7:Infiltrationslopecrosssections.(Piguet,Parriaux&Bensimon2008)
ControversyofDetentionFacilities
Detentionfacilitiesusedasflowcontroldevicesareamatterofsomecontroversy.Toreceivethiscredit,landmay
notbeprocuredoutsideoftherightofwaytoserveasconventionaldetentionorstoragefacilities.Thiscriterion
attemptstomitigatetheoveralllandareaimpactofconventionaldetentionfacilitiesbyrestrictingconstructionof
suchfacilitieswithinROWlimitswithoutrestrictingtheuseofthiscommonBMP.However,thethoroughliterature
reviewfromtheCityofSeattle(2009)indicatesthatdetentionpondsmaynotbeeffectiveflowcontrolmeasures
formitigatinghydromodificationimpacts,otherflowcontrolmethodsoffermuchhigherpollutantremovalthan
detentionponds,andthepondshavelimitedhydrologicalbenefitsespeciallywhenmorethanoneispresentinthe
samewatershed.
Therearesomedocumentedbenefitsofdetentionandretentionfacilitiesofreducinglargedebrisdeliveredto
streamsandbedscour.Also,theyareeasilyunderstoodbyhydraulicdesignersandoffermuchcontroloverrunoff
releases.(FHWA,2009)CompletelydisallowingdetentionpondsinGreenroadswouldeffectivelyeliminatethe
mostcommonlyusedmethodofstormwatercontrolsavailabletomosthighway,streetandroadwayprojects
(FHWA,2009).However,LIDtechniqueshavebeenshowntobeabletoreducetheneededsizeofdetentionponds
oreliminatethemandconventionalconveyancealtogetherinsomecases(Hinman,2005;CityofSeattle,2009).

ThepreferredalternativetoconventionaldetentionpondsinGreenroadsaremultifunctionalBMPssuchas
bioretentionorstormwaterstorageandreuse.
WhenLIDIsNotAppropriate
Ingeneral,LIDflowcontrolBMPsmaynotbeappropriateandshouldbeavoidedinareas(WSDOT,2008)
x Withhighorseasonallyhighwatertables
x Belowthe100yearfloodplain
x Withdistressedgroundwater
x Inintertidalareas
x Insensitivewatershedsorforests(thesehaveahighernetbenefitthanLID.)
However,asitespecificdesignbuiltonwatershedparametersandtopographywillbemosteffectivefor
controllingrunoffflowsandsomeofflowcontroltechniquesmaybeviableevenintheseconditions.
AdditionalResources
x Forfurtherdiscussiononthemeritsofdetentionfacilities,seetheEnvironmentallyCriticalAreas:Best
AvailableSciencereportbytheCityofSeattle(2009),availableat:
x CurrentperformancedataonflowcontrolforLIDBMPsisavailableattheInternationalBMPDatabase:
http://www.bmpdatabase.org.Theyalsotrackcostdataasitisvolunteeredalongwithsubmissions.
FormoreinformationandadditionalresourcesonspecificLIDtechniques,seethediscussioninProject
RequirementPR8LowImpactDevelopment.
GLOSSARY
Biodiversity Totalnumberofspeciespresent
Biologicalintegrity Theabilitytosupportandmaintainabalanced,integratedadaptive
assemblageoforganismshavingspeciescomposition,diversity,and
functionalorganizationcomparabletothatofnaturalhabitatoftheregion
(KarrandDudley,1981).
BMPDB InternationalBMPDatabase(http://www.bmpdatabase.org)
Channel Astreambed
Detention Theprocessofholdinganddelayingrunoffwithacontrolledrelease
EIA Effectiveimperviousarea
Erosion Surfacewearingduetophysicalprocessessuchaswater,windandheat
Evaporation Theprocessofwaterbecomingwatervapor
Evapotranspiration thecombinedeffectsofevaporationandtranspirationinreducingthe
volumeofwaterinavegetatedareaduringaspecificperiodoftime(Huber
etal.2006)
Flowcontrol Managementofrunoffvolumephysicalcharacteristicsincludingpeakflows
andtimeofconcentration
Hydromodification alterationofthehydrologiccharacteristicsofcoastalandnoncoastalwaters,
whichinturncouldcausedegradationofwaterresources(EPA,2007)

Interception Theprocessofleavesofplantspreventingrainfallfromhittingasurface
Reach Thelengthofariverorstreambetweenriverbends
Retention Theprocessofholdingrunoff,ideallynoreleaseoccursandallrunoffis
infiltratedorevaporated
TIA Totalimperviousarea
Transpiration Theprocessofwateruptakeinplants
Urbanization Theprocessofandactivitiesassociatedwithhumandevelopment

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bedrivers.FortCollins,CO:U.S.Dept.ofAgriculture,ForestService,RockyMountainResearchStation.

RUNOFF QUALITY
GOAL EW-3
ImprovewaterqualityofstormwaterrunoffleavingtheroadwayRightofWay(ROW)
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
1. Developastormwatermanagementplanforthesiteusingstormwaterbest 1-3 POINTS
managementpractices(BMPs)forwaterqualitytreatment.Explicitlystatethegoals
ofthisplanandhowperformancewillbemeasured.
2. Uselowimpactdevelopment(LID)BMPstothemaximumextentfeasibleas
determinedinProjectRequirementPR8byalicensedprofessional. RELATED CREDITS
3. Computethe90thpercentileaverageannualrainfalleventpostconstructionrunoff 9 PR8LowImpact
volumes(Vtotal)fortwoareasasfollows: Development
x Vrunoff:thetotalpollutiongeneratingsurface(PGS)areaoftheprojectROW 9 PR10Site
x Vrunon:ThetotalPGSareaoutsidetheROWthatmaygenerateuntreated MaintenancePlan
stormwaterwhichrunsintotheROWBMPs,ifany. 9 EW2RunoffFlow
x Vtotal=Vrunoff+Vrunon Control
x Vtreated=Vrunofftreated+Vrunontreated 9 EW4Stormwater
x %ofTotalPostConstructionRunoffVolumeTreated=Vtreated/Vtotalx100% CostAnalysis
x Computeaweightedaverageofvolumestreatedforthetotalvolumemanaged 9 EW5SiteVegetation
intheprojectwheremorethanoneBMPisused.
4. Providetreatmentforadesiredpercentageofthetotalcomputedrunoffvolume SUSTAINABILITY
foreitheroftheareasnotedinTableEW3.1.Listthetypes,manufacturers, COMPONENTS
treatmentlevels,andtotalvolumestreatedinBMPs.
5. DemonstratethattheplannedBMPsmeetthefollowingqualitycriteria: 9 Ecology
x BMPsreducesedimentloadstototalsuspendedsolids(TSS)concentrationsof 9 Extent
25mg/Lorless,asanindicatorofoveralltreatmentlevel.SeeTableEW3.2.
x BMPsconformtoallapplicableminimumwaterqualitystandardsforall BENEFITS
effluentleavingtheROWsetbythegoverningjurisdictionforcontaminants, 9 ReducesWater
suchasheavymetals,hydrocarbons,pathogens,watertemperatureand Pollution
turbidity.Statetheminimumrequirements,includingcriticalerosiveflow 9 ReducesSolidWaste
criteria,andprovidereferenceddocumentorpolicy. 9 ReducesManmade
Footprint
TableEW3.1:Greenroadspointsfor%volumesoftreatedrunoff
TypeofRunoffVolume VolumeTreated TreatmentLevel Points
Pollutiongenerating 80% Basic
surfaces(PGS)from Basic&Enhanced
withintheprojectROW
Basic,Enhanced&Oil 1
only(runoff)
90% Basic
Basic&Enhanced 1
Pollutiongenerating 80% Basic
surfaces(PGS)from Basic&Enhanced 1
withintheprojectROW
andfromoutsideareas
(runonandrunoff) 90% Basic 1
Basic&Enhanced 2
EW-3 Runoff Quality 153

Details
Thiscreditisanadaptationofthe2009SustainableSitesInitiativeCredit3.6:“Protectandenhancewater
quality”andtheLEED™GreenBuildingRatingSystemSustainableSitesCreditSS6.2“StormwaterDesign:
QualityControl.”ItalsodrawsheavilyonconceptsfromtheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation
HighwayRunoffManual.Continuousmodelingapproachesarerecommended(seeCreditEW2).
IfmorethanoneBMPisusedintheproject,calculateaweightedaverageofthe%totalvolumetreatedby
eachBMPanditsqualityachieved.NotethatBMPsshouldbesizedappropriatelyifconsideringanyrunoff
volumesgeneratedfromoutsidetheprojectROW.“Basic,”“Enhanced”and“Oil”treatmentcriteriaaredefined
bylocalgoverningagenciesorbytheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)Highway
RunoffManual,inabsenceofalocaldefinition.
DOCUMENTATION
Acopyoftheexecutivesummaryoftheprojectdrainagedesignreportthatincludes,atminimum,thefollowing:
x Shortnarrativethataddresseseachofthecreditrequirements.
Asneeded,supportingcalculationsforrunoffareas,runoffvolume(outputfromanyrainfallmodelingsoftware
usedisadequate),andtreatmentlevelsmayberequested.

TableEW3.2:Medianofaverageinfluentandeffluentconcentrations.(ReproducedfromtableinGeosyntec&
WrightWater,2008)
Detention Wetland Media Hydrodynamic Porous
Sample WetPond Biofilter
Constituents Pond Basin Filter Device Pavement
Location (n=46)1 (n=57)1
(n=25)1 (n=19)1 (n=38)1 (n=32)1 (n=6)1
72.65 34.13 37.76 52.15 43.27
39.61
Influent (41.70 (19.16 (18.10 (41.41 (27.25
(21.9576.27)
Suspended 103.59) 49.10) 53.39) 62.88) 59.58)
Solids(mg/L) 31.04 13.37 17.77 23.92 15.86 16.96
37.67
Effluent (16.07 (7.29 (9.26 (15.07 (9.74 (5.90
(21.2854.02)
46.01) 19.45) 26.29) 32.78) 21.98) 48.72)
0.25
0.71(0.45 0.49 0.36 0.54 0.74
Total Influent (0.12
1.28) (0.200.79) (0.110.60) (0.400.67) (0.371.11)
Calcium 0.49)
(g/L) 0.47(0.25 0.27 0.24 0.30 0.19 0.57
Effluent
0.87) (0.120.61) (0.110.55) (0.260.35) (0.10.37) (0.251.33)
0.16
0.24(0.15 0.19 0.25 0.33
Influent (0.11
Dissolved 0.33) (0.100.28) (0.210.28) (0.110.55)
0.21)
Calcium
0.13
(g/L) 0.25(0.17 0.11 0.21 0.31
Effluent (0.10
0.36) (0.080.15) (0.190.23) (0.130.71)
0.18)
8.91 5.65 31.93 14.57
20.14 15.42
Influent (5.29 (2.67 (25.25 (10.87
(8.4131.79) (9.2021.63)
TotalCopper 12.52) 38.61) 38.61) 18.27)
(g/L) 10.66 10.25
12.10 6.36 4.23 14.17 2.78
Effluent (7.68 (8.21
(5.4118.80) (4.708.01) (0.627.83) (8.3320.01) (0.888.78)
13.68) 12.29)
14.15 7.75
6.66(0.73 7.33 13.59
Influent (10.14 (4.55
Dissolved 12.59) (5.409.26) (9.8217.36)
18.16) 10.96)
Copper
8.40 9.00
(g/L) 7.37 4.37 13.92
Effluent (5.65 (7.28
(3.2811.45) (3.735.73) (4.4023.44)
11.45) 10.72)
Total 6.00 2.18
7.36 5.63 4.07
Chromium Influent (3.58 (1.66
(5.499.88) (4.497.05) (2.396.91)
(g/L) 10.08) 2.86)
154 Runoff Quality EW-3

Detention Wetland Media Hydrodynamic Porous

Sample WetPond Biofilter
Constituents Pond Basin Filter Device Pavement
Location (n=46)1 (n=57)1
(n=25)1 (n=19)1 (n=38)1 (n=32)1 (n=6)1
1.48
3.18 1.44 4.64 3.52
Effluent (0.82
(2.104.84) (0.792.66) (3.086.98) (2.145.80)
2.70)
25.01 14.36 4.62 19.53 11.32
18.12
Influent (12.06 (8.32 (1.43 (10.11 (6.09
(5.7030.53)
TotalLead 37.95) 20.40) 11.89) 28.95) 16.55)
(g/L) 6.70 3.76 7.88
15.77 5.32 3.26 10.56
Effluent (2.81 (1.08 (1.64
(4.6726.87) (1.639.01) (2.314.22) (4.2716.85)
10.59) 6.44) 37.96)
1.44
1.25 3.40 0.50 2.25 1.89
Influent (1.05
(0.332.17) (1.125.68) (0.330.67) (0.773.74) (0.832.95)
Dissolved 1.82)
Lead(g/L) 1.18
2.06 2.48 0.87 1.96 3.34
Effluent (0.77
(0.933.19) (0.985.36) (0.850.89) (1.262.67) (2.224.47)
1.60)
111.56 60.75 47.07 176.71 92.34
119.08(73.50
Influent (51.50 (45.23 (24.47 (128.28 (52.29
164.67)
TotalZinc 171.63) 76.27) 90.51) 225.15) 132.40)
(g/L) 60.20 29.35 30.71 39.83 37.63 16.60
80.17
Effluent (20.70 (21.13 (12.80 (28.01 (16.80 (5.91
(52.72107.61)
99.70) 37.66) 66.69) 51.56) 58.46) 16.61)
47.46 58.31 69.27
26.11 35.93
Influent (37.65 (32.46 (37.97
(5.2075.10) (4.9666.90)
Dissolved 57.27) 79.16) 100.58)
Zinc(g/L) 25.84 32.86 25.40 51.25
42.46
Effluent (10.75 (17.70 (18.71 (29.04
(10.3874.55)
40.93) 48.01) 32.09) 73.46)
0.20
0.19 0.21 0.27 0.25 0.24
Influent (0.15
Total (0.170.22) (0.130.29) (0.110.43) (0.220.28) (0.010.46)
0.26)
Phoshporus
0.14
(mg/L) 0.19 0.12 0.14 0.34 0.26 0.09
Effluent (0.11
(0.120.27) (0.090.16) (0.040.24) (0.260.41) (0.120.48) (0.050.15)
0.16)
0.09
0.09 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.06
Influent (0.03
Dissolved (0.060.13) (0.060.13) (0.040.22) (0.070.11) (0.010.11)
0.11)
Phosphorus
0.09
(mg/L) 0.12 0.08 0.17 0.44 0.09
Effluent (0.07
(0.070.18) (0.040.11) (0.030.31) (0.210.67) (0.040.13)
0.11)
1.31
1.25 1.64 2.12 0.94 1.25
Influent (1.19
Total (0.831.66) (1.391.94) (1.582.66) (0.941.69) (0.332.16)
1.42)
Nitrogen
0.76
(mg/L) 2.72 1.43 1.15 0.78 2.01
Effluent (0.62
(1.813.63) (1.171.68) (0.821.62) (0.531.03) (1.372.65)
0.89)
0.41
0.70 0.36 0.22 0.59 0.40
Influent (0.30
Nitrate (0.351.05) (0.210.51) (0.010.47) (0.440.73) (0.060.73)
0.51)
Nitrogen
0.82
(mg/L) 0.58 0.23 0.13 0.60 0.51
Effluent (0.60
(0.250.91) (0.130.37) (0.070.26) (0.410.79) (0.081.34)
1.05)
1.52
1.45 1.26 1.15 1.80 1.09
Influent (1.07
(0.971.94) (1.031.49) (0.811.48) (1.621.99) (0.521.57)
1.96)
TKN(mg/L)
1.55
1.89 1.09 1.05 1.51 1.48 1.23
Effluent (1.22
(1.582.19) (0.871.31) (0.821.34) (1.241.78) (0.872.47) (0.443.44)
1.83)


x Reduceordisconnectimperviouscover,suchasbetweenlaneswithavegetatedmedianorsidewalkswitha
bufferstrip.(SustainableSitesInitiative:SSI,2009)
x Providedepressionstorageinthelandscape(SSI,2009)
x Conveystormwaterinswalestopromoteinfiltration(SSI,2009)
x Usebiofiltrationtoprovidevegetatedandsoilfiltering(SSI,2009)
x Evapotranspire(e.g.,useengineeredsoilsandvegetationinbiofiltrationareas/landscapingtomaximize
evapotranspirationpotential)(SSI,2009)
x Infiltratestormwater(infiltrationbasinsandtrenches,permeablepavement,etc.)(SSI,2009)
x Developandimplementaspillresponseplan(SSI,2009)
x Minimizetheuseofsaltfordeicingandconsiderorganicdeicersorsandinstead(SSI,2009)
x Usea“treatmenttrain”ofmanyBMPsinseries.(SSI,2009)
x UseastormwatertreatmentsystemorBMPsthathavebeendemonstratedtoachievethe25milligrams/liter
TSSdischarge.Someoftheseare(SSI,2009):
x Waterqualitywetponds
x Constructedstormwaterwetlands
x Bioretention
x Biofiltration(e.g.,raingardens)
x Vegetatedbufferstrips
x Sandfilters
x Bioswales(usuallymosteffectiveasthefirstinlineofatreatmenttrain)
x OtherBMPslikevaultsandpretreatmentormechanicalseparatorsmaynotbeabletoearnthiscreditalone
butcouldbeusedinatreatmenttraineffectively.
x Performregularinspectionsandmonitoringactivitiestoensurelongtermperformance.Thisincludesvisual
inspectionofcontrols.(EPA,1995)
x Cleanoutaccumulatedsedimentregularly.(EPA,1995)
x Replaceoldfabrics,filtersandothermaterialsastheydeterioratetomaintainBMPeffectiveness.(EPA,1995)
x RemovetemporaryBMPsusedinconstructionandreplacethemwithpermanentcontrols.(EPA,1995)
x Seedwithgrassandcompostamendedmulchorsoiltodevelopvegetationandprovidestabilizedslopes.(EPA,
1995)
x Usewildflowercovertoprovideerosioncontrolandaestheticbenefits.(EPA,1995)
x Useestablishedgrasssodblanketsonpreparedsoils.(EPA,1995)
x Designtheroadwayfacilityfortreatmentusinggrassedswales,checkdams,filterstrips,terracing,infiltration
trenchesand/orbasins.(EPA,1995)
x Considerconstructedwetlandsforincreasedqualityandnewprovisionofhabitat.(EPA,1995)
x Setperformancegoalsforbasictreatment(i.e.80%removalofTSS),enhancedtreatment(i.e.metalsremoval)
andoilorphosphorouscontrol.(WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation:WSDOT,2008)
x Considerinfiltrationslopes(Piguet,Parriaux&Bensimon2008)and“Ecologyditches”(CityofSeattle,2009)
(thesearesimilarapproachesusingcompostamendedsoilsforpromotinginfiltrationandpollutantremoval).
x Considergeometricdesignforerosioncontrolandflowmoderation(EPA,2007)
Example: City of Kirkland 120 t h Street Extension

TheCityofKirklandproposestoextendNE120thStreetonecityblockbetween124thAvenueNEtoSlater
AvenueNE.Improvementsincludetheapproximate0.16mileextensionofNE120thStreet,completewith
5footsidewalks,5footbicyclelanesineachdirection,4.5footplanterstrips,andcontinuoustwowayleft
turnlanesateachintersection.

Theextendedroadwaywillhaveamaximum44footcurbtocurbsection.Anewtrafficsignalwillalsobe
constructedattheintersectionofNE120thStreetand124thAvenueNE.Partialacquisitionsofuptofour
commerciallyzonedpropertieswillberequiredtocompletetheproject.Associatedimprovementsinclude
utilitiesandstormwaterstructureinstallation.Theproposedmeasureswillenhancetrafficcirculationand
safetyinKirkland’sTotemLakearea.Thedesignteamusedacontinuoushydrologicmodelingtooltocalculate
theirflowratesandrunoffvolumes.
TableEW3.3:SummaryofWaterQualityCalculations
TotalInflowtoProjectBMPs 5548.96acft
TotalAreaTreated 1.188ac
ProposedPGISAreaforProject 0.99ac
AmountofAdditionalTreatmentArea +0.198ac
TotalVolumeTreatedAsPercentofProjectPGS 120%
WeightedAverageAnnualTreatmentVolumeAchievedbyBMPs 93.1%
BasicTreatment(80%TSSremoval,<25mg/L) Yes
EnhancedTreatment(dissolvedmetals) Yes
EnhancedTreatment(oil) NotPursued
EnhancedTreatment(other) NotPursued
TotalPoints 2
SummaryofCreditCalculations
1. Postconstructionrunoffvolume:5548.96acrefeet.LIDtechniqueswereusedtotreataminimumof90%
oftheaverageannualpostconstructionrunoffvolume.
a. TheprojecttreatedrunonandrunoffintheROWBMPs.
b. Calculation:1.118acrestreated>0.99acresacresofpollutiongeneratingsurfacesintheROWonly
(120%treated).
c. NodetentionfacilitieswereusedoutsideoftheROW.
2. Calculation:93.1%averagevolumefiltered(seeDetailedCalculationsbelow).
3. Treatmentdefinitionsandprojectwaterqualitygoals:
a. BasicTreatment:80%TSSremoval(WSDOT,2008)
b. Enhancedtreatment:BMPsprovideahigherrateofremovalthanbasictreatmentfacilitiesfor
dissolvedcopperanddissolvedzinc(WSDOT,2008)
4. ConcentrationtestinginformationforthetreeboxfiltersusedwasprovidedbytheWashington
DepartmentofEcology(2010).Noexpectedeffluentvaluesexceedthestated25mg/LTSSlimit
(SustainableSites,2009)orspecialWashingtonStatestandardsforremovalofheavymetalsoroils
(enhancedtreatment).
5. ProductapprovalbytheWashingtonStateDepartmentofEcologyisavailablehere:
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/stormwater/newtech/use_designations/filterrauld111306.pdf
6. BasedonTable1,2pointsareearnedbythisprojectfortreatmentof93.1%ofthetotalrunonandrunoff
accordingtostatedstandardsforenhancedtreatment.
DetailedCalculations
1. ThresholdAnalysis
x Thethresholdanalysiscalculationsarerequiredtodeterminetheapplicableminimumrequirementsfor
theprojectandthresholddischargearea.
x Withintheprojectlimit,thereisonethresholddischargearea(TDA).Twodownstreampathsthatexitthe
projectlimitjointogetheratadistancethatisalittlemorethanaquartermiledownstreamfromthe

projectsite,atawetland.ThisflowdischargesintoaculverttoTotemLake. Thesetwosystemsare
hydraulicallyconnectedbecausethewaterlevelatthequartermilepointisthatthelevelofTotemLake.
2. Assumptions
x Allroadwayareasareconsideredpollutantgeneratingimpervioussurface(PGIS),sidewalksasnon
pollutiongeneratingimpervioussurface(NPGIS),andplanterstripandotherlandscapeasnonpollution
generatingpervioussurface(NPGPS).
x Rubblizedpavementleftinplaceandpavedoverisnotconsideredreplacedpavement.
3. Definitions(fromTable31ofthe2008WSDOTHighwayRunoffManual)
BasicTreatment
x Appliestoallprojectthresholddischargeareas(TDAs)whererunofftreatmentthresholdismet
(projectadds5000sformoreofPGIS)
PerformanceGoal:80%removaloftotalsuspendedsolids(TSS)
EnhancedTreatment(dissolvedmetals)
x Appliestoallprojectthresholddischargeareas(TDAs)whererunofftreatmentthresholdismet
(projectadds5000sformoreofPGIS)
x DoesnotdischargetoBasicTreatmentreceivingwaterbody
x AppliestoroadwayswithinUrbanGrowthAreas(UGAs)withAverageDailyTrip(ADT)7,500(Forthis
projectarea,ADTis8700)
PerformanceGoal:ProvideahigherrateofremovalofdissolvedmetalsthanBasicTreatmentfacilitiesfor
influentconcentrationsrangingfrom0.003to0.02mg/Lfordissolvedcopperand0.020.3mg/Lfor
dissolvedzinc.
4. PerviousandImperviousAreaCalculations
x TabulatedcalculationsareshowninTablesEW3.4andEW3.5.
TableEW3.4:Imperviousareasummary
Category Area(sf) Area(Acres)
ExistingImpervious 35,240 0.81
NewImpervious 22,140 0.51
ReplacedImpervious 9,735 0.22
RemovedImpervious 1,647 0.04
ProposedImpervious 55,733 1.28
EffectiveImpervious 31,875 0.73

TableEW3.5:PGISsummary
Category Area(sf) Area(Acres)
ExistingPGIS 34,201 0.79
NewPGIS 16,404 0.38
ReplacedPGIS 4,321 0.10
RemovedPGIS 7,646 0.18
ProposedPGIS 42,959 0.99
EffectivePGIS 16,404 0.38


5. MinimumRequirementsfrom2008WSDOTHighwayRunoffManual(HRM)
Figures3.1,3.2,and3.3oftheHRMareusedtodeterminetheminimumrequirementsapplicablefora
project.*Section32.2oftheHRMlistspossibleexceptionsforthisproject.**Nospecialexceptionsapply,so
minimumrequirements19oftheHRMstatesthatnewpollutiongeneratingimpervioussurfacemustprovide
waterqualitytreatmentmeetingthestatedperformancegoalsforbasicandenhancedtreatment.
6. CalculatethePredevelopedandDevelopedRunoffAreas***
Acontinuousmodelingsoftwaretoolwasusedtocalculatethetotalareaintherightofway(ROW)andthe
tributaryareasprovidingrunonintoprojectstormwatertreatmentfacilities.SeeTableEW3.6.
TableEW3.6:Totalpredevelopedanddevelopedrunoffarea
SubbasinNumber TotalArea(Acres)
Predeveloped Developed
Subbasin1 0.770 23.850
Subbasin2 0.770 0.770

7. CalculatePredevelopmentFlowrate
Predevelopmentflowratewascomputedusinga2yearrecurrenceintervalforonsite(0.016cfs)andoffsite
flows(2.640cfs).
8. CalculatePostConstructionRunoffVolume
ThetotalinflowvolumetoprojectstormwatertreatmentfacilitiesfromSubbasin1wascomputedtobe5549
acrefeet.TherewasnochangeinrunoffareafromSubbasin2.
9. IdentifyTypesofStormwaterBestManagementPractices(BMPs)ToBeUsed
Fivesubsurfacebiorentionsystems(treeboxfilters)****wereselectedbytheprojectteamfortreating
stormwaterrunoffandrunon.SeeFigureEW3.1.
10. SelectLocationsBMPsandComputeTreatmentLevelsforStormwaterVolumes
Theweightedaverageannualtreatmentforwaterqualityontheprojectwas93.1%forrunoffandrunon.See
TableEW3.7forcomputations.
TableEW3.7:Runoffareatreatedbythetreeboxfilters
AreaExtents Area(ac) Infiltration*(%)
Station160+50to102+73(northhalf) 0.244 91.4
Station160+50to102+73(southhalf) 0.284 91.1
Station108+50to160+50(south) 0.183 94.9
Station102+73toStation100+00(south) 0.236 95.4
Station102+73toStation100+00(north) 0.241 93.5
WeightedAverage 93.1
Notes:
*Thesefiguresmakeupadecisiontreeusedtoguidetheengineerintheapplicableminimumrequirementswhendesigninga
stormwatermanagementfacilitybasedonknownsurfaceareas,relativeperviousness,andpollutiongeneratingcapacity.
**Generally,iftheamountofimpervioussurfacesisgreaterthanaspecifiedminimumvalue,certainrequirementsmustbeappliedto
thatimpervioussurface.Thesevaluesarecalled“minimumrequirements.”
***ThiscalculationandthefollowingcalculationswerecompletedusingtheWesternWashingtonHydrologyModel(WWHM),a
continuousmodelingsoftwaretool.
****Thesetreatmentsystemshaveunderdrainsinplacethatbypassexcessrunoffintoadetentionvaultduringhigherintensityevents.


FigureEW3.1:Treeboxfilterschematic
(http://www.ladstudios.com/LADsites/Sustainability/Strategies/images/treeboxModel.jpg)
Example: Streetside Bioswale

InstalledaspartoftheStreetEdgeAlternatives(SEAStreet)ProjectbytheCityofSeattle,thebioswalepictured
belowinFigureEW3.2isanexampleofastructuralstormwatercontrolforwaterqualitytreatment.The
bioswalesonSEAStreetsuccessfullymitigate98%oftherainyseasonstormwaterand100%ofthedryseason
water.Thisdetentionbasedapproachachievesqualitytreatmentprimarilythroughcontrolofflowvolumes
andinfiltration.Additionally,therearesixdetentionfacilitieswhichallowforatreatmenttrainforany
stormwaterthatenterstheconventionalinfrastructure.Qualitytreatmentisprovidedbyplantuptakeand
compostamendedsoilsthathelptreatstreetrunoffandremoveheavymetals.AvirtualtourofSEAStreetis
availableathttp://www2.cityofseattle.net/util/tours/seastreet/slide1.htm.MoreinformationaboutSeattle’s
NaturalDrainageSystemprogram(includingotherprojects)isalsoavailableat:
DrainageProjects/index.htm


FigureEW3.2:Awellestablishedvegetatedswale(“bioswale”)thatusescompostamendedsoilandnoflow
controldevicesorstructures.Residentialstreettoright.Seattle,WA.(PhotobyJ.Anderson)

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Actualwaterqualitymaybedifficulttomodelandmaybedifferentthandesigned.Thiscreditdoesnotrequire
monitoringtobeinplacetoverifypollutantremovalsareachievedatthistime.
2. Longtermperformancedataformanylowimpactdevelopmentmethodsusedforqualitycontrolarenot
availableforroadwayprojectsorlackconsistency.Forexample,casestudiesofgrassedswalesinthelate1990s
performedbytheFederalHighwayAdministrationshowedqualityandquantitybenefitsbutdatawerenot
collectedconsistently.(EPA,2000)
3. Detentionpondsarenotallowedexceptwithintherightofway.Adiscussionofthereasoningforthisis
providedinCreditEW2.
4. Infiltrationpracticesarenotrecommendedwheregroundwatercontaminationisaconcern.
5. Heavyprecipitationandhighpeakfloweventscanwashpollutantsoutofsometreatmentsystems.
6. Maintenanceandmonitoringareimperativeforthesuccessofawaterqualitytreatmentprogram.
7. Continuousmodelingcanbetimeintensiveandexpensive.However,thereareavarietyofsoftwareprograms
availabletomodelpollutantloadings.
RESEARCH
ThisGreenroadscreditprimarilyaddresseschangestochemicalconcentrationsofwaterofwatershedsbasedon
chemicalscollectedonroadwaysandpassedintoreceivingwaterbodiesbystormwaterrunoff.Allbest
managementpracticesthataddressflowcontrolalsoaddresswaterquality(Quigleyetal.,2009);however,Credit
EW2RunoffFlowControladdressesphysicalrunoffmanagementpractices.Biologicalintegrityofreceivingwaters
isaddressedbyCreditEW6HabitatRestoration.
ExistingLiteratureforRoadwayStormwaterQuality
Therelationshipbetweenstormwaterrunoffqualityandroadwaysasapollutantgeneratoriswelldocumented
(MaestreandPitt,2005;Strecker,Mayo,Quigley,andHowell,2001;Clarkeetal.,2007;Huberet.al.,2006;
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency:EPA,2007;Shoemaker,Lahlou,DollandCazenas,2002;EPA,2000).Clarkeetal.
(2007)providesanannotatedbibliographyofallstormwaterliteraturebetween1996and2006foralltypesof
urbanrunoffpractices,includingabrief(fivepages)reviewofliteraturefor“highwaysandotherroads.”The

NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)Report565(Huberetal.2006)providesanother
excellentreferencespecificallyrelevantforroadwaysusinglowimpactdevelopmentapproachesforstormwater
qualitymanagement(andflowcontrol)inahighwayenvironment.Thereaderisreferredtothesedocumentsfor
moredetailedinformation.Abriefintroductionofroadwaywaterqualityissuesispresentedbelow,includingan
overviewofstormwatertreatmentobjectives,terminology,impactsandtypesofpollutantsandsome
recommendedLIDcontrolsforrunofftreatment.
WhatisNonPointSourcePollution?
TheEPAidentifiesroadways,intheiroperationalphases,asnonpointsourcepollutiongenerators,whichmeans
thatthesourceofthepollutantsisdiffuse(EPA,2010a).Nonpointsourcerunoffcomesfromrainorsnowmelt
thatwashesoversurfaces,collectingandtransportingparticles,whichvaryinhumanandenvironmentaltoxicity,
intoreceivingbodiesofwater.Pollutantsarecollectedonimpervioussurfacesthroughavarietyofprocessessuch
astirewear,erosionofpavementsurfacesandembankments,atmosphericdepositionandroutinemaintenanceof
roadways.TheregulatoryframeworkthatgovernsnonpointsourcepollutionintheU.S.includes(Shoemaker,
Lahlou,Doll,andCazenas,2002):
x NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)
x CleanWaterAct:NationalPollutantDischargeEliminationSystem(NPDES)
x CleanWaterAct:NonpointSourcePollutionControlProgram
x CoastalZoneActReauthorizationAmendments(CZARA)
x Otherstateandlocalregulatoryrequirements.
WaterQualityTreatmentObjectives
Theprimaryconcernswithnonpointsourcerunoffaregenerationandtransportofpollutants,habitat
degradation,habitatloss,lossofbiodiversity,andpreservationofbeneficialuse(suchasdrinkingwatersupplies)
(EPA,2010a;Southerland,1994)Federalguidanceisintendedtomeetthefollowingobjectives(EPA,2005)
x Protectsensitiveecosystems,includingwetlandsandestuaries,byminimizingroadandbridgerelated
impactsandwatercrossings,andbyestablishingprotectivemeasuresincludingsetbacksduring
construction
x Reducetherunoffofpollutantsthroughtheuseandpropermaintenanceofstructuralcontrols
x Reducethegenerationofpollutantsfrommaintenanceoperationsbyminimizingtheuseofpesticides,
herbicides,fertilizers,anddeicingsaltsandchemicals
x Reducethegenerationandrunoffofpollutantsduringhighwayandbridgerepairoperationsbydecreasing
theuseofhazardousmaterialsandincorporatingpracticestopreventspillageintosensitiveareas.
ManystateshavewaterqualityobjectivesthatalignwithfederalregulatorycompliancewiththeCleanWaterAct
andintendtoprotectstatewaterresources.SomeexamplesfromtheWashingtonStateDepartment(WSDOT)
HighwayRunoffManual(2008)are:
x Preventpollutionofstatewatersandprotectwaterquality,includingcompliancewithstatewaterquality
standards.
x Satisfystaterequirementsforallknownavailableandreasonablemethodsofprevention,control,and
treatmentofwastespriortodischargetowatersofthestate.
x Satisfythefederaltechnologybasedtreatmentrequirementsunder40CFRPart125.3.
WaterQualityTreatmentTerminology
Nonpointsourcepollutioncanbemanagedthroughavarietyof“structural”and“nonstructural”controls.These
aretypicallyreferredtoas“bestmanagementpractices”(BMPs)or“integratedmanagementpractices”(IMPs),
andsometimessimplyas“stormwatercontrols”or“stormwatercontrolmeasures”(SCM)(Quigleyetal.2009).For
thepurposesofGreenroads,thetermBMPisused,asarethedefinitionsofstructuralandnonstructuralcontrols
providedbytheInternationalStormwaterBestManagementPracticesDatabase(ibid.)AstormwaterqualityBMP

isa“device,practiceormethodforremoving,reducing,retardingorpreventingtargetedstormwaterrunoff
constituents,pollutantsandcontaminantsfromreachingreceivingwaters”(ibid.)Therearefivetypesofstructural
controlsthataredefinedbasedontheirinflowandoutflowcharacteristics.Theyare(ibid.):
x TypeI.BMPswithwelldefinedinletsandoutlets(e.g.,detentionbasins,vegetatedswales,catchbasin
inserts).Thesearethe“easy”BMPstomonitorwhereinflowandoutflowcantypicallybepairedtoassess
performance.Inthecaseofsystemssuchaswetpondswithsubstantialresidencetimesorstoragevolumes,
datamaybestraightforwardtocollect,butchallengingtoevaluateforindividualstorms.Insuchcases,a
seasonalmassbalanceapproachisoftenmoreappropriatethanastormbased,pairedinfluenteffluent
approachbecauseitislikelythattheeffluentsampleforsmallstormsisdisplacedwateroriginatingfrom
priorevents.
x TypeII.BMPswithwelldefinedinlets,butnotoutlets(e.g.,infiltrationbasins,infiltrationtrenches,
bioretentioncells).MonitoringstrategiesfortheseBMPsaremorecomplexandmayinvolvesamplingof
underdrains,vadose(unsaturated)zonemonitoring,groundwatermonitoring,measuringinfiltrationrates
andsurfaceoverflow.Ataminimum,theinfluentandsurfaceoverflowmustbequantified,sincethe
differencebetweenthetwoshouldrepresentthevolumeinfiltrated.Ifanunderdrainisusedtodirect
partiallytreatedwaterbacktothesurfacedrainage,thenitshouldalsobemonitored.Evaluationofdata
fromthesetypesofstudiesshouldfocusonmassbalanceapproaches.
x TypeIII.BMPswithwelldefinedoutlets,butnotinlets(e.g.,grassswaleswhereinflowisoverlandflow
alongthelengthoftheswale,bufferstrips,greenroofs).
x TypeIV.BMPswithoutanywelldefinedinletsoroutletsand/orinstitutionalBMPs(e.g.,bufferstrips,basin
widecatchbasinretrofits,educationprograms,sourcecontrolprograms,disconnectedimperviousarea
practices).
x TypeV.LowImpactDevelopment(LID)/DistributedControls/OverallSiteDesignswheresomedefined
monitoringlocationsareavailablethatmayincludemonitoringofindividualpracticeswithinadevelopment,
incombinationwithanoverallsitemonitoringmechanism.
Effectivecommunicationisnecessarytomeetstormwatermanagementqualityobjectives,soitisusefulto
compareotherdefinitionsofsometermsthatareavailableinsomerelatedguidancedocumentsandwithin
Greenroads.ThetermBMPisusedmorebroadlyinGreenroadsinreferencetomanyoftheactivitiesinvolvedin
meetingtheProjectRequirementsandVoluntaryCredits,anddoesnotnecessarilyalwaysrefertoawaterquality
objective.BMPscanbetemporary(suchaserosioncontrolduringconstruction)orpermanent,suchasthoseBMPs
addressedinthiscredit.Thiscreditaddressesstructuralcontrolsforqualitytreatment.Nonstructuralcontrolsfor
operationsandmaintenanceandtemporaryBMPsforconstructionarecoveredintheProjectRequirementsand
ConstructionActivitiescategories.
TableEW3.8comparesthedefinitionsusedinsomecurrentstormwatermanagementguidanceandother
sustainabilityratingsystemsthataresometimesappliedtoroadwaysandinfrastructure.Itisparticularlyimportant
tonotethediscrepanciesbetweenthe2009LEED™RatingSystem(LEED),twoseparatedocumentsfromthesame
agency(theFHWA),andtheguidancereferencedbyGreenroadsintheBMPDB(alsousedinHuberetal.2006).
Notably,LEEDappearstousetheterm“nonstructural”tomean“biological”or“vegetated,”whichmatchesthe
mostrecentguidancefromtheFHWA.However,theFHWAappearstousetheterm“structural”controlto
describeBMPsthatprovidewhatisnormallycalled“enhancedtreatment”filtersor“oilcontrol”facilitieswhich
areusuallysmallormoderatelysizedmechanicalfiltersorseparatorsthatparsesurfaceoilsandgreasefrom
settledsediments(CityofSeattle,2009).Furthermore,theFHWAconfusinglyusestheterm“ultraurban”torefer
towhatisequivalentinmostsitedevelopmentguidancedocumentstomeanLIDtechniques.(SeeProject
RequirementPR8LowImpactDevelopment).Thisisprobablyanattempttodistinguishstandardhighway
drainagepracticessuchas,forexample,“grassedswales”(whichgenerallymeanslong,vegetated,generallynon
engineeredoutsideofflowcontrolsizing,nonmaintenanceintensiveroadsideditches)from“bioswales”(which
generallymeanssmall,decentralized,engineeredanddeliberatelyvegetatedforwaterqualitytreatmentandflow
control,notnecessarilymaintenanceintensiveroadsideditches).GreenroadsusesthetermLIDforconsistency
acrosscreditsandrequirements.

TableEW3.8:VaryingDefinitionsofStormwaterTreatmentControlsinSelectGuidanceDocuments
Source StructuralControl NonStructuralControl
2009LEED™Rating “Structuralmeasures,suchasrainwater “Nonstructuralstrategies,suchas
System(USGBC,2009) cisterns,manholetreatmentdevicesand vegetatedswales,disconnectionof
pondscanbeusedtoremovepollutants imperviousareas,andpervious
fromrunofffromimperviousareasand pavement,canbeusedtoinfiltrateand
sometimesreusethewaterforirrigation limitrunoff.Inthesecasesyouare
orbuildingflushfixtures….Structural ‘capturingandtreating’runoffby
measuresarepreferredonurbanor allowingittonaturallyfilterintothesoil
constrainedsitesandmakeitpossibleto andvegetation.Pollutantsarebroken
effectivelycleantherunoffwithminimal downbymicroorganismsinthesoiland
spaceallocationandlanduse.For theplants….Nonstructuralmethodsare
existingsiteswithgreaterthan50% oftenpreferredbecausetheymaybeless
imperviousness,structuraltechniques costlytoconstructandmaintainandthey
mayincluderestorationandrepairof helprechargegroundwatersupplies.”
deterioratedstormsewers,orseparation
ofcombinedsewers.”
2009SustainableSites Notexplicitlydefined Not explicitly defined
Initiative
2009NationalHighway “…theseengineereddevicesaretypically Vegetativepracticessuchasgrassed
Institute/FederalHighway structuralandaremadeonaproduction swales,filterstripsandwetlands“are
AdministrationUrban lineinafactory.” nonstructuralBMPsandaresignificantly
DrainageManual lesscostlythanstructuralcontrols”
2002FederalHighway Infiltrationtechnologies,including Streetsweeping,sourcecontrols
Administration bioretention,pondsandpond/wetland
StormwaterBest combinations,enhancedtreatment
ManagementPracticesin systems,filteringsystems,vegetated
anUltraUrbanSetting swalesandfilterstrips,waterquality
(Shoemaker,Lahlou,Doll inlets,porouspavements
andCazenas)
2009StormwaterBMP “StructuralBMPsincludeavarietyof “NonstructuralBMPssuchaseducation
MonitoringManual practicesthatrelyonawiderangeof andsourcecontrolordinancestypically
(Quigleyetal.2009), hydrologic,physical,biological,and dependonacombinationofbehavioral
Greenroads chemicalprocessestoimprovewater changeandenforcement.”
qualityandmanagerunoff.
ImpactsofPollutantsinRoadwayRunoff
Fewstormwaterqualitymanagementapproachesconsidertheaggregateandsystemicimpactstothefullreachof
awatercourse,letalonethewatershed(Wilcock,PitlickandCui,2009).AsdiscussedinCreditEW2RunoffFlow
Control,impervioussurfacesaredirectlyrelatedtorunoffvolumes.Thesevolumesofrunoffcarrypollutantsinto
receivingwaterbodies,suchasriversandstreams,bays,wetlandsandoceanenvironments.TilleyandSlonecker
(2006)determinedthatimperviousnessaslowasonepercentcancauseanaquaticecosystemareatobelabeled
as“stressed”andupto25%imperviousnesscancause“irreversibleenvironmentaldegradation.”Theyalsoshow
thatroadsandsidewalkscompriseupto33%oftheimperviousareainaveragesuburbanandurbanenvironments,
whileinruralenvironments,nearlyalloftheimperviousareaisduetoroadways(MaestreandPitt,2005).The
pollutantsgeneratedfromroadwaysinareasofexistingwatershedimpairmentaremonitoredandmanagedby
waterqualityprogramsthroughtheEPAorauthorizedstateorlocalagencies.
TotalMaximumDailyLoadsandRoads
TheEPAgathersstatisticsonwaterqualityforavarietyofwaterbodiesaspartoftheongoingwaterquality
programcalledAssessmentTotalMaximumDailyLoad(TMDL)TrackingandImplementationSystem(ATTAINS),
whichisregulatedthroughsections305(b)and303(d)oftheCleanWaterAct(EPA,2009b).Reportingis
requiredfromstateswithnonattainmentwaterbodies(thoseexceedingtheirTMDLs)everytwoyearsuntil

attainmentisreachedforeachassessedpollutant(EPA,2009a).RoadwaysarepartofTMDLcomputationsas
theyareconsideredtobenonpointcontributorsofpollution(theyarecountedaspartofthetotalload
allocationforeffluent)–thecontributionisbasedontotalcontributingareaorlengthinawatershed.Table
EW3.9wasconstructedfromthecurrentTMDLstatisticslistedintheATTAINSdatabase.Forexample,ofthe
26%oftheassessedmileageofU.S.riversandstreamsreceivingroadwayrunoff,over50%areconsidered
impairedandthreatened.Impairedwaterbodiesarethosethathavenotmetthequalitycriteriaforoneor
moreofitsassessedbeneficialuses,whereasthreatenedwaterbodiesmeetallassessedbeneficialusesbut
demonstrateanapparentdeclineinwaterquality(EPA,2008).
AccordingtoATTAINS,somestateshavereportedroadwaysasadirectprobablecauseofimpairment(not
includingthreatenedwaters)forreceivingstreamsandrivers.Roadsandroadconstructionactivitiesare
probablydirectlyresponsibleforabout3.4%oftheassessedimpairedwaters.However,theimpactof
roadwaysismuchgreaterthanthisfigureindicates.Asdiscussedinthepreviouscredit(EW2RunoffFlow
Control),runoffgeneratedonimpervioussurfacessuchasroadwaysandbridgescancausedegradationof
habitat,lossofwetlandhabitat,clearingofvegetationandmanyotheractivitiesassociatedwith
hydromodification.Manyoftheseimpactsresultfromorareotherwiseindirectlyrelatedtoroadway
constructionanduse.WhilenotallriversandstreammilesintheU.S.wereassessed,theseindirecthabitatand
ecosystemchangesassociatedwithroadwaypotentiallyrepresentanadditional20%ofthetotalimpairments
inassessedriversandstreams.Thediffuseimpactsduetoroadwaydevelopmentcouldbeupto56%forbays
andestuaries.TheseTMDLstatisticslikelyincludeseveraldifferentnonpointsources;however,manydata
werealsonotreported(denotedas“NA”inTableEW3.9).Forexample,ATTAINSincludesadditional
informationoncoastalandnearcoastalwatersandshorelines,butthereisextremelylimiteddatafor
roadwaysandtheindirectactivitiesnoted;thesewereomittedfromthetable.
WhenPollutionisWorst
MaestreandPitt(2005)showedthatstreetsinurbanareasgenerateapproximately2050%oftheinitialrunoffup
tohalfaninch,whichisoftencalledthe“firstflush”event.PrinceGeorge’sCounty(PGC:1999)explainsthe
conceptofthe“firstflush,”whichis“thefirsthalfinchofrunofffromanimpervioussurface[thatis]expectedto
carrywithmostofthepollutantloadassociatedwithstormwater.Intermsofatypicalstormhydrograph,the“first
flush”representsasmallportionofastorm’stotaldischarge,butalargerpercentageofthetotalloadingfora
particularcontaminant.”ThishypothesiswasinvestigatedbystatisticalanalysisoftheNationalStormwaterQuality
DatabasebyMaestreandPitt(2005),whoshowedthatwhilepeakpollutantconcentrationsoccuroftenwithpeak
flows,onsmallareasofpavementwithsmallorlocalizeddrainagefacilitiesitislikelythattherewillbeafirstflush
whereconcentrationspeakearlyduetothewashingawayofmostpollutantswithinitialrainfall.However,at
largerscalesandhigherrainfall,andwithmorecomplexdrainagesystems,thepollutantloadislesslikelytobe
detectedintermsofstatisticallysignificantconcentrationdifferences.ThissuggeststhatLIDmethods,whichare
small,decentralizedandefficientattreatingthefirsthalfinchofrunoff,maybeappropriateforroadsandmay
alsohelpagenciesmeetrequirementsforTMDLattainmentlevels(Huberetal.,2006,PGC,1999).


TableEW3.9:NationalProbableSourceGroupsContributingtoWaterBodyImpairmentsDuetoRoadsand
BridgesBasedonwaterbodyassessmentdatafromtheNationalSummaryofStateInformation.(EPA,2010b)
Rivers& Lakes,Reservoirs Bays&
WaterBody Wetlands
Streams &Ponds Estuaries
2
(unit) (mi) (ac) (mi ) (ac)
TotalU.S.Waters 3,533,205 41,666,049 87,791 107,700,000
TotalAssessedWaters 933,384 17,576,176 18,444 2,051,861
PercentofU.S.WatersAssessed 26.4% 42.2% 21.0% 1.9%
PercentofImpairedAssessedWaters 49.6% 66.0% 63.7% 36.4%
GoodWaters 464,428 5,928,815 6,687 1,304,892
ThreatenedWaters 6,355 47,330 17 805
ImpairedWaters 462,601 11,600,032 11,740 746,163
TotalAssessedImpairedWatersDirectlyor
23.3% 5.8% 55.8% 14.6%
IndirectlyAttributabletoRoads/Bridges/Highways
DIRECT CAUSESOFIMPAIRMENT
Urbanrelatedrunoffprobablesourcegroup
Highway/road/bridgerunoff(nonconstruction) 7,712 18,705 2 NA
Constructionprobablesourcegroup
Highway/road/bridgeinfrastructure 6,591 100,796 NA NA
Forestryprobablesourcegroup
Forest&loggingroads(constructionanduse) 1,273 NA NA NA
DirectlyAssessedProbableImpairmentfrom
3.4% 1.0% 0% 0%
Roads/Bridges/Highways
INDIRECT CAUSESOFIMPAIRMENT
Habitatalterations(notdirectlyrelatedtohydromodification)probablesourcegroup
Lossofriparianhabitat 11,028 4,506 2,091 NA
Removalofvegetation 389 NA NA NA
Hydromodificationprobablesourcegroup
Channelerosion/incisionfromupstream
723 NA NA NA
hydromodifications
Channelization(includinglinedchannels) 19,380 31,925 NA 220
Cleansediments 1,132 NA 1,916 NA
Erosion&siltation 12,520 2,300 2 NA
Flowalterationsfromwaterdiversions 3,038 27,510 NA 1,000
Flowregulation/modification 199 NA NA NA
Hydromodification 17,660 302,373 607 98,412
Postdevelopmenterosion&sedimentation 1,369 16,185 NA NA
Sedimentresuspension 563 101,420 1,918 965
Streambankmodifications/destabilization 10,227 63,721 NA 8,491
Transferofwaterfromanoutsidewatershed 252 73 NA NA
Upstreamimpoundment 8,122 7,647 13 NA
Waterdiversions 5,537 NA NA 75
IndirectlyAssessedProbableImpairmentfrom
19.9% 4.8% 55.8% 14.6%
Roads/Bridges/Highways
Notes:NAmeansNotAssessed,NotAvailableorNotApplicable.
NotallwatersinU.S.havebeenassessed.Coastalwaters,nearshorelines,andoceanshadnodataforroadwaysorlistedindirectcauses.
Forestclearing,wetlandalterations,andminingandresourceextractionactivitiesarenotincludedinthistable.
Someentrieshavebeenaggregatedwheremultipleentriesusedsametitleindatabaseundersameprobablesourcegroupheadings.
Indirectcausesofimpairmentrepresentaggregateddataforallpotentialsourcegroups.
Statisticsbasedonaggregateddatacollectedfromallreportingstates.

CommonPollutantsandSources
Themostcommontypesofpollutantsfoundinroadwayrunoffaresediment(totalsuspendedsolids:TSSandtotal
dissolvedsolids:TDS),heavymetals,hydrocarbons(oilsandgrease),andpathogens.Concentrationsofthese
pollutantsvarywidelydependingontrafficloads,environmentalsettingandlanduse.Forexample,Huberetal.
(2006)showedthatTSSisgenerallygreaterforhigheraveragedailytraffic(ADT)loads.TSSconcentrations
averagedabout172mg/Landhadawidespreadrangefromaslowas2mg/L(Interstate205inVancouver,
Washington:17x103ADT)toashighas8735mg/L(Interstate10inBatonRouge,Louisiana:78x103ADT).
SomecommonroadwaypollutantsareshowninTableEW3.10andtheirpotentialconcentrationsinTableEW
3.11below.
TableEW3.10:Commonconstituentsandsourcesofroadrunoff(Shoemaker,Lahlou,Doll,andCazenas,2002)
Constituent Source
Particulates Pavementwear,vehicles,atmosphericdeposition,maintenanceactivities
Nitrogen,Phosphorus Atmosphericdepositionandfertilizerapplication
Lead Leadedgasolinefromautoexhaustsandtirewear
Zinc Tirewear,motoroil,andgrease
Iron Autobodyrust,steelhighwaystructuressuchasbridgesandguardrails,andmoving
engineparts
Copper Metalplating,bearingandbrushingwear,movingengineparts,brakeliningwear,
fungicidesandinsecticides
Cadmium Tirewearandinsecticideapplication
Chromium Metalplating,movingengineparts,andbrakeliningwear
Nickel Dieselfuelandgasoline,lubricatingoil,metalplating,bushingwear,brakelining
wear,andasphaltpaving
Manganese Movingengineparts
Cyanide Anticakingcompoundsusedtokeepdeicingsaltsgranular
Sodium,Calcium,Chloride Deicingsalts
Sulphates Roadwaybeds,fuel,anddeicingsalts
Petroleum Spill,leaks,antifreezeandhydraulicfluids,andasphaltsurfaceleachate

TableEW3.11:Commonconstituentsandsourcesofroadrunoff(Shoemaker,Lahlou,Doll,andCazenas,2002;
EPA,2005;adaptedinthesesourcesfromBarrettetal.1995)
Parameter Concentration(mg/L,unlessnoted)
TotalSuspendedSolids(TSS) 45798
VolatileSuspendedSolids(VSS) 4.379
TotalOrganicCarbon(TOC) 2477
ChemicalOxygenDemand(COD) 14.7272
BiochemicalOxygenDemand(BOD) 12.737
Nitrate+Nitrite(NO3+NO2) 0.151.636
TotalKjeldahlNitrogen(TKN) 0.33555.0
TotalPhosphorusasP 0.1130.998
Copper(Cu) 0.0227.033
Lead(Pb) 0.0731.78
Zinc(Zn) 0.0560.929
Fecalcoliform 50590 (organisms/100ml)

OtherQualityConcerns:TemperatureandTurbidity
Temperatureandturbidityaretwoothercommonmeasuresofwaterquality.Temperature,whichis
technicallyaphysicalcharacteristicofwater,isusuallyincludedinqualitymeasurementsasanindicatorof
biologicalimpacts,especiallyinsensitiveaquatichabitatssuchasriparianareas(Hinman,2005).Turbidity,or

relativeclarityofthewater,isanotherphysicalmeasurethatisusedasanindicatorofsuspendedsediment
loads(EPA,2006).Differentjurisdictionsandmonitoringcriteriawilldictatewhetherthesewaterquality
parametersaremeasuredforawaterbody.
LowImpactDevelopmentforRunoffQualityControl
AbriefintroductiontoLIDtechniqueswasprovidedinProjectRequirementPR8.Therelevantmechanismsat
workthatprovidequalitytreatmentwithLIDmethodsbrieflydescribedbelow(Shoemaker,Lahlou,Dolland
Cazenas,2002;CityofSeattle,2009).MostLIDtechniquesincorporatemorethanoneofthesemethods.
Additionally,allflowcontrolmethodsprovidesomedegreeofmitigatingtreatmentorpreventionforpollutant
transportintoreceivingwaters(Huberetal.2006;Shoemaker,Lahlou,DollandCazenas,2002).
x Detention/Sedimentation.Runoffiscollectedtemporarilyandreleasedviaacontrolledoutflow.Theslow
releaseallowsforparticlestosettleoutbasedondensity.
x Flotation.Pollutantsarepulledoutofrunoffbyphysicalprocessesthatseparatethembasedondensity(e.g.
oil/waterseparators).
x Biologicalremovalmechanisms.Thisincludesvegetativeandbacterialprocessessuchasnutrientuptakeor
metabolizationoforganicorinorganiccompounds.
x Filtration/Sorption.Pollutantsaretrappedandstrainedthroughdifferentmaterials,suchasfinesand.
x Chemicaltreatment.Chemicalsareaddedtorunofftoremovepollutants.
x Proprietarytreatmentmethods.Mechanicalorotherwisefabricatedpollutantremovalequipment.
Huberetal.(2006)presentsamoredetaileddescriptionoftheLIDprocesses.TableEW3.2presentsthepollutant
removalperformanceforseveraldifferenttypesofLIDBMPsthathavebeenstatisticallyanalyzedandshownin
termsofinfluentandeffluentconcentrations(GeosyntecConsultantsandWrightWaterEngineers,2008).In
general,amixofallofthesemethodswillbemosteffectiveonasite.“Treatmenttrains”orLIDBMPsarrangedin
seriescanalsobeusedtotreatparticularlypollutedeffluentinmanycases(Quigleyetal.2009;SSI,2009).
Concentration,ratherthanpercentremoval,isthepreferredreportingmethodforrunoffqualityperformancefor
anumberofreasons.AconcisediscussionofthisreasoningisgivenattheBMPDBbyWrightWaterEngineersand
GeosyntecConsultants(2007):http://www.bmpdatabase.org/Docs/FAQPercentRemoval.pdf.
Additionally,twoofthemethodsdescribedinCreditEW2RunoffFlowControl,compostamendedsoils(suchas
infiltrationslopes)anddesignbyavoidance(suchasnonerodingroadwaysorplanningalignmentsawayfrom
sensitivewatersheds)alsopresentsignificantwaterqualitybenefits.
AdditionalResources
x Foragood,briefsummaryofrecentwaterqualityliteratureforroadwaysthrough2006,seeClarkeet.al
(2007).Thediscussionofroadsandhighwaysbeginsonpage39andisavailableforfreeat:
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.87.9494&rep=rep1&type=pdf
x EPA’s2005NationalManagementMeasurestoControlNonpointSourcePollutionfromUrbanAreascovers
highwaysandbridgesinManagementMeasure7(Chapter7)andisavailablefordownloadhere:
http://www.epa.gov/nps/urbanmm/
x Huberet.al(2006)compiledacomprehensivereviewofhighwayrunoffcontrolprogramsaspartofthe
NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)Report565:EvaluationofBestPracticesforHighway
RunoffControl.ThisreportisavailableinPDFformat,withsupplementalappendices,at:
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_565.pdf
x AvarietyofguidancefromtheFHWAonwaterqualityandstormwatermanagementpublicationsareavailable
at:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/h2o_abs.htm
x FHWA(Shoemaker,Lahlou,DollandCazenas,2002)providesguidanceonultraurbanBMPselectionand
monitoringavailableat:http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/ultraurb/3fs10.htm
x AASHTOCenterforEnvironmentalExcellenceprovidesanoverviewofwaterqualityissuesandwetlands
availableat:http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/water_wetlands/

x CurrentperformancedataonqualitycontrolforLIDBMPsisavailableattheInternationalBMPDatabase:
http://www.bmpdatabase.org.Theyalsotrackcostdataasitisvolunteeredalongwithsubmissions.
GLOSSARY
ADT Averagedailytraffic
Biologicalintegrity Theabilitytosupportandmaintainabalanced,integratedadaptive
BMPDB InternationalBMPDatabase(http://www.bmpdatabase.org)
Detention Theprocessofholdinganddelayingrunoffwithacontrolledrelease
Erosion Surfacewearingduetophysicalprocessessuchaswater,windandheat
Flowcontrol Managementofrunoffvolumephysicalcharacteristicsincludingpeakflows
andtimeofconcentration
Hydromodification alterationofthehydrologiccharacteristicsofcoastalandnoncoastalwaters,
whichinturncouldcausedegradationofwaterresources(EPA,2007)
IMP Integratedmanagementpractice
Impairedwaterbody Bodiesofwaterthathavenotmetthewaterqualitycriteriaforoneormore
ofitsassessedbeneficialusesbasedonTMDL(EPA,2008)
LA Loadallocation(usedtocomputeTMDL),nonpointsources
LEED LeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesign™
Nonpointsource Adiffusegeneratorofpollutionorcontaminants
Nonstructuralcontrol BMPsthatdependonbehavioralchangeandenforcement(Quigleyetal.,
2009)
Reach Thelengthofariverorstreambetweenriverbends
Retention Theprocessofholdingrunoff,ideallynoreleaseoccursandallrunoffis
infiltratedorevaporated
SSI SustainableSitesInitiative
Structuralcontrol BMPsthatuseawiderangeofhydrologic,physical,biological,andchemical
processestoimprovewaterqualityandmanagerunoff.
TDS Totaldissolvedsolids
Threatenedwaterbody Bodiesofwaterthathavemetallrelevantwaterqualitycriteriaforits
assessedbeneficialusesbasedonTMDLbutdemonstrateanapparent
declineinwaterquality(EPA,2008)
TMDL Totalmaximumdailyload

TSS Totalsuspendedsolids
Turbidity Relativeclarityofwater
WLA Wasteloadallocation(usedtocomputeTMDL),pointsources

REFERENCES
AASHTOCenterforEnvironmentalExcellence(2009).CenterforEnvironmentalExcellencebyAASHTO:Water
Quality/Wetlands.AccessedJanuary18,2010.Availableat:
http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/water_wetlands/
Clarket.al.(2007).AnnotatedBibliographyofUrbanWetWeatherFlowLiteraturefrom1996through2006
Middleton,PA:PennsylvaniaStateUniversity–Harrisburg.Availableat:
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.87.9494&rep=rep1&type=pdf
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(1995,November).Erosion,SedimentandRunoffControlforRoadsand
Highways.(EPA841F95008d).OfficeofWater.Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Available
athttp://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/education/runoff.html
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2000,October).LowImpactDevelopment(LID):ALiteratureReview.(EPA841
B00005).OfficeofWater.Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2005,November).Nationalmanagementmeasurestocontrolnonpointsource
pollutionfromurbanareas.[EPA841B05004].Washington,DC:EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,Officeof
Water.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/urbanmm/index.html
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2006,November30).EPA>OWOW>MonitoringandAssessingWaterQuality
>VolunteerStreamMonitoring:AMethodsManual>Chapter5>5.5Turbidity.AccessedJanuary18,2010.
Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/volunteer/stream/vms55.html
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2007).Nationalmanagementmeasurestocontrolnonpointsourcepollution
fromhydromodification.[EPA841B07002]Washington,DC:NonpointSourceControlBranch,Officeof
Wetlands,Oceans,andWatersheds,U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,OfficeofWater.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/hydromod/pdf/Hydromod_all_web.pdf
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008,October16).Overview|ImpairedWatersandTMDL|USEPA.Accessed
January18,2010.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/owow/tmdl/intro.html
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2009a,April29).WaterQualityAssessmentandTMDLInformation(ATTAINS).
AccessedJanuary18,2010.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/waters/ir/
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2009b,September24).CleanWatersActSection319|PollutedRunoff
(NonpointSourcePollution)|EPA.AccessedJanuary18,2010.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/cwact.html
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2010a,January13).WhatisNPSPollution?–QuestionsandAnswers|Polluted
Runoff(NonpointSourcePollution)|USEPA.AccessedJanuary18,2010.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/qa.html

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2010b,January15).NationalSummaryofStateInformation|WATERS|US
EPA.AccessedJanuary15,2010.Availableathttp://iaspub.epa.gov/waters10/attains_nation_cy.control
FederalHighwayAdministration.(2009).UrbanDrainageDesignManual.3rded.[NHI10009].Washington,DC:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/hydraulics/pubs/10009/index.cfm
GeosyntecConsultantsandWrightWaterEngineers,Inc.(2008)OverviewofPerformancebyBMPCategoryand
CommonPollutantType:InternationalStormwaterBestManagementPractices(BMP)Database[19992008].
Availableat
http://www.bmpdatabase.org/Docs/Performance%20Summary%20Cut%20Sheet%20June%202008.pdf
InternationalBMPDatabase.(BMPDB)BMPDB–Home.Availableathttp://www.bmpdatabase.org
Maestre,A,&Pitt,R.(2005).TheNationalStormwaterQualityDatabase,Version1.1:ACompilationandAnalysis
ofNPDESStormwaterMonitoringInformation.PreparedbyUniversityofAlabamaandCenterforWatershed
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PiguetP,ParriauxA,&BensimonM.(2008).Thediffuseinfiltrationofroadrunoff:anenvironmentalimprovement.
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Quigley,M.etal.(2009,October).UrbanStormwaterBMPPerformanceMonitoring.ReporttotheEnvironmental
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Administration.(2002).StormwaterBestManagementPracticesinanUltraUrbanSetting:Selectionand
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Southerland,M.(1994).Evaluationofecologicalimpactsfromhighwaydevelopment.[EPA300B94006]
DynamacCorporationfortheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Washington,DC:UnitedStatesEnvironmental
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SustainableSitesInitiative.(2009).GuidelinesandPerformanceBenchmarks.AmericanSocietyofLandscape
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Tilley,J.S.,&Slonecker,E.T.(2006).Quantifyingthecomponentsofimpervioussurfaces.Reston,Va:U.S.
GeologicalSurvey.
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WashingtonDepartmentofTransportationEnvironmentalandEngineeringPrograms,DesignOffice.Olympia,
WA:WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation.Availableat
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Wilcock,P.R.,Pitlick,J.,&Cui,Y.(2009).SedimenttransportprimerEstimatingbedmaterialtransportingravel
bedrivers.FortCollins,CO:U.S.Dept.ofAgriculture,ForestService,RockyMountainResearchStation.
WrightWaterEngineersandGeosyntecConsultants(2007).FrequentlyAskedQuestionsFactSheetforthe
InternationalStormwaterBMPDatabase:WhydoestheInternationalStormwaterBMPDatabaseProjectomit
percentremovalasameasureofBMPperformance?AccessedJanuary15,2010.Availableat
http://www.bmpdatabase.org

STORMWATER COST ANALYSIS

GOAL EW-4
Determinelifecyclecostsandsavingsassociatedwithlowimpactdevelopment
techniquesandbestmanagementpracticesforstormwaterutilities.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS 1 POINT

Conductalifecyclecostanalysis(LCCA)forstormwaterutilitiesaccordingtothe
NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)Report565:Evaluationof
BestManagementPracticesforHighwayRunoffControlGuidelinesManual.
RELATED CREDITS
NCHRPReport565canbeaccessedatthefollowinglink: 9 PR2LifecycleCost
http://144.171.11.107/Main/Blurbs/Evaluation_of_Best_Management_Practices_for_ Analysis
Highwa_158397.aspx 9 PR7Pollution
PreventionPlan
TheGuidelinesManualisavailabletodownloadasaCDimagefile(*.iso).Thisfilecan 9 PR8LowImpact
beburnedtoaCDandthenviewedasaPDF. Development
9 PR10Site
Details MaintenancePlan
Note:ThiscreditisapplicableonlyforprojectswherePR8hasidentifiedthatlow 9 EW2RunoffFlow
impactdevelopmenttechnologiesareappropriateforimplementationfor Control
stormwatermanagement. 9 EW3RunoffQuality
SUSTAINABILITY
DOCUMENTATION
COMPONENTS
ProvideacopyoftheLCCAspreadsheetshowingthefinalresultsofthecostanalysis
andhighlightingthefinalalternativechosen.Theresultsmustshow,atminimum,that 9 Ecology
thefollowingcriteriahavebeenaddressed: 9 Economy
9 Extent
x Expectedservicelife 9 Expectations
x Constructioncosts 9 Exposure
x Maintenancecosts
x Interestrate BENEFITS
x Salvagevalue 9 Improves
x Estimatedannualcostofthestormwatermanagementsystem Accountability
9 ReducesLifecycle
Costs
9 CreatesNew
Information
EW-4 Stormwater Cost Analysis 173


x Useafinancialapproach(strictlymonetarycostsandbenefits)fortheLCCA.
x Evaluatedesignalternativesbasedonthegoalsofthestormwatermanagementplan.
x Setupaspreadsheettocomputecostsbasedonbudgetinputs.
x UseestimatedcostsforLIDBMPsavailablefromtheBMPDatabase(BMPDB)availableat:
http://www.bmpdatabase.org.
x Consideravoidedcostsofstormwatertreatmentatoffsitelocations,oravoidedpermittingcosts.
x Includeseveraldifferentmethodsandalternativesintheevaluationofthestormwatersystemwhen
performingtheLCCA.Investigatebothstructuralandnonstructuralcontrols,includingconventionalcontrols
suchasdetentionorinfiltration(Huberet.al.,2006).
Example: LCCA Calculation

ThefollowingexampleusestheNCHRPReportoutlinetoperformanLCCAforapotentialstormwatersystem.
Thesystembeinganalyzedconsistsof150linearfeetof12inchportlandcementconcretepipeconnectedto
two48”manholes.
TableEW4.1showstheinitialconstructioncostsassociatedwiththepotentialstormwatersystem.
TableEW4.1:Initialconstructioncosts.
Costof150LFof12"ConcretePipe $1,200.00
Costof248"Manholes $4,800.00
RightofWayCost $100.00
TotalInitialConstructionCost $6,100.00

TableEW4.2showssomeoftheothercostsassociatedwiththestormwatersystem,includingsalvagevalue,
interestrate,anddesignlife.
TableEW4.2:IncidentalCosts
AnnualMaintenanceCost $300.00
SalvageValue $750.00
InterestRate 4.00%
DesignLife(Years) 30

Tobeginthelifecyclecostanalysis,allofthefutureandannualcostsassociatedwiththesystemmustbe
convertedintoapresentworthvalue.
First,theannualmaintenancecostisconvertedintoapresentworthusingEquationEW4.1:
EquationEW4.1:
ሺͳ ൅ ݅ሻ௡ െ ͳ ሺͳ ൅ ǤͲͶሻଷ଴ െ ͳ
ܲ ൌ ‫ܣ‬ሺ ൌ ͵ͲͲሺ ൌ ̈́ͷͳͺ͹Ǥ͸ͳ
݅ሺͳ ൅ ݅ሻ௡ Ǥ ͲͶሺͳ ൅ ǤͲͶሻଷ଴
Secondly,thesalvagevalueisconvertedintoapresentworthusingEquationEW4.2:
EquationEW4.2:
‫ܨ‬ ͹ͷͲ
ܲൌ ௡
ൌ ൌ ̈́ʹ͵ͳǤʹͶ
ሺͳ ൅ ݅ሻ ሺͳ ൅ ǤͲͶሻଷ଴
Thetotalinitialcostisthenfoundbyaddingthetotalconstructioncoststothetwocalculatedpresentworth
values.Thismakesthetotalcostassociatedwiththisstormwatersystem$11,518.85.
174 Stormwater Cost Analysis EW-4

Next,byannualizingthisvalueusingEquationEW4.3,itcanbeshownthattheannualcostforthenew
stormwatersystemwillbe$666.14peryearfora30yearlifetime.
EquationEW4.3:
݅ሺͳ ൅ ݅ሻ௡ Ǥ ͲͶሺͳ ൅ ǤͲͶሻଷ଴
‫ܣ‬ൌܲ ൌ ͳͳǡͷͳͺǤͺͷ ൌ ̈́͸͸͸ǤͳͶ
ሺͳ ൅ ݅ሻ௡ െ ͳ ሺͳ ൅ ǤͲͶሻଷ଴ െ ͳ
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Complexityofthecostanalysiswillbeproportionaltotheextentandlaborinvolvedininstallingthe
stormwaterutilitiessystem.
2. LCCAdoesnotnecessarilyreflecttheactualcostorfunctionalityofthefinishedstormwatersystem.
RESEARCH
Manyagencies’projectevaluationprocessconsidersonlytheinitialcapitalcostsofprojectswithoutconsidering
longtermoperationsandmaintenance.Focusingonlyoncapitalcostsmakesitlesslikelythatprojectswilladopt
stormwatercontrolsthatmayhavehigherinitialcosts,butarelessexpensivetooperateandmaintaininthelong
term.Therearealsononmonetaryrisksandcostsassociatedwithstormwatersystemsthatarerelevantto
decisionmakingsuchaspermanentlandusechangesassociatedwithdetentionponds,acommonfeatureof
conventionalstormwaterinfrastructure.
Overallcapitalandmaintenancecostsarenottheonlycoststhatshouldbeinvolvedinthelifecyclecost
assessment.Thecostofactuallytreatingthestormwatershouldbeincludedaswell.Preliminaryestimatesin
NCHRPReport565showthatthecostoftreatingstormwatercanvaryfrom$0.10to$3.00pergallonbasedonthe
treatmentmethodology(Huberet.al,2006).
Drasticchangestostormwatersystemscanaffectbothwaterqualityandflowrates.Evaluatingbothinalifecycle
costanalysisaswellasawaterqualityanalysiscanbeaneffectivemethodofdesignevaluation.Thedesignteam
shouldensurethattheoverallgoalsofthestormwatersystemarenotgeneratedspecificallyoncost,but
functionalityaswell(Huberet.al.,2006).Otherpossiblefactorstoconsiderindesignevaluationincludeexisting
infrastructure,propertyownership,healthandsafety,andvolumereduction(Huberet.al,2006).
Casestudiesof17lowimpactdevelopmentinstallationsforstormwaterflowcontrolandqualitymanagement
werecompletedbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyin2007.ResultsofthestudyshowedthatapplyingLID
techniquesusuallyreducedprojectcostsandhadtheaddedbenefitofimprovedenvironmentalperformance(for
bothflowcontrolandqualityofdischarge).Insomecases,LIDwasmoreexpensivethanconventionalbest
managementpractices,dueinparttocontractorunfamiliarity.Inmostcases,significantcapitalcostswere
reducedbyavoidinggrading,stormwaterinfrastructure,additionalpavingandvegetation.Savingsrangedfrom15
80percentwiththefewexceptionsmentioned(EPA,2007).
GLOSSARY
LCCA Lifecycle costanalysis

REFERENCES
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(2007).ReducingStormwaterCoststhroughLowImpactDevelopment(LID)
StrategiesandPractices.[PublicationNumberEPA841F07006,December2007
HuberW.C.,Strecker,E.W.,Heaney,J.P.,&Weinstein,N.(2006).EvaluationofBestManagementPracticesand
LowImpactDevelopmentforHighwayRunoffControlUser’sGuideforBMP/LIDSelectionGuidelinesManual.
NationalCooperativeResearchProgram.
EW-4 Stormwater Cost Analysis 175

176 Stormwater Cost Analysis EW-4

SITE VEGETATION
GOAL EW-5
Promotesustainablesitevegetationthatdoesnotrequireirrigation.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Sitevegetationshallbesubjecttothefollowingrequirementsinordertoreceivethe 1-3 POINTS
pointslisted:
x 1point:Usenoninvasiveplantspeciesonly
x 1point:Donotusewater(noirrigation)aftertheplantestablishmentperiod
RELATED CREDITS
x 1point:Usenativeplantspeciesonly 9 PR10Site
MaintenancePlan
Details 9 EW3RunoffQuality
9 EW6Habitat
“Sitevegetation”isdefinedasallvegetationassociatedwithaparticularroadway
Restoration
projectandshallincludeallvegetationwithintheroadway’srightofway.Thiscan
includeroadsidevegetation,decorativeplanting(e.g.,planterboxesorpotted
plantsinurbanareas)andvegetationcontainedinstormwaterfacilities(e.g., SUSTAINABILITY
bioswalesandraingardens). COMPONENTS
9 Ecology
Thefollowingitemsmustbeperformedtoensurethataplantspeciesisconsidered 9 Economy
“noninvasive”: 9 Equity
9 Extent
1. Consultexistinglocal(e.g.city,county,state,parkservice)vegetationpolicy
andprocedurethatisapplicabletotheroadwayprojectandisspecifically
formulatedtopreventtheuseofinvasiveplantspeciesandnoxiousweeds.
BENEFITS
2. Uselocaland/orregionalliststoidentifyinvasiveplantspecies. 9 ReducesWaterUse
3. Complywithlocaland/ornationalnoxiousweedlaws. 9 ReducesWater
Pollution
“Nowateruse”meansthatthesitevegetationwillnotrequireanyirrigationafter 9 ReducesGreenhouse
theplantestablishmentperiod.The“plantestablishmentperiod”shallbestatedin Gases
theprojectspecifications.Typicalplantestablishmentperiodsare13years.This 9 ReducesSolidWaste
requirementmeansthatvegetationrequiringirrigationsuchasseasonalplanter 9 IncreasesAesthetics
boxescannotreceivetheassociatedpointevenifitisfullycomprisedofnon
invasiveornativespecies.
“Nativeplantspecies”areplantsnativetotheEPALevelIIIecoregionthatcontains
theroadwayprojectsiteorknowntonaturallyoccurwithin200milesofthe
roadwayconstructionsite(TheSustainableSitesInitiative,2009a).
DOCUMENTATION
x Avegetationorlandscapeplanshowingtypeandlocationofallplantspecies.This
canoftenbefoundinthestandardprojectplans.
x Thespecificationsectionsrelatingtositevegetationincludingplantingbed
requirements.Thesearetypicallyfoundinthetechnicalspecifications.
x Acopyoforreferenceto(e.g.,webaddress)thepolicyorprocedureusedtoselect
plantspecies.
EW-5 Site Vegetation 177


UseaPreDefinedListofApprovedPlants
Inmanycasesthelocalroadowner(e.g.,City,County,Stateorotherauthority)alreadyhasapredefinedlistof
acceptableplantspeciesforsitevegetation.Usually,theselistshavebeencarefullydevelopedtoexcludeinvasive
plantsandnoxiousweeds;howevertheyshouldstillbecheckedagainstlocal/regionallistsandlaws.Oftentimes,
thesepredefinedlistsalsoidentifynativeplantsanddroughttolerantplants(e.g.,nowateruse).Followingsuch
listscanoftenachievethenoninvasivespeciespointandzerowaterusepoint.Selectingnativeplantsspecies
(whichmayalsobeidentifiedontheselists)canthenearnthethirdpoint.
Predefinedlistsareadvantageousbecausetheyarestraightforwardandeasytofollow;plantsareeitheronthe
listornot.However,whenusedalonetheymaynotprovideadequateguidanceonestablishinglongterm
ecosystemgoals,managementofsitevegetationafterplanting,appropriatelocationanddensityofvegetationand
othermoreadvancedconcepts.
FollowaPreDefinedProcess
Itmaybepossibletoidentifyasitevegetationprocessthathasbeenapprovedoradoptedbythelocalauthority.
Theseprocessestypicallyidentifythesitevegetationstrategyanddescribetheactionsandmajorstepsneededto
establishsitevegetation.Theseplanscanbecomplex,suchasWesternFederalLandsHighwayDivision’sRoadside
Revegetation:AnIntegratedApproachtoEstablishingNativePlants(Steinfeldetal.2007)ormoregeneralin
naturelikeXeriscapeColorado(ColoradoWaterwise2009).
SustainableSitesInitiative
OnerobustpredefinedprocessisassociatedwiththeSustainableSitesInitiative(www.sustainablesites.org).
Thisis“aninterdisciplinaryeffort…tocreatevoluntarynationalguidelinesandperformancebenchmarksfor
sustainablelanddesign,constructionandmaintenancepractices.”(TheSustainableSiteInitiative2009c).A
roadwayprojectparticipatingintheSustainableSitesInitiativeprogramandrecognizedasa“sustainablesite”
wouldlikelyqualityforatleast1pointinthisVoluntaryCreditand,dependinguponwhichSustainableSites
creditbenchmarksareachieved,couldachieveall3points.Overall,theSustainableSitesInitiativeisamore
robustsetofbenchmarksforsitevegetationthanGreenroadsbecauseitsscopeislimitedtositedevelopment
anddoesnotincluderoadways,mobility,accessorothermetricsassociatedwithtransportation.
HaveanExpertDevelopaSiteSpecificVegetationStrategy
Intheabsenceofexistingguidance,itmaybenecessarytohaveanexpertdevelopanentirelynewsitespecific
vegetationplan.Whilethisisanacceptableoption,theexpertiseandtimetodeveloptheplancanbeexpensivein
relationtotheamountofsitevegetation;especiallyonsmallprojectswherevegetationislimited.Inadditionto
carefulselectionofappropriateplants,plandevelopmentrequiresconsiderationofplantingbedspecifications,
topsoilneeds,andplantingtechniques.Finally,longtermmaintenanceplansandgoalsmustbeestablishedforthe
plantcommunity.
Example: City of Portland, OR

TheCityofPortland’sBureauofPlanningandSustainabilityhasmaintainedaPortlandPlantListsince1991.
Thislistincludes:
x Nativeplants.PlantshistoricallyfoundintheCityofPortland.Theyaregroupedbytype(tree,arborescent
shrubs,shrubsandgroundcovers)andincludethescientificname,commonname,andwetlandindicator
statusandhabitattype.
x Nuisanceplants.Plantsthatcanberemovedmanuallywithoutrequiringanenvironmentalreviewor
greenwayreview.Plantsareconsideredanuisancebecausetheyhaveatendencytodominateplant
communitiesorareharmfultohumans.Nuisanceplantsmaybenative,exoticornaturalized.
x Prohibitedplants.Plantsprohibitedfromuseinallreviewedlandscapingsituations.Theseplantsposea
seriousthreattonativeplantandanimalhealth/vitality.
178 Site Vegetation EW-5

Example: City of Seattle, WA

TheCityofSeattleprovidesguidanceforprojectsitevegetationusing:
x DepartmentofTransportationsuggestedplantlistforstreetuse.
x Linkstoplantselectiondatabases.
x Treeprotectionordinance,specificationsandstandardplans.
x Heritagetreeprogram.
x Recommendedstreettreelist.
x Landscapestandardplans.
Thesuggestedplantlistforstreetuseiscalledthe“SeattleGreenFactorPlantList”
(http://www.seattle.gov/dpd/static/Green%20Factor%20Plant%20List_LatestReleased_DPDP015968.pdf).
Example: Western Federal Lands Highway Division

In2007,WesternFederalLandsHighwayDivision(WFLHD)publishedanativerevegetationmanual(Steinfeld
etal.2007)thattheynowuseastheirstandardprocessforrevegetatingdisturbedlandonroadwayprojects.
Thismanualdoesnotprovideaspecificplantlistbutratherdescribesacomprehensiveprocessforroadside
revegetationandcreationofasustainableplantcommunity.Thisprocessincludes(1)necessaryintegration,(2)
initiation,(3)planning,(4)implementationand(5)monitoring,andisillustratedonthewebat:
www.nativerevegetation.org.
Example: Sustainable Sites Initiative Case Studies

TheSustainableSitesInitiativewebsitecontainsanumberofcasestudiesdemonstratingsustainablelandscape
practicesat:http://www.sustainablesites.org/cases
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Siteplantingwithoutproperintegrationwithotherroadwayactivities(e.g.,maintenance,roadsidesafety).
2. Inadequateplantestablishment.
3. Notconsideringthesuitabilityofaplantspeciesspecificforsiteconditionsincludingcold/heattolerance,salt
toleranceandsoilpH,sun/shaderequirements,pestsusceptibility,andmaintenancerequirements(The
SustainableSitesInitiative2009).Theroadwayenvironmentmightbesignificantlydifferentfromthe
surroundingarea,andmaynotnecessarilysupportitsindigenousplantspecies.
4. Sitevegetationmustbeconsideredinthecontextofsoils,compaction,slopes,andhydrologyinordertobe
successfulonroadprojects.
5. Disturbedsoilconditionsmustbemodifiedtocreateconditionsthatwillsustainnativeplantgrowth.Planting
bedsshouldbepreparedbasedondisturbedconditionsandspecifiedinprojectdocuements.
6. ThisGreenroadscreditdoesnotcurrentlytrackprojectsbeyondconstructiontoensurecontinuedmaintenance
andnowateruse.

RESEARCH
Sitevegetationcanimpactfourprimaryroadwaysustainabilitycomponents:ecology,economic,equityandextent.
Inthebroadsense,argumentsforsustainablesitevegetationcenterontheircontributiontothelocalecosystem,
whichleadstobroadargumentsforhowecosystemsandecosystemservicesaffecttheseareasofsustainability.In
amorenarrowsense,argumentsforsustainablesitevegetationcenteronhowtheymayinfluenceprojectspecific
ecologicalissues,costs,safety,culture,anddurability.Whiletheseissuesareoftenthoughtofasselfevident,it
canbedifficulttofindquantifiableempiricalevidencetouseasproof.Thefollowingsectionsaddresssite
vegetationimpactsbycategory.

Ecological
Sitevegetationispartofthelocalecosystem.TheMillenniumEcosystemAssessment(2005)definesanecosystem
as“…adynamiccomplexofplant,animal,andmicroorganismcommunitiesandthenonlivingenvironment
interactingasafunctionalunit.”Thesecanbesystemsrelativelyuntouchedbyhumans(e.g.,naturalforests)or
thosethathavebeensignificantlymodified(e.g.,urbanareasandagriculturallands)(MEA2005).Inlookingat
ecosystemsoverthelast50yearstheMillenniumEcosystemAssessment(2005)arrivedatfourmajorfindings:
x Overthepast50yearshumanshavechangedecosystemsmorerapidlyandextensivelythaninanycomparable
periodofhumanhistory.
x Ecosystemchangeshavecontributedtosubstantialnetgainsinhumanwellbeingandeconomicdevelopment,
butthesegainsareattheexpenseofsubstantiallydiminishingthebenefitsthatfuturegenerationsobtainfrom
ecosystems.
x Thedegradationofecosystemservicescouldgrowsignificantlyworseduringthefirsthalfofthetwentyfirst
century.
x Reversingecosystemdegradationcanbedonebutinvolvessignificantchangesinpolicies,institutionsand
practicesthatarenotcurrentlyunderway.
Thus,totheextentthatsitevegetationhelpsmanageecosystemsmoresustainably,itcancontributepositively,
thoughperhapsonlyslightly,tothereversalofsomeofthedegradationseenoverthelast50years.Benefits
attributedtomoresustainablesitevegetationincludetheregionalandlocalimpactsoutlinedbelow(MEA2005):
Regional:
x Betterairquality
x Climateregulation
x Waterregulation
x Erosionregulation
x Waterquality
x Pestregulation
x Pollination
x Naturalhazardregulation

Local:
x Lowerwateruse
x Reducederosion
x Preventionofexoticplantspeciesfromoutcompetenativespecies
x Bettersurvivabilityofsitevegetationbecauseitisbetteradaptedtothelocalenvironment(thoughplants
indigenoustothelocalecosystemarenotnecessarilysuitableforthealteredroadwayenvironment).
Economic
Aspartofthelocalecosystem,sitevegetationcan,inabroadsense,provideeconomicbenefitssuchascleanair,
cleanwater,food,renewableresourcesandwastedecomposition(TheSustainableSitesInitiative,2009b).Itis
difficulttovalueecosystemservicesproperlybecause(1)ourattemptstovaluethemaregenerallybasedon
humanvaluesandnotwhatmightbeconsideredobjectivevaluesets,and(2)theyarenotfullyvaluedor
quantifiedincommercialmarketsorpolicydecisions(Costanzaetal.1997).Nonetheless,attemptshavebeen
madetovalueecosystemservicesthatcanprovideinsight.Costanzaetal.(1997)provideacomprehensive
overviewonthevalueoftheworld’secosystemservicesbasedonasynthesisofpreviouswork.Inshort,they
foundarangeofpotentialvaluesofUS$1654trillion/yrwithameanofUS$33trillion/yrfor17ecosystem
services(in1994USdollars).Thiscomparestoaworldgrossnationalproduct(GNP)ofUS$18trillion(1994US
dollars)makingecosystemservicesabout1.8timestheglobalGNPifthemeanvalueisassumed.Thisestimateis
basedonmarginalcostby“…determiningthedifferencesthatrelativelysmallchangesintheseservicesmaketo
humanwelfare.”(Costanzaetal.1997).Theyacknowledgethattheirestimatesareonthelowside,incomplete
andflawedbutreasonthatsomeestimateisbetterthannone(Costanzaetal.1997).

Inanarrowsense,sitevegetationcontributestoindividualprojectcostoveritslifecycleifcostssuchassite
maintenance,waterdemand,erosioncontrolandproblematicvegetationcontrolareconsidered(Steinfeldetal.
2007a).OneexampleofthiscomesfromtheCityofSantaMonicaintheirgarden\gardendemonstrationproject.In
thisprojecttheCityandWaterDistrictcomparedtwolandscapestrategies:sustainablevs.traditional(Santa
MonicaOfficeofSustainabilityandEnvironment2009).TableEW5.1summarizessomefindingsfromthe
comparison.
TableEW5.1:LandscapeComparisoninSantaMonica,CAfortheentireyearof2007
Category SustainableLandscape TraditionalLandscape
InitialConstructionCost $16,700 $12,400
WaterUse 14,300gallons 76,700gallons
AnnualWaterCost $14 $74
YardWaste 250lbs 670lbs
Maintenance 15hours 80hours
AnnualMaintenanceCost $800 $3,000

Itshouldbenotedthatdirectcomparisonsbetweensustainableandtraditionalvegetationwithactualvaluesfor
cost,wateruse,waste,etc.suchasthatdonebytheCityofSantaMonicaaredifficulttofind.
Equity
Aspartofthelocalecosystem,sitevegetationcanprovidehumanequitybenefitssuchasimprovedhumanhealth
(e.g.,betterwaterquality)andculturalserviceslikespiritualandreligiousvalues,recreationandaesthetics(MEA
2005).Onalocalscale,sitevegetationcancontributetoimprovedroadwaysafetybyimprovingvisibilityandcan
createnaturalbeautythatisappreciatedandvaluedbymotorists.
Extent
Sitevegetationcanalsohaveanimpactonthedurabilityofaparticularproject,whichaffectsprojectlifeoratleast
thelevelofnecessarymaintenancetoachieveaspecificprojectlife.Forinstance,nativerevegetationofahighway
roadsidecanbebetterthantraditionalnonnativeturfcoveragebecauseitcanhaveahigherprobabilityof
surviving,lastlonger,requirelessmaintenanceandbetterpreventsoilerosionbasedonadeeperandmorehearty
rootstructure(seecomparisonbetweenFiguresEW5.1andEW5.2).
FigureEW5.1:Afailingrevegetationeffortonasteep FigureEW5.2:Anativeroadsiderevegetationin
slopethatdidnotuseanativerevegetationapproach GlacierNationalPark(fromSteinfeldetal.2007a,
(fromSteinfeldetal.2007a). photobyTaraLuna).

GLOSSARY
Nativeplant PlantthatisnativetotheEPALevelIIIecoregionthatcontainstheroadway
projectsiteorknowntonaturallyoccurwithin200milesoftheroadway
constructionsite(SustainableSitesInitiative,2009a).
Plantestablishmentperiod Durationoftimethatallowsnewlyinstalledvegetationtoreachastateof
maturitythatrequiresminimalongoingmaintenanceforsurvival.
Activitiesduringtheplantestablishmentperiodcaninclude:removalof
litterandtrash,weeding,waterapplication(evenfornonirrigated
vegetation),replacementofdeadplantsandpestcontrol(includingthe
useofapprovedpesticides).
Xeriscape Asetofgardeningprinciplesdesignedtosavewaterwhilecreatingalushand
colorfullandscape.

REFERENCES
ColoradoWaterwise.(2009).XeriscapeColorado.Website.AccessedNovember25,2009.
http://coloradowaterwise.org//index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=88&Itemid=145.
Paruelo,J.,Raskin,R.G.,Sutton,P.,vandenBelt,M.,(1997).Thevalueoftheworld’secosystemservicesand
naturalcapital.Nat.,387,253260.
MillenniumEcosystemAssessment(MEA),(2005).EcosystemsandHumanWellbeing:Synthesis.IslandPress,
Washington,DC.
SantaMonicaOfficeofSustainabilityandEnvironment.(2009).Landscape:DemonstrationGardens.Website.City
ofSantaMonica,CA.AccessedNovember30,2009
http://www.smgov.net/Departments/OSE/Categories/Landscape/Demonstration_Gardens.aspx
Steinfeld,D.E.,Riley,S.A.,Wilkinson,K.M.,Landis,T.D.andRiley,L.E.(2007a).RoadsideRevegetation:An
IntegratedApproachtoEstablishingNativePlants.FHWAWFL/TD07005.FederalHighwayAdministration,
WesternFederalLandsHighwayDivision,Vancouver,WA.
Steinfeld,D.E.,Riley,S.A.,Wilkinson,K.M.,Landis,T.D.andRiley,L.E.(2007b).AManager’sGuidetoRoadside
RevegetationUsingNativePlants.FHWAWFL/TD07006.FederalHighwayAdministration,WesternFederal
LandsHighwayDivision,Vancouver,WA.
TheSustainableSitesInitiative.(2009a).GuidelinesandPerformanceBenchmarks.AmericanSocietyofLandscape
Garden.
TheSustainableSitesInitiative.(2009b).TheCaseforSustainableLandscapes.AmericanSocietyofLandscape
Garden.

HABITAT RESTORATION
GOAL EW-6
Offsetthedestructionanddeteriorationofnaturalhabitatcausedbyroad
construction.Restoreandprotectnaturalhabitatbeyondregulatoryrequirements.

CompleteOptionAorB.
OptionA–Forprojectsrequiredtomitigatehabitatimpactsthroughrestorative
practices(3points) RELATED CREDITS
Implementarestoration/preservationplanthatrestoresand/orpreservesmorearea 9 EW2RunoffFlow
by5%beyondwhatisrequiredsuchthatoneofthefollowingmetricsbelowismet: Control
9 EW3RunoffQuality
1. Totalareaofrestoredand/orpreservedhabitatequalsorexceeds105%oftotal 9 EW5SiteVegetation
requiredmitigationarea 9 EW7Ecological
2. Totalrestorationand/orrestorationcostequalsorexceeds105%oftotalcost Connectivity
requiredforrestoration/preservationduetotheroadwayproject 9 EW8LightPollution
OptionBForprojectsnotrequiredtomitigatehabitatimpactsthroughrestorative SUSTAINABILITY
practices(3points)
Conductabiologicalassessmentofthepredevelopmentconditionoftheprojectsite
COMPONENTS
andsurroundingecosystemorwatershedandimplementarestorationplanthat 9 Ecology
includesallsevenitemsbelow: 9 Equity
9 Extent
1. Restoresanareaequaltothetotaldisturbedsurfaceareaoftheroadwayproject. 9 Experience
2. Statesquantifiablegoalsregardingatleastoneoftheperformancemetricsoutlined
below. BENEFITS
3. Describesecologicaldesignorengineeringelementsthatareexpected,with
reasonableprofessionalcertainty,tomeetthegoalsstatedabove. 9 RestoresHabitat
4. Listsresponsiblepartiesforrestorationactivitiesandsubsequentmonitoring 9 CreatesHabitat
efforts. 9 ReducesManmade
5. Listssourcesoffundingforrestorationactivitiesandsubsequentmonitoring Footprint
efforts. 9 IncreasesAesthetics
6. Completesrestorationactivitiespriortotheroadwayfacilityopenstotraffic,ideally
duringprojectplanning.
7. Issignedandapprovedbytheresponsiblepartiesortheprojectecologist.
Details
Disturbedsurfaceareaincludesallcutandfillsoilsforpavementareas,shoulders,
embankments,bridgeabutmentsandconstructionstagingareas.Inotherwords,
anyearthworkareathatisrequiredfortheroaditselfisincluded,butthearea
designatedforhabitatcreationorrestorationisnot.
Thetotalrequiredsurfaceareacanbemadeupofmultipletypesofrestorationand
preservationefforts,solongastheprojectteamcanshowthatthetotalrestored
andpreservedareasmeettheaboverequirements.
Preservedhabitatareasmaynotbepreviouslydesignatedopenspace.Preservation
designationsmustbedirectlyassociatedwiththeprojectandbeinplaceby40
EW-6 Habitat Restoration 183

yearsaftertheendofconstruction,theexpecteddesignlifetimeoftheproject,orlocalregulations,whichever
islongest.Preservationareasmustalsobe:
x Formallydesignatedpermanentasopenspaceaccordingtothedefinitionsofthegoverningagencyor
zoningauthority.
x Clearlyandpubliclyattributedtotheworkdonefortheroadwayproject.
x Compliantwithallapplicablezoningrequirementsofthejurisdiction.
x Appropriatelyvegetatedforthelocationandcontext.
Thefollowingperformancemetricsareconsideredsuitableforachievingcreditwherearestorationplanis
developed:
x Forroadwayswithwatershedsreceivingstormwaterrunofffromtheroadway,determinethe
predevelopmentIndexofBiologicalIntegrity(IBI)aspartofthebiologicalassessment.PredevelopmentIBI
(forpurposesofthiscreditonly)meansthereferenceconditionforthismetricthatisestablished
exclusivelyforrestorationworkfortheroadwayproject,measuredwithinareasonableamountoftime
priortogroundbreakingofconstruction.SetatargetIBIthatmeetsorexceedspredevelopmentconditions.
x Forroadwayprojectsincludingstreamrestoration,setatargetlimitonunstableslopes.Thistargetshould
notexceedpredevelopmentconditions.Inaddition,establishaminimumriparianbufferwidthforthe
stream.
x Forforestrestoration,maintainareasofinteriorhabitatequaltopredevelopmentconditions.Interior
habitatrequirements(distancetoforestedge)shouldbedefinedinthebiologicalassessment.
x RestorationofBrownfieldsitesmustresultinremovalofBrownfieldstatus.Thisshouldresultinlandthatis
suitablefordevelopment.NotethatthisincludesBrownfieldlandusedfortheroadwaycorridor.
x Ifaspecificspeciesisthetargetofarestorationplan,setpopulationgoalsforthetargetspecies.Plantand
animalspeciesarebothacceptable,butmustbenativetotheprojectregion.
x Otherrestorationgoalsasrecommendedbytheprojectecologist,biologist,orotherrestorationexpert.
Justificationofthisgoalshouldbeincludedintherestorationplan.
Whilethesemetricsrepresentimportantperformanceindicators,theoverallgoaloftherestorationproject
shouldbepromotionofbiodiversityandcreationofdynamic,functioninghabitat.
DOCUMENTATION
x Copyoftheexecutivesummaryfromthebiologicalassessment.
x Copyoftherestoration/preservationplan,highlightingtheboundariesoftherestoredareasandtheroadway
project.Ifoffsite,provideseparateplansshowingbothareas.
x Copyofthescheduleofrestorationactivitiesorpreservationeffortsdemonstratingthatthecompletionofall
restorationactivitiesandpreservationeffortscoincideswithoroccurspriortoopeningtotraffic.

x FollowtheguidelinesforhabitatrestorationoutlinedintheFederalHighwayAdministrationEcological:An
EcosystemApproachtoDevelopingInfrastructureProjects(Brown,2006).Ecologicalcanalsobeusedfor
guidanceindevelopmentofregionalecologicalframeworks.Thisdocumentisavailableat:
http://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov/ecological/eco_index.asp
x Involveanecologistorotherbiologicalprofessionalearlyintheplanningphaseoftheprojecttodetermine
feasibilityofrestorationwork.
x Coordinatewithlandusemanagementagenciesearlyintheplanningphaseoftheprojecttodeterminescope
andsignificanceofpotentialrestorationactivities.
x CoordinatewithwatermanagementagenciesearlyintheplanningphaseoftheprojecttodetermineIBIforthe
biologicalassessment,especiallyinthecaseswherestormwaterrunofffromroadwaysisnottreated.
184 Habitat Restoration EW-6

x Usegeographicinformationsystems(GIS)mappingsoftwaretodeterminecalculationsfordisturbedand
restoredsurfaceareas.
x Anticipatethatrestorationactivitiestakeasignificantamountofthoughtfulplanning,andarebeststartedprior
totheconstructionoftheroadwayproject.
x Startacommunitystreammonitoringeffort.Mostbioindicatorspeciescanbeidentifiedbyamateursandthose
willingtolearnwellenoughtoestablishatleastafamilytaxonomiclevel.(UniversityofWashington,2001)
x Collaboratewithadjacentgoverningagenciestocreatemutuallybeneficial(andpotentiallymutuallyfunded)
restorationprojectsinconjunctionwiththeroadway.
x Coordinatewithwaterresourcesprofessionalsearlyintheplanningphaseoftheprojecttodevelopand
implementawatershedmanagementplanintandemwithahabitatconservationplan(Brown,2006).Roadway
projectscanbeintegratedintobothtypesofplans,includingestablishingminimumgoalsfortreatmentof
stormwaterimpactsonwaterqualityforreceivingwaterbodiesandpreservationofaquatichabitat.
x Avoidintroductionofinvasivespeciesthroughlandscapingactivities.SeealsoCreditEW5SiteVegetation.
Example: Off-Site Mitigation - Springbrook Creek Wetland & Habitat Mitigation Bank
TheSpringbrookCreekWetland&HabitatMitigationBankwasacombinationofwetlandenhancementand
restorationcovering130acresinRenton,Washington.Theseeffortswereaimedatmitigatingtheincreased
runoffcausedbyconstructionofadditionallanesonInterstate405andfutureregionaltransportationprojects,
aswellascreatingwildlifehabitat.Theprojectsiteislocatedinanareasurroundedbyheavydevelopmentand
twomajorfreeways.Anemphasiswasplacedontheplantingofalargevarietyandnumberofnativeplants,
enhancingtheattractivenessofthesitetolocalfauna.Inaddition,aboardwalkwasconstructedthroughthe
sitetoraisepublicawarenessoftheimportanceofwetlandhabitat.ConstructionwascompletedinJune,2009.
FiguresEW6.2andEW6.3showtherestoredwetlandandboardwalk,aswellaslocalwildlife.
Moreinformationonthisprojectisavailableat:http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/i405/Springbrook/

FigureEW6.2:GeesefamilyintheSpringbrookCreekwetland(PhotobyWSDOT)



FigureEW6.3:Greatblueheronperchedonboardwalk(PhotobyWSDOT)

Example: Management Tools for Habitat Restoration
Thereareseveralguidancedocumentsavailableforroadwayprojectsonwatershedassessmentandhabitat
restorationfrommanypublicagencies.
x StateWildlifeActionPlans.Comprehensivewildlifeconservationstrategiesaremandatedbythefederal
governmentandmanagedbythestates.Thesestrategiesofferbroadreachingwildlifegoalstailoredto
eachstate.Helpfulresources,includingsampleplans,areavailablethroughtheAssociationofFish&
WildlifeAgencies:http://www.wildlifeactionplans.org
x EPA’sHandbookforDevelopingWatershedPlanstoProtectandRestoreOurWaters.EPAprovidesawealth
ofinformationalresourcesonwatershedplanning:
http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/nps/handbook_index.cfm
x TheNationalActionPlantoImplementtheHydrogeomorphicApproachtoAssessingWetlandFunctions.
Thisactionplanprovideswaystomeasurewatershedfunctions:
http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/guidance/wetlands/hgm.cfm

Example: Indiana Department of Transportation and Indiana Bat Habitat
TheneedforhighwayimprovementsneartheIndianapolisInternationalAirportbroughttogetherseveral
agencies,includingtheIndianaDepartmentofTransportationandthelocalFederalHighwayAdministration,to
developaplantoprotectandconservelocalhabitatfortheIndianabat,anendangeredspecies.Theplan,
calledtheHCP(HabitatConservationPlan)hasthefollowingfeaturesthatwouldhelpmeetthiscredit:
x 3,600acresprotected(approximately10%existingbathabitat)
x 346acresofnewlyplantedhabitat
x Apublicoutreachprogram
x A15yearmonitoringprogram

TheHCPwascompletedinconjunctionwithapproximately$1.5billioninhighwayimprovementsinanarea
forecastedforhighurbangrowth.MoreinformationabouttheHCPcanbefoundinEcoLogical(Brown,2006).

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Ecologistsandenvironmentalengineersarenotalwaysawareofallbiologicalorhabitatneedsofallspecies
thatmaybetargetedforahabitat,norcanalloftheresourcestomeettheseneedsbeacquiredinallcases.
Thus,thereisalargeamountofuncertaintyunderlyingmanyecologicalassumptionsmade.

2. Restoredorengineeredwetlandandhabitatareasmayfunctionwell,butplacementwithinalargelydeveloped
areacanseverelylimitinteractionofspecieswithinthesite.
3. Adjacenthabitatcaninfluencewhetheratargetspeciescanuseasitebecausemanyspeciesusemultiple
habitatsaspartoftheirlifecycle.Inparticular,mostlargespeciesalsodonotliveinonehabitatduringtheir
entirelife.
4. Habitatagecaninfluencethedegreetowhichspeciesuseanarea.Createdsitesarealwaysecologicallyyoung.
5. Completingrestorationactivitiesintandemwithroadwayconstructionmaynotbeoptimal.Mitigating
activitiessuchasrestorationsoftenfunctionbestwhencompletedpriortothestartofconstructionsothatthe
newlymitigatedhabitatcanstabilizeandbefullyfunctional.Specificityofdesigndoesnotnecessarilydictate
successfulusebyparticularspeciesofwildlife.Detailedtargetingeffortsdonotalwayswork,evenifspecies
specificdesignfeaturesofahabitatareincorporated.
6. Duringthelifetimeofahabitat,alltargetedspeciesmayusethesite,butnotnecessarilyallatthesametime.
Monitoringexpectationsshouldthereforebesetaccordingly.
7. Somehabitatscannotbefullyrestoredtopredevelopmentconditions.
8. Lossofbiodiversityorspeciesdiversityisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,toreplace.
9. Manynewlyrestoredhabitats,especiallysensitiveorcriticalones,maynotfunctionasefficientlyoreffectively
asplannedandintended.Onlysomeofthefunctionsmaybesuccessfullyreplacedorimprovedartificially.
10. Plannersanddesignersshouldbetakentoavoidlocatingorcreatingpotentiallysensitivehabitatnearedges
andboundariesofroadwayprojects.Wherepossible,theroadwayclearzoneshouldbemaintainedtopreserve
safetyandvisibility.
11. Monitoringanddatacollectioneffortsshouldbetiedtoperformancemetricsdeterminedduringtheplanning
stageofrestorationprojectstomakethemmeaningful.
RESEARCH
Naturalecosystemsprovideavarietyofimportantservicestobothhumanandnonhumanlife,andrelyonawide
arrayofcomplexinteractionstofunction.Inevitably,thechangeoflandusebyhumandevelopmentcandisrupt
thesedelicateprocesses,oreliminateimportantareasofecosystemaltogether.Habitatrestorationistheprocess
ofretainingthenaturalfunctionalityofagivenimpactedecosystem,throughlocalimprovementorthecreationof
analogousecosystemelsewhere.Inpractice,manyrestorationprojectsareaimedatrestoringwatershed
managementactivities,knownas“wetlandrestoration”.However,restorationcanapplytodamagednonaqueous
ecosystemsaswell,whicharenotalwaysregulatedtosimilarstandards.Whilerestorationeffortsareoften
orientedtowardsaparticularecosystemfunction,itisrecognizedthatecosystemsfunctionmosteffectivelyunder
naturalconditions(EPA,1994).Restorationisadelicateprocessrequiringsignificantknowledgeofthespecific
ecosystemathand,andmonitoringeffortsareusuallyrequiredtoensurethecontinuingsuccessofarestored
habitat.Legalmandates(primarilytheCleanWaterAct)andorpoliticaldirectivesgenerallydictatethetypeand
methodofmostwatershedrestorationprocesses,aswellasmonitoringrequirements.
RoadsandHabitatLoss
Roadsandhighwayscannegativelyimpactnaturalhabitatinanumberofways.Theseimpactshavetraditionally
beendividedintodestruction,fragmentation,anddegradationofhabitat(EPA,1994;Amentetal,2008).
Destructionreferstotheactualreplacementofhabitatbyroadwayplacement.Thisincludestheroadwayitselfas
wellasanysubstantiallyalteredcorridor.Fragmentationisthebreakingupofremaininghabitatandeliminationof
criticalmigrationpathways.Inaddition,fragmentationofhabitatareaincreasestheproportionof“edge”habitat
exposedtotheoutsideenvironment,whichcanhavesignificantlydifferentcharacteristicsfrominteriorhabitat
(FuentesMontemayoretAl,2009).Degradationinvolvesdisturbancestosurroundinghabitatduetofactorssuch
asnoise,pollutantcontamination,andothersecondaryimpacts.Roadconstruction,forexample,canintroduce
invasivespecies,altersoilproperties,increaseerosion,etc.(FormanandAlexander,1998).
Aparticularlyimportantdegradationeffectofroadsisthecreationofpollutedrunoff.Asaresultoftherangeof
thesevariousimpacts,roadconstructiondisturbshabitatinanareamuchgreaterthantheactualroadway
corridor.BecauseroadscoverapproximatelyonepercentoftheUnitedStates,theirecologicaleffectshave
widespreadimpacts(FormanandAlexander,1998).

TheImportanceofHabitatLoss
Naturalecosystemsprovideavarietyofimportantservicestobothhumanandnonhumanlife,andrelyonthe
presenceofsuitablehabitattofunction.Lossofhabitatdisruptstheimportantbenefitsoftheseecosystems.
Naturalprocesseshaveimportantfunctions:maintainingairandwaterquality,regulatingclimate,productionof
goods,andotherimportantprocesses(Wilson,2002).Theglobalvalueoftheseserviceshasbeenestimatedtobe
between16and54trilliondollarsannually(Constanzaetal,1997).
Inaroadwaysetting,preservationofsurroundinghabitatcanaidinstormwatercontrol,afunctionmade
increasinglyimportantbytheextrarunoffcreatedbytheroadwayitself(NCHRP,2006).Inaddition,habitat
destructionleadstothereductionofbiodiversity(Wilson,2002).Societalacceptanceofthevalueofbiodiversityin
theU.S.hasbeenexemplifiedexplicitlyinlegislationsuchastheEndangeredSpeciesAct(1973),whichstatesthat
“speciesoffish,wildlife,andplantsareofesthetic,ecological,educational,historical,recreational,andscientific
valuetotheNationanditspeople“.Inaddition,biodiversityisoftenconsideredaneconomicgoodbasedonits
importanceinscience,industry,andmedicine.Therefore,preservationofbiodiversityisvitaltobothtoecosystem
healthandhumanhealth(Wilson,2002).
PrecedentforRestoration
MostoftherequiredhabitatrestorationintheUnitedStatesismandatedbySection404oftheCleanWaterAct,
whichregulatesactivityinU.S.watersincludingwetlands.Toobtainapermitunderthisact,thedevelopermust
showthatmeasureshavebeentakentoavoidandreducewetlandimpacts,andthatanynecessaryimpactshave
beencompensatedfor(EPA,2009a).Habitatrestorationcanbeconsideredaformofcompensationthroughthe
creationofnewwetlandenvironments.Constructionofwetlandshasalsotraditionallybeenusedasa“best
managementpractice”foracquisitionofapermitundertheNationalPollutantDischargeEliminationSystem
(NPDES),whichisgenerallyrequiredbytheCleanWaterActwhenconstructionwillcausepollutantdischargeto
surfacewaters(NCHRP,2006).
Inaddition,habitatrestorationcanbeemployedtomeettherequirementsoftheEndangeredSpeciesAct.Actions
whichwouldcauseincidentalharmtoaconservedspecies(includinghabitatloss)requiresubmittalofaHabitat
ConservationPlan(HCP).TheseHCP’smustshowthat“theapplicantwill,tothemaximumextentpracticable,
minimizeandmitigatetheimpactsofthetaking”.Similartotheprovisionsofthecleanwateract,restorationof
previouslydisturbedhabitatcansatisfyrequirementsformitigationefforts.(U.S.FWS,2009)
BrownfieldRestoration
Thetermbrownfieldreferstoanareainwhichdevelopmentorusehasbeencomplicatedbyathreatof
contamination.Thisiscommonlyaresultofpreviousindustrialusebutiscausedbyotheractivitiesaswell.
Remediationoftheseareas,whichusuallyinvolvessoilandgroundwatercleanup,canconvertthelandbackto
usablecondition.Thisincreasesthevalueofthepropertyandcanhelppreserveundevelopedland.Private
developersareoftenreluctanttoremediatebrownfieldsduetofinancialrisksandliabilityissues,howevermany
differentgovernmentagenciesincentivizetheseactivities(Opp,2009).TheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)
hascreatedaBrownfieldsProgramthatprovidesfundingtobrownfieldrevitalizationprojects,whichhasinturn
contributedtohigherlevelsofownerinvestment,creationofjobs,andincreasesinnearbypropertyvalues(EPA,
2009).Inaddition,eachstatehastheirownbrownfieldprogram,providingvaryinglevelsoffundingandliability
protectionforcleanupefforts(Opp,2009).
Anumberoftreatmentmethodsexistfortheremovalofhazardouspollutantsfromsoilandgroundwater.These
canbebrokendownintotechniquesthatremovecontaminantsthroughbiological,chemical,orphysicalprocesses
(Hamby,1996).Bioremediationreferstotheuseofmicroorganismsthatcanbreakdownortransformdangerous
chemicalcompoundsthroughtheirownmetabolicpathways.Whenappropriate,thiscanbealowcostalternative
tootherremediationoptions(Hamby,1996,EPA,1991).Phytoremediation,anotherexampleofabiological
approach,usesplantstocleansoilandgroundwaterthroughsorptionandwateruptake.Chemicalmethodsrelyon
theintroductionofcompoundsthatcandestroy,transform,bindto,orotherwiserendercontaminantsharmless.
Finally,physicaltechniquesincludetreatmentssuchasstripping,pumping,andwashingofthesoilorwaterin
question(Hamby,1996).Bothofthesecategoriesaretonumerousandvariedtobediscussedindetailhere.

IndexofBiologicalIntegrity
TheIndexofBiologicalIntegrity(IBI)isamultimetricassessmenttoolthatcharacterizesthebiological
functionalityofawaterbodybasedonanumberofsensitivebiologicalmeasures.Specifically,IBI(andother
derivativesofthismetric)measurestheimpactsofhumanactivitiesonbiologicalcommunities.Integrityofliving
systemswithinawaterbodyisrequiredtoperformnecessaryecosystemservices(KarrandChu,1997).Thus,
“biologicalintegrity”isthe“abilitytosupportandmaintainabalanced,integratedadaptiveassemblageof
organismshavingspeciescomposition,diversity,andfunctionalorganizationcomparabletothatofnaturalhabitat
oftheregion"(KarrandDudley,1981).Asaresult,theIBIprovidesimportantinformationabouttheconditionofa
waterbodyrelativetosurroundinglevelsofhumaninfluence.AkeypointisthatdeterminationoftheIBIrequires
trainedbiologistsfamiliarwiththespecificaquaticecosystem.
Additionally,sinceitisarelativemeasure,useoftheIBIrequiresdeterminingareferenceconditionforthearea.
TheEPA(2006)describesthereferenceconditionforbiologicalintegrity,RC(BI),as“thenaturalbiological
conditionofawaterbody,undisturbedbyhumanactivity.Asaconceptualaid,itisusefultothinkofanabsolute
‘natural’orpristineconditionthatcouldexistintheabsenceofallhistoricalandcurrenthumandisturbances.This
definitionrecognizestheneedforareferenceconditiontermreservedfor‘naturalness’or’biologicalintegrity’
eventhoughwemightonlyapproximateitinmostpartsoftheworld.”Italsorequiressomelevelofdata
collection,someofwhichmayalreadybeestablishedviacontinuousmonitoring.DataforcomputingIBIscoresis
basedonthe“lowestpracticaltaxonomiclevel”whichmeanstothefurthesttaxonomicextentallowedbycurrent
science(UniversityofWashington,2001)forlocal“bioindicatorspecies”(EPA,2009b)forpurposesofthiscredit.
Examplesofcommonbioindicatorspeciesaremacroinvertebrates,whichareaquaticinsects(“benthos,”hence,
theBenthicIBI).
GLOSSARY
Benthos Greekformacroinvertebrates
BIBI BenthicIndexofBiologicalIntegrity
Bioindicator See“indicatorspecies”
BiologicalIntegrity Theabilitytosupportandmaintainabalanced,integratedadaptive
Brownfield Anareamadeunsuitablefordevelopmentbyprevioususe,commonly
industrial.
EcosystemServices Naturalprocessesthatprovidebenefitsforhumankind
Fragmentation Divisionofasinglepopulationordisruptionofmigrationroutesbetween
smallerpopulations
IBI IndexofBiologicalIntegrity
Indicatorspecies Aspecieswhichrespondspredictablytostressorsfromhumandisturbance
(EPA,2009b)
RC(BI) Referenceconditionforbiologicalintegrity
Referencecondition Thenaturalbiological conditionofawaterbody,undisturbedbyhuman
activity.Asaconceptualaid,itisusefultothinkofanabsolute‘natural’or
pristineconditionthatcouldexistintheabsenceofallhistoricalandcurrent
humandisturbances(EPA,2006)
Totaldisturbedarea Anyareadisturbedforconstructionactivitiesincludingconstructionstaging
areasandclearedorstrippedplantlife,butnotincludinganyareas
designatedforrestorationorhabitatcreationpurposes

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ECOLOGICAL CONNECTIVITY
GOAL EW-7
Provideorimprovewildlifeaccessandmobilityacrossroadwayfacilityboundariesand
reducevehiclewildlifecollisionsandrelatedaccidents.

Completeasitespecificwildlifeassessmentfortheroadwayproject.Reportthe
resultingimpactsthattheroadwayhasonsurroundingmajorecosystems,identifying
allnonhumanlifethatisimpactedbytheroadwayfacilityaccordingtothebest
scientificknowledgeavailablefortheecosystem.Bothpointscenariosbelowrequire RELATED CREDITS
approvaloftheprojectecologist. 9 PR1Environmental
ReviewProcess
AND 9 PR10Site
MaintenancePlan
Completeoneofthetwoofthefollowingoptions: 9 EW6Habitat
Restoration
OPTIONAExistingAlignmentsONLY(1point) 9 AE1SafetyAudit
Replaceinkind,retrofit,orupgradeanyandallexistingculvertsandwildlifefencing
structuresdeemedstructurallydeficient,damaged,obsolete,insufficientlysized,or SUSTAINABILITY
otherwiseinadequate. COMPONENTS
OR 9 Ecology
9 Experience
OPTIONBNewandExistingAlignments(3points)
Installnewdedicatedwildlifecrossingstructuresandprotectivefencing(ifneeded)as BENEFITS
recommendedbythewildlifeassessment.Inaddition,existingalignmentsmustalso 9 RestoresHabitat
replaceinkind,retrofit,orupgradeallexistingculvertsandfencingstructuresdeemed 9 ReducesManmade
structurallydeficient,damaged,obsolete,insufficientlysized,orotherwiseinadequate. Footprint
9 ImprovesAccess
Details 9 ImprovesMobility
Dedicatedwildlifecrossingsarestructuralfeaturesoftheroadwaythatarenot 9 ImprovesHuman
usedbymotorizedvehicles.Wheredeemedappropriatebyanecologist,crossings Health&Safety
maybesharedbynonmotorizedmodesoftransport.Nopointswillbeawardedin
thefollowingconditions:
1. Forprojectsthatmaintainorrehabilitateexistingecologicalconnectionstoout
ofdateorcurrentstandards(i.e.routinemaintenanceofdrainageculvertsdoes
notqualify).
2. Preexistingecologicalconnectivityfeatures:allnewfeaturesorupgradesmust
beduetoandcompletedaspartoftheroadwayproject.
3. Projectsthataddwildlifeconnectivityfeatureswheresuchfeaturesareclearly
outsideoftheprojectcontext.
4. Projectslocatedinanetworkthatissystematicallyinadequate.However,points
couldbeawardedforsuchprojectswhereitisdemonstratedthataprogramis
inplaceattheowneragencyforsystematicimprovementsonthatnetwork,
andthatthisprojectfitsthisprogram.

EW-7 Ecological Connectivity 193

DOCUMENTATION
1. Copyoftheexecutivesummaryoftheecologicalstudyperformedfortheproject.Atminimum,thissummary
shouldcontain:
a. Sitelocationmapandsiteplan.Highlightlocations,typesandsizesofecologicalconnectionsinthefacility.
b. Alistofnonhumanspeciesidentified.Includecommonname,Latinname,size,photosofthespecies,and
highlightthelargestspecies.
c. Thesizeoftheconnectionrequiredinordertoaccommodatethelargestspeciesidentifiedabove
d. Alistofplannednewdedicatedconnections,newculvertsandfencingtobeinstalled,andanyupgraded
culvertsandfencinginstallations.
e. Signatureoftheprojectecologist.
2. Photosofallculvertsandfencing(newandupgraded,ifany)anddedicatedcrossingsafterconstruction.Usea
familiarobjectinthephotoforscalingpurposes(hammer,measuringtape,shovel,etc.)orprovidescaleonthe
image.

x Forexistingprojects,useroadkilldatatoidentifykeyspeciesintheprojectarea.Inaddition,ifunderpassesor
othersimilarstructuresexistforotherpurposesthanecologicalconnectivity,monitoranimaloraquatic
organismmovementthroughthesepassages.
x Fornewandexistingprojects,determinethemakeupofanimalpopulationsintheareaandmigrationpatterns.
Animalpopulationdatacanbeobtainedfromexistingecologicalrecordsorbymoretraditionalmethodssuch
astheanalysisoftracksorotheridentifyinganimalfeatures.MigrationpatternscanbepredictedusingGIS
landscapedata,GPStrackingcollars,analysisofanimaltracks,andmostcommonlythroughuseofcameras
alongtheproposedorexistingroadway.
Example: Case Study - Banff National Park of Canada

BanffNationalParkinCanadaHighwayFencingandWildlifeCrossingsisanexampleofoneofthefirstand
mostsuccessfulprojectstoaccommodateterrestrialhabitatconnectivity.Inresponsetohighandrisingtraffic
volumes,sectionsoftheTransCanadaHighway(TCH)havebeenupgradedfromatwolanetoafourlane
dividedhighwayinBanffNationalPark.
ToreducethenegativeimpactsofalargerhighwayonwildlifepopulationsinBanffNationalPark:
x Fencinghasbeeninstalledonbothsidesofthetwinnedhighwaysectionstopreventlargeanimalsfrom
gettingontothehighway.Vehiclewildlifecollisionshavebeensignificantlyreduced.
x Wildlifeunderpassesandoverpasseshavebeeninstalledtoconnectvitalhabitatsandhelpsustain
biodiversity.
x In1996,thehighwaymitigationresearchprojectbeganstudyingtheimpactsofroadsonwildlifeintermsof
roadmortality,wildlifemovementsandhabitatconnectivityintheBowValley.Researchresultsarebeing
appliedinhighwayupgradeprojectsinthemountainparksandbeyond,includingothercountries.

ExamplesofconnectivitystructuresareshowninfiguresEW7.1andEW7.2below.
194 Ecological Connectivity EW-7

FigureEW7.1:Wolverineoverpass FigureEW7.2:Deerusingabridgecrossing
(http://www.pc.gc.ca/pnnp/ab/banff/docs/routes/sec3/page42_e.asp#redearth3)

Formoreinformation,visit:http://www.pc.gc.ca/pnnp/ab/banff/index_e.asp.
Example: Case Study – Interstate 90 Snoqualmie Pass East Mitigation Project

Interstate90,whichstretchesacrossthenorthernUnitedStates,iscurrentlyundergoinganumberof
improvementsalongafivemilestretchbetweenHyakandKeechelusDamincludingtheadditionoftwolanes
andanumberofconnectivityfeatures.Thisstretchofhighwayisavitalcorridorconnectingeasternand
westernWashingtonState.Tomeettheecologicalneedsofthearea,WashingtonStateDepartmentof
TransportationhasidentifiedanumberofConnectivityEmphasisAreas(CEAs)thatlinkvitalpatchesofaquatic
orterrestrialhabitat.
Tofacilitateconnectivityacrosstheroadway,theseCEA’swillfeature:
x Bridgesrangingfrom120to900feetinlengthaswellasanumberofculvertstopreserveaquaticmigratory
abilityandhydrologicfunction.
x Threeoverroadwildlifecrossingscombinedwithfencestodirectanimalstotheselocations.
Formoreinformation,visit:http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/I90/SnoqualmiePassEast/Default.htm.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Identifyingecologicalconnectivityrequirementsneedswelldesignedlongtermstudies.Inmanycasesthese
mayneedtobeconductedovermultipleyears.
2. Lackofecologicalorspeciesdata.
3. Developmentconflictswithecologicallysensitiveareas.
4. Designofconnectivitystructuresthatwillbeacceptedandusedbytargetorganismscanbedifficult.
5. Fornewprojects,priormigrationpatternsandotheranimalandaquaticorganismbehaviorsmaybealteredby
thepresenceoftheroadway.Thisshouldbecarefullyconsideredasalongtermimpact,especiallyduring
environmentalreview.
6. Ingeneral,caseswherethiscreditmaynotbeappropriatearerare,eveninurbanenvironments,butare
heavilydependentonavailableecosystemdata.Thisdatamaynotbeavailableinurbanizedecosystemsthat
arenotcloselymonitored.
7. Inrarecases,projectsthathaveconductedanecologicalstudymaydeterminethatecologicalconnectionswill
underminethesafetyofhumanusers.

RESEARCH
Whatisecologicalconnectivity?
Ecologicalconnectivityistherelativeeasewithwhichdispersiveanddynamicecologicalprocesses(suchasspecies
migration,watermovement,soiltransmission,pollination,etc.)occuracrossvariousecosystemboundaries
(Interstate90SnoqualmiePassDevelopmentTeam2006).InGreenroads,specifically,ecologicalconnectivityrefers
tothemovementofnonhumanorganisms(wildlifeandplantspecies)acrossvariousmanmadeecosystem
boundaries,suchasroadways.Anecologicalconnectionisadeliberateattempttoprovideapathwayfor
transmissionofnonhumanlifeacross,under,above,orthrougharoadwayprojectfootprintwithoutimpacting
thesafetyofhumanusers.
Considerationofandcompensationforadverseeffectsonecologicalconnectivityarenotspecificrequirementsof
theNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)orstateenvironmentallaws.Instead,considerationofecological
connectivityisdrivenbystakeholders,regulatoryandnaturalresourceagenciessuchastheU.S.ArmyCorpsof
Engineers(USACE),EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(throughSection404oftheCleanWaterAct),theU.S.Fish
andWildlifeService,federallandmanagementagencies,orthestatenaturalresourcesmanagementagency.
Whyisecologicalconnectivityimportant?
Migrationabilityisnecessarytothesurvivalofmanyspecies,androadsthatdisruptvitalhabitatcorridorshavethe
potentialtoseriouslydebilitateanecosystem.Animalcrossingoftraditionalroadshashugecostsintheformof
humanandanimallifeinadditiontomonetarylosses.However,withcarefulplanning,wildlifecrossingcanbe
effectivelyfacilitatedinasafeandnondisruptivemanner.Itisimportanttonotethatthereisnosinglesolutionto
everyconnectivityproblem,andthereisnotnecessarilyasolutionforeveryspeciesthatmightbeencounteredon
aproject.Whenwellresearchedandtailoredtoaspecificproject,connectivityfeatureshavethepotentialto
createsaferroads,improvehabitat,andsavemoney.Establishingormaintainingecologicalconnectivityfor
existingandnewprojects,respectively,willreducethelongtermecologicalimpactsofroads,helptosustain
populations,andpossiblyreducetheneedforlegalprotectionforspecies.
Access&MobilityforWildlife
Amongtheanimalkingdom,therearefewspeciesthatliveinsingle,staticrangesthroughouttheirlifetimes.
Suitablehabitatforaspecificspeciesmightonlybefoundinsmallparcelsthroughoutaregion,whichoften
forcesaspeciestoinhabitsmallisolatedchunksofland.Thispopulationstructureisdefinedasa
metapopulation,oragroupofsmallpopulationswhichmakeupthetotalpopulation.Becauseoflowgenetic
variabilitywithinthesesmallerpopulations,thethreatofindividualgroupextinctionandtheneedfora
constantfoodsource,connectivitybetweendifferenthabitatpatchesisvitalforthesurvivalofmanyspecies
(Freemanetal.2005).IlkaHansi,whoextensivelystudiedGlanvillebutterflypopulationsinoneofthedefining
studiesofpopulationdynamics,concludedthattheabilityofsmallerpopulationstobereplacedbyindividuals
fromothergroupsisnecessarytoavoidextinction(Hanski,1995).
Roadwaysandhighwaysarelonglinearstructureswhichcanoftenseparateanimalsfromimportant
destinations,resultinginalossofecosystemfunctionalityforthosethatdonotattempttocrossandamore
directhazardintheformofautomobilecollisionforthosethatdo.IntheAppalachians,areasinwhichblack
bearscommonlyattempttocrossroadshavesignificantmortalityrates,whilehighertrafficroadsdeterbear
crossingandforcesmall,isolatedpopulationsthreatenedbylowgeneticvariability(Donaldson2007).In
additiontoterrestrialanimals,population,geneticdiversity,andlongtermsurvivalofmanyfishspeciescanbe
significantlyreducedbylossofmigrationability,whichcanbehinderedorpreventedbytypicalculvertsfound
atstreamandrivercrossings.(Mirati1999,Fitch1995)
HumanSafety
Thecrossingofroadwaysbyanimalshasaverydirecthumancostaswell.In2002,anestimated1.5million
collisionsbetweenautomobilesanddeeroccurredintheUnitedStates,killingabout150peopleandcausing
over$1.1billioninvehicledamage.(Hedlundet.Al2003)Inthiscase,thereislittlethreattothesurvivalofthe
species.Infact,therapidgrowthrateofdeerpopulationindicatesthatthistrendwillworsenovertime.

Inmostcases,theinstallationofwildlifepassagestructureshasledtoincreasedanimalcrossingandreduced
collisions,andfederalfundinghasbeenmadeavailableforsuchprojectsundertheTransportationEquityActof
1998.(Hartmann2003)Formammalcrossingthemosteffectivecrossingsystemshavebeenunderpasses
coupledwithfencingtofunnelanimalstotheappropriatepoint(Hedlundet.al2003;Doddet.al2007).
Importantfactorsinfluencingtheuseofsuchunderpassesincludetheheightoftheunderpass,surrounding
vegetation,andtypeofgroundsurfacevisible(Donaldson2007;Doddet.Al2007).Underpassuseisreported
fordeeraloneinsevendifferentstates,andbothunderpassesandoverpasseshavebeenusedtoallowpassage
ofelk,bear,panther,mountaingoats,andsalamanders(Hartmann2003;RominandBissonette1996).Aseries
ofunderpassesandfencingonthenewlyreconstructedArizonaSR260isestimatedtosave$1milliondollars
peryearbypreventingcollisions(primarilywithelk),whichhavebeenreduced56%from19921997levels
despiteincreasedtrafficvolume.(Doddet.Al2007,BrownandLaird1999)InVirginia,underpasseswere
effectivelyusedbydeer,raccoons,groundhogs,andawiderangeofothermammals,birds,amphibiansand
reptiles,butwereunabletoallowthepassageofblackbears,oneofthetargetsoftheproject.(Donaldson
2007)Whenproperlyresearchedandconstructed,underpassescanprovidecriticalpassagewaysforanimals,
butthereisnoguaranteethatagivenpopulationwillbewillingtousesuchstructureswithoutpriorevidence.
AquaticConnectivity
Culvertdesignforstreamandrivercrossingscanhaveanimportantimpactontheabilityoffishtosuccessfully
crossaroadway.Highwatervelocitiescausedbysteepslopesandnarrowedflowareoftenimpassableto
certainfishspecies(BelfordandGould1989).Becauseofthisandotherfactors,theslopeofaculvertplaysa
keyroleintheeffectivenessofacrossing.Ideally,culvertswillbeplacedatgradewiththestream.Culvertsat
lowergraderiskcausingdangeroushydraulicjumpsoroutletdrops,whilesteepgradestypicallymeanhigher
velocityflows(Fitch1995).Whilebridgesarethemosteffectivewaytoeliminateimpedimentoffishtravel,this
isoftenaprohibitivelyexpensiveoption.Welldesignedculvertswithcontrolledflowvelocityplacedatgrade
cansuccessfullyaccommodatefishpassageandaregenerallyamorefeasiblealternative(Fitch1995).
AdditionalResources&Tools
x Themostcomprehensivereviewofrelativelyrecentworkforecologicalconnectionsandsocietalbenefitsis
presentedinabookcalledRoadEcology:ScienceandSolutionsbyR.T.T.Formanetal.(2003).
x TheFederalHighwayAdministration’swebsitecalled“WildlifeProtectionandHabitatConnectivity”includes
severalhundredexamplesofprojectsimplementedaroundtheUnitedStatesandEurope:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/hconnect/index.htm
x Currentresearch,policyissues,andbestpracticesarepostedbyNorthCarolinaStateUniversity'sInstitutefor
TransportationResearchandEducation,CenterforTransportationandtheEnvironment“WildlifeFisheriesand
TransportationWebGateway”
http://www.cte.ncsu.edu/cte/gateway/home.asp
GLOSSARY
Ecologicalconnection Adeliberateattempttoprovideapathwayfortransmissionofnonhuman
lifeacross,under,above,orthrougharoadwayprojectfootprintwithout
impactingthesafetyofhumanusers
Ecologicalconnectivity themovementofnonhumanorganisms(wildlifeandplantspecies)across
variousmanmadeecosystemboundaries,suchasroadways
Geneticdiversity Thenumberofdifferentkindsofgenesthatexistwithinapopulationor
group.Populationswithlowgeneticdiversityarelesslikelytobeableto
adapttochangingenvironmentalpressuresandarethereforeathigherriskof
extinction.
Metapopulation Apopulationconsistingofanumberofsmallerdispersedpopulations.
Individualorganismstypicallymovebetweensmallergroupstomaintaina
healthyecosystem.

Migration Eitheraonetimeorrepeatingmovementofapopulationfromonerangeof
habitattoanother.
REFERENCES
Belford,D.AandGould,W.R.(1989)AnEvaluationofTroutPassageThroughSixHighwayCulvertsinMontana.
NorthAmericanJournalofFisheriesManagement9,437445.
Brown,Douglas,Laird,James(1999)MethodsUsedbytheArizonaDepartmentofTransportationtoReduce
WildlifeMortalityandImproveHighwaySafety.ArizonaDepartmentofTransportation.
Clevenger,Anthony.(1998).PermeabilityoftheTransCanadaHighwaytoWildlifeinBanffNationalPark:The
ImportanceofCrossingStructuresandFactorsInfluencingTheirEffectiveness.ProceedingsoftheInternational
ConferenceonWildlifeEcologyandTransportation.February1012,Ft.Meyers,Florida.FLER6998:pp.109
119.
DamasandSmith,Ltd.(1982).WildlifeMortalityinTransportationCorridorsinCanada'sNationalParksImpact
andMitigation.ParksCanada.2volumes.
Dodd,N.L.,J.W.Gagnon,S.Boe,A.Manzo,Schweinsburg(2007)EvaluationofMeasurestoMinimizeWildlife
VehicleCollisionsandMaintainPermeabilityAcrossHighways.ResearchBranch,ArizonaGameandFish
Department
Donaldson,B.(2007)UseofHighwayUnderpassesbyLargeMammalsandOtherWildlifeinVirginia.
TransportationResearchRecord2011,157164.
FederalHighwayAdministration.(2002).WildlifeHabitatConnectivityAcrossEuropeanHighways.
http://international.fhwa.dot.gov/wildlife_web.htm
Fitch,MichaelG.(1995)NonanadromousFishPassageinHighwayCulverts.VirginiaTransportationResearch
Council
Forman,R.T.T.et.Al.(2003).RoadEcology:ScienceandSolutions.IslandPress.Washington,D.C.481pp.
Foster,M.L.andS.R.Humphrey.(1995).UseofHighwayUnderpassesbyFloridaPanthersandotherWildlife.
WildlifeSocietyBulletin.V.23(1):pp.9294.
Freeman,Scott.(2005).BiologicalScience(3rded.).NewJersey:PearsonPrenticeHall
Graves,A.T.,S.Farley,M.I.Goldstein,C.Servheen(2007)IdentificationofFunctionalCorridorsWithMovement
CharacteristicsofBrownBearsontheKenaiPeninsula,Alaska.LandscapeEcology22,765772
Hanski,Ilkka(1998)MetapopulationDynamics.Nature396,4149
Hartmann,Maureen(2002)AnEvaluationofWildlifeCrossingStructures:TheirUseandEffectiveness.RoadRi
porter,7.
Hedlund,J.H.,P.D.Curtis,G.A.Curtis,A.F.Williams.(2003)MethodstoReduceTrafficCrashesInvolvingDeer:
WhatWorksandWhatDoesNot.InsuranceInstituteforHighwaySafety
Holsinger,K.HabitatFragmentation.(2007).http://darwin.eeb.uconn.edu/eeb310/lecture
notes/fragmentation/node1.html

Interstate90SnoqualmiePassEastMitigationDevelopmentTeam.(2006).RecommendationPackage.Prepared
forWashingtonDepartmentofTransportationandFederalHighwayAdministration.
Leeson,B.F.(1996).HighwayConflictsandResolutionsInBanffNationalPark,Alberta,Canada.In:Evink,G.L.;
Garrett,P.;Ziegler,D.;andJ.Berry(Eds.)TrendsInAddressingTransportationRelatedWildlifeMortality.
ProceedingsoftheTransportationRelatedWildlifeMortalitySeminar.
Maehr,D.S.(1984).Animalhabitatisolationbyroadsandagriculturalfields.BiologicalConservatio,29,8196.
Mirati,AlbertH.Jr.(1999)AssessmentofRoadCulvertsforFishPassageProblemsonStateandCountyOwned
Roads.OregonDepartmentofFishandWildlife
ParksCanada.(2009).BanffNationalParkCanada.RetrievedSeptember25,2009,fromhttp://www.pc.gc.ca/pn
np/ab/banff/index_e.asp
Reed,R.A.,JohnsonBarnard,J.andW.L.Baker.(1996).ContributionofRoadstoForestFragmentationinthe
RockyMountains.ConservationBiology,10(4),10981106.
Romin,A.L.,J.A.Bissonette(1996)Deervehiclecollisions:statusofstatemonitoringactivitiesandmitigation
efforts.WildlifeSocietyBulletin24,276283
Ruediger,B.,J.J.Claar,andJ.F.Gore.Nodate.RestorationofCarnivoreHabitatConnectivityintheNorthern
RockyMountains.
http://www.defenders.org/resources/publications/programs_and_policy/habitat_conservation/habitat_and_hi
ghways/reports/restoration_of_the_carnivore_habitat.pdf
Ruediger,Bill.(1996).TheRelationshipBetweenRareCarnivoresandHighways.In:Evink,G.L.;Garrett,P.;Ziegler,
D.;andJ.Berry(Eds.)TrendsIn:AddressingTransportationRelatedWildlifeMortality.Proceedingsofthe
TransportationRelatedWildlifeMortalitySeminar.
Smith,D.J.;Harris,L.D.andF.J.Mazzotti.(1996).Alandscapeapproachtoexaminingtheimpactsofroadsonthe
ecologicalfunctionassociatedwithwildlifemovementandmovementcorridors:Problemsandsolutions.In:
Evink,G.L.;Garrett,P.;Ziegler,D.;andJ.Berry(Eds.)TrendsInAddressingTransportationRelatedWildlife
Mortality.ProceedingsoftheTransportationRelatedWildlifeMortalitySeminar.
WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation.(2009).190SnoqualmiePassEast.RetrievedSeptember24,
2009,fromhttp://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/I90/SnoqualmiePassEast/Default.htm



LIGHT POLLUTION
GOAL EW-8
Safelyilluminateroadwayswhileminimizingunnecessaryandpotentiallyharmful
illuminationofsurroundingskyandhabitat.

ProvidelightingfixturesthatareDarkSkycompliantorequivalent.AlistofDarkSky
approvedfixturescanbefoundathttp://www.DarkSky.org.
RELATED CREDITS
Details
9 AE1SafetyAudit
Thiscreditaddressestwokeycomponentsofroadwaydesign,nighttimesafetyand
9 AE3Context
lighttrespassintoadjacentecosystemsandthenightsky.
SensitiveSolutions
9 MR6Energy
TheInternationalDarkSkyAssociation(IDA)fixturecertificationprogramisbased
Efficiency
onupwardlightemission.Approvedfixturesmustemitnolightabove90degrees
(oftencalled“fullcutoff”).Forfixturestobecomecertified,photometricimagery
SUSTAINABILITY
fromacertifiedtestinglabmustbesubmittedtotheIDAforexamination.
COMPONENTS
“Equivalent”standardswillmeetthecriteriaforIDAbutmaynotcarrytheDarkSky 9 Ecology
seal.Equivalencecanbeshownbyprovidingdocumentationdemonstratingthat 9 Experience
IDAstandardsaremetorexceededbyselectedfixtures.Suchdocumentation
shouldbereviewedandapprovedbytheprojectlightingprofessionalorelectrical BENEFITS
engineerandalettershallbeprovidedstatingequivalence.
9 ReducesFossilFuel
Projectsthatdeliberatelyreduceexistinglightingorcompletelyeliminatelighting Use
areeligibleforthiscreditprovidedthat: 9 ReducesGreenhouse
Gases
a. Lightingiswithintheprojectscopeorotherwiseisnormallyrequiredby 9 RestoresHabitat
standardspecifications(e.g.,apreservationhotmixasphaltpavementoverlayis 9 ImprovesHuman
notlikelytohaveroadwaylightingwithinitsscopeandisthereforenoteligible Health&Safety
forthiscredit).“Withinscope”canbedemonstratedbycreditPR1 9 IncreasesAesthetics
EnvironmentalReviewProcessorbyAE3ContextSensitiveSolutions.
b. Theprojectprovidesevidencetoshowthatlightingisnotrequiredtomeet
minimumroadwaysafetyrequirementsorthatreducingexistinglightingissafe.
Thisgenerallymeansanintentionaldecisionhasbeenmadetoreduceor
eliminatelightingwithinthealignmentbasedonafullsafetyinvestigation.(See
alsoAE1SafetyAudit).
c. AnylightingusedconformstoIDAfixturestandardsorequivalent.
DOCUMENTATION
x Executivesummaryofthelightingsafetystudydemonstratingappropriatenessof
lightingconfiguredforroadway,signedbytheleadelectricalprofessional.
x Lightingorelectricalplan.HighlightALLlocationsoffixture,bulbandcover
technologyused.
x Alistofthefixtures,bulbsandcoversinstalled,includingnameoftechnologies,
wattage,areaofshade,codecompliance(ifany).
x CopyoftheDarkSkycertificationforanyproductspecifiedandinstalled.
EW-8 Light Pollution 201


x U.S.DepartmentofEnergy’sEnergyStarprogramhasbeenexpandedtoincluderoadwaylighting.The
standardsforupwardilluminationforEnergyStarcertifiedfixturesaresuchthatfixturesreceivingthis
certificationarelikelytobedarkskycompliant.Selectionoffixturesthatmeetbothspecificationscanreduce
bothenergyuseandlightpollution(seeMR6EnergyEfficiency).
x Effectivelightingdesigncreatesanimpressionofelegance,comfort,andclarityontheroadwayatnight.This
canbeaccomplishedusingthelatestlightingdesignsoftwaretomodeltheappearanceoftheproject,aswell
asdesigningprojectattributessuchassignageformaximumvisibility.
Example: Dark-Sky Certified Fixture Label

FigureEW8.1belowisanexampleofalabelthatcanbefoundonfixturesthatareDarkSkycompliant.

FigureEW8.1:IDALabelforDarkSkyApprovedDevices
http://www.DarkSky.org/mc/page.do?sitePageId=56421&orgId=idsa
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Lightingmodificationsimplementedtopromoteecosystemhealthalsomustmaintainsufficientlightlevels
necessaryforhumansafety.
2. NonoverheadroadwaylightsarenotcurrentlyDarkSkycertifiablethroughIDA.
RESEARCH
Roadwaylightingisanimportantrequirementforasafenighttimedrivingenvironment.Thoughabout25%of
drivingoccursatnight,thefatalityrateofnighttimedrivingismorethandoublethatoftheday(FHWA,1985,Sivak
etal.,2007).Theincreasedabilitytoidentifypotentialhazardsprovidedbyoverheadlightingfixturessignificantly
decreasesnighttimeaccidentrisk.Therefore,installationofroadwaylightingsystemscansavehumanlifeand
money.However,excessivelightingcanhavenegativeimpacts,andthesafetybenefitsofadditionallighting
diminishathigherintensitylevels(Fisher,1977).Inadditiontousefullightthatilluminatestheroadway,lightcan
beemittedupwarddirectlyfromlightfixtures,orreflectfromtheroadwaysurface,bothofwhichcontributetosky
glow.Inadditiontotheseformsoflightpollution,lightfromoverheadfixturescan“trespass”andilluminate
surfacesandareasotherthantheroadwayincludingprivatepropertyornaturalhabitat.Thisexcesslightcanhave
consequencesforhumancomfort,ecosystemfunction,andtheabilitytoconductastronomicalobservations.
However,inmanycases,carefullightingdesigncanprovidesafedrivingconditionswhileminimizingwastedlight
andadverselightingeffects.
EnvironmentalImpacts
Lightpollutioncannegativelyimpactawiderangeofplantandanimalspecies.Outdoorskygloweffectscanbe
significantenoughthatnighttimeconditionsmimicthosenaturallyobservedattwilight(NavaraandNelson,2007).
Estimatesindicatethat20%oflandinthecontinentalUnitedStatesislocatedwithin127metersofaroadway
(RittersandWickham,2003).Becauseofthis,theecologicalconsequencesoflightpollutionfromroadwaylighting
havehugepotentialimpacts.Intheplantkingdom,artificiallightcandisruptthenaturalmechanismsusedto
regulatefloweringandotherseasonalactions(SelectCommissiononScienceandTechnology,1997).Impactson
theanimalkingdomhoweverarefarmorediverseandcauseawidearrayofecosystemalteration.Insomecases,
lightpollutioncanbedevastating.Forinstance,seaturtlehatchlingsnavigatetheirwaytotheoceanbasedonthe
202 Light Pollution EW-8

relativedarknessoflandmass,andartificiallightscanrenderthisabilitycompletelyineffective(Salmon,2003).
Nocturnalanimalsarealsoparticularlyvulnerable.Streetlightinglimitstheflyingroutesofendangeredbatspecies
andcancausehabitatfragmentation(Stoneetal.,2009).Whennocturnalhabitatsarefragmented,populations
becomeincreasinglyatriskoflossofgeneticdiversityandlocalextinction.Increasedlightingconditionscanalter
reproductivebehaviorinanimalssuchasfrogs,whicharemorewaryintheabsenceofdarkness,orglowworms,
whichcommunicatevisuallytoattractamate(LongcoreandRich,2004;NavaraandNelson,2007).Whilethese
examplesarefarfromacomprehensivelist,theyillustratethekindsofimportantecosystemdisruptions
precipitatedfromaseeminglyminorenvironmentalchange.
Thoughlighthasobviousbenefitstohumansociety,excesslightcanhavenegativehumanimpacts.Surveyshave
indicatedpublicdispleasureinsomecaseswithfreewaylightingthatinadvertentlylightstheiryardsandhouses
duringthenight(Khan,2003).Inaddition,lightpollutionhasseriouslyreducedtheaestheticvalueofthenightsky.
MosturbanresidentsarenowunabletoviewtheonceomnipresentMilkyWaygalaxy.Inaddition,many
astronomicalobservatorieshavebecomesignificantlylessusefulasevenasmallchangeinskybrightnesscanhave
ahugeimpactontheabilitytoviewextremelydistantobjects.Inaddition,moreandmoreresearchisbeing
conductedonapossiblelinkbetweenlightpollutionandcertaintypesofcancer.
LightPollutionPrevention
Lightpollutioncanbemitigatedinanumberofways.LEDlightingsystemsaregenerallymoreefficientatdirecting
lighttodesiredareas,thereforereducingtheamountoflightescapingtonearbyenvironmentsforsafelevelsof
lighting.Whileonlyabouthalfthelightfromtraditionalroadwayluminariesreachestheroadway,asmuchas85%
ofLEDlightingcandoso(Wuetal.,2009).Direct,physicalshieldingoflampsisanothereffectivemethodof
curbingstraylight.However,becauselightisreflectedfromilluminatedsurfaces,lightpollutioncannotbe
eliminatedbydirectionandshieldingalone(Soardoetal.,2008).Therefore,itisimportanttoidentifythe
minimumlightintensityneededtoprovidesaferoadwayvisibility.Thisneedstobeconsideredcarefully,as
numerousattemptstoconserveelectricityusethroughlightdimminghavebeenshowntohaveincreased
nighttimeaccidents(FHWA,1985).Sophisticatedtestsareavailableformeasurementsofluminanceorilluminance
todeterminewhetherroadwaysaresignificantlylittoprovideasafeenvironment.Lightfixturesthatprovidemore
uniformlightingcanprovidesafeconditionsonallpointsonaroadwaywithlesstotallightoutput,andtherefore
lessreflectedlightpollution.
Scientificanalysisoftheconsequencesoflightpollutionisarelativelynewphenomenon.However,researchto
datehasalreadyuncoveredahostofimportantdetrimentstohumanhealthandecosystemfunctioninadditionto
thedegradationoftheintrinsicaestheticvalueofthecosmos.Electricallightinghasbeeninexistenceforatime
periodthatisinsignificantfromanevolutionaryperspective,meaningthathumansandotheranimalshavehadno
opportunitytoadapttothisdrasticenvironmentalshift(Pauley,2004).Whileroadwaylightingisfarfromtheonly
culprit,streetsareamajorcontributortoelevatedlightlevelsandareasignificantopportunityforreductionof
lightpollution.Roadwayilluminationisresponsibleforapproximately70%ofluminousfluxinurbanareas,and
presentstheonlymajorsourceofartificiallightincertainruralsettings(Soardoetal.,2008).Lightpollutionand
trespassarenotonlywasteful,butalsodamagetheabilityofourbuiltenvironmenttosustainhumanand
ecosystemhealth.
InternationalDarkSkyAssociation(IDA)
Formedin1988,theInternationalDarkSkyAssociation(IDA)istheauthoritativevoiceonlightpollution.IDA
educateslightingdesigners,manufacturers,technicalcommittees,andthepublicaboutlightpollutionabatement.
TheIDA’sgoalofprotectingandrestoringnaturalnightenvironmentandheritageofdarkskiesisthrough
promotionofqualityoutdoorlighting.TheyhavedevelopedtheFixtureSealofApproval(FSA)programfordark
skyfriendlyfixtures.
TheFixtureSealofApprovalprovidesobjective,thirdpartycertificationforluminairesthatminimizeglare,reduce
lighttrespass,anddon’tpollutethenightsky.Foramodestfee,IDAwillevaluatethephotometricdataofany
luminairesubmittedbyitsmanufacturer.Whenthefixtureisapproved,themanufacturerreceivesacertificate
EW-8 Light Pollution 203

andtheFixtureSealofApproval.ManufacturersmayusetheFSAsealtopromoteandadvertisetheirIDA
Approved™darkskyfriendlyproducts.
GLOSSARY
Lightpollution Theunwantedcontributionofmanmadelightingtonighttimebrightnessand
skyglow.
Lighttrespass Directshiningofelectricallightontosurfacesbesidesthosemeanttobelit.

REFERENCES
FederalHighwayAdministration.(2004).ReducedLightingonFreewaysDuringPeriodsofLowTrafficDensity.
(ReportNo.FHWA/RD86/018)U.S.DepartmentofTransportation.
Fisher,A.J.,(1977).RoadLightingasanAccidentCounterMeasure.AustralianRoadResearch,7,2–16.
InternationDarkSkyAssociation.(2009).AccessedDecember20,2009fromhttp://www.DarkSky.org
Khan,A.M.(2003).Highwaylighttrespass:Humanandsocialfactors.InsituteofTransportationEngineers.ITE
Journal,73,5.
Longcore,T.,&C.Rich(2004).EcologicalEffectsofLightPollution.FrontiersinEcologyandtheEnvironment,2,
191198.
MorganTaylor,Martin.(2008).RCEPConsultationonArtificialLightintheEnvironment.PresentedtotheRoyal
CommissiononEnvironmentalPollution'sstudyofArtificialLightintheEnvironment.
Navara,K.J.,&R.J.Nelson(2007).TheDarkSideofLightatNight:Physiological,Epidemiological,andEcological
Consequences.JournalofPinealResearch,43,215224
Pauley,S.(2004).LightingfortheHumanCircadianClock.MedicalHypotheses,63,588596
Ritters,K.H.&J.D.Wickham.(2003).HowFartotheNearestRoad?FrontiersinEcologyandtheEnvironment,3,
125129
Salmon,M(2003).ArtificialNightLightingandSeaTurtles.Biologist:JournaloftheInstituteofBiology,50,163168
Sivak,M.,J.Luoma,M.J.Flannagan,C.R.Bingham,D.W.Eby,&J.T.Shope(2007).TrafficsafetyintheU.S.:Re
examiningmajoropportunities.JournalofSafetyResearch,38,337355.
Soardo,P.,P.Lacomussi,G.Rossi&Fellin,L.(2008).Compatibilityofroadlightingwithstarvisibility.Lighting
ResearchandTechnology,40,307322.
Stone,E.L.,Jones,G.,&S.Harris(2009).StreetLightingDisturbsCommutingBats.CurrentBiology,19,11231127
UnitedKingdomHouseofCommonsCommissiononScienceandTechnology.(1997).TheExtentandNatureof
LightPollution(SeventhReport)London,England.
Wu,M.S.,Huang,H.H.,Huang,B.J.,Tang,C.W.,ChengC.W.(2009)EconomicFeasibilityofSolarPoweredLED
RoadwayLighting.RenewableEnergy,34,19341938.
204 Light Pollution EW-8

ACCESS & EQUITY


Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Access & Equity
SAFETY AUDIT
GOAL AE-1
Improveroadwaysafetythroughreviewbyanindependentauditteam.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Conductaroadsafetyaudit(RSA)ontheprojectroadwayinaccordancewiththe 1-2 POINTS
proceduressetforthinFHWA’sRoadSafetyAuditGuidelines.TheGuidelinesdefine
threegeneralphasesofaprojectduringwhichaRSAmaybeconducted.
1pointisawardedforeachRSAconducteduptoamaximumof2points. RELATED CREDITS

9 PR1Environmental
1. PreconstructionphaseRSA.Performedbeforeconstructionbegins.Recommended ReviewProcess
changesaregenerallylesscostlyandresultinlessdelay. 9 AE3Context
2. ConstructionphaseRSA.Performedduringpreparationsconstruction.Theyallow SensitiveSolutions
theroadwaytobeviewedasbuiltandofferalastchancetoassesssafetybeforeit
isopenedtothepublic. SUSTAINABILITY
3. PostconstructionphaseRSA.Performedonexistingroadstoidentifyroadsafety
issuesfordifferentroadusers.
COMPONENTS
9 Equity
Note:Foragivenroadwayproject,itislikelythatpreconstructionandconstruction 9 Expectations
phaseRSAsareappropriate.ApostconstructionphaseRSAinadditiontothesetwo
RSAswouldtypicallyberedundantandisthereforenotadvisable.Seethe“Examples” BENEFITS
sectionforsituationswhereapostconstructionphaseRSAmaybeappropriate.
9 ImprovesHuman
Health&Safety
Details
TheFHWARSAGuidelinesareavailableat:
x http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/rsa/guidelines.
ManyowneragenciesalreadyhavesafetyauditprogramsthatmeetRSA
guidelines,buttheprogramsmaybecalledothernames.Suchaprogrammust
meettheintentofanRSAasdefinedintheFHWA’sRoadSafetyAuditGuidelines.
Specifically,theRSAmustinvolveareviewbyanindependentteamandfocus
solelyonsafety.
DOCUMENTATION
x Submitacopyofthe“RSAreport”and“formalresponse”asdefinedintheFHWA’s
RoadSafetyAuditGuidelines(2006)foreachRSA.
OR
x Foragencieswithexistingsafetyauditprograms,providealetter,signedbythe
agencyrepresentativefortheproject,statingthattheexistingagencyprogram
meetsorexceedstherequirementsdefinedintheFHWA’sRoadSafetyAudit
Guidelines(2006).Submitacopyofagencyprogramdocumentsthatmeetthe
criteriadefinedinFHWA’sguidelinesasnotedabove.

AE-1 Safety Audit 207

Access & Equity Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

x FollowadvicegivenbytheFHWAPublicationNo.FHWASA0606,availableat:
http://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/rsa/guidelines/documents/FHWA_SA_06_06.pdf.
x RefertotherecommendationsintheFHWA’sRoadSafetyAuditGuidelines(Chapter2)forintroducingRSAs
intoanorganizationasaninternalprogram.TheserecommendationsnotethateffectiveandsuccessfulRSAs
requireamanagementcommitment,anagreeduponpolicy,informedprojectmanagers,anongoingtraining
program,andskilledauditors(FHWA,2006).
Example: Hypothetical Case Study

A2inchoverlayisscheduledfor20lanemilesofa2laneruralroad.ApreconstructionRSAisconductedand
makesrecommendationsonmovingwarningsignstobetterlocationsandinstallingarumblestripalongthe
centerline.Theoverlayprojectadoptstheserecommendationsandincludesthemintheproject.Theproject
wouldreceive1pointforthepreconstructionRSA.AconstructionphaseRSAcouldbeconductedtoachieve
anotherpointhowevertheprojectteamdidnotseebenefitinthisandelectednottoconductone.
Example: When to Consider a Post-Construction RSA

ApostconstructionRSAcouldbeusefulinthefollowingsituations:
1. AnowneragencyundertakesaroadwayprojectonasectionofroadthatpreviouslyhadaRSAconducted
onitasanexistingfacility.ThisRSAwouldprovideinputintotheplanninganddesignphaseoftheproject
andmakethepreconstructionRSAredundant.
2. AnowneragencyisinventoryingallGreenroadspointsitcanobtainforagivennetworkratherthanusing
Greenroadstocertifyanindividualprojectitmightbeabletoimproveitsnetworkscorebyincludingthe
RSAsithasconductedonexistingfacilities.
3. Anowneragencydesiresalistofmodificationsthatcouldresultinfuturesafetyissuechanges.
Examples: FHWA Case Studies

Forfurtherexamples,theFHWA’sRoadSafetyAuditGuidelinescontainssixRSAcasestudies.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. RSAusewhenitisnotpartofaformalagencypolicymayseemarbitraryandRSAexecutionmaybe
cumbersome.
2. TheRSAprocessasdescribedintheFHWA’sRoadSafetyAuditGuidelines(2006)allowsadesignteamto
essentiallydisagreewithallauditrecommendations.Therefore,itispossible,ifnotlikely,thatno
recommendationsareimplementedandtheroadway’soverallsafetydoesnotbenefitfromtheRSA.
RESEARCH
Roadwaycrashesandtheirresultantinjuriesandcostshaveanimmenseimpactonsociety.Eachyearhighway
crashesintheU.S.injure3million,kill43,000andcostover$230billion(WilsonandLipinski,2004).Generally,
societyviewsthesedeaths,injuriesandcostsasavoidableandhasplacedahighpremiumonreducingtheir
numberandseverity.Threeexamplesofthisviewpointfollow:
x “…thetollofdeathsandinjuriesonourroadwaysisamongthemostcompellingpublichealthissuesofour
time.”(AASHTO,2007)
x “…roadtrafficinjuries(pose)aglobalpublichealthcrisisrequiringurgentnationalandinternationalaction.”
(UnitedNations,2008)
x “Safetyisourtoppriority…”(actingFHWAadministratorJimRayinRoadsCanbeSafer…,2008)
Mostofthissectionprovidesasummaryofroadsafetyauditsfromtwomaindocuments:
208 Safety Audit AE-1

x NCHRPSynthesis336:RoadSafetyAudits(2004),whichsummarizesRSAprocessesandtheircurrentusagein
theU.S.andworldwide.
x RoadSafetyAuditGuidelines(2006)fromtheFederalHighwayAdministration,whichprovidesguidancefor
agenciestodrawuponwhendevelopingRSApoliciesandprocedures.
RoadwaySafetyAudits
OnemethodthathasshownpromiseinimprovingroadwaysafetyiswhatiscommonlyreferredtoasaRoad
SafetyAudit(RSA).“AnRSAisaformalsafetyperformanceexaminationofanexistingorfutureroador
intersectionbyanindependentauditteam.Itqualitativelyestimatesandreportsonpotentialroadsafetyissues
andidentifiesopportunitiesforimprovementsinsafetyforallroadusers”(FHWA,2006).RSAsaregenerally
thoughtofasanadditionaltooltoimprovesafetyratherthanareplacementforotherestablishedpracticessuch
assafetyimpactstudies,modeling,safetyimpactstudiesandsafetycompliancereviews(FHWA,2006).
ApplicableProjectTypes
RSAscanbebeneficialtoalltypesofprojects.TheFHWA(2006)specificallymentionsthefollowingtypesof
projectsandbenefits:
x Capitalimprovementprojects.RSAscanprovidesignificantsafetybenefitsinthedesignprocess.
x Rehabilitationprojects.ThescopeandfundingofsuchprojectsmakesincorporatingRSArecommendations
oftenachievablewithonlyminorchangesinoveralldesign.
x Surfaceimprovementprojects.HavethegreatestpotentialtobenefitfromRSAs.Oftenlowcost,highimpact
solutionscanbeidentifiedandimplemented.
x Bridgereconstructionprojects.Allprojects,butespeciallybroadlyscopedones,canbesuccessfulin
incorporatingmajorsafetyimprovementsrecommendedbyanRSA.
x Safetyprojects.Thesemayonlyusereactivetechniquesinidentifyinghazardsandcouldbenefitfromthe
proactivenatureofRSAs.
x Developerledprojects.Generally,theyarecandidatesbynospecificevidenceisoffered.
WhentoConductanRSA
RSAsaregenerallyconductedatoneormorepointsintheprojecttimeline:
x PreconstructionphaseRSA.Performedbeforeconstructionbegins.Recommendedchangesaregenerallyless
costlyandresultinlessdelay.
x ConstructionphaseRSA.Performedduringpreparationsconstruction.Theyallowtheroadwaytobeviewedas
builtandofferalastchancetoassesssafetybeforeitisopenedtothepublic.
x PostconstructionphaseRSA.Performedonexistingroadstoidentifyroadsafetyissuesfordifferentroad
users.PerformingaRSAatthisstagemaybethemostbeneficialforfutureprojectsaschangesafter
constructioncanbecostly.
RSAscanimpactprojectschedulebuttheimpactdependsontheirrecommendationsandhowtheyareaddressed.
SafetyBenefits
BothU.S.andinternationalevidencesuggeststhatRSAsarelowcostandcanprovidesubstantial,measurable
benefits.Benefitsgenerallycomefromreducingreconstructioncostsassociatedwithsafetydeficiencies,reducing
lifecyclecosts,reducingsocietalcostsassociatedwithcollisionsandreducingliabilityclaims.Somespecific
examplesare(WilsonandLipinski,2004;FHWA,2006):
x AUKstudyanalyzedcrashdatafrom19auditedand19nonauditedsites.Itfoundacasualtysavingsof1.25
peryear(fatalcrashratesdroppedfrom2.08to0.83peryear)fortheauditedsitesandonly0.26peryear
(fatalcrashratesdroppedfrom2.6to2.34peryear)forthenonauditedsites.
x AUKstudyanalyzed22auditedtrunkroadsitesandplacedtheaveragesavingspersiteat£11,373persite.
AE-1 Safety Audit 209

x Austroadsdescribed9auditeddesignstatesitesthatreported250findingswithbenefit/costratiosbetween
3:1and242:1.
x TheNewYorkDepartmentofTransportationreportsa2040%reductionincrashesatmorethan300high
crashlocationsthathadreceivedsafetyimprovementsrecommendedbyRSAs.
x EarlySouthCarolinaDepartmentofTransportationresults(atthe1yearpoint)showeddecreasedcrashesand
economicsavings.Onesiteimplementing4of8recommendationsshoweda12.5%decreaseincrasheswitha
savingsof$40,000,asecondsitehada15.8%increaseincrasheswhenonly2of13recommendationswere
implemented,athirdsitethatimplementedall9recommendationssawa60%reductioninfatalitiesresulting
ina$3.66millionsavings,andafourthsitethatimplemented25of37recommendationshada23.4%
reductionincrashesandasavingsof$147,000.
Costs&LegalConsiderations
GenerallyRSAscostbetween$1,000and$8,000(WilsonandLipinski,2004),whichusuallyrepresentsasmall
fractionofengineeringdesigncosts.Therefore,analysesthatcalculaterateofreturngenerallygivevaluesofover
100%.ThisisespeciallytruewhenevenonelifesavedisattributedtotheRSA.Inpractice,however,itisdifficultto
attributesavingalifetoanyoneaudit,recommendationoraction.
TheFHWA(2006)mentionsthatsomeagencieshavebeenreluctanttoconductRSAsduetoafearthatreportswill
beusedagainstthemintortliabilitylawsuits.InstateswheretrainingonRSAswasconductedlocallegalstaffs
gaveacommonmessage:RSAsareapositiveapproachanddonotincreasetheagency’sliabilityand,infact,help
inthedefenseoftortliability(WilsonandLipinski,2004).
GLOSSARY
RSA Roadsafetyaudit
REFERENCES
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).(2007).Transportation:Investin
OurFuture.AASHTO,Washington,DC.Availableat
http://www.transportation1.org/tif5report/safer_america.html
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2006).RoadSafetyAuditGuidelines.PublicationNo.FHWASA0606.
FHWA,U.S.DepartmentofTransportation.Availableathttp://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/index.cfm.
UnitedNations.(2008).GeneralAssemblyAdoptsResolutiononEasingGlobalRoadSafetyCrisis.GA/10694.Sixty
secondGeneralAssembly,Plenary,87thmeeting(AM).
U.S.DepartmentofTransportationOfficeofPublicAffairs.Pressrelease:RoadsCanBeSafer,TopFederalHighway
OfficialSays.(2008).Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pressroom/fhwa0816.htm.
Wilson,E.M.andLipinski,M.E.(2004).NCHRPSynthesis336:RoadSafetyAudits.TransportationResearchBoard,
Washington,D.C.
210 Safety Audit AE-1

INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

GOAL AE-2
Meeteconomicandsocialneedsandimprovemobilitywithoutaddingcapacity,or
improvetheefficiencyoftransportationsystems.

Includeintelligenttransportationsystem(ITS)applicationslistedintheFederal
HighwayAdministration’s(FHWA)ResearchandInnovativeTechnologyAdministration
(RITA)OfficeofIntelligentTransportationSystemsApplicationsOverviewportionof
theirITSwebsite(seeat:http://www.itsoverview.its.dot.gov).TableAE2.1(opposite RELATED CREDITS
page)liststhestandardITSapplicationsandRITAITSwebsitecategoriesallowablefor 9 AE3Context
thiscredit. SensitiveSolutions
9 AE5Pedestrian
2points Access
Installatleast1applicationin2separatecategories. 9 AE6BicycleAccess
9 AE7Transit&HOV
3points Access
Installatleast1applicationin3separatecategories. 9 MR6Energy
Efficiency
4points
Installatleast1applicationin4separatecategories. SUSTAINABILITY
5points
COMPONENTS
Installatleast1applicationin5separatecategories. 9 Ecology
9 Equity
Details 9 Economy
9 Extent
Additionally,inorderforanITSapplicationtocountforthiscredititneedstoexist
9 Expectations
withintheprojectlimitsinameaningfulmanner.TheFHWA’sRITAITSwebsite
9 Experience
separatesITSapplicationsintobroadcategories.Theintentionofthiscreditisto
9 Exposure
haveatleasttwooftheseRITAITSwebsitecategoriesrepresentedwiththeproject
limitstoearnpoints.So,iftheprojectisanimprovementofanexistingfacilityand
thatexistingfacilityalreadyincludesoneormoreITSapplications,thoseexisting BENEFITS
applicationscanbecountedtowardthetotalpoints.Additionally,notethatinno 9 ReducesFossilFuel
casecanmorethan5pointsbeearned.Theremustbeatleast1applicationin2 Use
separatecategoriesinorderforanypointstobeearned. 9 ReducesAir
Emissions
DOCUMENTATION 9 ReducesGreenhouse
Gases
x AlistoftheITSapplicationsandtheircorrespondingcategories 9 ImprovesMobility
x EvidencethattheseITSapplicationsarephysicallyinstalledontheprojectorare 9 ImprovesHuman
applicabletotheprojectarea.Thisevidencecanbeanyoneofthefollowing: Health&Safety
9 ReducesLifecycle
x Thepage(s)intheprojectplansandspecificationsthatrefertotheapplication Costs
x Documentationthatshowsaparticularapplicationisoperationalintheproject 9 IncreasesAwareness
area(e.g.,thegeographiccoverageareaforthe511travelerinformation
service,ascreenshotofanonlinedynamicmapthatidentifiestheprojectarea
andclearlyshowstheprojectareaisincludedinthemap)
x Photo(s)ofeachapplicationinstalledifitisaphysicalentity.
AE-2 Intelligent Transportation Systems 211

TableAE2.1:AllowableITSApplicationsforAE2
Category Application
Surveillance Traffic
Infrastructure
TrafficControl AdaptiveSignalControl
AdvancedSignalSystems
VariableSpeedLimits
Bicycle&Pedestrian
SpecialEvents
LaneManagement HOVFacilities
ReversibleFlowLanes
Pricing
LaneControl
Variable SpeedLimits
EmergencyEvacuation
InformationDissemination DynamicMessageSigns(DMS)
HighwayAdvisoryRadio(HAR)
Enforcement SpeedEnforcement
TrafficSignalEnforcement
RampMeterEnforcement
HOVFacilitiesEnforcement
RampControl RampMetering
PriorityAccess
WarningSystems RampRollover
CurveSpeedWarning
DownhillSpeedWarning
Overheight/OverwidthWarning
HighwayRailCrossingWarningSystems
IntersectionCollisionWarning
PedestrianSafety
BicycleWarning
AnimalWarning
RoadWeatherManagement PavementConditions
AtmosphericConditions
WaterLevel
TransitManagement DynamicRouting/Scheduling
InTerminal/WaysideInformationDissemination
TravelerInformation Internet/Wireless
511
Telephone
ElectronicPayment/Pricing TollCollection
TransitFarePayment
TrafficIncidentManagement CallBoxes
ServicePatrols
EmergencyVehicleSignalPreemption
Notes:TheapplicationnomenclatureanddefinitionscomedirectlyfromtheFHWA’sRITAITSApplications
Overviewwebpage(http://www.itsoverview.its.dot.gov).
212 Intelligent Transportation Systems AE-2


x TheFHWA’sRITAITSwebsite(http://www.its.dot.gov)maintainsacurrentdatabaseofITSbenefits,costs,
lessonslearnedanddeploymentstatistics.Itisanexcellentresourceforapproachesandstrategies.
x ITSAmerica,anotforprofitorganization,alsomaintainsawebsite(http://www.itsa.org)withsubstantial
documentationonITSefforts.
Example: How to Calculate Points
3points
Afreewayonrampisbeingupgradedtoincludearampmeteringsystem.Inadditiontherearealreadyvideo
surveillancecamerasinusethatareaccessiblebythegeneralpublicthroughacommontrafficwebsite.The
areaisalsocoveredbya511trafficinformationsystemandhighwayadvisoryradio(HAR).Thisprojectwould
earn3pointsbecause3applicationcategoriesarerepresented.Notethataprojectcannotearn1pointforthis
VoluntaryCredit.Atleast2categoriesmustberepresentedtoearntheminimumof2points.
x Surveillance.Thetrafficcamerasareanapplicationinthiscategory.
x Travelerinformation:the511serviceandwebsitearebothapplicationsinthiscategory.Althoughthis
categoryisrepresentedbytwoseparatesystems,itisstillonlycountedonce.
x Informationdissemination:theHARisanapplicationinthiscategory.
5points
Anarterialisbeingupgradedtobemorecontextsensitive.Existingarterialfacilitiesthatremaininplace
includeavariablemessagesignandvideotrafficsignalenforcement.Theprojectisaddingtimedsignallights
andsensorstoincludeitintheareawidenetworkshownonlineattheagency’swebsite.Trafficsurveillance
camerasarealsobeingadded.Thisprojectwouldearn5pointsbecause5applicationcategoriesare
represented.Notethataprojectcannotearn1pointforthisVoluntaryCredit.Atleast2categoriesmustbe
representedtoearntheminimumof2points.
x Surveillance.Theaddedtrafficcamerasareanapplicationinthiscategory.
x Trafficcontrol.Theaddedsignaltimingisanapplicationinthiscategory.
x Informationdissemination.Theexistingdynamicmessagesignisanapplicationinthiscategory.
x Enforcement.Theexistingtrafficsignalvideoenforcementisanapplicationinthiscategory.
x Travelerinformation:theinclusionofthisarterialintheagency’sonlinetrafficflowmapisanapplicationin
thiscategory.
Example: ITS Categories

SomeexamplesofITSusefromtheRITA’sIntelligentTransportationSystemsBenefits,Costs,andLessons
Learned:2008Updateare(thesearedirectquotesfromtheexecutivesummary,italicsaddedtodistinguish
fromothertext):
ArterialManagement
Optimizingsignaltimingisconsideredalowcostapproachtoreducingcongestion.Basedondata
fromsixseparatestudies,thecostsrangefrom$2,500to$3,100persignalperupdate(Sunkari2004;
TEIEngineering2005;Harris2005;NTOC2005;Luor2006;Heminger2006).Basedonaseriesof
surveysofarterialmanagementagenciesin78ofthelargestU.S.metropolitanareas,halfoftraffic
signalsinthesemetropolitanareaswereundercentralizedcontrolthroughclosedlooporcomputer
controlin2006.
FreewayManagement
TherearenumerousITSstrategiestoimprovefreewayoperations.Metropolitanareasthatdeploy
ITSinfrastructureincludingdynamicmessagesigns(DMS)tomanagefreewayandarterialtraffic,

andintegratetravelerinformationwithincidentmanagementsystemscanincreasepeakperiod
freewayspeedsby8to13percent(SmithandPerez1992;BirstandAyman2000),improvetravel
time,andaccordingtosimulationstudies,reducecrashratesandimprovetriptimereliabilitywith
delayreductionsrangingfrom1to22percent(SmithandPerez1992;FHWA1999a;FHWA1999b;
BristandAyman2000;FHWA2000;FHWA2001;Jeannotte2001).InMinneapolisSt.Paul,the
benefittocostratioforarampmeteringsystemwasestimatedat15:1(CambridgeSystematics
2001).
CrashPreventionandSafety
Downhillspeedwarningsystemshavedecreasedtruckcrashesbyupto13percentatproblemsitesin
OregonandColorado(Drakopoulos2006).Aspartofanevaluationofautomatedtruckrollover
warningsystems,thePennsylvaniaDOTresearchedsystemsinotherstates.Thecostofthesesystems
variedsignificantly,rangingfrom$50,000to$500,000,asdidtheirconfigurations:invasiveandnon
invasivedetection,weightbasedversussimplifiedspeedclassalgorithms,andsystemcalibrationsfor
warnings(Pento2005).Thethreemostwidelyadoptedsystemsarecurveandrampspeed,rail
crossingwarningsystemsandpedestriansafetysystems.Nextinpopularity,andadoptedbyabout
halfasmanystates,aredownhillwarningsystems,intersectioncollisionavoidancesystems,and
animalwarningsystems.
RoadWeatherManagement
Evaluationdatashowthat80to94percentofmotoristswhousetravelerinformationWebsites
thinkroadweatherinformationenhancestheirsafetyandpreparesthemforadverseroad
weather.(FHWA2004;FHWA2006).Studieshavefoundthatantiicingprogramscanlowersnowand
icecontrolcostsby10to50percentandreducecrashratesby7to83percent(Breen2001;
McCormickRankinCorporationandEcoplansLtd.2004;O’KeefeandShi2005).
ElectronicPaymentandPricing
Onfreeways,variablepricingstrategiesareeffectiveatinfluencingtravelerbehavior.Althoughinitial
publicsupportforsuchtollsmaybelow,researchindicatesthatroadusersvaluetimesavingsand
arewillingtopayapricetoavoidcongestionanddelay(NorthCentralTexasCouncilofGovernments
2005;Doumaetal.2006).InCalifornia,forexample,publicsupportforvariabletollingonState
Route91wasinitiallylow;butafter18monthsofoperations,nearly75percentofthecommuting
publicexpressedapprovalofvirtuallyallaspectsoftheexpresslanesprogram(NorthCentralTexas
CouncilofGovernments2005).
TravelerInformation
Studiesshowthatdriverswhouseroutespecifictraveltimeinformationinsteadofareawidetraffic
advisoriescanimproveontimeperformanceby5to13percent(Vasudevanetal.2005).Recent
evaluationdatashowthatcustomersatisfactionwithregional511deploymentsrangefrom68to92
percent(511DeploymentCoalition2005).The511DeploymentCoalitionconductedanindepthcost
analysisbasedontheexperiencefromnine511deployers.Onaverage,thestatewidesystemscost
approximately$2.5milliontodesign,implement,andoperateduringthefirstyear.Metropolitan
systemscostanaverageof$1.8milliontodesign,implement,andoperateduringthefirstyear(511
DeploymentCoalition2006).Thetwomostpopularmediafordistributingtravelerinformationinthe
78largestU.S.metropolitanareasareWebsitesandemail,followedbyautomatictelephoneand
pagers.Thirty(30)ofthe78metropolitanareasusededicatedTVtodistributetravelerinformation
and18usekiosks,amediumwhichhasseennogrowthinrecentyears.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
TheITSapplicationsusedshouldprovidequantifiedbenefitsthatjustifytheircost.

RESEARCH
TheFHWA’sRITAITSwebsite(http://www.its.dot.gov)maintainsacurrentdatabaseofITSbenefits,costs,lessons
learnedanddeploymentstatistics.ITSAmerica,anotforprofitorganization,alsomaintainsawebsite
(http://www.itsa.org)withsubstantialdocumentationonITSefforts.
PerceivedandMeasuredBenefitsofITS
Thegoalareadefinitionslistedbelow(whichcanbefoundatthebottomofthiswebsite:
http://www.itsbenefits.its.dot.gov/its/benecost.nsf/ByInfo/WhatIsBClassifications#goal)giveanoverviewofthe
perceivedandmeasuredbenefitsofITS.Themostrelevantsustainabilitycomponentsarelistedattheendofeach
goalareadescription.
Safety
Severalspecificapplicationsaimtoreduceboththenumberandseverityofcrashes.Thisbenefitisdirectly
relatedtotheequitycomponentofsustainability.Measuresofeffectivenessincludecrashrate,fatalityrate,
andinjuryrate.Equity
Mobility
Manyapplicationsaimtoreducetraveldelayandtraveltime.Thisbenefitisrelatedtotheequity(improved
mobility),economy(lowerusercostassociatedwithfacilityuseduetofastertraveltime)andecology(more
efficientusecanbutmaynotalwaysleadtolessfuelconsumptionandfeweremissions).Measuresof
effectivenessincludedelaytimeandvariabilityoftraveltime.Ecology,economy
Productivity
Someapplicationsaimtoreduceoperatingcostsandallowproductivityimprovements.Thisincludes
applicationsthatmaysavetimeincompletingbusinessorregulatoryprocesses,systemsthathavelowerlife
cyclecostscomparedtotraditionaltransportationsystems,andinformationcollection/aggregation
applicationsthatcanleadtoeconomicsavingsorperformanceimprovement.Measuresofeffectivenessare
usuallysomeformofcostsavingsachievedbyusingITS.Economy,extent,expectations.
Efficiency
Manyapplicationsaredesignedtoimprovetheefficiencyofexistingfacilitiessothatmobility,accessandother
needscanbemetwiththeexistingorlessphysicalinfrastructurethanwouldotherwisebepossible.Traditional
methodsofmeasuringcapacity(e.g.,thoseintheHighwayCapacityManual2000)oftendonotaccountforITS
applicationsthatcanimprovecapacitybeyondthatforatraditionalroadwaywithoutITS.Atypicalmeasureof
effectivenessis“effectivecapacity”,orthemaximumpotentialrateatwhichpersonsorvehiclesmaytraversea
link,node,ornetworkunderarepresentativecompositeofroadwayconditionsincludingweather,incidents,
andvariationintrafficdemandpatterns.Economy,equity,extent,expectations.
EnergyandEnvironment
Someapplicationshavethesecondaryeffectofimprovingairqualityandlesseningenergyimpactsof
transportationbecauseofimprovedefficiencyorotherimprovementmeasures.Measuresofeffectiveness
includemodeledorsimulatedreductionsinemissionsandenergyuse.Ecology,economy.
CustomerSatisfaction
Manyapplicationsprovideimprovedcustomersatisfactionbymorecloselymeetingtravelerexpectations.
Typicalmeasuresofeffectivenessaretravelersurveys,productawareness,expectation/realizationofbenefits
andassessmentofvalue.Equity.

GLOSSARY
Effectivecapacity Themaximumpotentialrateatwhichpersonsorvehiclesmaytraversealink,
node,ornetworkunderarepresentativecompositeofroadwayconditions
includingweather,incidents,andvariationintrafficdemandpatterns.
IntelligentTransportationSystem Anapplicationofintegratedinformation,telecommunicationsandcomputer
basedtechnologiestoinfrastructureandvehiclesinordertoimprovesafety
andmobilityonsurfacetransportationnetworks.

REFERENCES
511DeploymentCoalition.(2005).America’sTravelInformationNumber:ImplementationandOperational
Guidelinesfor511ServicesVersion3.0,511DeploymentCoalition.
511DeploymentCoalition.(2006).511DeploymentCosts:ACaseStudy,511DeploymentCoalition.
Birst,S.andAymanS.(2000).AnEvaluationofITSforIncidentManagementinSecondTierCities:AFargo,NDCase
Study.PaperPresentedatITE2000AnnualMeeting.Nashville,Tennessee.6–10August2000.
Breen,B.D.(2001).AntiIcingSuccessFuelsExpansionofthePrograminIdaho,IdahoTransportationDepartment,
SnowandIcePooledFundCooperativeProgram.
http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/weather/Publications/AntiicingIdaho.pdf.Accessed5October2001.
CambridgeSystematics.(2001).TwinCitiesRampMeterEvaluation:FinalReport.PreparedbyCambridge
SystematicsfortheMinnesotaDOT,EDLNo.13425.St.Paul,MN.
Douma,F.;Zmud,J.andPatterson,T.(2006).PricingComestoMinnesota:BaselineAttitudinalEvaluationoftheI
394HOTLaneProject.PaperPresentedatthe85thTransportationResearchBoardAnnualMeeting.
Washington,DC.
Drakopoulos,A.(2006).CVO/FreightandITSSession.Presentationatthe12thannualITSForum,Wisconsin
ChapterofITSAmerica—Smartways,MarquetteUniversity.Milwaukee,WI.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(1999a).InnovativeTrafficControlTechnologyandPracticeinEurope,
U.S.DOTFederalHighwayAdministration,OfficeofInternationalPrograms.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(1999b).ITSImpactsAssessmentforSeattleMMDIEvaluation:Modeling
MethodologyandResults.U.S.DOTFederalHighwayAdministration.EDLNo.11323.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2000).MetropolitanModelDeploymentInitiative:SanAntonio
EvaluationReport(FinalDraft).U.S.DOTFederalHighwayAdministration,ReportNo.FHWAOP00017,EDL
No.12883.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2001).DetroitFreewayCorridorITSEvaluation,U.S.DOTFederal
HighwayAdministration.EDLNo.13586.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2004).EvaluationofRuralITSInformationSystemsalongU.S.395,
Spokane,Washington.U.S.DOTFederalHighwayAdministration,EDLNo.13955.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2006).FinalEvaluationReport:EvaluationoftheIdahoTransportation
DepartmentIntegratedRoadWeatherInformationSystem.U.S.DOTFederalHighwayAdministration,EDLNo.
14267.

Harris,J.(2005).BenefitsofRetimingTrafficSignals:AReferenceforPractitionersandDecisionMakersaboutthe
BenefitsofTrafficSignalRetiming.PresentedattheITE2005AnnualMeetingandExhibit.Melbourne,
Australia.7–10August2005.
Heminger,S.(2006).RegionalSignalTimingProgram—2005CycleProgramPerformance.Memorandumtothe
CaliforniaMetropolitanTransportationCommission’sOperationsCommittee.Oakland,CA.
Jeannotte,K.(2001).EvaluationoftheAdvancedRegionalTrafficInteractiveManagementandInformationSystem
(ARTIMIS).PaperPresentedatthe11thAnnualITSAmericaMeeting.Miami,FL.
Luor,J.(2006).ConversationwithJerryLuor,TrafficEngineeringSupervisor,DenverRegionalCouncilof
Governments(DRCOG).October2006.
McCormickRankinCorporationandEcoplansLtd.(2004).CaseStudy#6:WinterMaintenanceInnovationsReduce
AccidentsandCosts—CityofKamloops,PreparedbytheMcCormickRankinCorporationandEcoplansLimited
fortheInsuranceCorporationofBritishColumbiaandEnvironment.Canada.
NationalTransportationOperationsCoalition(NTOC).(2005).TheNationalTrafficSignalReportCard:Technical
Report.NationalTransportationOperationsCoalition.Washington,DC.
NorthCentralTexasCouncilofGovernments.(2005).2005RegionalValuePricingCorridorEvaluationand
FeasibilityStudy:Dallas/FortWorth—ValuePricingHistoryandExperience.NorthCentralTexasCouncilof
Governments.Arlington,TX.
O’Keefe,K.andShi,X.(2005).SynthesisofInformationonAntiicingandPrewettingforWinterHighway
MaintenancePracticesinNorthAmerica:FinalReport.PreparedbytheMontanaStateUniversityforthePacific
NorthwestSnowfightersAssociationandtheWashingtonStateDOT.
Pento,R.J.(2005).EvaluationofPennDOTITSDeployments,PennDOT,BureauofHighwaySafetyandTraffic
Engineering.Presentationtothe2005TransportationEngineeringandSafetyConference.
Smith,S.andPerez,C.(1992).EvaluationofINFORM—LessonsLearnedandApplicationstoOtherSystems,Paper
Presentedatthe71stAnnualMeetingoftheTransportationResearchBoard.Washington,DC.
Sunkari,S.(2004).TheBenefitsofRetimingTrafficSignals,ITEJournal.April2004.
TEIEngineering.(2005).FeeEstimate—MillenniaMallRetimingandScopeandSchedule—MillenniaMallRetiming,
BidsubmittedbyTEIEngineeringtotheCityofOrlando,FL.
TransportationResearchBoard(TRB).(2000).HighwayCapacityManual2000.TRB,NationalResearchCouncil,
Washington,D.C.
Vasudevan,M.;Wunderlich,K.;Larkin,J.;andToppen.A.(2005).AComparisonofMobilityImpactsonUrban
CommutingBetweenBroadcastAdvisoriesandAdvancedTravelerInformationServices.PaperPresentedatthe
84thAnnualTransportationResearchBoardMeeting.Washington,DC.


CONTEXT SENSITIVE SOLUTIONS

GOAL AE-3
Deliverprojectsthatsynthesizetransportationrequirementsandcommunityvalues
througheffectivedecisionmakingandthoughtfuldesign.

DesigntheprojectaccordingtotheprinciplesofContextSensitiveSolutions(CSS).
FilloutthesubmissionformfromtheCSSNationalDialogwebsiteforprojectdesign
andconstruction.Theformcanbefoundhere: RELATED CREDITS
http://www.cssnationaldialog.org/documents/design.pdf. 9 PR1Environmental
ReviewProcess
OR 9 AE4Traffic
EmissionsReduction
Createashortwhitepaper(narrative)documentdescribingthefollowing: 9 AE5Pedestrian
Access
1. Thepurposeandneedfortheproject. 9 AE6BicycleAccess
2. Theplanninghorizonandproposedtimelineorscheduleforprojectcompletion. 9 AE7Transit&HOV
3. Alistororganizationalchartofthemanagementstructurefortheproject:this Access
includes,projectplanners,designprofessionals,consultants,agencyleads,and 9 AE8ScenicViews
otherstakeholdersinvolved. 9 AE9Cultural
4. Theelementsofthedecisionmakingprocessused. Outreach
5. Thelocalandregionalcontextandissuessurroundingtheproject,otherfederal
contextandissues,andapplicablejurisdictionalregulationsandpolicies. SUSTAINABILITY
6. ThepublicinvolvementprocessforCSDandresultsofthisprocess.
7. Thetransportationmodesconsideredandresultsofthisconsideration.
COMPONENTS
8. Thevisualandaestheticcomponentsoftheproject. 9 Ecology
9. Theplanforlongtermongoingmonitoringduringoperations(ifany). 9 Equity
10. Thefinalalternativesanddesignelementschosenforimplementation(asummary 9 Economy
issufficient). 9 Extent
9 Expectations
Details 9 Experience
9 Exposure
Note:ThiscreditmustbeearnedinordertoearncreditsAE4TrafficEmissions
Reduction,AE5PedestrianAccess,AE6BicycleAccess,andAE7TransitAccess.
BENEFITS
ContextSensitiveSolutions(alsoContextSensitiveDesign;CSD)isdefinedasa 9 ReducesManmade
collaborative,interdisciplinaryapproachthatinvolvesallstakeholderstoprovidea Footprint
transportationfacilitythatfitsitssetting.Itisanapproachthatleadstopreserving 9 ImprovesAccess
andenhancingscenic,aesthetic,historic,community,andenvironmentalresources, 9 ImprovesMobility
whileimprovingormaintainingsafety,mobility,andinfrastructureconditions. 9 ImprovesHuman
(FHWA,2009) Health&Safety
9 Improves
DOCUMENTATION Accountability
x CopyoftheimplementationofCSSintransportationprojectdesignand 9 IncreasesAesthetics
constructionformORcopyoftheContextSensitivePlanningwhitepaper
addressingall10itemsabove.
AE-3 Context Sensitive Solutions 219


TheCSS/CSDFramework
x Consultexistingguidancedocumentsandresourcestounderstandtheframeworkandreviewavarietyof
examples.Seethe“AdditionalResources”listedattheendofthiscredit.
x FollowtheCSSframework(Stamatiadisetal.,2009;Neumanetal.,2002).TherearesixkeystepsintheCSS
projectdevelopmentprocess:
1. Developadecisionmakingprocessandmanagementstructure.
2. Definetheproblem.
3. Developtheprojectandtheevaluationframeworkfortheproject.
4. Determinealternatives.
5. Screenthealternatives.
6. Evaluateandselectanalternative.
InterdisciplinaryDecisionMaking
x Collaboratewithlocalexpertsinbothtransportationandnontransportationplanninganddesignprofessions.
x Useatransparentdecisionprocesswithclearchannelsforcommunityparticipation.Thiswillensuredesignofa
projectthatmeetstheneedsofthetransportationsystemaswellasthecommunityasawhole.
x Incorporatethefollowingfiveelementsinthedecisionprocessthroughouttheprojectforthemosteffective
approach(fromNeumanetal.,2002):
1. Thedecisionpointsintheprocessorprojectmilestones.
2. Whowillmakeeachdecision.
3. Whowillmakerecommendationsforeachdecision.
4. Whowillbeconsultedoneachdecision.
5. Howrecommendationsandcommentswillbetransmittedtodecisionmakers.
x Documenteachoftheseelementsclearlyintheprojectpapertrail.Thiswillhelpensurethatprojectdecision
makersareheldaccountablefortheirresponsibilitiesandactions.
PlanningandDesignConsiderations
x Considertheappropriatenessofincludingbike,pedestrianortransitfacilitiesinthedesignoftheroadway
duringprojectplanning.Thismightbeassimpleasconstructingbikelanesandsidewalksascalledforinlocal
designstandards.
x Reviewlocalplansforroadwaydesignstandardsandfunctions.
x Consultwithlocalplannersfromappropriateagencies(parksdept.,publicworks,planning,transportationand
transit)todetermineifyourassessmentiscomplete.
x Usevisualizationtools,suchasphotographrenderingorcomputermodels.Thesecanoftencanhelpindesign
alternativeselectionprocess.
x Considertheprojectnobuildcondition.Somelocalstandardsmayrequireelementsthatmaynotbe
appropriateforenvironmentalorengineeringreasonsandmaybeabletobegrantedanexceptionwhichcan
bepursuedduringplanning.Anexamplewouldbedesigningnarrowerstreetsthanrequiredbystandard
specificationsinaresidentialneighborhood,whichcanimprovesafetybyslowingneighborhoodtraffic.
CSDforMultimodalAccess
x Considerallmodesattheinitialstagesofplanning.Whileeachindividualroadwaydoesnothaveto
accommodatepeopleusingallmodes,asystemshouldbeaccessibletopeopleonbikes,foot,andtransit,as
wellasincarsandtrucks,wherethepurposeandneedstatementfortheprojectdefinetheseelementsas
appropriate.
220 Context Sensitive Solutions AE-3

x Consultlocalplansforexistingandfutureplannedbike,pedestrianandtransitelementstoseeiftheproject
includesorcrossesnamedelements.Manyjurisdictionshaveadoptedplansrelatedtobike,pedestrianand
transitsystems.
x Incorporatenewmodalelementssuchasbikelanes,sidewalksortrails,andtransitfacilitiesshouldbeincluded
indesignswhereapplicable.Generally,designstandardsorplanswilldictateplacementoftheseelements,or
theymayberequestedbythepublicduringprojectscoping.
x Consideringroadwayimprovementswhichmayimpacttheexistingormasterplannedbike,pedestrianand
transitnetworks.Improvementstothesemodalelementsshouldbemadeasappropriatetomitigateuser
impacts.
PublicInvolvementConsiderations
x Consultwithstakeholderstounderstandcommunityissues,toenvisionsolutions,and,ultimately,to
understandhowaprojectfitsintoacommunity.Throughthisprocess,plannersanddesignersaremorelikely
todesignaprojectthatminimizesimpactstothecommunityandsupportsthecommunity’svision.
x Conductanappropriatelyscaledstakeholderconsultationprocessinprojectplanningforthewholeprojectand
specificissuesasneeded.Thisprocessmightbeassimpleasholdingaprojectopenhousetoidentify
communityconcerns,issuesoropportunities,oritmightbealongprocesswithmultipleopportunitiesfor
stakeholderengagementincludingpublicworkshops,committeemeetings,andotherengagement
opportunities.
x Includeinthepublicinvolvementplanthefollowingsteps:issueidentification,developmentofevaluation
criteria,developmentofpotentialsolutions,evaluationofsolutions,andselectionofasolutionthatbestmeets
theevaluationcriteria.
x Followtheguidanceavailableonstakeholderconsultation,suchastheFHWA’sPublicInvolvementTechniques
forTransportationDecisionMakingandHowtoEngageLowLiteracyandLimitedEnglishProficiency
PopulationsinTransportationDecisionmaking.
x Developmentaplanforstakeholderinvolvementsothatthesessionsrunsmoothlyandachieveobjectives.This
planrequiresanunderstandingofthecommunitythatcanbeinformedbyconversationswithlocalleadersor
jurisdictionalstaff,researchontheweb,orpreviousworkinthecommunity.Theplanshouldidentify
milestonesforstakeholderinvolvement,acleardecisionprocessthatillustrateshowinputwillbeused,and
toolsormethodsforinvolvingstakeholders.
x Documentandtrackpublicinputandhowthatinputisreflectedinprojectplanninganddesign.
x Setupacommentandresolutionlogthatlistscommunitycommentsandteamactions.
x Usenarrativesorminutesthatdescribeinputgatheredateachprojectmilestoneandhowthatinputwillbe
reflectedintheprocess.
x Rememberthatthestakeholderconsultationprocessdoesnotrequireacquiescencetoeverystakeholder
request.Somerequestswillbetooexpensive,willbeoutofstepwiththeprojectpurpose,orwillnotreflect
thevaluesofthecommunityasawhole.
x Developinganevaluationframeworkthatreflectscommunitygoalsandprojectgoalscreatesafilterfor
determiningwhichrequestsareintegratedintotheprojectandwhicharesetaside.
Example: Aurora Avenue North Multimodal Corridor Project — Shoreline, WA

TheCityofShorelineimplementedanewroadwaydesignforthreemilesofStateRoute99(alsoknownas
AuroraAvenueNorth)toalleviatetrafficcongestion,improvebusinessaccess,andprovidepedestrianaccess.
ContextSensitiveSolutions(CSS)wereusedtodesignanenvironmentallyconsciousroadwaythatprotected
salmonandprovidedmultimodalmobilityimprovementstotheNorthwest,includingpedestrians,bicyclists,
motorists,andfreighttruckers.SeeFiguresAE3.1throughAE3.3.
SomehighlightsoftheCSSprocessfollowedbytheprojectinclude:
x Photosimulationshelpedstakeholdersvisualizetheimpactofproposedsolutions

x MultimodalconnectivitywassuccessfullyprovidedforcyclistsandpedestriansviatheInterurbanTrail,
whichsailsacrosstheroadway,givingsafeanddedicatedaccessforthesetravelers.Continuous11foot
widesidewalkswithdisabilityaccesswerealsoinstalled,reducingpedestrianfatalitiesandinjuries.
x TransitservicewasenhancedviaBusRapidTransit(BRT:FigureAE3.2),includingdedicatedbuslanes,in
linestops,accessimprovementsatbuszonesandshelters,andsignalpriority.Theseenhancements
resultedinmajorefficiency(80%speedincrease)andschedulingimprovements(600%reliabilityincrease).

FigureAE3.1:BicycleandPedestrianBridge. FigureAE3.2:AerialviewofAuroraAvenueandBRT.
PhotobyCH2MHill. PhotobyCH2MHill.
FigureAE3.3:InterurbanTrailBicycleandPedestrianBridgeoverSR99.PhotobyCH2MHill.

x Stakeholdersworkedalongwithplannersanddesignerstoreachaconsensusthatbestfitgoalsandvalues,
(thoughagoodportionoftheremainingSR99corridorisstillamatterofpublicdebate.)
x Trafficefficiencyimprovements,suchasintersectioncapacity,corridorwidetrafficmanagement,new
signalsandaccesslocations,resultedinflowimprovementsover36%overthenobuildcondition.
x Accessmanagementandilluminationofthecorridorincreasedsafetybyreducingseverityofcrashesand
reducingtotalcrashesby25%.
x Aestheticimprovementswereincorporated,includinglandscaping,trees,screeningandburyingutilities,
publicartandarchitecturalfeatures.Thisresultedinincreasedpropertyvaluesandredevelopmentanda
morelivablecommunity.
x StormwatermanagementincorporatedbiofiltrationareasandinRightofWaytreatmentfacilities,
ultimatelyreducingimpervioussurfaceby15%andimprovingstormwaterqualityby100%overnobuild.
MoreinformationabouttheSR99ImprovementsisavailableherefromtheWashingtonStateDepartmentof
Transportation:http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/projects/SR99/Shoreline_NCTHOV/
Example: Case Study — Whittier Access Project — Whittier, Alaska

TheAlaskaDepartmentofTransportationandPublicFacilitiesbegantheWhittierAccessProjecttoincrease
accessandmobilitytotheregionforbothtrainandhighwaytravel.Forthefirsttimein50years,Whittier

wouldhaveahighway,providingaccesstoemergencyservices,recreation,tourism,travelandcommercein
theenvironmentallysensitivesettingofPrinceWilliamSoundandtheChugachNationalForest.
Twofundamentalobjectivesguidedtheproject:meettransportationaccessneedsforresidents,freightand
visitorsandminimizeenvironmentalimpactfromconstruction.Planningforthe4mileaccessroad,two
tunnels(one500feetandanother2.5milecombinedaccessforrailandhighway),twobridges,andportal
buildingsbeganin1993.Thecompletedprojectopenedtothepublicin2000.Notethatpedestrianandbicycle
accessisnotprovidedforsafetyreasons.Additionally,thereisnopublictransitinWhittier.SeeFigureAE3.4.

FigureAE3.4:WhittierAccessproject.PhotobyCH2MHill.

Someprojecthighlightsinclude:
x Theroadwayalignmentsusedexistingtopographicalfeaturestominimizevisualimpactbyscreeningthe
roadwiththenew500footlongtunnel.
x Thealignmentsalsominimizedimpactstosensitiveplants,salmonspawninggrounds,wildlifeandprovided
drainagestructuresadequateforfishpassage.
x Blastingtechniqueswereusedasanaesthetictooltoleaveanirregularsurfacethatwassimilartothelook
ofnaturalrockformations.ThisminimizedvisualimpactsfromthenearbyPortageLake.
x Thebridgesweredesignedtobelowprofileandminimumfootprintwithsinglecolumnpierstoallow
boatingaccessandminimizeobstructionofanearbyglacialviewpoint.
x Bridgegirdersweresandblastedandtexturedtomatchsurroundings.
MoreinformationabouttheWhittierAccessprojectcanbefoundfromtheAlaskaDepartmentof
TransportationandPublicFacilitieshere:http://www.dot.state.ak.us/creg/whittiertunnel/index.shtml

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Forsmallerprojectsthattypicallydonotrequireinvolvementofmanypeople,ordirectmanagementby
stakeholders,thiscreditrequiresthatanadditionaldocumentisgenerated.
2. CSSdoesnotguaranteeeffectivenessofthefinaldesignalternative.Thisisespeciallytruerelativetocostand
schedulingconcerns.
3. CSSdoesnotaddressconstructionmanagementissuesexceptbroadly.
4. Thisparticularcreditdoesnothaveanymeansoftrackingormonitoringthesuccess(orfailure)ofaproject
afteritisconstructed,i.e.todetermineiftheCSSplanningprocessresultedinapositiveornegativeoutcome.
RESEARCH
“Ifhighwaydesignersarenotawareofopportunitiestousetheircreativeabilities,thestandardorconservative
useoftheGreenBookcriteriaandrelatedStatestandards,alongwithalackoffullconsiderationofcommunity
values,cancausearoadtobeoutofcontextwithitssurroundings.Itmayalsoprecludedesignersfromavoiding
impactsonimportantnaturalandhumanresources”(FederalHighwayAdministration,1997).Contextsensitive
design(CSD),sometimescalledContextSensitiveSolutions(CSS),isawelldocumentedapproachtoproject
deliverythatreliesonanunderstandingofandresponsetotheproject’scontext–itsphysicalandsocialplace–in
allaspectsofdesign.ThereareseveraldefinitionsofCSS,butallofthemareconsistentwithindustrybestpractice
(ICFInternational,2009).AccordingtotheFHWA,thedefinitionofCSSis:
Acollaborative,interdisciplinaryapproachthatinvolvesallstakeholderstoprovideatransportation
facilitythatfitsitssetting.Itisanapproachthatleadstopreservingandenhancingscenic,aesthetic,
historic,community,andenvironmentalresources,whileimprovingormaintainingsafety,mobility,
andinfrastructureconditions.(FHWA,2009)
CSSsynthesizesconventionalengineering,professionalexpertiseandthoughtfulplanningwithhumanvalues
throughasystemsapproachforprojectdelivery.IntegratingCSSintoprojectdecisionmakingrequiresa
multidisciplinaryapproachtoplanninganddesignandanopendialoguewithstakeholders.CSSalsoreferstoan
overallproductoroutcome:aroadwayprojectthatisgenerallymoresuitableandvaluabletoitscommunity(ICF
International,2009).
Severalfederal,stateandlocallawsmandate(orotherwisestronglyrecommend)theuseofcontextsensitive
design.ThemostrecentfederalregulationthatwasrelevanttoCSSwastheSafe,Accountable,Flexible,
TransportationEfficiencyAct:ALegacyforUsers(SAFETEALU),whichrecentlyexpiredandhasnotbeenreplaced
byasubsequentregulationasofthiswriting.Section6008Historically,CSSconceptshavebeenembeddedin
federallawsincetheinstitutionoftheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)atthestartof1970.(American
AssociationofStateHighwayTransportationOfficials:AASHTO,2010;ContextSensitiveSolutions.org,2010)
WhileenvironmentalreviewprocessesliketheNEPAsharesometraitswithCSSplanninganddesignapproaches,
theyarenotoneandthesame.Instead,CSSandtheenvironmentalreviewprocessarecomplementarydecision
makingprocesses.Bothprocesses(andtheirresultingimplementation)arecomprehensiveinnature,buttheir
focusisgenerallydifferent.Forexample,harmonizingenvironmentalneedsfortheprojectintheCSSprocess
couldeasilybeaddressedintheenvironmentalreviewprocess,ifrequiredbytheagencyorjurisdiction.Many
projectteamsuseCSSasanopportunitytocompletetheenvironmentalreviewprocesseveniftheprojectisnot
subjecttoNEPAorlocalrequirements.Thischoiceisgenerallyseenasawaytominimizebacktrackingfor
documentationthatwouldneedtooccurif,forinstance,theprojecthappenedtoqualifymidwaythroughthe
designprocessforfederalfunding.(Neumanetal.,2002).
CharacteristicsofCSS
Interestingly(andunlikeothercreditsinGreenroads),thereisnoclearcorollarytoCSSinthebuildingindustryor
intheLEEDGreenBuildingRatingsystem.CSSisanapproachexclusivetotransportationinplanningand
development.ThebestanalogyisthatCSSistotransportationasarchitectureandurbandesignaretothebuilt

environment.However,thereisonekeydifferencebetweenstandarddesignapproachesforroadwayprojectsand
CSS.Conventionaldesignprocessfollowsalinearapproach:thesemethodsusuallyinvolvebooksofstandardsand
readingfromtablestodevelopthealternativesinordertofitaroadwaytoaplace.However,thisprocessoften
resultsinaconservative,uncreativedesign,orworse,anunsustainableonethatignoresoromitsimportant
environmentalconcerns.Conversely,theCSSapproachprovidesaniterativeandinterdisciplinaryapproachto
planninganddesignthatrecognizesandimplementskeysynergiesthatwillultimatelyresultinamorefunctional,
moreappropriate,andmoreapplicableroadwayproject.ThisintegratedapproachisshowninFigureAE3.5.
LinearDesignProcess IterativeDesignProcess
“ConventionalDesign” “ContextSensitiveDesign”
DevelopEngineering DetermineIssues
Alternatives andConstraints
Develop
•Engineering Engineering
•Environmental Alternatives
•Stakeholder
EvaluateAlternatives
Evaluate
Alternatives
CompleteEnvironmental
Documentation •Selectand
DocumentFinal
Alternative
FigureAE3.5:ComparisonofaconventionaldesignprocesstoaContextSensitivedesignprocess.
(AdaptedfromNeumanetal.,2002)

CSSPrinciples
AccordingtoStamatiadisetal.(2009)therearefifteencoreprinciplesofCSSthatareapplicableandrelevantto
transportationprofessionalsinpractice.ThediagramshowninFigureAE3.6providesagoodillustrationofthe
principles,andtheirrelativeimportance.Importantly,Principles13formthefoundationtoasuccessfulCSS
program.Thesecondlevelofthefoundation,Principles47,representsthefourcommonagencygoalswhichhelp
todefinetheprojectneedsandpurpose(Stamatiadisetal.,2009;Neumanetal.,2002).Thethirdlevel(thepillars:
principles813)representsthesolution“enablers.”Thesearethepolicycommitmentsandagencygoals,andthe
perspectivesthatallowforaneffectivesolutiontobeapproachedandachieved.Thefourth(principle14)andfifth
(principle15)levelstandforsuccessfulprojectdeliveryandeffectivelongrangeplanning.EveryCSSproject
exemplifiesalloftheseprinciples,thoughthereismuchvariabilityinbothinitialdesignandfinaloutcomefrom
projecttoproject(Stamatiadiasetal.,2009).

FigureAE3.6:Graphicaldepictionof15principlesofContextSensitiveSolutions.(Stamatiadisetal.,2009)
BenefitsofCSS
ThereareseveralbenefitsofCSS.Stamatiadisetal.(2009)recentlyattemptedtoidentifythequantifiablebenefits
ofCSS.Hisgroupestablished22quantifiablebenefitsofapplyingCSSprinciples.TheseareshowninTableAE3.1.
TableAE3.1:22BenefitsofCSS(adaptedfromNCHRPReportNo.690byStamatiadisetal.,2009)
ImprovedbyCSS OptimizedbyCSS
Performancepredictabilityandprojectdelivery Maintenanceandoperations
Scopingandbudgetingprocess Designappropriateforcontext
Longtermdecisionsandinvestments IncreasedbyCSS
Environmentalstewardship Riskmanagementprotection
Mobilityforusers Stakeholder/publicfeedback
Walkabilityandbikeability Stakeholder/publicparticipation,ownershipandtrust
Safety(vehicles,pedestriansandbikes) Partneringopportunities
Accesstomultimodaloptions(includingtransit) MinimizedbyCSS
Communitysatisfaction Overallimpacttohumanandnaturalenvironment
Qualityoflifeforcommunity Constructionrelateddisruption
Speedmanagement Overallcostsforprojectdelivery
Overalltimeforprojectdelivery

Inadditiontothequantifiablebenefits,somequalitativehighlightsofCSSplanninganddesignprinciplesare:
x CSSisuniversal.AkeystrengthofCSS/CSDisitsuniversalityandapplicabilitytoallstakeholdersintheproject,
includingowneragencies,thepublicanddesignprofessionals.TheNCHRP480(Neumanetal.,2002)document
summarizesstrategiesandapproachesbasedonsixareasofpeoplewhohaveastakeintheoveralloutcomeof
theproject.Thedocumentisorganizedintosectionsbasedonprofessionalareaandthereaderisreferredto
thisdocumentinsteadofsummarizingeachofthoseapproachesherein.

x CSSisapplicableandeffectiveataprojectlevel.CSSprojectsrequireeffectiveandsuccessfulprojectdelivery
basedonstructureddecisionmaking,thoughtfulconsiderationofcommunityinputandvalues,environmental
awareness,protectionofsafety,andanunderstandingofhowtheprojectfitswithinorganizationalneedsand
constraints(Neumanetal.,2002)
x CSSpromotesenvironmentalstewardship.Environmentalresourcesareidentifiedandgoalsaresetto
managetheseresourcesatthebeginningoftheproject.Thisapproachhelpstopreventunnecessaryor
minimizeenvironmentalimpacts(ICFInternational,2009).
x CSSallowsacleardefinitionofscope.ImplementingaprojectmanagementstructurethatalignswithCSS
principlescanclearlydefinetheprojectneedsandscope.Thishelpsprioritizeproblemsthatmayariseduring
constructionorevenpreemptthemthroughthoughtfulplanning.(Stamitidiasetal.,2009)Italsoallowsfora
unifiedvisionstatement;FHWA,2007)
x CSSoffersamoreinformeddecisionmakingprocess.Effectivedecisionmakingrequiresinformationfromall
collaboratingparties.CSSaccomplishesthiscollaborationbyinstitutingamantraofinformedconsent,through
activestakeholderengagementandopencommunication.(Stamitidiasetal.,2009;ICFInternational,2009)
x CSSengagesstakeholders.StakeholderinvolvementisacoreprincipleofCSS.Collectionandintegrationof
stakeholdervaluestranslatesthosevaluesdirectlyintothefinalprojectoutcomes.(FHWA,2009;AASHTO,
pavementconference;Neumanetal.,2002;Stamiditidiadlas;ICFInternational,2009)CSSopenslinesof
communicationwithallstakeholdersearlyandkeepsthemopenthroughoutprojectdevelopmentanddelivery
(FWHA,2007)
x CSSisinterdisciplinary.Decisionsmadeareconsensusbased,anddrawfromprojectmanagers,environmental
managers,roadwaydesignersandengineers,owneragencies,andthepublic(Neumanetal.,2002).
x CSSiscosteffective.InastudybytheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)andthe
UniversityofWashington,WSDOTfoundthatcontextsensitiveplanningforcommunitydesignelementsin
mainstreetareasofurbancentershelptopreemptscopeandschedulingchanges,whichresultedinpotential
overallsavingsfortheagency.(NichollsandReeves,2009)
x CSScanbeintegratedintopolicy.CSSisawellestablishedbestpracticethathasbeensuccessfullyintegrated
withinmanyagenciestohelpachieveinternalgoalsandobjectives,suchasatWSDOTandtheUtah
DepartmentofTransportation(UDOT)(FHWA,2007;ICFInternational,2009).
x CSSisubiquitous.TheCSS/CSDprocessforprojects(andforguidancedocuments)iswellsuitedtoanonline,
collaborativeandinteractiveenvironment.Manytoolsareavailableforprojectteamstocreateandmanage
theCSSelementsoftheproject,includingpublicinvolvement.Thedepthoftheinternetinfrastructurethat
supportsCSSideasandimplementation.TheonlinedatabaseofCSS,http://www.contextsensitivesolutions.org
isjustoneexampleoftheresourcesavailable.Additionally,theFHWAandAASHTOCenterforEnvironmental
Excellencehavecreatedanopenforumforallpractitionersandprofessionals:
CSSandSustainability
CSSiswellestablishedandacceptedasabestpracticeforroadwaydesigners.However,itmaybesaidthatwhile
usingAASHTO’sGreenBookisconsideredabestpracticefordesigningmanyroads,itcertainlydoesnotguarantee
thattheroaditselfwillbe“green”ormoresustainable.Sustainabilityisasystemcharacteristicthatdescribesthat
system’scapacitytosupportnaturallawsandhumanvalues.Whatactuallymakestheroadwaymoresustainable
thoughisateamofproactiveandthoughtfulprofessionalsmakingadeliberateattempttobeconsiderateof
communityneeds,valuesandenvironmentalsurroundingswhileplanninganddesigningtheproject.Themulti
disciplinary,consensusbased,wholesystemapproachisthekeydifferencebetweenconventionalpracticeand
CSS,anditisalsothereasonwhyCSDusuallyresultsinamoresustainableproject.Infact,CSSaddressesallseven
sustainabilitycomponentsunderitswideumbrellaofcharacteristics.TableAE3.2showshowthe15principlesof
ContextSensitiveSolutionsaddressthesevencomponentsofsustainabilityandhowtheyalignwiththe
Greenroadstaxonomyofsustainabilitybenefits.


TableAE3.2:CSSandSustainability(AdaptedfromStamatidiasetal.,2009)
No. CSSPrinciple SustainabilityComponents PotentialBenefits
1 Useofinterdisciplinaryteams. 9 Experience 9 ImprovesBusinessPractice
2 Involvestakeholders. 9 Expectations 9 IncreasesAwareness
9 Exposure
3 Seekbroadbasedpublic 9 Exposure 9 IncreasesAwareness
involvement. 9 ImprovesBusinessPractice
9 CreatesNewInformation
4 Useafullrangeof 9 Exposure 9 ImprovesBusinessPractice
communicationstrategies 9 Experience 9 IncreasesAwareness
5 Achieveconsensusonpurpose 9 Expectations 9 ImprovesBusinessPractice
andneed 9 IncreasesLifecycleSavings
6 Addressalternativesandall 9 Extent 9 ImprovesBusinessPractice
modes 9 Experience 9 IncreasesLifecycleSavings
7 Considerasafefacilityforusers 9 Equity 9 ImprovesHumanHealth&Safety
andcommunity
8 Maintainenvironmentalharmony 9 Ecology 9 OptimizesHabitat&LandUse
9 Experience
9 Addresscommunityandsocial 9 Equity 9 ImprovesAccess&Mobility
issues 9 Exposure 9 ImprovesHumanHealth&Safety
9 ImprovesBusinessPractice
9 Aesthetics
10 Addressaesthetictreatmentsand 9 Exposure 9 Aesthetics
enhancements
11 Utilizeafullrangeofdesign 9 Experience 9 OptimizesHabitat&LandUse
choices 9 Extent 9 ImprovesAccess&Mobility
9 IncreasesLifecycleSavings
9 IncreasesLifecycleService
12 Documentprojectdecisions 9 Expectations 9 ImprovesBusinessPractice
13 Trackandmeetallcommitments 9 Expectations 9 ImprovesBusinessPractice
14 Useagencyresourceseffectively 9 Economy 9 IncreasesLifecycleSavings
9 ImprovesBusinessPractice
15 Createlonglastingcommunity 9 Extent 9 OptimizesHabitat&LandUse
value 9 Expectations 9 ImprovesHumanHealth&Safety
9 Equity 9 ImprovesAccess&Mobility
9 IncreasesLifecycleService
9 Aesthetics

FollowingtheCSSframeworkdoesnotultimatelyguaranteeroadwaysustainabilityasanendproduct,nordoesit
implythatsustainabilitymustbenecessarilyconsideredduringprojectdevelopment.However,CSSand
sustainabilityarecomplementaryapproachestothesameendpoint.TheCSSframeworkiswellsuitedto
accommodatingsustainabilityconsiderations,suchasthoseoutlinedbyGreenroads,earlyinprojectdevelopment.
LimitationsofThisCredit
Generally,CSSisaplanninganddesignstepthatiscomprehensivebecauseitinvolvesconsiderationoftheentire
projectlifecycleandusessystemsthinkingtocreatesolutions.Thislifecycleperspectivenecessitatesanevaluation
orassessmentprocessthatoccursduringtheoperationandmaintenancephaseoftheproject(i.e.longterm
performancemonitoring).However,thecreditrequirementsdonotrequiredetaileddiscussionofplanning
considerationsfortheroadwaymaintenance.Thisisbecausesuchplansanddocumentationforlifetime
maintenanceandoperationsarecoveredelsewhereinGreenroads(infact,theyarerequiredundertheProject
RequirementsPR9PavementMaintenanceandPR10SiteMaintenance).Currentlythereisnocreditgivenfor

monitoringorevaluationbecausethereisnofeasiblemechanismavailableforaratingsystemtoenforceor
validatesuchactivities.
AdditionalResources
Therearemany,manyresourcesavailableforCSS,fromguidebookstowebsitestoformalresearchreports.Many
oftheideasoverlapandaresharedbetweenresources.Thereaderisreferredtothesesourcesformoredetailed
informationonCSS.Abriefdescriptionandalink(whereapplicable)areprovidedbelow:
x ThehubforallthingscontextsensitivecanbefoundatContextSensitiveSolutions.org:
http://www.contextsensitivesolutions.org
x TheAASHTOCenterforEnvironmentalExcellenceContextSensitiveSolutionspageincludesabriefhistoryand
applicablefederal,stateandlocallaws,policiesandguidancedocuments.Additionally,anumberofuser
forumsareavailableforpublicuse.Thispageisavailableat:
http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/context_sens_sol/
x TheFlexibilityinHighwayDesignprovidesoneoftheearlierfoundationdocumentsforCSSandincludes
practicalguidanceforcreatinghighwaysthataresafe,effectiveandefficientusingCSSprinciples.
x TworeportsfromNCHRPareheavilyreferencedinthisdiscussion.TheyareNCHRP480:Aguidetobest
practicesforachievingcontextsensitivesolutionsandNCHRP642:QuantifyingthebenefitsofContextSensitive
Solutions.Thefirstoffersaveryqualitativereview,andthesecond,aquantitativeone.
x PublicinvolvementisacoreissueandtherearetwodefinitiveFHWAresourcesavailableforfacilitating
effectivestakeholdercommunicationandpublicinvolvementprocesses.TheyarePublicInvolvement
TechniquesforTransportationDecisionMakingandHowtoEngageLowLiteracyandLimitedEnglish
ProficiencyPopulationsinTransportationDecisionmaking.
GLOSSARY
Contextsensitivedesign Seecontextsensitivesolutions
Contextsensitivesolutions Acollaborative,interdisciplinaryapproachthatinvolvesallstakeholdersto
provideatransportationfacilitythatfitsitssetting.Itisanapproachthat
leadstopreservingandenhancingscenic,aesthetic,historic,community,and
environmentalresources,whileimprovingormaintainingsafety,mobility,
andinfrastructureconditions(alsoContextSensitiveDesign)
CSD Contextsensitivedesign
CSS Contextsensitivesolutions
Multimodal Concerningmorethanonetransportationmode

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FHWAandFTA.PreparedbyHoward/SteinHudsonAssociates,Inc.andParsonsBrinckerhoffQuadeand
Douglas.Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/pittd/cover.htm.

TRAFFIC EMISSIONS REDUCTION

GOAL AE-4
Reduceoperationalmobilesourceemissionstoimproveairqualityandhumanhealth.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Showthatcongestionpricingwasusedonthisproject.Thisusuallyispartofalarger 5 POINTS
congestionpricingprogram.UsetheEPAMOVES2010softwaretocomputethetotal
greenhousegasemissionsandcriteriapollutantemissionsreducedbythetollingor
pricingprogramcomparedtothenonpricedalternativeforthelengthoftheproject.
RELATED CREDITS
Details 9 PR1Environmental
ReviewProcess
Emissionsmodelingwillrequireestablishingabaselinecase.Thisshouldconsistof
9 AE2Intelligent
thelengthoftheprojectwithoutcongestionpricingandshouldusethesame
Transportation
assumptionsthataremadeinthecongestionpricingcase.Congestionpricing
Systems
schemesreducethenumberofvehiclesonaroadwaybychargingmoneyforuse
9 AE3Context
duringpeakperiods,thereforereducingfueluseandtotalemissions.Congestion
SensitiveSolutions
pricingneednotapplytoalllanesofaroadway.
9 AE5Pedestrian
Access
DOCUMENTATION 9 AE6BicycleAccess
Copyoftheprojectdesignreportshowingtheproject’splannedcongestionpricingand 9 AE7Transit&HOV
acopyoftheexecutivesummaryfortheMOVES2010trafficmodelstudycompleted Access
fortheprojectforboththebaselinecaseandcongestionpricingcase.Thesummary
shouldincludethesamedetailsofthemodelasnotedabove. SUSTAINABILITY
COMPONENTS

9 Ecology
9 Equity
9 Economy
9 Extent
9 Expectations

BENEFITS
9 ReducesFossilFuel
Use
9 ReducesAir
Emissions
9 ReducesGreenhouse
Gases
9 ImprovesMobility
9 IncreasesServiceLife
9 ImprovesHuman
Health&Safety
9 ReducesLifecycle
Cost
AE-4 Traffic Emissions Reduction 231


x BecomeanearlyadopteragencyoftheMOVES2010software.
x Considerimplementingintelligenttransportationsystems(ITS)fordynamicpricingandconversionofexisting
highoccupancyvehicle(HOV)lanestohighoccupancytoll(HOT)lanes.
x Notethatsometolledfacilitieswerenotinstalledtomanagecongestion.Inorderfortollfacilitiestomeetthe
intentofthiscredit,roadwayprojectswithinatolledsystem,especiallyiftheusercostisstatic,reduces
congestionusingtheMOVES2010softwareandprovidingsupportinginformationasnoted.
Example: Congestion Pricing in Puget Sound – Traffic Choices Study

In2002,thePugetSoundRegionalCouncil(PSRC)receivedagranttobecomeapilotprojectwiththeValue
PricingPilot(VPP)programwiththeFederalHighwayAdministration.Theobjectofthestudywastomonitor
behavioralchanges(numberoftrips,mode,route,andtimeofvehicletrips)tovariableorcongestionbased
tolling.TheTrafficChoicesStudy(PSRC,2008)usedglobalpositioningsystem(GPS)tollingmeterstotrack
drivingpatternsfor275volunteerhouseholds,beforeandafterexperimentaltollswerechargedforuseof
majorfreewaysandarterialsinSeattle.Whilenocostwasincurredbythevolunteers,severalimportant
changesintraveldemandwereobservedthathavesignificantimplicationsonreducingemissions.These
resultsincluded:
x Alltrips(toursperweek)decreased7%
x Vehiclemilestraveled(milesperweek)decreased12%
x Drivetime(minutesofdrivingperweek)decreased8%
x Toursegments(segmentsoftoursperweek)decreased6%
x Milesdrivenontolledroads(tolledmilesperweek)decreased13%.
MoreinformationabouttheTrafficChoicesStudyisavailableat:http://www.psrc.org/transportation/traffic.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. NotethatthetransportationsectordesignationofmanyenergyuseorGHGemissionsstatisticsdonotinclude
processesfordesignorconstructionofroadways.Thisislikelyduetothesmalltimescaleofconstruction
activitieswhencomparedtothemuchlongerservicelifeoftheroaditself.Dependingonthelifecyclemodel
usedandwhatthesystemboundariesofthatmodelare,eithertheusephase(i.e.vehicularemissions)orthe
productionofmaterials(i.e.themanufacturingorconstructionprocess)havebeenshowntohavethehighest
overallimpactonGHGandenergyuse.Thesevaluesarehighlyvariabledependentonlocation,capacity,type
ofroadway,multimodalaccess,maintenance,andamountofcongestion,tonamejustafew.
2. TheEPAMOVES2010modeliscurrentlythebestavailablequantitativeapproachtomodelingusephasevehicle
emissions.(EPA,2009f)Aswithanysoftwareprogram,thismodelhasbuiltinassumptionsthatmaybe
counterindicativeofappropriatenessforaparticularroadwayproject.ThelimitationsofEPAMOVES2010
shouldbeunderstoodpriortopursuingthiscredit.
RESEARCH
ThoughGreenroadsisintendedtobemosteasilyimplementedduringthedesignandconstructionphasesofthe
roadwaylifecycle,theimpactoftheuseandoperationsphaseandtheplanningimplicationsoftheroadwayinthis
phaseareunavoidable.Ignoringtheseimplicationswouldberemiss,sinceclearlyimplementingsuchemissions
reductionprogramsresultsinaroadwaythatismoresustainableoverall.Thiscreditrewardsplanningstepsthat
havebeenimplementedinordertoreducetheoveralllifecycleemissionsimpactduetovehiculartrafficfrom
roadsinordertopromotehumanandenvironmentalhealth.Additionally,researchintheseareasalsoshowsthat
thereareexternalbenefits,suchasincreasedservicelife(andtherefore,reducedlongtermmaintenancecosts)
andhumanhealthimprovements,thatareassociatedwithsystematictollingprograms.
232 Traffic Emissions Reduction AE-4

AirEmissionsImpactsoftheTransportationSector
ThemostrecentstatisticaldataavailablefromtheEPA(2009a)andtheDepartmentofEnergy(DOE:Davis,Diegel
&Boundy,2009)showthatthetransportationsectorisoneofthebiggestcontributorsformanyoftheair
emissionsconsideredgreenhousegasesandcriteriapollutants.Thisisprimarilyduetothecombustionoffossil
fuels,mostcommonlygasolineanddiesel.Theamountsofthesegasesthatarereleasedduringcombustion
dependprimarilyonthecarboncontentofthefuel.(Davis,Diegel&Boundy,2009)
WhatareGreenhouseGases?
Greenhousegases(GHGs)areagroupof22longlivedchemicalcompounds(Solomonetal.,2007)thatare
foundinairemissionsfromhumanactivitiesandnaturalprocesses.Increasingconcentrationsofthesegasesin
theEarth’satmospherehavebeenidentifiedtobemajorfactorsinglobalwarmingandclimatechange
(sometimesthesearecombinedtooneterm“globalchange”).Highlevelsofthesegasesintheatmosphere
disturbtheenergybalanceofEarth’sclimatesystemsandactlikeablanketaroundtheEarth,trappingheat
fromsolarradiationwithintheEarth’satmospherewhichmightotherwiseescapevianormalclimate
processes.Thepotencyorconcentrationofthesegasesismeasuredinunitsofchangeinradiativeforcing,
whichisareflectionoftheiroverallwarming(orcooling)influence.Currently,mostGHGemissionsarenotas
strictlyregulatedorotherwisemonitoredbytheEPA.
ThefourGHGsthathavebeenidentifiedarecarbondioxide(CO2),methane(CH4),nitrousoxide(N2O)and
halocarbons(agroupofgaseswithfluorine,chlorineorbromine).Eachgashasadifferentinfluenceonglobal
warmingduetotheirpropertiesandlifetimes.Typically,thegasesarecomparedtoabaselineunitofCO2using
anindex(multiplier)calledGlobalWarmingPotential(GWP)thatreflectsthatcompoundsrelativeradiative
forcingcomparedtoCO2.GWPisusuallyexpressedinunitsofcarbondioxideequivalent(CO2e,sometimes
CO2eq)emissions,butdoesnotnecessarilyreflectthesameclimateresponses.(Bernsteinetal.,2007)For
example,1unitemissionofmethanehasaGWPin100yearsequivalentto25unitsofcarbondioxideaccording
totheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeFourthAssessmentReport,soitisexpressedas25CO2e.
(Solomonetal.,2007;Bernsteinetal.,2007)
The2009U.S.GreenhouseGasInventoryReport(EPA,2009a)states:
From1990to2007,transportationemissionsroseby29percentdue,inlargepart,toincreased
demandfortravelandthestagnationoffuelefficiencyacrosstheU.S.vehiclefleet.Thenumberof
vehiclemilestraveledbylightdutymotorvehicles(passengercarsandlightdutytrucks)increased40
percentfrom1990to2007,asaresultofaconfluenceoffactorsincludingpopulationgrowth,
economicgrowth,urbansprawl,andlowfuelpricesovermuchofthisperiod.Asimilarsetofsocial
andeconomictrendshasledtoasignificantincreaseinairtravelandfreighttransportationbyboth
airandroadmodesduringthetimeseries.
Accordingtothisreport,thetransportationsectorwasresponsiblefor33%ofCO2emissions,26%methane
(CH4)emissions,and67%ofnitrousoxide(N2O)emissionsfromfossilfuelcombustion.Thesestatisticshave
beenadjustedforendusesector(socontributionsduetoelectricitygenerationhavebeenincluded)anddo
notincludeairandfreightmodes.Generally,theenduseadjustmentincreasesoverallpercentage
contributionsanddirectemissionsareless.Thetransportationsectorisalsoaccountablefor0.9%ofthe
halocarbonemissions,mostlyintheformoftherefrigerantHFC134a.(EPA,2009a).Enduseadjustedstatistics
werenotspecifiedforhalocarbonsinthetransportationsector.
WhatareCriteriaPollutants?
Thecriteriapollutantsaresixcommonpollutantsinairthatareknownhavedetrimentalhumanhealthimpacts
aswellaspotentialtodamageproperty.Thepollutantsareparticulatematter(PM10andPM2.5),groundlevel
ozone(O3),nitrogenoxides(NOx),carbonmonoxide(CO),sulfurdioxide(SO2),andlead(Pb).Ofthese
pollutants,particlepollutionandgroundlevelozonearethegreatestthreatstohumanhealthand
environmentaldamage.(EPA,2009d)Thesixpollutantsarecalled“criteria”pollutantsbecauseconcentrations

intheairareregulatedbytheEPA,whocomparestestedlevelstoallowablelevelssetinthe1990CleanAirAct
(CAA)amendments(40CFR§50)NationalAmbientAirQualityStandard(NAAQS).(EPA,2009b;EPA,2009c)
Itisimportanttonotefuelcombustionalsoaccountsformostoftheindirectgreenhousegases(EPA,2009a)
whichincludeCO,NOX,nonmethanevolatileorganiccompounds(NMVOCs),andSO2.Indirectgreenhouse
gases“donothaveadirectglobalwarmingeffect,butindirectlyaffectterrestrialradiationabsorptionby
influencingtheformationanddestructionoftroposphericandstratosphericozone,or,inthecaseofSO2,by
affectingtheabsorptivecharacteristicsoftheatmosphere.Additionally,someofthesegasesmayreactwith
otherchemicalcompoundsintheatmospheretoformcompoundsthataregreenhousegases.”(EPA,2009a)
TableAE4.1summarizesthepercentagecontributionsofselectedpollutantsfromthetransportationsector.
Mostoftheemissionscomefromuseofhighwayvehiclesandheavytrucks.Also,notably,transportation
accountsforthemajorityofcarbonmonoxideandnitrogenoxideemissionsintheUnitedStates(Davis,Diegel
&Boundy,2009).
TableAE4.1:Transportation’sShareofU.S.EmissionsofVariousPollutants,2007
(AdaptedfromTable12.1inDavis,Diegel&Boundy,2009)
Pollutants ChemicalSymbol Percentage ofTotalU.S.Emissions(%)in2007
Carbonmonoxide CO 68.4
Nitrogenoxides NOX 57.1
Volatileorganiccompounds(VOC) Various 33.9
Sulfurdioxide SO2 8.9
Ammonia NH3 5.7
Particulatematter PM10 2.7
PM2.5 7.2
Lead Pb Notincluded
Ozone O3 NotIncluded

Notethatthetermtransportationsectormeanshumanuseofvehiclesonroadways,andcommonlytheair
pollutantcontributionsduetoconstructionareomittedfromstatisticalreports.TheDOEdatainTableAE4.1
werealsonotspecificallyadjustedforenduseelectricityorenergyforthetransportationsectorandincludes
contributionsfromairandfreightmodes.Duetotheincreasedavailabilityofunleadedgasolineandrelated
regulationssincethemid1980s,theprevalenceofthecriteriapollutantleadhasdecreasedsignificantly(EPA,
2009d)anditisnotincludedinthestatisticsshown.Similarly,groundlevelozoneisnotincludedbecauseitis
notemitteddirectly;instead,itisformedduetoachemicalreactionofnitrogenoxidesandVOCsinsunlight
(2009d).
HowareAirEmissionsfromTransportationModeled?
TheEPAisrequiredbytheCAAtocontinuallytrackandupdateairqualitydatafrommobilesourceemissions,
aswellasitssoftwaremodelsusedtomeasurevehicleemissions.PriortotheDecember2009releaseof
MOVES2010softwarefromtheOfficeofTransportationandAirQuality(OTAQ),eitherMOBILE6.2orprevious
versionsoftheMOVESprogramwererequiredtobeusedtodevelopemissionsmodelsduringcreationofstate
implementationplansforairqualityperformance.Now,theEPAstatesthatMOVES2010isthebestavailable
toolforemissionsmodelingfortransport.(EPA,2009f)Recentdata(collectedwithinthelast10yearsusingthe
bestavailabletechnologiesandimprovedmonitoringandcontrols)wasusedtodeveloptheemissions
algorithmsinMOVES2010.Currently,thereisatwoyeargraceperiodbeforetheEPAwillrequireadoptionof
theMOVES2010softwareinallregulatedagencies.(EPA,2009f)TheaddedfeaturesofMOVES2010,when
comparedtoMOBILE6.2,allowimprovedcalculationofgreenhousegasemissions(aswellascriteriapollutants)
becauseitisbaseduponuserinputsfortransportationplanning,vehiclemilestraveled(VMT)andspeedsand
notsolelyuponfuelconsumption.(ICFConsulting,2006)

HumanHealth,AirQuality&PublicPolicy
Humanhealthimpactsduetopoorairquality,especiallyduetocriteriapollutantsfrommobilesourcesliketraffic,
arewelldocumented.AsystematicreviewbyWoodcocketal.(2007)foundthatthehealthimpactsoftransport
pollutionareevidencedbyincreasedtotaldeaths,increasedrespiratoryandcardiovasculardeathanddiseases,
increasedallergiesandalsopotentiallylinktocasesoflungcancer.Additionaldeathsresultfromhealthdangers
suchastrafficaccidents,andarecommonlyarguedtobeduetobehavioralchoicesandlifestyles.Anexcerptfrom
theforewordofthe2005WorldHealthOrganization(WHO)report,HealthEffectsofTransportRelatedAir
Pollution,framesthesituationwell:
Transportplaysafundamentalroleinthelivesofsocietiesandindividuals:howpeopleinteract,
work,play,organizeproduction,developcities,andgetaccesstoservices,amenitiesandgoodsis
inextricablylinkedwiththedevelopmentofmobilityandthechoicespeoplemakeaboutit.In
societiesthatrelyheavilyandincreasinglyonprivatemotorizedtransport,vehiclesareexpectedto
becomesafer,moreluxuriousandpowerful,andtobedrivenmorefrequently.Theseexpectations,
however,oftendonottakeaccountoftheensuingconsequences:increasedfuelconsumption,
greateremissionsofairpollutantsandgreaterexposureofpeopletohazardouspollutionthatcauses
serioushealthproblems.Theincreasedintensityofandrelianceontransportalsoincreasetheriskof
roadtrafficinjuries,exposuretonoiseandsedentarylifestyles.Theserisksareadisproportional
threattothemostvulnerablegroupsinthepopulation,suchaschildrenandtheelderly,andthey
raiseimportantquestionsaboutsocialinequalities.(Krzyanowski,KunaDibbert,&Schneider,2005)
Whilethehealtheffectsofcriteriapollutantsarebothwelldocumentedandregulated,thehealtheffectsof
greenhousegasemissionsarelesswellunderstood.In2009,Hainesetal.publishedasummaryforpolicymakers
attheendofacomprehensiveseriesofstudiesonthepublichealthimpactofgreenhousegases.Allscenarios
modeledbythatgroup(seeWoodcocketal.2009)demonstratedsignificantincreasesintotalhumanhealthbased
onthreeindicators(physicalactivity,outdoorairpollutionandroadtrafficinjury)whensustainabletransport
policieswereimplemented,aswellasactivetransportandmultimodalsolutions.Also,allscenariosdemonstrated
decreasesinoverallCO2eemissions.(Woodcocketal.2009)However,Chan(2009)notesthatmanypolicymakers
havenotmadetheconnectionbetweenclimatechangeandpublichealth.Shealsonotesthatthecarbon
reductionpolicycanprovidebenefitstopublichealthwhichcouldbesubstantial,andincludesreductionsin
chronichealthproblemssuchasheartdisease,cancer,obesity,diabetesandrespiratoryailments.Someregions
haverecentlybeguntochangecourseandcarbonreductionpolicyisbecomingmoreprevalent(Chan,2009).
Hainesetal.(2009)providesomekeymessagestopolicymakers,someofwhicharehighlightedbelow:
x Substantialhealthbenefitscanberecognizedbypoliciesandmeasuresmadetowardreducinggreenhousegas
emissionsatbothregionalandgloballevels.
x SpecifictransportationpoliciesthatcanreduceGHGemissionsandimprovepublichealthareincreasedwalking
andcyclingmodalaccessandreducedprivatevehicleuseinurbanareas.
x Somemeasuresmayhavenegativehealtheffectstoo,butthesetradeoffsmustbeweighedaccordinglyduring
decisionmaking(forexample,reducingthedangerofcaraccidentsbyencouragingcyclingmayincreasedanger
ofbicycleaccidents).
x Costsofthesemeasuresvarybutmaybeoffsetbythesavingsinhealthcarecosts,andinsomecasesthe
savingsmayoutweighcostsinthelongterm.
x Woodcocketal.(2009)alsostatethattheavoidedcostsofhealthcarearepotentiallyenormous,though
difficulttomodel.
TheRoleofCongestionPricing
Theconceptofcongestionpricingisnotnew(CongressionalBudgetOffice:CBO,2009).Pollutiondueto
congestionishigherbecausestopandgotraffictendstoincreasefueldemandandthereforecanproduce
moreemissions.Increasingroadwayphysicalcapacitytomeettrafficdemandhasbeenfoundtoencourage
additionaldemandandthereforeincreasevehicletrips,fossilfueluse,andairpollutantemissions.While

substantialimprovementsinvehiclefuelefficiencyhavebeenachievedinthepastdecades,therearesimply
moredriversontheroadatpeakhoursinmanylocationsthancanfitcomfortably.Congestionpricingoffersa
meansofapproachingthesechallengesthroughmoreeffectiveuseofroadwaycapacityandinfluencing
travelerbehaviorsthrougheconomictools.
Congestionpricingworksbyapplyingavariablecosttotheusersoftheroadwayfacilityduringpeaktravel
times,therebyloweringtraveldemand,reducingthenumberofvehiclesonaroadway,andreducingemissions
duetofeweridlingvehicles(CBO,2009;Daniel&Bekka,2000).Daniel&Bekka(2000)notethat“Travelersdo
notconsidercostsofdelayorpollutiontheyimposeonothers,butonlytheirowntravelcosts.Assessing
congestionfeesequaltotheadditionaltravelcoststhattravelersimposeonothersinternalizesthesecostsand
promotesefficientuseoflimitedroadwaycapacity.”Becausecongestionpricingimprovesefficiency(bynot
overloadingthestructuralcapacityofthepavement),thelifetimeoftheroadwayisincreased,which
correspondstolesslifetimemaintenanceneedandthereforereducedlifecyclecosts.Also,congestionpricing
hasalsobeenfoundtoproduceenormousnetsocialbenefitsvaluedbetween$1945billion(2005dollars)
(CBO,2009),andonceimplemented,hasasurprisinglylowpublicdisapprovalratinginmostcases
(Verbruggen,2008).
ABriefNoteonEquity
Theroleofequityinthedebateoverairqualityintransportationpolicyiscomplex,aswithanyethicaldebate
regardingpolitics,economicsandcommunitiesofpeople.Woodcocketal.(2007)notesthatcurrentlevelsof
automobileuseinhighincomecommunitiesarenotsustainablebecausetheydonotprovideequalaccessor
mobility.ArecentstudybyDietz&Atkinson(2005)highlightsseveralofthecoreequityissues,including
disparitybetweenpollutiondistributionbecauseofphysicalprocesses(i.e.someareashavelowerairquality
thanothers),economicpolicy(wheretheeconomicortaxburdenoftransportpoliciesisoftenunevenly
distributed,andsometimeshardesthitarelowincomegroups),andaccountabilityforthegenerationof
transportationemissions.However,theCBO(2009)reportsthatstudiesoftheequitychallengesdueto
congestionpricinghavefoundsupportamongallincomegroupswhereithasbeenimplemented.Notably,
Dietz&Atkinson(2005)pointout“thefactthatsomeenjoycleanerairthanothersissignificant.”Fromthisit
followsthatbecausecleanerairbenefitseveryoneandtheenvironment,thehumanequitydiscussion(while
bothimportantandinevitable)issecondarytotheoverallenvironmentalqualitygoal.Also,otherimportant
equityissuescanarisebetweencommunitiesandroadwaysduetocertainplacementorlocationnearhigh
densitytrafficareas(Appatova,Ryan,LeMasters&Grinshpun,2008),orproximityanddensityofcertain
communitiestolowrisestructureswhichcantrappollutantsina“streetcanyon”effect(Salizzoni,Soulhac&
Mejean,2009).Equityissuesregardingaccessandmobilityneedsarefurtheraddressedinsubsequent
Greenroadscreditsformultimodaltransportalternativesandsolutions.However,Greenroadsdoesnot
addresslanduse,planningandzoningorothercommunitylocationissues;itisnotknownifthisiseither
possibleorappropriateforsuchametric,andingeneraltheseissuesfalloutsidethescopeofGreenroads.
ProjectLevelImplications
TheCleanAirAct(CAA)andwellasformerfederalmandates,suchastheIntermodalSurfaceTransportation
EfficiencyAct(ISTEA),theTransportationEquityActforthe21stCentury(TEA21),andtheSafe,Accountable,
Flexible,EfficientTransportationEquityAct:ALegacyforUsers(SAFETEALU)givestateagenciestheauthorityto
regulateandcontrolairpollutionthroughavarietyofmeans(Daniel&Bekka,2000)[Notethatasofthiswriting,
theSAFETEALUregulationhasexpiredandnoreplacementhasbeenpassedbyCongress.Itisassumedthestate
authoritywillbepreserved.]Ingeneral,implementingbroadagencypoliciesthatprovidemitigationstrategiesfor
curbingairemissionsarelikelytobeverychallenging(Fisher&Costanza,2005)andalsounfamiliar.Congestion
pricingschemesmayalsobeunfamiliar(orworse,unwanted)bypublicstakeholders(Verbruggen,2008,CBO,
2009).But,D’Avignonetal.(2009)showthatwhileglobalairemissionsimpactsdonottranslatewellenoughtobe
measuredeasilyormeaningfullyatlocalandregionalscales,theimpactsoflocalemissionspoliciescanstillbe
effectiveatreducinglocalsectorcontributions.Similarly,congestionpricinghasbeenwellestablishedasan
effectivemeasureforreducingvehicleemissionsandincreasingefficiencyofroadwaycapacity.(FHWA,2009;
Hecker,2003;CBO,2009;Verbruggen,2008)

D’Avignonetal.(2009)statethatthisistrueespeciallywhenemissionsinventoriesareusedtoestablishinitial
policybenchmarks,reductiontargets,andlocalactionplansformitigation.(Formoreinformationonemissions
inventories,seeProjectRequirementPR3LifeCycleInventory).Whileanemissionsactionplanorpolicydoesnot
guaranteesuccessoreffectiveness,especiallyiftargetsarecontinuallyunmetorpushedfurtherintothefuture,it
doesallowforincreasedlocaladaptabilityforlongrangeclimatechangeplanningandprojectspecificityfor
emissions,aswellasuniformityoflocalandregionalpolicyandpractice(Fisher&Costanza,2005).The
introductionofpricingschemesintheshorttermmightassistinfutureacceptanceofsuchpolicies.
Pricingschemesdifferinutilityataprojectlevelcomparedtoregionalpoliciesbecausetheycanbeappliedona
projectbyprojectbasis.Basically,thisallowsacorridortobebuiltandpricingtobeimplementedinapiecewise
manner,whichismoremanageableandrealisticonaprojectscale.However,piecewisemanagementalsocomes
withtradeoffsbecauseitstillrequiresadequateandthoughtfulplanningaswellaspublicinvolvementpriorto
beingimplementedsuccessfullyandeffectively.
AdditionalResources
TheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)aspartofNationalCooperative
HighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)oftheTransportationResearchBoard(TRB)Task2525completeda
comprehensivestudyin2006ofavailableassessmenttechniquesformodelinggreenhousegasemissionsin
transportationprojects(ICFConsulting,2006).Thisreportreviewsthebestavailabletechniquesandpolicy
recommendationsfortransportationplanners,andalsohighlightsvarioustoolsforcalculation,strategicplanning,
andenergy/economicforecasting.ThedocumentdiscussestheadvantagesandlimitationsoftheEPAMOVES
softwareforemissionsmodeling.MoreinformationisavailableinNCHRP2525(17),AssessmentofGreenhouse
GasAnalysisTechniquesforTransportationProjects.
TheEPAprovidesuptodateanddetailedstatisticalinformationaboutGHG,indirectGHG,andcriteriapollutant
emissionsduetofossilfuelcombustionandthetransportationsector.Additionally,theEPAprovidesandmanages
distributionofthefreeMOVES2010softwareandprovidespolicyguidanceforimplementinginSIPs.More
informationonthesetopicsisavailablehere:
x 2010U.S.GreenhouseGasInventoryReport:
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport.html
x GreenBook:NonAttainmentAreasonCriteriaPollutants(includesNAAQSanddatalinks):
http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/greenbk/index.html
x TheMotorVehicleEmissionsSimulator(MOVES2010)andallrelevantguidanceandtechnicaldocumentation:
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/models/moves/index.htm
WhiletheUnitedStatesdidnotratifytheKyotoProtocol,manyindividualstateshavebecomeinvolvedatapolicy
levelinclimatechangeandemissionstargeting(Fisher&Costanza,2005;Mayors’ClimateProtectionCenter,
2009).TheMayorsClimateProtectionCenterlists1,016individualcitieswhosemayorshaveagreedtoreducelocal
emissionsfrom1990valuesby7%in2012.Therearealsomanyregionalinitiatives,suchastheRegional
GreenhouseGasInitiative(RGGI)andtheWesternClimateInitiativewhichhavestartedCO2budgettrading
programs.MoreinformationaboutlocalandregionalGHGinitiativescanbefoundhere:
x MayorsClimateProtectionCenter:http://usmayors.org/climateprotection/list.asp
x WesternClimateInitiative:http://www.westernclimateinitiative.org/
x RegionalGreenhouseGasInitiative:http://www.rggi.org/home
TheCongressionalBudgetOffice(CBO)recently(2009)publishedacomprehensivereviewofcongestionpricingin
theUnitedStates,UsingCongestionPricingtoReduceTrafficCongestion.Thisdocumentisavailableforfreeat
http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/97xx/doc9750/0311CongestionPricing.pdf

GLOSSARY
Baselinecase Thebenchmarkusedtocomparealternativeemissionsscenarios
CAA CleanAirAct
CBO CongressionalBudgetOffice
Congestionpricing Aneconomictransportationplanningtoolincreasestheefficiencyofthe
roadwaybychargingforuseduringpeakperiods
Criteriapollutant Oneofsixcommonpollutantsinairthatareknownhavedetrimentalhuman
healthimpactsaswellaspotentialtodamageproperty
GHG Greenhousegas
Greenhousegas Alonglivedchemicalcompoundfoundintheatmosphereasaresultof
humanandnaturalactivities
ISTEA IntermodalSurfaceTransportationEfficiencyAct
NAAQS NationalAmbientAirQualityStandard
Nonattainmentarea AreasoftheU.S.whereairpollutionlevelspersistentlyexceedthenational
ambientairqualitystandards
SAFETEALU Safe,Accountable,Flexible,EfficientTransportationEquityAct:ALegacyfor
Users
SIP Stateimplementationplan
Stateimplementationplan AplanforastatethatshowshowitistocomplywiththeCleanAirAct
TEA21 TransportationEquityActforthe21st Century
TRB TransportationResearchBoard
WHO WorldHealthOrganization

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EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(2009c,October30)DesignValues|AirTrends|Air&Radiation|EPA.
AccessedDecember28,2009.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/airtrends/values.html
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2009d,November17)CriteriaPollutants|GreenBook|USEPA.Accessed
December30,2009.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/oaqps001/greenbk/multipol.html
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EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2009f,December)EPAReleasesMOVES2010MobileSourceEmissionsModel:
QuestionsandAnswers.(EPA420F09073)OfficeofTransportationandAirQuality.Washington,D.C.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Availableat:http://www.epa.gov/otaq/models/moves/420f09073.pdf
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(2009g,December23)MOVES(MotorVehicleEmissionsSimulator)|Modeling&
Inventories|USEPA.AccessedDecember28,2009.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/oms/models/moves/index.htm
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Copenhagen:WorldHealthOrganizationEurope.Hecker,J.Z.(2003).ReducingcongestionCongestionpricing
haspromiseforimprovinguseoftransportationinfrastructure.(Testimony,GAO03735T).Washington,D.C.:
U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice.
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AccessedDecember28,2009.Availableat:http://usmayors.org/climateprotection/list.asp
PugetSoundRegionalCouncil.(2008).TrafficChoicesStudySummaryReport:aglobalpositioningsystembased
pricingpilotproject:evaluatingtravelerresponsetovariableroadtollingthroughasampleofvolunteer
participants.Seattle,WA:TheCouncil.Availableathttp://www.psrc.org/transportation/traffic
RegionalGreenhouseGasInitiative.(n.d.)RegionalGreenhouseGasInitiative(RGGI)CO2BudgetTradingProgram
Welcome.AccessedDecember28,2009.Availableat:http://www.rggi.org/home

Salizzoni,P.,Soulhac,L.,&Mejean,P.(2009).Streetcanyonventilationandatmosphericturbulence.Atmospheric
Environment.43(32),5056.
Solomon,S.etal.(2007)SynthesisReport.ClimateChange2007:SynthesisReport.FourthAssessmentReportof
theIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.
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DepartmentofEcology.AccessedDecember30,2009.Availableat:
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DepartmentofEcology.AccessedDecember30,2009.Availableat:
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/climatechange/2009EO.htm
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http://www.westernclimateinitiative.org/
Woodcock,J.etal.(2007).Energyandtransport.Lancet.370(9592),107888.
Woodcock,J.etal.(2009).Publichealthbenefitsofstrategiestoreducegreenhousegasemissions:urbanland
transport.Lancet.374(9705),193043.

PEDESTRIAN ACCESS
GOAL AE-5
Promotewalkablecommunitiesbyprovidingsidewalkfacilitieswithintheroadway
rightofway.

AchieveCreditAE3ContextSensitiveSolutions(CSS)anddescribetheneed,purpose
andappropriatenessforplanned,new,orupgradedpedestrianfacilitiesinthe
submitteddocumentationforCreditAE3.TheCSSdocumentshouldclearlynote
whetherpedestrianfacilitiesorimprovementsarerequiredorhaveotherwisebeen RELATED CREDITS
requestedbythepublic.TableAE5.1showsthepointsavailableforthiscredit. 9 AE3Context
SensitiveSolutions
TableAE5.1:AvailablePointsforCreditAE5 9 AE4Traffic
Points Requirements EmissionsReduction
1 Implementnew(orimproveexisting)operationsortechnologiesfor 9 AE6BicycleAccess
pedestrianfacilities.Thisincludesaddedsignageorminoraccess 9 AE7Transit&HOV
improvementsforpedestrians,suchassignalizedintersectionsor Access
crosswalks,shelters,andwheelchairramps.
2 Implementphysicalorconstructedchangestotheroadwaystructure, SUSTAINABILITY
dimensionsorformthatprovidepedestrianaccesswithintheROW,suchas COMPONENTS
asidewalk,raisedcrosswalk,bulboutorpedestrianbridgestructure.
9 Equity
Details 9 Economy
Pedestrianisdefinedasapersonwhosemainmodeoftransportationiswalking,
includingdisabledindividualsthatneedassistancedevicesforpersonaltraveland
mobility. BENEFITS
9 ReducesFossilFuel
Sidewalkisdefinedasapavedsurfaceprovidedspecificallyforpedestriantravel Use
thatisseparatefromtheroadwayandlocatedwithintheroadwayRightofWay. 9 ReducesAir
Emissions
Sharedusepathwayisdefinedasamultiusepathwayforallnonmotorizedusers 9 ReducesGreenhouse
includingpedestriansandbicyclists.ThismaybelocatedwithinaroadwayRightof Gases
Wayyetmustbeseparatedfromtheroadwayandhavewiderwidthsthan 9 ImprovesAccess
sidewalks. 9 ImprovesMobility
9 ImprovesHealth&
Currentfacilitiesdonotqualifyforthiscreditwithoutadditionaleffort,suchas Safety
upgrades,improvementsorconstructionofnewfacilities.Theattempttoprovide 9 ImprovesLocal
pedestrianaccessmustbedeliberateandasadirectresultoftheproject. Economies
DOCUMENTATION
x CopyofthesectionthatfocusesonpedestrianfacilitiesintheCreditAE3:Context
SensitiveSolutionsdocumentation.Thissectionshouldaddress:
a. Purposeandneedforpedestrianaccessontheroadwayproject,includinghow
itfitswithexistinglandusesand/orexistingGeneralandTransportationPlans
b. Regulatoryorjurisdictionalstandardsaddressed,ifany
c. Resultsofpublicinputonproposedpedestrianfacilities,ifany
d. Totalcostassociatedwithneworimprovedpedestrianfacilities
e. Copyofthecontractspecificationsandplansforproposedpedestrianfacilities.
AE-5 Pedestrian Access 241


x Includeelementssuchassidewalksoradjacentsharedusepathsindesignswhenrequiredbydesignstandards,
orcommunitytransportationplans,orbycommunityrequest.
x Considerhowaneworredesignedroadwaywillimpacttheexistingorplannedpedestriannetworksand
integratedesignelementswithothermodalfacilities(e.g.bicycleandtransit)tomitigateoverallimpacts.This
maymeanprovidingconnectionsoradaptabilityforfuturepathways,sidewalks,andcrossingswithinthe
pedestriannetwork.Reviewlocalwalkingplansandmapsoftheexistingpedestriannetworkstounderstand
howtheroadwaywillinteractwiththeexistingandplannedpedestrianandbicyclesystem.Thismayinclude
sharedusepathsorparkplans.
x Includelocalpedestrianplannersandadvocatesinadvisorycommittees,projectdevelopmentormanagement
teams,ordecisionmakingcommitteesasappropriate.
x ConsultwithplannersandADAadvocatestounderstandhowtheprojectcansupportdevelopmentofthe
pedestriannetworktopromotewalkablecommunities.
x Designtheroadwaytoaccommodateexistingnewandplannedpedestrianfacilities.
x UpgradeorimproveexistingaccesspointsandsidewalkstomeettherequirementsoftheAmericanswith
DisabilitiesAct(ADA).GuidanceonADAtransitionplansisprovidedbytheFHWAhere:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/civilrights/programs/ada_sect504qa.htm#q10
x Relyontheassessmentoflocalplannersandadvocateswherenoexistingpedestrianplanexistsabouthowto
integrateexistingandfuturemultimodalfacilitiesintotheprojectdesign.AASHTOprovideshelpfulguidancein
itsAASHTOGuideforthePlanning,Design,andOperationofPedestrianFacilities.
Mulry Square – New York City

In2001MulrySquareinNewYorkCitywasimprovedtoimproveandenhancepedestrianmobilitythroughthe
area.Asshowninthefiguresbelow,thecrosswalksweremoreclearlymarkedaswellassidewalksbeing
renovatedtoprovideamoresafeinteractionbetweenpedestrianandvehicletraffic(CSS,2005).
FigureAE5.1andAE5.2showthecleardifferencebeforeandaftertheintersectionimprovementsweremade.
Thepedestrianfacilitiesareclearlyimprovedinordertopromotesafertraveltopedestriansandmaketraffic
moreawareofpedestriansinthevicinity.

FigureAE5.1:MulrySquareBeforeConstruction(ContextSensitiveSolutions,2005)
242 Pedestrian Access AE-5


FigureAE5.2MulrySquareAfterConstruction(ContextSensitiveSolutions,2005)

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Anumberofaesthetictreatmentstotheroadwayorthoroughfaremaybeconsidered“pedestrian”benefits,
butthosetreatmentsarecoveredelsewhereinGreenroadsandarenotincludedinthiscredit.SeeAE8Scenic
ViewsandAE9CulturalOutreach.
2. Majorintersectionscouldseeanincreaseinpedestrianvehicleaccidents.
3. Manyruralareasdonothavesurroundingpedestrianinfrastructureormasterplanstosupporttheadditionof
newpedestrianfacilities.Shorttermandlongtermgoals,objectivesandgeneralpedestrianstrategyshouldbe
consideredwhenaccommodatingpedestrianswithintheseareas.
RESEARCH
Theinclusionorimprovementofapedestrianfacilitycandrasticallyimprovenotonlythequalityandcomfortof
howpeopletravel,butcanchangethemodeoftransportationused.Severalsustainabilitycomponentscanbe
addressedbytheimprovementofpedestrianfacilities,including:ecology,equity,andeconomy.
ReducedEmissions
Improvedaccessanddedicatedpedestrianfacilitiescanconvincepeopletochangetheirmodeoftraveltowalking
insteadofdrivingtheirvehicles.Withfewercarsdriving,therewillbeanobviousdecreaseinthegreenhousegas
emissionsassociatedwithfossilfueldrivenvehicles.
ImprovedHealth&SafetyandImprovedMobility&Access
Aperson’stransportationmodechoicecanbebasedaroundseveraldifferentdecisions.Severalstudieslinkthe
comfortandsafetyofthetraveltotheoverallmodechoiceofatraveler(i.e.walkingonashoulderofahighway
versusasidewalk).Thereforeanimprovementofthesafetyofthecurrentpedestrianfacilitiesmeansthatpeople
willbemorelikelytotravelonfoot.
Designingfacilitiesthataresafeforpedestriansareoftheutmostimportancewhenconsideringpedestrian
mobility.Themaingoalistoensurethepedestrianshaveameansoftravelthatisseparatefromvehicletrafficto
avoidanypossiblecollisions.Typicaldesignstandardsallowfortimedcrossingsignalsatcrosswalks,sidewalksthat
areelevatedfromtheroadway,andothervariousmethods.Raisedsidewalksprovidenotonlyaslightbarrierof
separation,butalsoprovideaslightcomforttotheuserthattheyareseparatedfromtraffic(Ewing&Dumbaugh,
AE-5 Pedestrian Access 243

2009).Othermeansofsafedesigninclude,increasingthedistancebetweenthestoplineandcrosswalkatan
intersectionandputtingupsomesortofnotificationtodrivers(signs,lights,etc.)thatpedestriansarelikelytobe
presentinthearea(Ewing&Dumbaugh,2009).
BenefitsofActiveTransport
Increasedpedestriantravelcanalsoprovidehealthbenefits.Arecentstudycomparedthecurrentstateof
travelandmodeledamoresustainabletypeoftravelusingmorewalkingandbicyclesandreducingtheamount
ofcarsontheroad.Thestudyfoundthetendencyforseveralchronicdiseasescouldbereducedbyhavinga
higherpopulationoftravelerswhomusewalkingorbicyclesastheirmainmodeoftransportation(Woodcock
et.al.,2009).
ConsiderationsforDisabledUsers
Thegoalofprovidingpedestrianfacilitiesistoprovideameansforeveryonetotravel,includingpeoplewith
specialneeds.SomeimprovementstosidewalksaremandatedbytheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct(ADA)of
1990andspecificguidelinesareavailableat:http://www.accessboard.gov/adaag/html/adaag.htm.For
transportationfacilitiesthiscouldinclude:sidewalksslopedforeasyaccessornoisemakingdevicesinstalledat
intersectioncrosswalks.
BoostLocalEconomies&ImproveMobility
Theadventofnewfacilitiesonitsowncanalsoencouragetravelthroughoutthearea.Thisissimplybasedon
increasingtheoverallpedestriannetworkthroughoutthearea.Withgapsinapedestriannetwork,itcanincrease
thedistanceapedestrianisforcedtotravel,andcandiscouragethemfromusingwalkingasaprimarymodeof
transportation(Randall&Baetz,2001).
GLOSSARY
ADA AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct
Pedestrian Apersonwhomistravelingwithouttheuseofamechanicaldeviceandmain
modeoftransportationiswalking.
Sidewalk Asurfaceprovidedspecificallyforpedestriantravelthatisseparatefromthe
roadway
REFERENCES
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayTransportationOfficials.(2004).AASHTO Guide for the Planning,
Design, and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities.1sted.Washington,DC:AASHTO.
ContextSensitiveSolutions.(2005).NewYorkCity,MulrySquare.Accessedat:
http://www.contextsensitivesolutions.org/content/case_studies/mulrysquare
Ewing,R.,&Dumbaugh,E.(2009).TheBuiltEnvironmentandTrafficSafety:AReviewofEmpiricalEvidence.
JournalofPlanningLiterature,23(4),347367.doi:10.1177/0885412209335553.
Randall,T.A.,&Baetz,B.W.(2001).EvaluatingPedestrianConnectivityforSuburbanSustainability.Journalof
UrbanPlanningandDevelopment,127(1),115.doi:10.1061/(ASCE)07339488(2001)127:1(1).
Woodcock,J.,Edwards,P.,Tonne,C.,Armstrong,B.G.,Ashiru,O.,Banister,D.,etal.(2009).Publichealthbenefits
ofstrategiestoreducegreenhousegasemissions:urbanlandtransport.Lancet.374(9705),19301943.
Zhou,H.,Zhao,J.,Hsu,P.,&Rouse,J.(2008).IdentifyFactorsAffectingNumberofStudentsWalkingorBikingto
School.InASCEConf.Proc.(Vol.330,p.253).Chengdu,China:ASCE.doi:10.1061/40996(330)253.
244 Pedestrian Access AE-5

BICYCLE ACCESS
GOAL AE-6
Promotebicyclingincommunitiesbyprovidingdedicatedcyclingfacilitieswithinthe
projectrightofway.

andappropriatenessforplanned,new,orupgradedbicyclefacilitiesinthesubmitted
documentforCreditAE3.TheCSSdocumentshouldclearlynotewhetherbicycle
facilitiesorimprovementsarerequiredorhaveotherwisebeenrequestedbythe RELATED CREDITS
public.Inordertoachievethiscredit,abicycleonlyfacilitymustbepresentwithinthe 9 AE3Context
ROWatthestartofconstructionorresultfromconstructionofthisproject.TableAE SensitiveSolutions
6.1showsthepointsavailableforthiscredit. 9 AE4Traffic
EmissionsReduction
TableAE6.1:AvailablePointsforCreditAE6
9 AE5Pedestrian
Points Requirements
Access
1 Implementnew(orimproveexisting)operationsortechnologiesforbicycle
9 AE7Transit&HOV
facilities.Thisincludes(butisnotlimitedto)addedsignageorminoraccess
Access
improvementsforbicycles,suchasinstallingbicycledetectorsindriving
lanesorgrantingsignalpriority,addingbicyclefriendlystormwaterdrains,
coderequireddimensionupgrades,resurfacingexistingbicyclelanes,or SUSTAINABILITY
addingnewstreetsidebicyclestoragefacilities(lockers,racks,etc.). COMPONENTS
2 Implementphysicalorconstructedchangestotheroadwaystructure, 9 Equity
dimensions,orformthatprovidebicycleonlyfacilitieswithdedicatedaccess 9 Economy
withintheROW,suchasabicyclelane,orotherbikeway.Lanessharedwith
motorizedvehiclesdonotmeetthisrequirement. BENEFITS

Details 9 ReducesFossilFuel
Use
Forpurposesofthiscredit,thetermbicyclereferstoapedaldriven,human 9 ReducesAir
poweredvehiclewithatleastoneseatforanoperator.Sharedusepathwayis Emissions
definedasamultiusepathwayforallnonmotorizedusersincludingpedestrians 9 ReducesGreenhouse
andbicyclists.ThismaybelocatedwithinaroadwayRightofWayyetmustbe Gases
separatedfromtheroadwayandhavewiderwidthsthansidewalks. 9 ImprovesAccess
9 ImprovesMobility
Currentfacilitiesdonotalonequalifyforthiscreditwithoutadditionaleffort,such 9 ImprovesHuman
asupgrades,improvementsorconstructionofnewfacilities.Theattemptto Health&Safety
providepedestrianaccessmustbedeliberateandasadirectresultoftheproject. 9 ImprovesLocal
Economies
DOCUMENTATION
x CopyofthesectionthatfocusesonbicyclefacilitiesintheCreditAE3:Context
SensitiveSolutionsdocumentation.Thissectionshouldaddress:
a. Purposeandneedforbicycleaccessontheroadwayprojectdetermined
throughaprojectanalysisoraBicycleMasterplanningprocess.
c. Resultsofpublicinputonproposedbicyclefacilities,ifany
d. Totalcostassociatedwithneworimprovedbicyclefacilities
e. Contractspecificationsandplansforproposedbicyclefacilities
AE-6 Bicycle Access 245


x Includeelementssuchasbicyclelanes,separatedbicyclepathsoradjacentsharedusepathsindesignswhen
requiredbydesignstandards,orcommunitytransportationplans,orbycommunityrequest.
x Reviewlocalbicycleplansandmapsoftheexistingbicyclenetworkstounderstandhowtheroadwaywill
interactwiththeexistingandplanned,roadwaytransportation,andbicycleandpedestriansystems..Thismay
includesharedusepathwaysorparkplans.
x Includelocalbicycleplannersandadvocatesinadvisorycommittees,projectdevelopmentormanagement
teams,ordecisionmakingcommitteesasappropriate.Consultwithplannerstounderstandhowtheproject
cansupportthedevelopmentofthebicyclenetworkandtopromotecyclingincommunities.
x Designroadwayimprovementsandnewroadwaystoaccommodateexisting,newandplannedbicyclefacilities.
x Relyontheassessmentoflocalplannersandadvocateswherenoexistingbicycleplanexistsabouthowto
integrateexistingandfuturemultimodalfacilitiesintotheprojectdesign.
x Considerhowaneworredesignedroadwaywillimpacttheexistingorplannedbicyclenetworksandintegrate
designelementswithothermodalfacilities(e.g.bicycleandtransit)tomitigateoverallimpacts.Thismaymean
providingconnectionsoradaptabilityforfuturebicyclelanes,sharedusepathways,crossingsorotherfacilities
withinthebicyclenetwork.
Example: Dedicated Access on a Roadway

Below,FigureAE6.1showshowadedicatedaccessforbicyclesshouldbemarkedaccordingtotheManualfor
UniformTrafficControlDevices(FHWA,2009).

1point 1point 1point
FigureAE6.1:Examplesofappropriatesignagefordedicatedbicycleaccess.(FHWA,2009)

FigureAE6.2isanexampleoflanemarkingsthatpromotededicatedbicycleaccess(FHWA,2009).Asshownin
thefigure,bicyclistsareprovidedtheirownseparatelaneonaroadwayfortravel.
FigureAE6.3showshowaccessshouldbemarkedforbicyclesthatareutilizingthesamespaceasmotor
vehicles;howeverwhilethesignaboveearnsonepoint(ifnonepreviouslyexisted)becausethishelpsincreases
awarenessofbicycleusersonaroutewithmotorvehicles(andtheoreticallyincreasessafety),thelaneitselfby
definitiondoesnotprovideddedicatedaccessforbicyclists.
246 Bicycle Access AE-6


FigureAE6.2:Examplesofdedicatedlanesforbicycleaccess.2pointsifneworimprovedtomeetor
exceedtheseminimumdimensions.(FHWA,2009)

FigureAE6.3:Accessforbicyclesinamotorizedvehiclelane.Nopoints.(FHWA,2009)

Example: Case Study - Bridgeport Way University Place, Washington

BridgeportWaywasimprovedin2005toaccommodateamorecontextsensitiveroadwayinUniversityPlace,
Washington.Indoingso,thecityofUniversityPlacewasabletosignificantlyreduceaccidentsontheroadway,
whileprovidinganincreasedemphasisonpedestrian,bicycleandtransituseinthroughthearea.Asshownin
thefiguresbelow,therewasadrasticchangeinthechannelizationoftheroadwaytoprovideadequate
facilitiestobroadenthemodesavailableforusethroughthecorridor.Thenewdesignoftheroadwayproved
toreducetrafficspeedswhichcanencouragemorebicycleusethroughthearea(ContextSensitiveSolutions,
2005).Simplybyaddingthefacilitiestotheroadway,thecityofUniversityPlacehasencouragedtheuseof
bicycletravelaswellaspedestriantravel.

FigureAE6.4:BridgeportWayBeforeConstruction.(ContextSensitiveSolutions,2005)

FigureAE6.5BridgeportWayAfterConstruction(ContextSensitiveSolutions,2005)

POTENTIAL ISSUES
Encouragingcyclinginareaswheretherewaspreviouslynocyclingmayresultinincreasedbicyclecrashesand
collisions.Carefulplanningforbicyclesandmeetingengineeringandsafetystandardscanhelptomitigatethese
instances.
RESEARCH
Increasingthebicyclefacilitiesalongagivencorridorcanhaveabeneficialresultontheoverallsustainabilityofa
givenroadway.Thebenefitsofincludingbicyclefacilitiescanincludemakingamoreequitableroadway,
decreasingtheamountofcurrenttrafficontheroadway,andalsoprovidehealthbenefitstousersofthefacilities.
Bicyclesandpedestriansareoftengroupedtogetherbecausetheyareeasilydistinguishedfrommotorizedmodes
thatusearightofway.Also,bothwalkingandbicyclingareconsidered“activetransport”(Woodcocketal.,2009)
modes.Therefore,muchofsupportingresearchforthiscreditandCreditAE5PedestrianAccessoverlap,andwill
notberepeatedhereforbrevity.Improvedmobilityandaccess,environmentalandeconomicbenefits,andhealth
improvementsoftheseactivemodesareaddressedinCreditAE5.
BicycleSafety
Thesafetyconsiderationsforbicyclistsaretypicallyinvolvedindrivingonthesamesurfaceasmotorvehicles.
Severalsafetymeasuresareavailabletoincreasesthesafetyofbothmotorvehiclesandbicyclists.TheAmerican
AssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficialsrecommendsthatbikelaneshavedimensionsofatleast
fourfeetinwidthandarelocatedbetweenthelaneoftravelandsidewalkorparkinglane.Thisreducesthechance
ofaccidentsbetweenbicyclesandvehicles(AASHTO,1999).
However,EwingandDumbaugh(2009)showthatthebestmethodtoincreasesafetyforbicyclesandpedestrians
isbyincreasingawarenessthroughnotificationorsignagealongarightofway.Theyalsoshowthatincreasesin
overallnumbersofbicyclists(andpedestrians)offer“safetyinnumbers”becauseofheightenedawareness.
Furthermore,dedicatedaccessforbicyclesprovidescomfortabletravelwithoutlanesharingaswellasimproved
safety.Reynoldsetal.(2009)hasshowndedicatedaccesscanreducebicyclevehicleaccidentsbyupto50percent
comparedtoshareduselanes.
GLOSSARY
Activetransport Walkingorbiking(humanpoweredtransport)
Bicycle Apedaldriven,humanpoweredvehiclewithatleastoneseatforan
operator
REFERENCES
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).(1999).Guideforthedevelopment
ofbicyclefacilities.Washington,D.C.:AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials.
ContextSensitiveSolutions.(2005).BridgeportWay–UniversityPlace,Washington.Availableat
http://www.contextsensitivesolutions.org/content/case_studies/kentucky_bridgeport/
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2009).ManualforUniformTrafficControlDevices(MUTCD).
Washington,DC:FHWA.Availableathttp://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/htm/2009/html_index.htm
Ewing,R.,&Dumbaugh,E.(2009).TheBuiltEnvironmentandTrafficSafety:AReviewofEmpiricalEvidence.
JournalofPlanningLiterature,23(4),347367.doi:10.1177/0885412209335553.

Reynolds,C.C.,Harris,M.A.,Teschke,K.,Cripton,P.A.,&Winters,M.(2009).Theimpactoftransportation
infrastructureonbicyclinginjuriesandcrashes:areviewoftheliterature.EnvironmentalHealth:aGlobal
AccessScienceSource.8.
Woodcock,J.,Edwards,P.,Tonne,C.,Armstrong,B.G.,Ashiru,O.,Banister,D.,etal.(2009).Publichealthbenefits
ofstrategiestoreducegreenhousegasemissions:urbanlandtransport.Lancet.374(9705),19301943.

TRANSIT & HOV ACCESS

GOAL AE-7
Promoteuseofpublictransitandcarpoolsincommunitiesbyprovidingnewtransit
andHOVfacilitiesorbyupgradingexistingfacilitiesintheroadwayrightofway.

andappropriatenessforplanned,new,orupgradedtransitandHOVfacilitiesinthe
submitteddocumentforCreditAE3.TheCSSdocumentmustdemonstratethatat
leastonemasstransitrouteand/orHOVfacilityexists,orisplannedtoexistwithin5 RELATED CREDITS
yearsofthestartofconstruction,thatisaccessiblefromtheprojectROWwithin0.25 9 AE2Intelligent
mile.TableAE7.1showsthepointcriteriaforthiscredit. Transportation
Systems
TableAE7.1:AvailablePointsforCreditAE7 9 AE3Context
Points Requirements SensitiveSolutions
Any a. Enhanceatleast50%oftransitstation orstopamenities (lighting,trash 9 AE4Traffic
1 bins,benches,payphones,heatingand/orcooling,etc.) EmissionsReduction
b. Improveatleast50%ofthetransitandHOVfacilitysignage(relatedto 9 AE5Pedestrian
transit&HOV)andvehicularaccess(beyondbasicADArequirements) Access
c. Providetransitsheltersatmorethan50%ofthecorridorstations/stops 9 AE6BicycleAccess
d. Provideaccesstonewpark&ridelotsinstrategiclocations.
2 Implementtwoormoreoftheimprovementsfromthelistabove. SUSTAINABILITY
3 Implementphysicalorconstructedchangestotheroadwaystructure, COMPONENTS
dimensionsorformthatprovideHOVaccessorminordedicatedtransit
accesswithintheROW,suchasacarpoollaneforHOVvehicleorqueue 9 Equity
jumplanesfortransitvehicles. 9 Economy
9 Experience
4 Implementphysicalorconstructedchangestotheroadwaystructure,
dimensionsorformthatprovidededicatedtransitaccesswithintheROW,
suchasanonstreetbuslaneoranexpresswaybuslane. BENEFITS
5 Implementphysicalorconstructedchangestotheroadwaystructure, 9 ReducesFossilFuel
dimensionsorformthatprovideexclusivemasstransitaccesswithinthe Use
ROW,suchasatgradeorgradeseparatedtransitways. 9 ReducesAir
Emissions
Details 9 ReducesGreenhouse
Gases
ThepointcriteriaforthiscreditareroughlybasedontheFederalTransityAuthority
9 ImprovesAccess
(FTA)criteriafromCharacteristicsofBusRapidTransitforDecisionMaking(CBRT)
9 ImprovesMobility
andTCRP90,BusRapidTransitbyDiazandHinebaugh(2009).
DOCUMENTATION
x Copyofthesectionthatfocusesontransit&HOVfacilitiesintheCreditAE3:
ContextSensitiveSolutionswhitepaper.Thissectionshouldaddress:
a. Purposeandneedfortransit&HOVaccessontheroadwayproject,including
howitfitswithexistinglandusesand/orexistingGeneralandTransportation
Plans
c. Resultsofpublicinputonproposedtransit&HOV,ifany
d. Totalcostassociatedwithneworimprovedtransit&HOVfacilities
e. Contractspecificationsandbudgetitemsaddressingtransit&HOV
AE-7 Transit & HOV Access 251


x Reviewlocalplansandexistingtransitserviceplanstounderstandhowtheroadwaywillinteractwiththe
existingandplannedtransitsystem.Becauseofthestrongconnectionsbetweenthepedestrianandbike
systemandtransit,thismayoverlapwithbikeandpedestrianplanning.Seerelatedcreditsforfurtherdetails.
x Includethelocaltransitprovider(s)inadvisorycommittees,projectdevelopmentormanagementteams,or
decisionmakingcommitteesasappropriate.
x Consultwithlocaltransitprovider(s)tounderstandhowtheroadwayprojectcansupporttheiroperationsand
futureexpansion.
x Considerhowaneworredesignedroadwaywillimpacttheexistingorplannedpedestriannetworksand
integratedesignelementswithothermodalfacilities(e.g.bicycleandtransit)tomitigateoverallimpacts.For
example,thismightmeanincludingapedestriancrossingonamajorarterialthatcouldbeabarrierto
residentsreachingatransitfacility.
x Surveyexistingroutesandaskstakeholdersforsuggestionsonhowtoimproveaccesstoexistingtransit
facilitiesduringthepublicinvolvementprocess.
x Locateenhancementstotransitstation/stopamenitiesatmorethan50%ofthestations/stopsalongthe
corridorbasedoncost.Amenitiescouldincludeinstallingsafetylighting,trashreceptacles,benches,pay
phones,heatingand/orcoolingandothersimilarenhancements.Thisshouldbereflectedsomewhereinthe
projectbidlistorbudget.
x InstallsignageandimproveaccessthatisexclusivelyfortransitandHOVvehiclesonlytoearnthiscredit.This
distinctionisnottodiscourageacomprehensivesignageprogram;however,signageforpedestrianand
bicyclesareaddressedinCreditAE5PedestrianAccessandCreditAE6BicycleAccess.Acomprehensive
approachtosignageandaccessimprovementsatatransitandHOVfacilitycanultimatelyincludeallmodes
andbeeligibleforpointsinmultiplecredits.
x Identifytroublespotsfortransitandcombinetransitsignalprioritywithqueuejumplanestocreateanefficient
transitfacilityatminimalcost.ThiscanalsoearnpointswithCreditAE2IntelligentTransportationSystems.
x Consideraddingacarpoollane,whichencouragesmultiplepassengersineachvehicleandcanimprovetransit
traveltimesandreliability.
x Improveaccessbeyondbasicrequirements,suchasADA.
x Improvesignagebeyondbasicrequirementswheresignagealreadyexists.Typesofsignageimprovements
couldincludeprovidingpassengerinformationamenities(maps,schedules,realtimesignage)atfacilitiesand
signsalongtheroadwaytodesignatetransitstations.
x Placeadditionalparkandridelotsinstrategictransitand/orcarpoolaccesslocations.
x Provideextrawidthonsidewalkstoaccommodatetransitshelters.
x Designtheroadwaytoaccommodateanexclusivetransitlane.
x Accommodateanyplannedfixedguidewaysbyconstructinggradeseparatedcrossings.
Example: Point Calculations
2points
Aroadwaywithseveralmajortransitroutesisbeingresurfacedandabovegroundelectricalwiresarebeing
buriedasacomponentoftheproject.Alongwiththeroadwayimprovements,all(100%)ofthemajortransit
stopsalongtheroutearebeingenhancedwithrealtimebusarrivalinformation,lighting,surveillancecameras,
areamapdisplaysandtrashcans.Thisprojectwouldearn2pointsbecauseitincludessignificant
improvements(over50%)toboth(a)amenitiesand(b)signage.
4points
Abusrapidtransitprojectincludesaroadwaywideningandrestripingtoaddanoutsidededicatedtransitlane
withsignalpriorityatintersections.Theprojectalsoincludesstationenhancementsatallthestationsalongthe
corridorwithnewshelters,gradeseparatedpedestrianaccess,realtimepassengerinformation,bicycle
storagelockersandseveralstationamenities.Thisprojectwouldreceive4pointsunderTransit&HOVAccess.
ThetransitsignalpriorityimprovementswouldbeeligiblefortheITScreditandpedestrianandbicycle
improvementswouldbeeligibleforthePedestrianAccessandBicycleAccesscredits.SeeFigureAE7.1.
252 Transit & HOV Access AE-7


FigureAE7.1:AnonstreetbuslaneinVancouver,Canada.4points.(PhotobyK.Watkins)
5points
SeeexamplesofagradeseparatedtransitwayinFigureAE7.2andanatgradetransitwayinFigureAE7.3.

FigureAE7.2:AgradeseparatedtransitwayinOttawa,Canadaworth.5points.(PhotobyK.Watkins)


FigureAE7.3:AnatgradetransitwayinEugene,Oregon.5points.(PhotobyK.Watkins)

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. ManytransitandHOVfacilities(suchasparkandridelotsandtransitcenters)willinvolveimprovementsthat
crossmultiplemodes.Inordertoawardcredithere,especiallywherenodrasticphysicalchangestothe
roadwaystructureorformareimplemented,improvementsandchangesshouldbeexclusivetoHOVand
transitusersanddistinguishable,viaabudgetitemforexample,fromotheramenitiesthatareforpedestrian
andbicyclists.Anexamplewouldbeimprovementstobusstopswherethesidewalkgradesareraisedto
accommodatebusrampsfordisablepassengers.Althoughtheintegrationoftransitwithbicyclesand
pedestriansiskeytoobtaininghigherridership,amenitieswhichareincludedinthePedestrianAccesscredit
AE5andBicycleAccesscreditAE6cannotbeappliedagainhere.
2. Thiscreditpresupposestheintegrityofthedesigner:appropriatesignageandsafetymustbepreservedwith
thehigherpointsavailableinthiscredit.ThismeansthatatransitorHOVfacilitysuchasadedicatedbuswayor
carpoollaneisassumedtobesignedappropriatelyandwillnotbedesignedtoincreasesafetyrisk.Additional
pointsarenotawardedforsignageandaccessimprovementsforthehighervaluecreditsforthisreason.
3. IntelligentTransportationSystems(ITS),transit&HOVoftengohandinhandbutareexplicitlynotcoveredin
thiscreditbecausetheyareincludedinCreditAE2IntelligentTransportationSystems.However,manyITS
applications,suchastravelerinformation,transitmanagement,andlanemanagementpairnicelywiththe
improvementsinthiscredit.

4. AestheticimprovementstotransitandHOVfacilitiesorotherpublicart,whileconsideredamenities,arenot
includedinthiscredit.SeeCreditAE9CulturalOutreach.Itispossibletoincludeallofthesethingsandearn
pointsacrossmultiplecredits.
5. Lightrailorbuswayprojectscanqualifyforthiscreditiftheymeetthecriteriaandarecompletedwithinthe
roadwayrightofway.Ingeneral,manyofthecreditsavailableinGreenroadsarebroadlyapplicableandmay
alsobeappliedtothesetypesofprojects,buttheymaylackthespecificityneededtobeeffectiveasametric
forsuchfacilities.
6. Thiscreditfocusesintwoareas,runningwaysandstations.Thisisthesupportinginfrastructurefortransitand
HOVaccess,facilitiesandsystemservices.Corridorenhancementssuchasserviceimprovements(increased
service,neworspecializedservice,routerestructuring),branding,marketingandpartnershipprograms,
informationsystems,fareinnovations,andneworenhancedvehiclesareencouragedbutareoutsidethescope
oftheGreenroadsRatingSystem.
RESEARCH
Thesocietalbenefitsofpublictransportationarenumerous.Transitprovidesmobilitytothosewhocannotor
chosenottodrive,includingaccesstojobs,educationandmedicalservices.Transitreducescongestion,gasoline
consumptionandthenation’scarbonfootprint(America’sPublicTransportationAssociation:APTA,2008).In2007,
publictransportationsaved646millionhoursoftraveldelayand398milliongallonsoffuelintheU.S.,resultingin
asavingsof$13.7billionincongestioncosts(SchrankandLomax,2009).UseofpublictransportationreducedU.S.
carbondioxide(CO2)emissionsby6.9millionmetrictonsin2005(DavisandHale,2007).Theincreaseduseof
transitonapercapitabasisiscriticaltothenation’seconomyandmeetingenvironmentalgoals.
Improvementstopublictransportationinfrastructurearecriticaltoanyplantoimprovethesustainabilityof
transportation.IntheUrbanLandInstitute’srecentlyproduced“MovingCooler”report(CambridgeSystematics,
2009),transitcapitalinvestmentshadtheabilitytoproducecumulativegreenhousegasreductionsof0.4to1.1
percentofbaselineemissions.Thereportidentifiespublictransportationimprovementsasoneofninekey
categoriesthatcanbebundledtoreduceemissions.Further,theWorldBank(Gwilliam,Kojima,andJohnson,
2004)identifiesmodalshiftstononSOVmodesasakeytoreducingtransportsectoremissions.Theypointout
however,thatmixingcars,othervehiclesandnonmotorizedtransportwithpublictransportvehicles“reducesthe
averagespeedoftrafficandmakesitdifficulttoestablishaneffectivebussystem.”
Infrastructureimprovementsshouldincludemeanstoseparatetransitvehiclesfromgeneralpurposetrafficto
makethemodecompetitive(Vuchic,2005;2007).Withoutexclusiverightofway,transitvehiclesareheldcaptive
bythecongestioncausedbylowoccupancyvehiclesandcannotimprovetheefficiencyofthetransportation
system.Forthisreason,thiscreditincludeshigherpointvaluesastheexclusivityoftransitrightofwayimproves.
AdditionalResources
Twoofthemostusefulreferencestounderstandingtheelementsforthiscreditare:
x TheFederalTransitAdministration’sCharacteristicsofBusRapidTransitforDecisionMaking(CBRT)guidance
documentbyDiazandHinebaugh(2009),whichisavailableat:
http://www.fta.dot.gov/documents/CBRT_2009_Update.pdf
x TransportationResearchBoard’sTransitCooperativeResearchProgram(TCRP)90,BusRapidTransit:Volume2:
ImplementationGuidelines,byLevinsonetal.(2003).Thisdocumentisavailableat:
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_90v2.pdf
Manyadditionalreferencesareincludedforconsiderationofotherapplicableplanninganddesignguidelines.
Althoughcreditsareobtainedforincludingelements,properdesigniscriticaltothefunctionalityofthefacilities
andtheReferencessectionattheendofthiscreditshouldbeconsideredastartingpoint.

GLOSSARY
Atgradetransitway Roadsfortheexclusiveuseoftransitvehicleswithaccessallowedonlyat
designedpoints,howeverintersectionsandothercrossingsareatgradeand
subjecttosignalization
BRT Busrapidtransit – aflexible,highperformancerapidtransitmodethat
combinesavarietyofphysical,operatingandsystemelementsintoa
permanentlyintegratedsystemwithaqualityimageanduniqueidentity
CBRT CharacteristicsofBusRapidTransitforDecisionMaking,anFTAdocument
describingthemajorelementsofBRTandimpactonsystemperformance
Carpoollane Aroadwaylanedesignatedforvehicleswithmorethanoneoccupant
Dedicatedlane AlanedesignatedforonlytransitoronlyHOVuse
Expresswaybuslane Buslaneonanexpresswaydedicatedtobususeonly
FTA FederalTransitAdministration
Gradeseparatedtransitway Roadsfortheexclusiveuseoftransitvehicleswithaccessallowedonlyat
designedpoints,includeoverpassesorothergradeseparateatcrossingsto
minimizeconflictswithothervehicles
HOV HighOccupancyVehicle– avehiclewithtwoormoreoccupants
HOVfacility Aphysicalentity,structureorspacethatprovidesHOVaccessorservicesto
orintheROW,suchasaparkandride,carpoollaneortransitcenter
ITS Intelligenttransportationsystems theintegrationofinformationand
electronicstechnologyintotransportationinfrastructuretorelieve
congestion,improvesafetyandenhanceproductivity
Masstransit Seetransit
Onstreetbuslane Alaneonanarterialorcollectorstreetreservedforbususeonly
Publictransit Seetransit
Queuejumplane Alaneusedatabottlenecklocation(typicallyintersections)toallowtransit
vehiclestocometothefrontofwaitingtrafficandbypassthequeuesby
receivinganearlygreensignal
SingleOccupantVehicle Vehicleswithoneoccupantofdrivingage(thedriver)
Station Transitpassengerpickupanddropofflocationsthatserveastheentryand
exitpointfromthepublictransportationsystem
Runningway Thetrackorroadwayonwhichtransitoperates
TCRP TransitCooperativeResearchProgram aTransportationResearchBoard
researchinitiativeforpublictransportation
Transit Amodeoftransportationthat includesvehiclesopentopublicusesuchas
buses,lightrail,subways,ferriesandtrains
Transitsignalpriority Alterssignaltimingtogiveprioritytotransitvehiclesbyextendinggreen
time,givingearlygreentimeorprovidinganexclusivetransitphase

REFERENCES
AmericanPublicTransportationAssociation(2007).PublicTransportation:Benefitsforthe21stCentury.Availableat
http://www.apta.com/resources/reportsandpublications/Documents/twenty_first_century.pdf
AmericanPublicTransportationAssociation(2008).PublicTransportationFactsataGlance.Availableat
http://www.apta.com/resources/reportsandpublications/Documents/facts_at_a_glance.pdf
AmericanPublicTransportationAssociation(2009).ChangingtheWayAmericaMoves:CreatingaMoreRobust
Economy,aSmallerCarbonFootprintandEnergyIndependence.Availableat
http://www.apta.com/resources/reportsandpublications/Documents/america_moves_09.pdf

CambridgeSystematics(2009).MovingCooler:AnAnalysisofTransportationStrategiesforReducingGreenhouse
GasEmissions.UrbanLandInstitute.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://www.movingcooler.info/
Cleghorn,D.;Clavelle,A.;Boone,J.;Masliah,M.&Levinson,H.(2009).ImprovingPedestrianandMotoristSafety
AlongLightRailAlignments.TransitCooperativeResearchProgramReport137.TransportationResearchBoard.
Availableathttp://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_137.pdf
Davis,T.&Hale,M.(2007).PublicTransportation’sContributiontoU.S.GreenhouseGasReduction.Science
ApplicationsInternationalCorporation.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableat
http://www.apta.com/resources/reportsandpublications/Documents/climate_change.pdf
Diaz,R.&Hinebaugh,D.(2009).CharacteristicsofBusRapidTransitforDecisionMaking.FederalTransit
Administration.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableat
http://www.fta.dot.gov/documents/CBRT_2009_Update.pdf
FederalTransitAdministration(2009).TransitGreenBuildingActionPlan.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableat
http://www.fta.dot.gov/documents/Transit_Green_Building_Action_Plan.pdf
Gray,G.;Kelley,N.&Larwin,T(2006).BusRapidTransit:AHandbookforPartners.MinetaTransportation
Institute.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableat
http://transweb.sjsu.edu/mtiportal/research/publications/documents/BRT2006/BRT_06_02%20book.pdf
Gwilliam,K.;Kojima,M.&Johnson,T.(2004).ReducingAirPollutionfromUrbanTransport.TheWorldBank.
AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://www.cleanairnet.org/infopool/1411/articles
60133_resource_1.pdf
Hecker,J.(2003).FederalTransitAdministration:BusRapidTransitOffersCommunitiesaFlexibleMassTransit
Option.UnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOffice.AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableat
http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03729t.pdf
Hodges,T.(2009).PublicTransportation’sRoleinRespondingtoClimateChange.FederalTransitAdministration.
AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableat
http://www.fta.dot.gov/documents/PublicTransportationsRoleInRespondingToClimateChange.pdf
Kittelson&Associates;HerbertLevinsonTransportationConsultantsandDMJM+Harris(2007).BusRapidTransit
Practioner’sGuide.TransitCooperativeResearchProgramReport118.TransportationResearchBoard.
AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_118.pdf
Kittleson&Associates;KFHGroup;ParsonsBrinckerhoffQuade&DouglasandHunterZaworski,K.(2003).Transit
CapacityandQualityofServiceManual,2ndEdition.TransitCooperativeResearchProgramReport100.
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http://www.trb.org/Publications/Blurbs/Transit_Capacity_and_Quality_of_Service_Manual_2nd_153590.aspx
Korve,H.;Farran,J.;Mansel,D.;Levinson,H.;ChiraChavala,T.;&Ragland,D.(1996).IntegrationofLightRail
TransitintoCityStreets.TransitCooperativeResearchProgramReport17.TransportationResearchBoard.
AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_17a.pdf
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ImplementationGuidelines.TransitCooperativeResearchProgramReport90.TransportationResearchBoard.
AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/tcrp_rpt_90v2.pdf
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Availableathttp://tti.tamu.edu/documents/mobility_report_2009.pdf
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ReducingU.S.GreenhouseGasEmissions.Volume1:SynthesisReportandVolume2:TechnicalReport.
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_Volume_1_and_2.pdf
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Vuchic,V.(2005).UrbanTransitOperations,PlanningandEconomics.JohnWiley&Sons.
Vuchic,V.(2007).UrbanTransitSystemsandTechnology.JohnWiley&Sons.
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AccessedJanuary5,2010.Availableathttp://www.itdp.org/index.php/microsite/brt_planning_guide/

SCENIC VIEWS
GOAL AE-8
FeatureNationalScenicBywaysProgram(NSBP)valuesinaroadway.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
EITHERrequirementmaybemetforcredit. 1-2 POINTS
1Point:AnyportionoftheprojectispartoftheNationalScenicBywaysProgram
(NSBP)(http://www.byways.org)meaningithasbeendesignatedasoneofAmerica’s
Byways®(NationalScenicBywayorAllAmericanRoad),aStateScenicByway,oran RELATED CREDITS
IndianTribeScenicBywaybecauseofitsscenic,natural,and/orrecreationalqualities. 9 PR11Educational
Outreach
OR 9 AE3Context
SensitiveSolutions
2Points:Provideatleastoneaccessfromtheprojecttoadesignatedareaforvehicles 9 AE9Cultural
toexitthetrafficstream,stopandexperiencescenic,naturalorrecreationalfeatures Outreach
alongtheroadway.Theseareasmaybescenicviewpointsoroverlooks,welcome
centers,touristactivitiesorinformationcentersorrecreationareas.Theymustbe SUSTAINABILITY
identifiedwithsignageconformingto23CFR655(theManualonUniformTraffic
ControlDevices,currentrevision)Part2–Signs.
COMPONENTS
9 Ecology
Details 9 Equity
9 Exposure
TheNSBPisabroadprogramthatcapturesmanyroadwayqualities.Thesecanbest
becategorizedasscenic,historical,cultural,natural,recreationalandarcheological.
Thiscreditcoversscenic,naturalandrecreationalqualities.CreditAE9Cultural BENEFITS
Outreachcovershistorical,culturalandarcheologicalfeatures. 9 IncreasesAwareness
DOCUMENTATION
Ifascenicroutedesignationisusedtosatisfythiscredit,providedocumentationof
national,State,orIndiantribedesignation.Alsoprovideapictureoftheroutethatbest
capturesitssceneryorotherimportantfeatures.
OR
Ifaroadsideaccesspointisusedtosatisfythiscredit,indicateinthesubmittedplans
andspecificationswheretheviewpointoroverlookisdrawnandspecified.Also
provideapictureoftheaccesspointandapictureoftherelatedattraction.
AE-8 Scenic Views 259


x WorkthroughformalchannelstohavearoadwayorportionofroadwaydesignatedasaNationalScenic
Byway,anAllAmericanRoad,aStatescenicbyway,orandIndianTribescenicbyway..Thiscanbedone
throughtheNationalScenicBywaysProgramorthroughaStateorIndianTribeprogramthatformally
recognizesscenicroadways.
x Providelocations,suchasviewpointsorpullouts,wheredriverscanstoptoenjoyascenic,historic,cultural,
natural,recreational,orarchaeologicalfeatureoftheroadwayarea.
x ForAmerica’sByways®andStatedesignatedbyways,applyforagrantwiththeNBSPtoenhanceoneofthe
abovequalities.
Example: National Scenic Byways Program

TheNationalScenicBywaysProgram(NSBP),partoftheFederalHighwayAdministration,hasamissionto
“…provideresourcestothebywaycommunityincreatingauniquetravelexperienceandenhancedlocal
qualityoflifethrougheffortstopreserve,protect,interpret,andpromotetheintrinsicqualitiesofdesignated
byways.”(NSBP,2009).Theprogramformallyrecognizescertainroadsfortheirarchaeological,cultural,
historic,natural,recreationalandscenicqualities.Tobecomeanofficial“Byway”(theoverarchingtermthe
NSBPusestodescribetheseroads)aroadwaymustbenominated(thenominationcanoriginatefromany
personororganization)throughadetailedprocess.TheNSBPdefinessixintrinsicroadwayqualitiesthata
roadwaycanpossess.NationalScenicBywayspossess“characteristicsorregionalsignificance”inatleastoneof
theseintrinsicqualities,whileAllAmericanRoadspossess“characteristicsofnationalsignificance”inatleast
twooftheseintrinsicqualities(NSBP,2009).Thesixintrinsicqualitiesare(paraphrasedfromNSBP,2009):
x Archaeological.Physicalevidenceofhistoricorprehistorichumanlifeoractivitythatisvisibleandcapable
ofbeinginventoriedandinterpreted.
x Cultural.Evidenceandexpressionsofthecustomsortraditionsofadistinctgroupofpeople.
x Historic.Legaciesofthepastthataredistinctlyassociatedwithphysicalelementsofthelandscape,whether
naturalormanmade,thatareofsuchhistoricsignificancethattheyeducatetheviewerandstiran
appreciationforthepast.
x Natural.Thosefeaturesinthevisualenvironmentthatareinarelativelyundisturbedstate.Thesefeatures
predatethearrivalofhumanpopulationsandmayincludegeologicalformations,fossils,landform,water
bodies,vegetation,andwildlife.
x Recreational.Outdoorrecreationalactivitiesdirectlyassociationwithanddependentuponthenaturaland
culturalelementsofthecorridor'slandscape.Theyprovideopportunitiesforactiveandpassiverecreational
experiences.
x Scenic.Heightenedvisualexperiencederivedfromtheviewofnaturalandmanmadeelementsofthevisual
environmentofthescenicbywaycorridor.
FigureAE8.1showsamapofregisteredNationalScenicBywaysandAllAmericanRoadsintheU.S.as
classifiedbytheNSBP.TheNSBPwebsitegivesmapsandlocationsforByways(FigureAE8.2)thatcanbeused
todetermineifaparticularprojectencompassespartofone.
260 Scenic Views AE-8


FigureAE8.1:UnitedStatesScenicByways.(NSBP,2009).

FigureAE8.2:AnexampleofthemapsavailableattheNSBPwebsite(NSBP,2009).Thismapisforthe
ChinookScenicBywaynearMt.RainierinWashingtonState.

Example: Oregon Scenic Byways

OregonhasitsownScenicBywaysProgramthatincludesfederal,state,cityandcountydefinedscenicroads
andhighways.SomeareintheNSBPandsomearenot.Thisprogramlistsitsscenicbywaysat:
http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/SCENICBYWAYS/index.shtml.Asanexample,theSilverFallsScenicByway
isa55mileroutenearSalem,ORthatgoesthroughSilverFallsStatePark.AlthoughitisnotpartoftheNSBP,it
stillqualifiesforthisVoluntaryCreditbasedonitsdesignationbythestateofOregon.
Example: Scenic Viewpoint

Roadwayscanofferopportunitiestosafelyviewscenerybyprovidingdesignatedpulloutsorviewingareasthat
allowmotoriststostopandexittheirvehiclestotakeinscenery.Theseviewingareascanbelargeconstructed
parkinglotswithvisitoramenities(FigureAE8.3)orcanbesimplewidenedshoulderpullouts(FigureAE8.4).
Ineithercasetheviewpointoroverlookshouldbeproperlysignedandidentified.
FigureAE8.3:ScenicviewpointshowingMt.St.HelensaccessiblefromForestHighway25
intheGiffordPinchotNationalForest.


FigureAE8.4:Scenicpullout(slightlyleftandlowerfromcenter)onSR410inMt.RainierNationalPark.

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Althougharoadwaymayprovidepleasingscenery,itcannotbeconsideredforthisVoluntaryCreditunlessitis
(1)formallydesignatedasascenicroadway,or(2)providesanareafordriverstopulloffthetravelledwayand
stoptoenjoythescenery.
2. Historicalroadwaysorthosewithaccesstospecificculturalorgeologicalfeaturesarespecificallyincludedin
CreditAE9:CulturalOutreach.Insomecases,aroadwaymightqualifyforbothAE8andAE9.
3. Providingsignageordirectiontoascenicviewpointoroverlookthatisnotdirectlypartoftheroadwayproject
doesNOTsatisfythisVoluntaryCredit.

RESEARCH
“Sceneryisdefinedasthegeneralappearanceofaplaceandthefeaturesofitsviewsorlandscapes”(Gallioano
andLoeffler,2000).InthecontextofthisVoluntaryCredititmorespecificallyreferstopredominantlynatural
featuresratherthanmanmade.Alongaroadway,sceneryisthenthenaturalfeaturesandbeautifulviewsthatcan
beseenfromornearbytheroadway.Inthecontextofsustainability,humansplacevalueonwhattheycanseeand
itsqualitysotheavailabilityofscenicviewsalongroadwayscancontributetotheequitycomponentof
sustainability(i.e.,scenicviewsaresomethingwevalueashumans).Therearealsomeasurablephysicaland
psychologicalbenefitstoattractivescenery(GallioanoandLoeffler,2000citeDriveretal.,1992;Ulrich,1984)and
humanpreferencefornaturallandscapesisidentifiableandmeasurable(GallioanoandLoeffler,2000citeMagill,
1992;Lee,1976;Litton,1984;Daniel&Boster,1976).Therefore,providingaccesstoscenicviewshasvalueand
cancontributetothesustainabilityofaroadway.Theexactnatureofthevaluecanbecomplexbutsuchvalueis
basedprimarilyonhumanperceptionandeconomicworth.Thenexttwosectionsbrieflysurveytheseideas.
AssessingVisualLandscapeQuality
Inabroadsense,visuallandscapequality(atermthatimplies“scenicviews”andaratingoftheirdegreeof
excellence)istypicallyquantifiedusingexpertdesignapproachesorpublicperceptionapproaches(Daniel,2001).
Expertdesignapproachesrelyontranslatinglandscapefeaturestoformaldesignparametersthatcanthenbe
relatedtohowhumansperceivethembasedonmodelsortheory.Publicperceptionapproachesrelyonhow

landscapefeaturesfunctionasstimulitoevokehumanresponse.Eithermethodisfundamentallyrelatedtohow
humansperceivelandscapefeatures.Theseperceptionsare,onaverage,quiteconsistentinthatpeopletendto
prefernaturalappearinglandscapes(Lee,1976;McGuire,1979;Newby,1971;Noe,1988)andgenerallylikethe
samethings(Zube,1976).Therefore,inabroadsenseitispossibletopredicthumanpreferencesforvisualquality
andplanfortheminaroadway.Anoppositeapproachthatisgainingmomentumseekstodirectlyassessthe
ecologicalfunctionofthelandscapeanddeemhumanperceptionandpreferencesirrelevant(Daniel,2001).This
approachmayevenfindthatnotbuildinganyroadmaybethebestapproachtopreservingvisuallandscape
quality.
EconomicValueofScenery
Scenerycanalsobejudgedbasedonitseconomicvalue.Mostresearchinthisareainvestigateswhathumanshave
paidfortheprivilegeofenjoyingavieworwhattheywouldbewillingtopay.Forexample,inlookingatHong
KongapartmentsJimandChen(2009)foundthatpeoplearewillingtopayapremiumforattractiveviews;e.g.,a
broadharborviewofHongKongHarborcouldincreasetheapartmentvalueby2.97%orabout$15,173.In
somethingperhapsmorerelatedtoroadwayscenery,Batistanetal.(2002)lookedatthevalueofagriculturalland
inWyoming(nearYellowstoneandGrandTetonNationalParks)andfoundthat“…remoteagriculturallands,which
includewildlifehabitat,anglingopportunitiesandscenicvistas,commandhigherpricesperacrethanthosewhich
primarilypossessagriculturalproductioncapacity.”Another,perhapssimpler,waytodemonstratetheeconomic
valueofscenicviewsistolookatthepricingofhotelrooms.LangeandShaeffer(2001)lookedatroompricingin
Zurich,Switzerlandandfoundtheretobesignificantvalueinviews(asomewhatobviousconclusionbut
nonethelesssupportedbyproperstatisticalanalysis).Sucheconomicanalysisisnotentirelyneweither.An1879
articleintheNewYorkTimes(Jarves,1879)providesanearlyviewintowhatsceneryisworth.InthisarticleJarves
looksattouristvisitstoSwitzerlandandclaims1.4millionvisitorshavespentover$45million,which,heargues,
canbeviewedastheinterestat5%on$900million,“…whichmaybeconsideredtheactualmarketvalueofthe
landscapealone…”In2009dollarsthatconservativelycomestowellover$20billion.
TheNationalScenicBywayProgram(NSBP)
TheNSBPchooseslessscientificallyrigorousmethodsforselectingroadwaysfordesignationasNationalScenic
BywaysorAllAmericanRoads.Thedefinitionoftheirsixintrinsicqualitiesthattheseroadshave(archaeological,
cultural,historic,natural,recreational,scenic)indicatesthattheNSBPdefinitionisbroaderthantheGallioanoand
Loeffler(2000)definitionof“generalappearanceandthequalitiesofitsviewandlandscapes.”Howeverareview
ofthesesixintrinsicqualitiesshowsthateachonemustessentiallyberepresentedbyaphysicalpresencethatcan
beviewedorexperienced.ThespecificrequirementsforscenicbywaydesignationareoutlinedbytheFHWAin
theirinterimpolicyonScenicByways(NationalScenicBywaysProgram,1995).Specifically,roadwaysnominated
should:
x Safelyandconvenientlyaccommodatetwowheeldriveautomobileswithstandardclearances.
x Accommodate,whereverfeasible,bicycleandpedestriantravel.
x Safelyaccommodateconventionaltourbuses.
x Haveascenicbywayscorridormanagementplan.ForAllAmericanRoads,theremustbeademonstration
oftheextenttowhichenforcementmechanismsarebeingimplementedbycommunitiesalongthehighway
inaccordancewiththecorridormanagementplan.
x Userfacilities(e.g.overlooks,foodservices,etc.)shouldbeavailablefortravelers.
x Havecontinuity.Roadwaysshouldhavetoomanygapsbutrathershouldbeascontinuousaspossibleand
shouldminimizeintrusionsonthevisitor’sexperience.

Also,andimportantly,anyroadnominatedfortheNationalScenicBywayorAllAmericanRoaddesignationis
consideredtobedesignatedaStatescenicbyway.ManyofthescenicbywaysrunningthroughtheUnitedStates
arenotjustviewedaspartofthehowpeopletravel,butcanberecognizedasculturallandmarks(Youngs,White
andWodrich,2008).

GLOSSARY
AllAmericanRoad AroaddesignatedbytheNationalScenicBywaysProgramandpossessing
characteristicsofnationalsignificancewithinatleasttwoofthefollowing
intrinsicqualities:archaeological,cultural,historic,natural,recreationaland
scenic.
NationalScenicByway AroaddesignatedbytheNationalScenicBywaysProgramandpossessing
characteristicsofregionalsignificancewithinatleastoneofthefollowing
intrinsicqualities:archaeological,cultural,historic,natural,recreationaland
scenic.
Scenery Thegeneralappearanceofaplaceandthefeaturesofitsviewsor
landscapes.
ScenicView Apleasingsightorvistathatinvolvesalandscapepredominatedbynatural
(asopposedtomanmade)features.
REFERENCES
Bastian,C.T.;McLeod,D.M.;Germino,M.J.;Reiners,W.A.&Blasko,B.J.(2002).Environmentalamenitiesand
agriculturallandvalues:ahedonicmodelusinggeographicinformationsystemsdata.EcologicalEconomics,
40,pp.337349.
Daniel,T.C.&Boster,R.(1976).Measuringlandscapeesthetics:thescenicbeautyestimationmethod.Research
Paper.RM167.U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,RockyMountainForestandRange
ExperimentStation,FortCollins,CO.
Daniel,T.C.(2001).Whitherscenicbeauty?Visuallandscapequalityassessmentinthe21stcentury.Landscapeand
UrbanPlanning,54,pp.267281.
Driver,B.L.;Brown,P.J.&Peterson,G.(1992).Benefitsofleisure.StateCollege,PA:VenturePublishing,Inc.
Gallioano,S.J.&Loeffler,G.M.(2000).SceneryAssessment:ScenicBeautyattheEcoregionScale.InteriorColumbia
BasinEcosystemManagementProject:ScientificAssessment,Quigley,T.M.,ed.PNWGTR472.U.S.
DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,PacificNorthwestResearchStation,Portland,OR.
Haefele,M.(2009).Sceneryholdseconomicvalue.TheWildernessSociety.http://wilderness.org/content/scenery
holdseconomicvalue.Accessed8December2009.
Jarves,J.J.(18October1879).MoneyValueofScenery;RevenuefromNaturalAttractions.NewYorkTimes.
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B0DEFD7103EE73BBC4C53DFB7678382669FDE.
Jim,C.Y.&Chen,W.Y.(2009).Valueofscenicviews:HedonicassessmentofprivatehousinginHongKong.
LandscapeandUrbanPlanning,91(4),pp.226234.
Lange,E.&Schaeffer,P.V.(2001).Acommentonthemarketvalueofaroomwithaview.LandscapeandUrban
Planning,55(2),pp.113120.
Lee,R.G.(1976).Assessingpublicconcernforvisualquality—landscapesensitivityresearchandadministrative
studies.PSW19.U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,PacificSouthwestForestandRange
ExperimentStation,Berkeley,CA.
Litton,R.B.,Jr.(1984).Visualvulnerabilityofthelandscape:controlofvisualquality.ResearchPaper.WO39.U.S.
DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,Washington,DC.

Magill,A.W.(1992).Managedandnaturallandscapes:Whatdopeoplelike?ResearchPaper.PSWRP213.U.S.
DepartmentofAgriculture,ForestService,PacificSouthwestResearchStation,Albany,CA.
NationalScenicBywaysProgram(NSBP)Online.(2009).NationalScenicBywaysProgram.Website.
http://www.bywaysonline.org.Accessed3December2009.
NationalScenicBywaysProgram,60Fed.Reg.26759(1995).
Ulrich,R.S.(1984).Viewthroughawindowmayinfluencerecoveryfromsurgery.Science,224,pp.420421.
Youngs,Y.L.(2008).TransportationSystemsasCulturalLandscapesinNationalParks:TheCaseofYosemite.
SocietyandNaturalResources,21,797811.

CULTURAL OUTREACH
GOAL AE-9
Promoteculturalawareness,communityconnectivityandart.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
1-2 POINTS
1point
Anypartoftheprojectoranyitemwithin10milesoftheprojectboundaryiseither:
x ListedintheUnitedStatesNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces RELATED CREDITS

x SubjectofaDeterminationofEligibility(DOE)madebyaStateHistoricPreservation
Officer. 9 PR11Educational
x PartoftheNationalScenicBywaysProgram(NSBP)(http://www.byways.org) Outreach
meaningithasbeendesignatedasoneofAmerica’sByways®(NationalScenic 9 AE3Context
BywayorAllAmericanRoad),aStateScenicByway,oranIndianTribeScenicByway SensitiveSolutions
becauseofitscultural,historical,orarcheologicalfeatures. 9 AE8ScenicViews
AND SUSTAINABILITY
COMPONENTS
Installinformationalinfrastructure(e.g.,viewpoint,kiosk,sign,orothersmallscale
installationforvisitorsdetailinghistorical,cultural,orarcheologicalsignificance)to 9 Equity
explainthesiteordirectroadwayuserstothesite.Anexistinginstallationmeetsthis 9 Exposure
informationalinfrastructureportionoftherequirement.
BENEFITS
2points 9 IncreasesAwareness
Dedicateaminimumof1%ofthetotalprojectbudget(nottoexceed$200,000)toart 9 IncreasesAesthetics
orcommunitycultureinstallationsalongtheroadwayrightofway(ROW).
Details
ManyNationalParkSystem(NPS)unitsareautomaticallylistedintheNational
RegisterofHistoricPlace.AsofDecember2009thoseinclude:internationalhistoric
sites,nationalbattlefields,nationalbattlefieldparks,nationalbattlefieldsites,
nationalhistoricsites,nationalhistoricalparks,nationalmemorial,nationalmilitary
parksandnationalmonuments.
TheNSBPisabroadprogramthatcapturesmanyroadwayqualities.Thesecanbest
becategorizedasscenic,historical,cultural,natural,recreationalandarcheological.
Thiscreditcovershistorical,cultural,andarcheologicalqualities.CreditAE8Scenic
Viewscoversscenic,natural,andrecreationalqualities.
ForthepurposesofGreenroads,“art”isbroadlydefinedasthebehaviorofmaking
thingsspecial.
DOCUMENTATION
1point
x AcopyoftheregistrationoftheitemorlocationintheUnitedStatesNational
RegisterofHistoricPlacesordocumentationofNSBPdesignation.Ascreenshotof
theitemlistedintheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesontheofficialwebsite
(www.nps.gov/nr)isacceptable.Or,ifaDOEisused,acopyoftheofficialDOE.
AE-9 Cultural Outreach 267

x Amapshowingthattheitemorlocationisintheprojectareaorwithin10milesoftheprojectboundary.
x Aphotographoftheitemorlocationandtheinformationalinfrastructure.
2points
x Copyoftheprojectbudgetshowingaminimumof1%ofthetotalbudgetor$200,000(whicheverisless)has
beendedicatedtowardart.
x Atleastonephotographoftheinstalledartwork.

x Integratecontextsensitiveaesthetictreatments,asdeterminedbyparticipatingstakeholders,intothedesign
oftransportationfacilities.Examplesmayincludetreatmentstosoundwalls,structures,streetfurniture,
screening,fences,signage,piersorlighting.
x Setaside0.5%ofthetotalprojectbudgettowardartorculturalinstallations.Allowforcommunity
contributionsandsuggestionsduringthepublicinvolvementprocessduringprojectscoping.
x Encouragepublicengagementthroughmuralpaintingorotherparticipatoryactivities.
x InvestigateplacesontheNationalRegisterofHistoricalPlacestoseeifanymayhelptheprojectqualifyforthis
VoluntaryCredit.
x InvestigateregisteringanitemorplaceontheNationalRegisterofHistoricalPlaces.
Example: National Register of Historic Places

TheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces(www.nps.gov/nr)istheofficiallistofU.S.historicplacesworthyof
preservation.ItisauthorizedbytheNationalHistoricalPreservationActof1966andismaintainedbythe
NationalParkService.TheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesprogrammaintainsanominationprocess(states,
tribesandotherfederalagenciesmaynominatepropertiesforinclusioninthelist);offersguidanceandhelps
qualifiedpropertiesreceivepreservationbenefits.Roadscanbeandareincludedintheregister.Forexample,
recordnumber336109concernstheColumbiaRiverHighwayDistrict,whichaddressedanhistoricalroadway
thattravelsalongtheOregonsideoftheColumbiaRiver.
Example: Historic Roads Website

Thisresource(www.historicroads.org)providesideasforwhatconstitutesanhistoricroadandresourcesto
assistwithdocumentationanddesignation/recognition.
Example: Wisconsin’s Rustic Roads Program

Establishedin1973,theWisconsinRusticRoadsprogram
(http://www.dot.wisconsin.gov/travel/scenic/rusticroads.htm)helpscitizensandlocalgovernmenttopreserve
scenic,lightlytraveledcountryroads.Therearenow108suchroads,designatedwithan“R”infrontofthe
routenumber(e.g.,R62orR108).AccordingtotheWisconsinDepartmentofTransportationaroadmusthave
thefollowingcharacteristicstoqualifyfortheRusticRoadprogram:
x Outstandingnaturalfeaturesalongitsborderssuchasruggedterrain,nativevegetation,nativewildlife,or
includeopenareaswithagriculturalvistaswhichsinglyorincombinationuniquelysetthisroadapartfrom
otherroads.
x Lightlytraveledlocalaccessroad,onewhichservestheadjacentpropertyownersandthosewishingto
travelbyauto,bicycle,orhikingforpurposesofrecreationalenjoymentofitsrusticfeatures.
x Notschedulednoranticipatedformajorimprovementswhichwouldchangeitsrusticcharacteristics.
x Have,preferably,aminimumlengthof2milesand,wherefeasible,shouldprovideacompletedclosureor
loop,orconnecttomajorhighwaysatbothendsoftheroute.
268 Cultural Outreach AE-9

Example: Percentage for Art Programs

Incorporatingapercentageoftheprojectbudgetforartorculturalendeavorsiscommoninmanymajor
municipalities.Examplesare:
x TheCityofSeattlehasaPublicArtOrdinance(passedin1973)thatdedicates1%ofconstructioncoststo
art.Importantly,theCitydefines“constructionproject”as“…anycapitalprojectpaidforwhollyorinpart
bytheCitytoconstructorremodelanybuilding,structure,park,utility,street,sidewalk,orparkingfacility,
oranyportionthereof,withinthelimitsofTheCityofSeattle.”(CityofSeattle,2009a).
x SoundTransit(inthePugetSoundregionofWashingtonState)administerstheStartPublicArtProgram,
whichallocates1%ofprojectconstructioncoststoart(SoundTransit,2009).
x WashingtonState’sArtinPublicPlacesProgramadds0.5%fortheacquisitionofartworktonew
constructionbudgetsforstateownedbuildings(WashingtonStateArtsCommission,2009).
x NewYork’sCityArtProgramusesonepercentofatotalpublicprojectbudgetstofundartisticinstallations
atpublicbuildings(Heartney&NewYorkDepartmentofCulturalAffairs,2005).
x Oregon’sPercentforArtlegislation(passedin1975)guidestheacquisitionofOregon’sStateArtCollection.
Itsetsaside“…1%ofthedirectconstructionfundsofneworremodeledstatebuildingswithconstruction
budgetsof$100,000orgreaterfortheacquisitionofartworkwhichmaybeanintegralpartofthebuilding,
attachedthereto,orcapableofdisplayinotherStateBuildings"(OregonArtsCommission,2009).
x Hawaii’sArtinPublicPlacesProgram(establishedin1967)wascreatedto“…enhancetheenvironmental
qualityofstatepublicbuildingsandspacesthroughoutthestatefortheenjoymentandenrichmentofthe
public;cultivatethepublic'sawareness,understandingandappreciationofvisualartsinallmedia,styles
andtechniques;contributetowardthedevelopmentandrecognitionofaprofessionalartisticcommunity;
andacquire,interpret,preserveanddisplayworksofartexpressiveofthecharacteroftheHawaiian
Islands,themulticulturalheritageofitspeople,andthevariouscreativeinterestsofitsartists.”(Hawaii
StateFoundationonCultureandtheArts,2009).

FiguresAE9.1throughAE9.3areexamplesofstreetscapeartinthegreaterSeattlearea.

FigureAE9.1:RichardBeyer’sPeopleWaitingfortheInterurban(1979)atthecornerofFremontAvenue
NorthandNorth34thStreet.Paidforbycommunitydonations,theSeattleArtsCommission(NowtheOffice
ofArts&CulturalAffairs)andtheWashingtonStateArtsCommission(CityofSeattle,1979).


FigureAE9.2:JackMackie’sDancers'Series:Steps(1982)foundin8locationsalongBroadwayAvenueinthe
CapitolHillareaofSeattle.PaidforbytheEngineeringDepartment(nowpartofSeattlePublicUtilities)1%for
ArtandprivatebusinessesintheBroadwayLocalImprovementDistrict(CityofSeattle,2009b).

FigureAE9.2:TomAskmanandLeaAnneLake’sBallardGateway(2003)onthe15thAvenueN.W.approachto
theBallardBridge.PaidforbytheSeattleDepartmentofTransportation1%forArt,SeattleCityLight1%forArt
andMillenniumLightingFunds,DepartmentofNeighborhoodsMatchingFunds(CityofSeattle,2009b).

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Itmaynotalwaysbeappropriateorpossibletoincludeculturaloutreachorartonaproject.
2. Artcanbecontroversial.
3. Sometimesitisdifficulttospecifyexactlywhatartis.BeyondthegeneraldefinitionusedinthisVoluntary
Credit,somethingmorepreciseisgenerallyneededtoincludeincontractdocumentsinordertodefinewhat
qualifiesas“art.”
RESEARCH
Constructionoftransportationinfrastructurerepresentsalargepublicinvestmentinmanycommunities.Roadway
projectsnotonlyconnectplacesandeconomies,theyalsoconnectpeopletoplace.Roadwaydesignersand
contractorsareinpositiontooffermoretosocietythansimplymeetingbasicneeds,projectdeadlines,and
bottomlines.Designingaesthetictreatmentsthatreflectcommunityidentityorintegratingpublicartinto
transportationprojectsisanopportunitytoenhancecommunities,particularlythosewithoutresourcestopursue
independentpublicartorlandscapeprograms.Mostcivilengineeringworks,bydefinition,meetneedsandserve
tobetterthegreatergoodofthepublic.Inroadwayprojects,opportunitiesforpromotingthissenseofcommunity
canbeaccomplishedthroughincorporatinghistoricalandculturalinformationfacilities,connectiontonational
landmarksandcommunitycenteredartwork.Thisresearchsectionattemptstodefinewhatartisandwhyitmight
beviewedasimportant.
EthnologicViewofArt
ThefollowingdiscussionofArtislargelytakenfromtheworkofEllenDissanayake,anAffiliateProfessorinthe
SchoolofMusicattheUniversityofWashington.Shegenerallytakesanethologicalviewofart;thatisshe
approachesartassomethinglivingcreatures(humans)dointheireverydaylifethatsomehowhasanadaptiveor
selectivevalueinhumanevolution.
WhatisArt?
Dissanayake(1980)broadlydefinesartas“…theabilitytorecognizeorconfer‘specialness,’alevelororder
differentfromtheeveryday.”Inshort,artistheactofmakingspecial.Thisencompassesabroadrangeofitems
includingsong,dance,ritual,playandevenorganizedsports.Importantly,theideaofartdoesnotincludea
qualityjudgmentorinvolveanunderstandingofhowartmanagestoachievespecialness.
WhyisArtImportant?
Humanethologistsbelievethatcertainhumanbehaviorshavepersistedovertimebecausetheycontribute
positivelytotheevolutionandsuccessofthespecies(Dissanayake,1980).Intermsofart,thismeansthatasa
behaviorartexistsbecauseitissomehowimportanttothesuccessofthehumanspecies.Artwouldnotexist
universallyifitdidnothaveselectivevalue.Artisnot,asthemodernviewgoes“foritsownsake”(i.e.,no
practicalvalue).Artisalsonotjustforartists;itisacommonbehaviortoallhumans.
“Itisthedegreetowhichartembodiesandcommunicatesexperiencethatmakesituniqueand
irreplaceable(givesitvalue).Althoughtherearelikelymanywhoappeartodojustfinewithoutart(aswe
knowittoday)itisonlyrecently(last100orsoyears)thatarthasbecomedetachedfromtherestoflife
andregardedforitsownsake.Formostofhistory,theactivityofgivingmeaningandembellishinglifewas
notanimpracticalleisuretimeactivitybutratherthewaythehumanmindworked–awayof
comprehendingtheworld.”(Dissanayake,1980).
Artcontributesessentialsocialbenefitssuchasdocumentation,expression,storytelling,entertainment,display
ofwealthandpowerandrepresentationofcustomandtradition.Inotherwords,artgivesshapetoand
embellisheslife;whatmakesartuniqueandirreplaceableisthedegreetowhichartembodiesand
communicatesexperience(Dissanayake,1980).Onlyinthelast100yearsorsohasartbecomedetachedfrom
ritualandplayandbeenviewedasanindependentactivity.Formostofhumanexistence,theprimarytaskof

artistswastogiveshapetoandembellishlife;tohelpfindmeaninginlife.Artistsrecordedevents,decorated
homesandembellishedceremonialobservances(Dissanayake,1980).
Insummary,therefourkeypointstotakeawayfromtheethologicalviewpoint:
1. Artistheabilityto“makespecial.”Artrecognizesorconfers‘specialness,’alevelororderdifferentfrom
everyday.Equallyimportantisthebehaviorofappreciatingthatsomethingsarespecial.Theseideasare
fundamentalanduniversal.
2. Arthasselectivevalue,i.e.,insomewayitenhancesthesurvivalofthespecies.Artwouldnotexist
universallyifitdidnothaveselectivevalue.It’snot,asthemodernviewgoes“foritsownsake”(i.e.,no
practicalvalue).
3. Thebehaviorofartisacommonbehaviortoallhumanbeings,notjustartists.It’simportanttonotethat
“art”doesnotmean“goodart.”
4. Artisvaluablebecauseitgivesmeaningandembellisheslife.Ashumans,wesimplycannotbear
senselessnessorlackofmeaning.
HowArtisPublicallyFunded
Magie(1997)reviewedmajorsourcesofpublicfundingforthearts.Amongtheartfundingsourcesshediscussed,
thefollowingcouldapplytoroadwayconstructionartfunding:
Generalfundappropriations.Themostcommonpublicfundingmechanism.Artisoftenincludedasalineitemin
astate,city,county,etc.budget.Usually,generalfundallocationsrequirestrongadvocacyandpoliticalsupport.In
general,supportatthestateandfederallevelhasbeendeclining,howeversupportandthecity,countyandlocal
levelhasbeenincreasing.
Taxesandfees.Manypublicorganizationshavesetuptaxesorfeeswhoserevenuesupportorpartiallysupports
thearts.Specialtaxdistricts,salestaxes,propertytaxes,hotelmotel(transientoccupancy)taxes,entertainment
taxes(e.g.,theaters,concerts,sports),franchisefees(e.g.,fromcablecompanies),realestatetaxesandevena
portionoflottery/gamblingproceedshavebeenusedtogenerateartsfunds.
Endowments.Thisapproachcollectsmoneybysimilarpubicmechanismasthe“taxesandfees”section,however
themoneyisheldontoandonlytheinterestpaymentsareusedtosupportthearts.
Bonds.Fundingforinfrastructurecanbelargeandmanypublicorganizationshaveissuedbondsfortheexpress
purposesofsupportingartandcultureinfrastructure.Forinstance,theRockandRollHallofFameandMuseum
wasbuiltlargelywithbondfunding.
Percentforartprograms.Theseprogramsspecifythatapercentage(often1%)ofcapitalconstructioncostsfora
neworrenovatedbuildingbesetasideforartwork.Theseprogramsbeganinthe1960sbutnowtherearemore
than135stateandlocallyfundedprogramsintheU.S.
Transportationmitigationorenhancementfunds.Whilepublicartinroadwayconstructionisstilldeveloping,
publicorganizationsoftensupportartthroughmitigationorenhancementfundsthatarededicatedtoaddvalueto
propertyandareasthathavebeennegativelyimpactedbyroadwayconstruction.
Corporatesupport.Corporatesponsorshaveoftenbeeninstrumentalinartprogramsandinfrastructureto
supportsuchprograms.However,corporatesponsorshiphasnotbeenheavilyusedinroadwayrelatedart.
ExamplesofArtinRoadwayProjects
Thefollowingfiguresshowsomeexamplesofhowarthasbeenincorporatedintoroadwayprojects.

FigureAE9.3:ArtincorporatedintothefasciaforanI5freewaywallassociatedwithanexpansionprojectonI
5nearitsintersectionwithSR16inTacoma,WA.

FigureAE9.4:SeattletoBremertonferrytunnelinBremerton,WA.
PhotofromtheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation.


FigureAE9.5:JamesAngus,EllipsoidalFreewaySculpture(2008)
Eastlinkfreeway:NunawadingtoFrankston,Melbourne.PhotofromtheRoslynOxley9Gallery
(http://www.roslynoxley9.com.au/artists/5/James_Angus/1116/41258).

GLOSSARY
Art Theactofmakingspecial.
UnitedStatesNationalRegister OfficiallistofU.S.historicplacesworthyofpreservation.Authorizedbythe
ofHistoricPlaces NationalHistoricalPreservationActof1966andmaintainedbytheNational
ParkService.

REFERENCES
AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers(ASCE).(2009).HistoricCivilEngineeringLandmarkProgram.
http://content.asce.org/history/ce_landmarks.html.Accessed22December2009.
CityofSeattle(2009b).PermanentlySited:Streetscapes.
http://www.seattle.gov/arts/publicart/permanent.asp?cat=3.Accessed22December2009.
CityofSeattle.(2009a).PublicArtOrdinance.http://www.seattle.gov/arts/publicart/ordinance.asp.Accessed22
December2009.
Dissanayake,E.(1980).ArtasaHumanBehavior:TowardanEthologicalViewofArt.JournalofAestheticsandArt
Criticism38(4),397406.http://ellendissanayake.com/publications/pdf/EllenDissanayake_5624714.pdf.
HawaiiStateFoundationonCultureandtheArts.(2009).ArtinPublicPlaces.
http://hawaii.gov/sfca/grants.php?article_id=17.Accessed22December2009.
Heartney,E.,&NewYorkDept.ofCulturalAffairs.(2005).Cityart:NewYork'sPercentforArtProgram.London:
Merrell.
Magie,D.(1997).ArtsFundingintothe21stCentury.EssaypreparedforCreativeAmerica,areportbythe
President’sCommitteeontheArtsandtheHumanities,Washington,D.C.

OregonArtsCommission.(2009).Oregon’sPercentforArtProgram:APublicLegacy.
http://www.oregonartscommission.org/pdf/oac_connections_percent.pdf.Accessed22December2009.
SoundTransit.(2009).PublicArtProjects.SoundTransit,Seattle,WA.http://www.soundtransit.org/x1250.xml.
Accessed22December2009.
WashingtonStateArtsCommission.(2009).ArtinPublicPlaces–1/2of1%.http://www.arts.wa.gov/public
art/percent.shtml.Accessed22December2009.



CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Construction Activities
QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

GOAL CA-1
Improveconstructionqualitybyusingacontractorthathasaformalquality
managementprocess.

Theprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirmshallhavea
documentedqualitymanagementsystem(QMS)fortheentirecompanyoratleastthe
portion(s)ofthecompanyparticipatingintheproject.TheQMSmustbeinplacefor
thedurationofprojectconstruction.Asaminimum,theQMSanditsdocumentation RELATED CREDITS
shallmeettherequirementsofInternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO)9001:2008 9 PR1Environmental
orISO9001:2000. ReviewProcess
9 PR4QualityControl
Details Plan
9 PR11Educational
Theprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirmis
Outreach
consideredtohaveadocumentedQMSifitis:
9 EW1Environmental
ManagementSystem
x IsISO9001:2008orISO9001:2000certified
9 CA2Environmental
x HasaQMSthatmeetsISO9001:2008orISO9001:2000requirementsbutisnot
Training
formallycertified
x TherecipientoftheMalcolmBaldrigeNationalQualityAward(anyyear) SUSTAINABILITY
COMPONENTS
DOCUMENTATION
9 Extent
Submitone(1)ofthefollowingitems: 9 Expectations
9 Experience
1. DocumentationoftheISO9001:2008orISO9001:2000certificationfortheprime 9 Exposure
contractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirm
2. Acopyoftheprimecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirm’s BENEFITS
QMSdocumentationtoinclude:
9 ImprovesHuman
x Qualitypolicyandobjective Health&Safety
x Qualitymanual 9 Improves
x Listingofdocumentedprocedures Accountability
x ListingofrecordsretainedinaccordancewiththeirQMS 9 IncreasesAwareness
3. DocumentationoftheMalcolmBaldrigeNationalQualityAwardawardedtothe
primecontractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirm
CA-1 Quality Management System 279

Construction Activities Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

x HaveaprimecontractorwithISO9001:2008orISO9001:2000certification.
x HaveaprimecontractorwithadocumentedQMSthatmeetstherequirementsofISO9001:2008orISO
9001:2000.
x SelectaprimecontractorthathaswontheMalcolmBaldrigeNationalQualityAward.Asof2009,noprime
contractor,designbuilderorconstructionmanagementfirmhaswonthisaward.
Example Quality Manuals

WhileitisnotpossibletopresentanentireQMS,therearemanyexamplesofkeyQMSdocumentsavailableon
theWebincludingthefollowingqualitymanuals:
x R&DSystems:http://www.rndsystems.com/DAM_public/5722.pdf
x ContinentalSteel&TubeCo.:http://www.continentalsteel.com/pdf/continentalsteelqualitymanual.pdf
x Cirruslogic:http://cirrus.com/en/pubs/misc/Quality_Manual.pdf
x PARNuclearsupplierqualitymanual:http://www.parnuclear.com/PaRNuclear/docs/SQM.pdf
x WestinghouseNuclear:
http://www.westinghousenuclear.com/Our_Company/Quality_Management_System/docs/E6_qms.pdf

Therearealsocompaniesthatwillsellqualitymanualtemplatestoassistingettingstarted.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. SmallerfirmsmaynotbeabletoaffordtheISOcertificationprocess.
2. DocumentationofaQMSisnotthesamehashavinganeffectiveQMS,howevercollectionofdocumentation
(inlieuofanactualaudit)isanefficientwayofgatheringevidenceofaneffectiveQMS.
RESEARCH
AccordingtoISO(2009),aQMSisreferstowhattheorganizationdoestomanageitsprocesses,oractivities,so
thatitsproductsorservicessatisfythecustomer'squalityrequirementsandcomplywithregulations.Oneofthe
morecomprehensivedescriptionsofsuchasystemcomesfromISOintheir9000familyofstandards.
ISO9000
AccordingtoISO(2009),“TheISO9000familyofstandardsrepresentsaninternationalconsensusongoodquality
managementpractices.Itconsistsofstandardsandguidelinesrelatingtoqualitymanagementsystemsandrelated
supportingstandards.”Essentially,itisaformaldescriptionofaQMSandallthatisinvolvedinitscreation,
implementationanduse.JustasASTMInternationalortheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayand
TransportationOfficials(AASHTO)setstandards,sodoesISO.
Certification:ISO9001
WhiletheentireQMSstandardiscontainedintheISO9000familyofstandards,theactualrequirementsfor
certificationarecontainedinISO9001.Therefore,organizationsarecertifiedinaccordancewithISO9001;the
numberisappendedwiththeyearofthestandardthatappliedwhentheorganizationwascertified.Themost
currentversionisISO9001:2008,howevermanyorganizationsstillhaveISO9001:2000certifications(theprior
version).
ISOdoesnotcertifyorganizationsitself.Mostcountrieshaveformedformalgroupsor“certificationbodies,”
whichauditorganizationsapplyingforISO9001certification.Throughmutualagreementsthesebodiesensure
thatcertificationauditstandardsarerelativelythesameworldwide.Certification,oncegranted,mustbe
renewedatstandardintervals;oftenthreeyears.
280 Quality Management System CA-1

ISOdoesnotrequirecertificationandmanyorganizationsjustchoosetofollowISO9000requirementsbut
foregocertification.However,itiscommonpracticeinmanypartsoftheworld(e.g.,westernEurope,China,
India,etc.)torequireISOcertificationasaprerequisitefordoingbusiness.Therefore,countriesthatrequire
thisusuallyseethehighestcertificationrates.
ArgumentsforCertification
Argumentsforcertificationtypicallycitethegeneralideathatpropermanagementofqualityimproves
business,whichcanbemeasuredbylargermarketshare,salesgrowth,highermargins,competitiveadvantage
andothermetrics.
ArgumentsagainstCertification
Argumentsagainstcertificationclaimthattheactualactofcertificationandexistenceofdocumentationdo
not,inandofthemselves,guaranteeimprovedbusiness.Further,theypointoutthatISO9001certificationcan
beanexpensiveprocessthatdoesnotguaranteeresults.
CertificationCost
AccordingtothesurveycompletedbyYatesandAniftos(1997),thecostoftheISOcertificationprocessranged
from$0to$500,000,butcertificationcostsgenerallyrangefrom$300,000to$400,000.Thisreporteddata
rangeisunclearduetohowthesurveyquestionwasposed.Itispossiblethatsomecompaniesreported
additionalcostsincludinginternaltrainingbudgets,neglectedthecostofthecertificationitself,orthatsome
didnothaveanyadditionalcosts.CertificationthroughISOrequiresapproximately12to18months,on
average.
WorldwideISO9001Certification
Datafrom2006showworldwideISO9001certificationsat625,742in170differentcountriesandgrowing(Figure
CA1.1).InDecember2006theU.S.had44,883certifications,whichrankedsixthworldwide(FigureCA1.2).ISO
9001certificationisfarmorepopularinEuropeandtheFarEast(EasternAsia)with46%and34%ofworldwide
certificationsrespectively.NorthAmerica(consistingofonlytheU.S.,CanadaandMexico)comprisedalmost7%of
theworldwidetotal.AccordingtoYatesandAniftos(1996,1997),verylittleparticipationbyorganizationswithin
theUnitedStateshasbeennoted.ThemajorityoftheISOstandardstakeholdersareintheEuropeancommunity
andthebulkofinfluenceontheglobalizationofsuchstandardscomesfromagroupcalledtheEuropean
CommitteeforStandardization(CEN).

1,000,000
897,866
900,000
NumberofISO9001Certifications Worldwide
800,000 773,867
700,000 660,132
600,000
497,919
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000 167,124
100,000

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year

FigureCA1.1:ISO9001certificationworldwidegrowth20022006(datafromISO,2006).

NumberofISO9001Certifications inDecember2006
20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000 160,000 180,000
China 162,259
Italy 105,799
Japan 80,518
Spain 57,552
Germany 46,458
USA 44,833
India 40,967
UK 40,909
France 21,349
Netherlands 18,922
FigureCA1.2:Top10countriesintermsofnumberofISO9001certificationsin2006(datafromISO,2006).

ISO9001CertificationintheU.S.ConstructionIndustry
ISO9000enjoyssubstantialworldwidepopularity,howeverrelativelyfewU.S.constructionfirmsarecertified.The
2006ISOSurveyofCertificationsreported80,432constructioncompaniescertifiedworldwide.Ofthe39industrial
sectorslistedconstructionrankedfirstwith12.9%ofthetotalcertifiedcompanies.However,relativelyfew

constructionfirmsintheU.S.haveadoptedISO9000standardsandbecomecertified(Chini&Valdez,2003).
ReasonsgivenforthislackofadoptiontendtofocusontheideathatISO9000isnotpromotedorrequiredbyU.S.
clientsorgovernmentlikeitiselsewhere(Ahmedetal.,2005)sothereisnoperceivedadvantageofformal
certification.ChiniandValdez(2003)showevidenceofthiswhentheyfound36%ofU.S.certifiedconstruction
relatedfirmswerelocatedinMichiganandanother14%inOhio.Notcoincidentally,thesestatesarewhereU.S.
automakers,companiesthatrequireISO9001certificationfromthosetheycontractwith,arelargelylocated(at
leastin2000).
EvidencetosupportthepositiveoutcomesofISO9001certificationgenerallycomesfromsurveysoforinterviews
withcontractorsthatarealreadyISOcertified(e.g.,Ahmedetal.,2005;Chini&Valdez,2003;MoatazedKeivaniet
al.,1999)soitisnotsurprisingthatresultsindicateageneralbenefittoISO9001certification.Evenso,thereis
ampleevidencetosuggestthatISO9000isatleastapplicabletoconstructionandcanbeadopted(Nee,1996;
Chung,1999)andargumentshavebeenmadethatitcanhelpstandardizecorporateprocedures(Chung,1999),
reducewaste,improvequalityandprovideindependentverificationthatsuchthingsarebeingdone(Love&Li,
2000).AcomparisonoftheU.S.andHongKongconstructionindustries(Ahmedetal.,2005)foundthatpromotion
ofISO9001certificationamongstclientsandgovernmentisminimalintheU.S.whileitisprominentinHongKong.
GLOSSARY
QMS Qualityprocessmanagementsystem
Quality Degreetowhichasetofinherentcharacteristicsfulfillsrequirements.Thisis
abroaddefinition.Notethatinthiscontextisdoesnotrefertoadegreeof
excellence.

REFERENCES
Chini,A.R.andValdez,H.E.(2003).ISO9000andtheU.S.ConstructionIndustry.J.ofManagementinEngineering,
19(2),pp.6977.
Chung,H.W.(1999).Understandingqualityassuranceinconstruction:apracticalguidetoISO9000,E&FSpon,
London,UK.
InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO).(2006).TheISOSurveyofCertifications2006.ISO,Geneva,
Switzerland.
InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO).(2009).ISO9000essentials.ISOwebsite.Availableat
http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/management_standards/iso_9000_iso_14000/iso_9000_essentials.htm
Accessed29October2009.
InternationalOrganizationforStandardization.ISO9001:2008QualitymanagementsystemsRequirements.1st
ed.2008:IHS.
Ketola,J.,&Roberts,K.(2008).ISO9001:2008Update:Theyear2008revisionofISO9001hasmadeitswaytoa
FinalDraftInternationalStandard.QualityDigest.20,3336.
Love,P.E.D.&Li,H.(2000).Overcomingtheproblemsassociatedwithqualitycertification.’Construction
ManagementandEconomics,18(2),pp.139149.
MoatazedKeivani,R,;GhanbariParsa,A.R.,&Kagaya,S.(1999).ISO9000standards:perceptionsandexperiences
intheUKconstructionindustry.ConstructionManagementandEconomics,17,pp.107119.
Nee,P.A.(1996).ISO9000inConstruction.Wiley,NewYork,NY.

Yates,J.K.,&Aniftos,S.(1997).InternationalStandardsandConstruction.JournalofConstructionEngineeringand
Management.123(2),127.
Yates,J.K.,&Aniftos,S.C.(1996).InternationalStandards:TheUSConstructionIndustry'sCompetitiveness.Cost
Engineering:aPublicationoftheAmericanAssociationofCostEngineers.38(7),32.

ENVIRONMENTAL TRAINING
GOAL CA-2
Provideconstructionpersonnelwiththeknowledgetoidentifyenvironmentalissues
andbestpracticemethodstominimizeenvironmentalimpacts.

Provideanenvironmentaltrainingplanthatiscustomizedtotheproject,including:
1. Listofthetypesofprojectpersonneltobetrained.Thismaybealistbyjobtypeor
byemployerneednotcontainactualemployeenames. RELATED CREDITS
2. Descriptionofthetypes,goalsandobjectivesoftrainingtobegiven.
3. Aprocesstotracktrainingefforts,includingdates,means(e.g.,online,classroom, 9 PR11Educational
fieldtraining),topics,theidentificationofthoseparticipatingintraining,and Outreach
attendancenumbers 9 EW1Environmental
4. Aprocesstomeasureoftrainingeffectivenesssuchasselfassessment,pretestand ManagementSystem
posttest,andproductivitymeasurement. 9 CA1Quality
ManagementSystem
Details
Theenvironmentalawarenesstrainingplanshalladdressthefollowingtraining SUSTAINABILITY
elements,orstatewhyanyareinappropriate: COMPONENTS
a. Permitconditions,performancestandards,environmentalcommitments,and 9 Ecology
environmentalregulationsrelatedtotheproject 9 Equity
b. Overallimportanceofenvironmentalissues(i.e.,ecologicalimpactofactions) 9 Expectations
c. Identifyingworkactivitiesthatpresentthegreatestriskforcompliance(i.e., 9 Experience
specificenvironmentalsensitivitiesoftheproject) 9 Exposure
d. Requiredenvironmentalqualificationsandcertifications
e. Environmentalrecordsmanagement BENEFITS
f. Environmentalcompliancemonitoringandreportingprocedures
9 ReducesAir
g. Unanticipatedhistoricresourceorarchaeologicaldiscoveries
Emissions
h. Environmentalnotificationtriggersandemergencyresponseprocedures
9 ReducesWater
i. Oilspillpreventionandresponseprocedures
Pollution
j. Constructionstormwatermanagement(includingmonitoringsitesand
9 ReducesSolidWaste
monitoringandreportingprocedures)
9 ImprovesHuman
k. Erosionandsedimentcontrolprocedures(includingdustmitigation)
Health&Safety
l. Inwaterwork
9 Improves
m. Reductionofairpollution
Accountability
n. Managementofknownorsuspectedcontamination
o. Wastemanagementandrecycling
p. Hazardousmaterialsmanagement
q. Managementofnoiseimpacts
r. Litteringandgoodhousekeeping
s. Planfortrainingsubcontractorsandfieldpersonnelnotimmediatelyinvolvedat
projectstartorplanning.Thesepersonnelmustalsoreceivetraining.
DOCUMENTATION
x Acopyoftheenvironmentaltrainingplanandanyupdatestothatplanthatoccur
throughouttheconstruction.
x Asignedletterfromanowner’srepresentativestatingthatthecontractor(s)
followedtheenvironmentaltrainingplanassubmittedandupdated.
CA-2 Environmental Training 285


x Provideenvironmentaltrainingaspartofstandardorientationtrainingtoaconstructionproject.Donein
combinationwithconstructionhealthandsafetytrainingcanensurethatallpersonnelarereachedbefore
enteringtheworksite,andcanreducetrainingcostbyavoidingmultipletrainingsessions.
x Deliveractivityspecifictoolboxortailgatetalktopicsonsite,targetingthepertinentconstructionpersonnel
priortoeachnewactivity.Toolboxenvironmentaltalksmightrelyoncommerciallyavailablepresentations,
supplementedbycustomizedprojectandworklocationspecifictopics.
x Deliverenvironmentaltrainingonregularorasneededbasesviateleconferences,periodicemail
environmentalalerts,environmentalawarenessmeetings,designreviewmeetings,weeklyprojectmeetings,
preconstructionmeetingsforeachworkphase/activity,andfielddiscussionsduringsitemonitoringand
inspection.
x Focusenvironmentaltrainingcomponentsontargetaudienceswithappropriatefrequenciesasfollows:
x EnvironmentalStewardshiptraining:Discussstewardshipprinciplesattheconstructionkickoffmeeting.
x Baselineenvironmentalawarenesstraining:Provideenvironmentalorientationforallfieldpersonnel,
personallydeliveredpriortoentryintoworkphasesviaaconsistentaudiovisualpresentation;address
permitconditions,performancestandards,environmentalcommitments,environmentalregulations,and
overallimportanceofenvironmentalissues.
x Environmentaldesigntraining:Deliverthistrainingtodesignersatdesignreview/validationmeetingsduring
theconstructionphase(i.e.,designbuildprojects).
x Projectmanagementteamtraining:Conducttrainingduringsteeringmeetings.Discussupcoming
constructionscheduleandcorrespondingenvironmentalcompliancechallenges.Addressenvironmental
commitmentsandapplicablecontentofenvironmentalguidancemanuals.Orientdiscussiontothespecific
andappropriateworkstages,timeofyear,orworkactivity.
x Constructiontraining:Meetonsitetogiveconstructionworkerstoolbox/tailgatetraininginspecific
activitiespriortoinitiatingconstruction.Highlightpreconstructionandawarenessofcomplianceneedsand
howtosupportthezeroviolationsgoal.Providepreactivityenvironmentalcompliancepocketchecklists
forimprovedenvironmentalperformance.
x Environmentalstafftraining:Providetheenvironmentalteamwithbiweeklyorasneededspecific
instructioninmonitoringtasks,performancedocumentationandcompliance,andenvironmental
compliancesupportprocedures.
x Skillandneedspecifictraining:Ensurecompetencyamongselectedenvironmentalstaffandcrewsin
waterqualitymonitoringprocedures,erosionandsedimentcontrolinspections,inwaterwork,etc.
Examples
WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)
WSDOT’sEnvironmentalManagementSystemdeliversenvironmentaltrainingtoprovidetoolsandinformation
toassiststaffinensuringthatprojectsstayincompliancewithenvironmentallaws,regulations,andpolicies
(WSDOT,2008a).AkeycomponentoftheirConstructionEnvironmentalManagementProgramistrainingthe
appropriatepersonnelontheapplicableprocedurestoensurecompliancewithenvironmentalrequirements
duringconstruction.Trainingsessionstargetvariousaudiences,includingenvironmentalpractitioners,
constructionstaff,andmaintenanceandoperationsstaff.Forexample:
x Drainagedesignleadengineerswhoareresponsibleforstormwaterdesign(includingdownstreamanalysis,
bridgescouranalysis,andfloodplainfillandhydraulicimpactmitigationevaluations)mustcomplete
WSDOT'strainingcourseintheHighwayRunoffManual.
x WSDOTtrainscontractorstoensurewaterqualityismonitoredinaccordancewiththeHighwayRunoff
Manualprotocols,projectspecificpermitconditions,performancestandards,andenvironmental
commitments.
x Erosionandsedimentcontroldesignmustbepreparedbyanindividualwhohassuccessfullycompleted
WSDOT’sConstructionSiteErosionandSedimentControlcourse.
286 Environmental Training CA-2

Sometypesofenvironmentaltrainingarerequiredbyregulation.Forexample,spillprevention,containment,
andresponsetrainingforallspillrespondersisrequiredinWashingtoninaccordancewithWashington
AdministrativeCode(WAC)296824.Hazardousmaterialssurveys,includingasbestoscontainingmaterials/lead
basedpaint(ACM/LBP)mustbecompletedbyanAsbestosHazardEmergencyResponseAct(AHERA)certified
inspector.
MeasuringPerformanceofEnvironmentalTraining
Researchsuggeststhatenvironmentaltrainingasacomponentofenvironmentalmanagementsystems(e.g.,
ISO14001standards)improves:(1)employeeawareness,(2)operationalefficiency,(3)managerialawareness,
and(4)operationaleffectiveness(Rondinelli&Vastag,2000;Sroufe,2003).
DOTspreparequarterlyandannualreportsonprogramwideenvironmentalperformance.Forexample,
WashingtonDOT’sGrayNotebookindicatesenvironmentalperformancethroughEnvironmentalCompliance
Assurancemetrics(WSDOT,2008b).WashingtonDOTbelievesthatitsEnvironmentalComplianceAssurance
Proceduresandtheenvironmentalcomplianceforconstructioninspectorstrainingcoursehaveraisedthe
generalawarenessofnoncomplianceevents,witheventsbeingcitedandquicklyresolvedwithincreasing
numbers.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Constructionpersonnelmayturnoverduringtheproject.
2. Somesubcontractors,operatorsanddriversmaybeonsiteonlyonceorinfrequently.
RESEARCH
Thisresearchsectioncoverstheideaofenvironmentaltrainingintwodistinctsections.First,thevalueoftraining
ingeneralisaddressed(e.g.,whyshouldanyorganizationspendmoneyontraining?)andthenexamplesofand
reasonsforconstructionrelatedenvironmentaltrainingarediscussed.
TheValueofTraininginGeneral
Knowledgeisavitalorganizationalasset.Thisistheessentialunstatedassumptionassociatedwithalmostall
trainingdiscussions.WhileAmericancorporationsspendinexcessof$50billionannuallyontraining(Galvin,2002)
andnumerousauthorsespousethevirtueandnecessityoftraining,fewmakeanefforttoactuallyshowitsvalue.
Thissectionhighlightsthefundamentalpremiseforcontinuedandevenincreasedsupportfortraining:itisan
investmentinavaluablecommoditythatproduceshighreturns.
KnowledgeisValuable
Today,intheinformationage,organizationsareroutinelyvaluednotontheirphysicalbutrathertheir
intellectualcapital.EdvinssonandMalone(1997)defineintellectualcapitalas“thepossessionofthe
knowledge,appliedexperience,organizationaltechnology,customerrelationshipsandprofessionalskillsthat
provide[anorganization]withacompetitiveedgeinthemarket.”BassiandVanBuren(1999)pointoutthat
“intellectualcapitalistheonlysourceofcompetitiveadvantagewithinagrowingnumberofindustries.”For
instance,themarketvalueofMicrosoftfarexceedsthevalueofitsphysicalassets.Tobesure,muchofthis
valueisbasedonspeculation,butmuchisalsobasedonMicrosoft’sintellectualcapital–whatitknows.
Trainingisoneofthechiefmethodsofmaintainingandimprovingintellectualcapital.Becauseofthis,an
organization’strainingcanaffectitsvalue.BassiandVanBuren(1999)foundtrainingasapercentageof
payrolltobesignificantlycorrelatedwiththemarkettobookvalueofpubliclytradedcompanies.Wherethe
averageU.S.employerspentabout0.9%ofpayrolloneducationandtraining(Bassietal.,1996),training
magazine’s2002top100trainingcompaniesaveraged4%withPfizerrankingfirstat14%.

TrainingisanInvestment
Generalaccountingstandardsclassifytrainingasanexpense.However,trainingisreallyaninvestment:an
organizationtypicallyinvestsupfronttotrainitsemployees(intheformofenrollmentfees,travelexpenses
andopportunitycostoftheemployees’time)and,inreturn,expectsfuturereturns(intheformofincreased
knowledge,skillsandproductivity).Aswithanyotherinvestment,ifthereturnsoutweightheinvestment,
trainingisaworthwhileendeavor.
Trainingisalsoaninvestmentfromtheemployee’sperspective.Trainingincreasesskillsandknowledge,which
canleadtobetterpayorpromotion.Sowhobenefitsmostfromthetraininginvestment:theemployeewith
increasedwagesand/orpromotionortheemployerwithincreasedproductivity?LoewensteinandSpletzer
(1998)researchedthisquestionandconcluded,“...theeffectofanhouroftrainingonproductivitygrowthis
aboutfivetimesaslargeastheeffectonwagegrowth.”Therefore,employers“reapalmostallthereturnsto
companytraining”(Bartel,2000).Thismaybeoversimplifyingbecauseemployeesgenerallyviewtrainingas
eitheragiftfromtheemployeroratleastasignofcommitmentonthepartoftheemployee,whichis
importanttojobsatisfaction(Barrett&O’Connell,2001).
Insum,boththeemployeeandemployerbenefitfromthetraininginvestment.Thequestionnowshiftstoone
ofmeasurement:dothereturnsontrainingoutweightheinvestment?
TrainingReturnonInvestment(ROI)
Whencalculatedusingsoundmethodology,traininghasbeenshowntoprovidesignificantreturnon
investment:ontheorderof5to200percent.TheproblemisthatmethodsusedtoquantifytrainingROIcan
oftenbesuspectorevenoutrightselfpromotion.Furthermore,itisoftenverydifficulttoquantifytheeffects
oftraining.Forinstance,oneoftraining’seffectscanbeincreasedjobsatisfaction,whichisdifficultifnot
impossibletoquantify.Intuitivelyweknowthisisimportantinretaininggoodemployees;howeveritwillnot
showuponaROIcalculation.
In2000,Bartelprovidedoneofthebestobjectivelooksatthevalueoftrainingtotheemployer.Shelookedat
10largedatasetsurveysand16individualcasestudiesinanattempttodeterminetheemployer’sreturnon
investmentforemployeetraining.Shefoundthefollowing:
x MethodsusinglargedatasetstocomparemanydifferentorganizationsestimatedtrainingROIfrom7to50
percent.
x IndividualcasestudiesestimatedtrainingROIfrom100to5900percent.BartelbelievesthehighROIsin
thiscategoryarebasedonfaultymethodology.Herindepthanalysisoftwowellconstructedinternalcase
studiesrevealeda100to200percentROI.
Therefore,eventhemostconservativeestimateputstraining’sROIat7percent–anacceptablerateofreturn
bymoststandards.Additionally,althoughitisnotappropriatetogeneralizebasedontheresultsoftwocase
studies,itcanbesaidthatbasedonBartel’sindepthanalysisoftwowellconstructedinternalcasestudies,
training’sROIcanbemuchhigher:approaching100to200percent.
Summary
Trainingisavaluablecommoditythat,ifviewedasaninvestmentratherthananexpense,canproducehigh
returns.Whileitistruethattrainingcostsmoneyandusesvaluableemployeetimeandresources,studies
tendtoshowtrainingprovidesapositivereturnoninvestment–sometimesintheneighborhoodofseveral
hundredpercent.Therefore,althoughtrainingmightseemlikealuxuryexpenseintightfinancialtimes,itis,in
fact,oneofthemostsureandsoundinvestmentsavailable.
EnvironmentalTraining
Environmentaltrainingis,forthemostpart,aresponsetopublicdemandforbetterenvironmentalperformancein
infrastructureconstruction.Thisisgenerallyseenintwoways:(1)publicowneragencieshavebeguntorequirenot
onlythatprojectsmeetenvironmentalregulationsbutalsothattheyincorporateemployeeenvironmentaltraining

inordertoimproveunderstandingandcompliance,and(2)privatefirms(e.g.,constructionfirms)usingtraining
programsasawaytogaincompetitiveadvantagebasedonownerrequirementsandalsoasacomponentintheir
approachtoaddressingownerandshareholder(inthecaseofpubliccompanies)demandsforenvironmental
accounting.
OwnerAgencyTrainingandRequiredTrainingforContractWork
Manystatedepartmentsoftransportation(DOTs)provideenvironmentaltrainingtotheiremployeesandsome
arebeginningtorequiretrainingofcertainkeypersonnelfromcontractorsworkingonpublicprojects.Ina
2002surveyofstateDOTs(VennerConsulting&ParsonsBrinderhoff,2004),24wereperforminggeneral
natureresourcesand/orregulatorytrainingforengineersand/orconstructionpersonnel;whileabout60%
offeredgeneraltrainingintheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA),publicinvolvement,environmental
processesandbestmanagementpractices(BMPs)formaintenanceandwaterquality.
Itisalsobecomingmorecommonforowneragenciestorequirecontractortraininginstormwaterpollution
preventionmethods,commonlyreferredtoastemporaryerosionandsedimentcontrol(TESC)onconstruction
sites.TypicallyasupervisorNPDEStohaveatrainederosionandsedimentcontrolpersononsitetomanagea
project’stemporaryerosionandsedimentcontrolefforts.Forexample,forconstructioninhighqualityor
impairedwaters,Tennesseerequiresthecontractor’serosionpreventionandsedimentcontrolinspectorand
environmentalsupervisortohavecompletedaspecifiedformalcourse(orequivalent)(TDOT,2005).
ConstructionFirmTraining
Constructionfirmshavebeguntorecognizeaneedtoformallymanagetheirimpactontheenvironmentand
haveincludedtrainingprograms(bothcompanywideandprojectspecific)tohelp.Reasonsforhavingan
environmentaltrainingprograminclude:
a. Compliancehelp.ThenumberandcomplexityofexistingU.S.environmentalregulationsandtheir
associatedcostlyfinesifviolated(seeU.S.EPA,2005)necessitatesanorganizedapproachtounderstanding
andcomplyingwiththeseregulations.InaHongKongstudy(Tametal.,2006)“managementandtraining”
wasidentifiedasthemostimportantevaluationfactorforassessingenvironmentalissuesinconstruction
projects.
b. Showingcommitmenttothepublic.Publicallyheldcompanies,especiallythoselistedinEuropean
exchanges,areunderpressuretoshowtheirsustainabilityeffortstotheirstockholders.Theseofteninclude
“environmentalmanagementsystems”(EMS)–seeEW1.AfundamentalcomponentofanEMSisan
employeetrainingplan(Christinietal.,2004).Thus,thosecompanieswithEMSsorthoseprogressing
towardsthemhaveaneedforenvironmentaltraining.
c. Competitiveadvantage.Somepubliccontracts,especiallydesignbuildones,haveascoringsystemthat
awardsenvironmentalconsiderationsbeyondregulatorycompliance.Also,someclientsmaysoonrequire
contractorstohaveanEMS(includingthetrainingcomponent)inplace(Christinietal.,2004).
REFERENCES
Barrett,A.&O’Connell,P.J.(April2001).DoesTrainingGenerallyWork?TheReturnstoInCompanyTraining.
IndustrialandLaborRelationsReview,54(3).pp.647662.
Bartel,A.P.(July2000).MeasuringtheEmployer’sReturnonInvestmentsinTraining:Evidencefromthe
Literature.IndustrialRelations,39(3).pp.502524.
Bassi,L.J.&VanBuren,M.E.(1999).Valuinginvestmentsinintellectualcapital.InternationalJournalof
TechnologyManagement,18(5/6/7/8).pp.414432.
Bassi,L.J.;Gallagher,A.L.&Schroer,E.(1996).TheASTDTrainingDataBook.AmericanSocietyforTrainingand
Development.Alexandria,VA.

Christini,G.;Fetsko,M.&Hendrickson,C.(2004).EnvironmentalManagementSystemsandISO14001Certification
forConstructionFirms.J.ofConstructionEngineeringandManagement,130(3),pp.330336.
Edvinsson,L.&Malone,M.S.(1997).IntellectualCapital:RealizingYourCompany’sTrueValuebyFindingits
HiddenBrainpower.HarperBusiness.NewYork,NY.
Galvin,T.(October2002).2001IndustryReport.Training,38(10).pp.4075.
Loewenstein,M.A.&Spletzer,J.R.(November1994).InformalTraining:AReviewofExistingDataandSomeNew
Evidence.NationalLongitudinalSurveysDiscussionPaper.U.S.DepartmentofLabor,BureauofLabor
Statistics.Washington,D.C.http://www.bls.gov/ore/pdf/nl940050.pdf.
Tam,V.W.Y.;Tam,C.M.;Yiu,K.T.W.&Cheung,S.O.(2006).Criticalfactorsforenvironmentalperformance
assessment(EPA)intheHongKongconstructionindustry.ConstructionManagementandEconomics,24(11),
pp.11131123.
TennesseeDepartmentofTransportation(TDOT).(2005).RulesofTennesseeDepartmentofTransportation
ConstructionDivision,Chapeter168052ContractorQualificationsforConstructioninHighQualityorImpaired
Waters.http://www.state.tn.us/sos/rules/1680/168005/16800502.pdf.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2005).ManagingYourEnvironmentalResponsibilities:APlanning
GuideforConstructionandDevelopment.OfficeofCompliance,OfficeofEnforcementandCompliance
Assurance,U.S.EPA,Washington,D.C.
VennerConsulting&ParsonsBrinderhoff.(2004).EnvironmentalStewardshipPractices,Procedures,andPolicies
forHighwayConstructionandMaintenance.NCHRPProject2525(04),TransportationResearchBoard,
Washington,D.C.
WSDOT.2008a.EnvironmentalManagementPrograms.WashingtonDepartmentofTransportation,Olympia,WA.
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/EMS/ems_training.htm#enviromental.Accessed7December2008.
WSDOT.2008b.Measures,MarkersandMileposts.TheGrayNotebook28.WashingtonDepartmentof
Transportation,Olympia,WA.

SITE RECYCLING PLAN

GOAL CA-3
Minimizetheamountofconstructionrelatedwastedestinedforlandfillandpromote
environmentalstewardshipthroughgoodhousekeepingpracticesattheworksite.

Establish,implement,andmaintainaformalSiteRecyclingPlanaspartofthe
ConstructionandDemolitionWasteManagementPlan(CWMP)duringconstruction.
TheSiteRecyclingPlanmustclearlydescribetheplanforimplementing, RELATED CREDITS

communicating,monitoringandmaintainingappropriaterecyclinganddiversion 9 PR6Waste
practicesonsite.Thefollowingtopicsmustbespecificallyaddressed. ManagementPlan
9 PR10Site
1. Expectedtypes,quantities,processingordisposalfacilities,locationsofreceptacles MaintenancePlan
andproperhandlingforrecyclable(orreusable)roadwaymaterialsgeneratedfrom 9 EW1Environmental
roadwayconstructionprocessessuchas(butnotlimitedto): ManagementSystem
9 MR4Recycled
x Pavingprocesswaste(e.g.hotmixasphalt,concrete) Materials
x Millingwaste,concretesloughandgrindings,cobble 9 CA2Environmental
x Excesssteelrebarandothermetalproductsorscraps Training
x Excessplasticpipesandpackaging
x Excavatedsoilcuttingsandboulders SUSTAINABILITY
x Landclearingdebrisandtopsoil COMPONENTS
x Woodandpaperproducts(e.g.packagingmaterials,cardboardandpallets)
9 Ecology
2. Expectedtypes,quantities,processingordisposalfacilities,locationsofreceptacles 9 Expectations
andproperhandlingforrecyclable(orreusable)materialsgeneratedfrommobile 9 Exposure
office(e.g.jobtrailer,siteoffice)activitiesandpersonalworker(household)waste
suchas(butnotlimitedto): BENEFITS
9 ReducesAir
x Paper,copierpaper,paperproducts Emissions
x Plastic 9 ReducesSolidWaste
x Aluminumandvarioushouseholdmetals 9 ReducesManmade
x Glass Footprint
x Householdtrashorcompostables 9 ReducesLifecycle
Costs
3. Communicationexpectationsforjobsitehousekeepingpracticesforthegeneral 9 Improves
contractor(alsointendedforanysubcontractors)regarding: Accountability
x Littercontrol
x Expectedtypesofsiteandworkergeneratedrecyclables.
x Collectionpracticesforsiteandworkergeneratedrecyclables.
x Locationsofrecyclingreceptacles.
x Trainingrequirementsforallsiteemployeesandmeansofcorrectiveaction.
DOCUMENTATION
x CopyoftheSiteRecyclingPlan.
CA-3 Site Recycling Plan 291


x IncludetheSiteRecyclingPlaninagencycontractdocuments,bidpackages,and/orspecifications.
x SetwastereductiongoalsandexplicitlystatethemintheSiteRecyclingPlan.
x Locatereceptaclesineasilyaccessibleorhighlyfrequentedlocationsonthejobsite.Receptaclesshouldnotbe
placedinareaswheretheymaycauseharmtoworkersorthelocalenvironment.SeePR7PollutionPrevention
Planformoreinformation.
x Clearlylabelreceptaclesandrecyclinglocations.Largecolorphotosofwhatisrecyclableandwhatisnotare
oftenveryhelpful,especially,formultilingualworkenvironments.
x Providewastereceptaclesthataresmallerthantherecyclingreceptacles,slightlymoredifficulttoopen,or
slightlymoredifficulttoaccess.Thisprovidesavisualorbehavioralcueindicatingthatthetrashissupposedto
belimitedandthereareamplerecyclingalternatives.
x Includeinstructionsorwarningsonthewastebinsuchas:“AreYouSureThisIsNotRecyclable?”
x Manyrecyclingfacilitiescanacceptcomingledrecyclables,whichmeansthatlesssortingandfewer
receptaclesarerequired.However,quantitiesofthesecomingledmaterialsareoftenhardertotrackand
requiredetailedreceiptsfromthewastetransportagencytoassessthecompositionofcomingledstreams.
x Designateaparticularpersonorafewpeopletobethesitemonitorforhelpingworkersrecycleproperly.
x Reviewlocalenvironmentalmaintenanceplansusedforlittercontrolandroadwaycleanupactivities.These
plansmaybehelpfulreferenceswhendevelopingtheSiteRecyclingPlan,oratminimum,reducepotentialfor
conflictbetweenexistingpolicyandpractice.SeealsoPR10SiteMaintenancePlan.
x HireacontractorwithanEnvironmentalManagementSystem(EMS)inplace.(SeeCreditEW1Environmental
ManagementSystem).Theseemployersalreadyhaveinternalofficeproceduresestablishedtoreduceoffice
relatedpollutionandmaybefamiliarwithlocalagencyrecoveryeffortsandrecyclingorsalvagefacilities.
x Developanddelivertrainingtoworkerstoeducatethemonwasterecoveryeffortsbeingimplementedonsite
andcompliancewiththegeneralCWMPandtheSiteRecyclingPlan.Thisstepwillbecriticaltoallprojects.See
CreditCA2EnvironmentalTrainingformoreapproachesandstrategiesforeducationprograms.
x Createanincentiveorrecognitionplanforworkerstoengageactivelyinrecyclingeffortsofpersonaltrashthat
rewardspositiveandsuccessfulbehavior.
x Hireanexperiencedwastetransportcompanytomanagesitewasteandmonitorwastestreamsfor
unacceptablematerials.
x Identifylocalfacilitiesthatacceptrecyclablesorsalvagedmaterials.Thisisimportantindesignatingtypeof
wastetoseparate,andinmakingarrangementsfordropoffordeliveryofmaterials.
x Identifyexistingrecyclingcollectionfacilitiesthatmaybedecentralized(i.e.recyclebinsalongacitystreet).
Manyurbanizedareaswillhaveaccessorprovisionsforlocalrecyclingprogramsandmayhaveresources
availableforuse.
x The2007Contractor’sGuidebytheKingCountySolidWasteDivisionandSeattlePublicUtilitiesprovidesmany
helpfulwastemanagementandreductionstrategiesfortheentireproject.Asamplewastemanagementplan
adaptedfromthisguideisprovidedintheexamplesbelow.
Example: Sample Specification Language for Site Recycling Plan

x TheKingCountySolidWasteDivision(KingCounty,2009)providessomehelpfultoolsforwritingclearand
manageablerecyclinganddiversionexpectationsintocontractdocumentsathttp://www.greentools.us.A
sampleof“Section01505(or1524)–ConstructionWasteManagement”isprovidedatthelinkbelowin
ConstructionSpecificationsInstitute(CSI)MasterFormat(KingCounty,2008):
http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/documents/Sect01505_const_wastemgmt.pdf
x Communicatingtheplanexpectationswithsubcontractorsisequallyimportant.Followingisasample
clauseforsubcontractoragreements:
"Thesubcontractorwillmakeagoodfaithefforttoreducetheamountofwastegeneratedonthejobsiteand
recyclematerialasperthecontractor'swastemanagementplan.Thesubcontractorwillfollowthedesignated
handlingproceduresforeachtypeofwastegeneratedonsiteandprovidedocumentationtoverifymaterial
reuse,recyclinganddisposalasindicatedinthewastemanagementplan."(KingCounty,2008)
292 Site Recycling Plan CA-3

Example: Sample Construction Waste Management Plan with Materials Recovery

Thefollowingexamplecontenthasbeenadaptedfromthe2007Seattle/KingCountyContractor’sGuide,which
isavailablehere:http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/documents/ConGuide.pdf.Projects
teamsshouldconsidercustomizingtheSiteRecyclingPlaninformationbasedonprojectgoalsandagencyor
clientexpectations.
SITE RECYCLING PLAN

GeneralContractor:
ProjectName:
SiteRecyclingCoordinator:
Phone:
DebrisCollectionAgency:

SiteRecycling/DiversionGoals:

Stepstoinformcontractors/subcontractorsofSiteRecyclingPlanpolicies.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

C&DMaterialsExpectedtobeGeneratedandProposedDiversionMethod
Thefollowingchartsidentifymaterialsexpectedtobegeneratedbythisprojectandtheplannedmethodfor
divertingthesematerialsfromdisposalasawaste.
DECONSTRUCTION&DEMOLITIONPHASE
Material Quantity(units) DiversionMethod&Location HandlingProcedure

CONSTRUCTIONPHASE
Material Quantity(units) DiversionMethod&Location HandlingProcedure

FigureCA3.1:Samplesiterecyclingplanformat.

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Acentrallocationforcollectingrecyclablesonaroadwayprojectmaynotbefeasibleforjobsitesthat
consistentlychangestartinglocationsonadailybasis(i.e.severalmilesdowntheroadwayawayfromthe
collectionarea).Thismayresultinunnecessaryvehicleorworkertripstoandfromaparticularlocationjustto
depositsomethinginacorrectrecyclingreceptacle.Theauthorsareunawareofanypracticesthathavebeen
usedonroadwayconstructionprojectsthatcouldsolveoravoidthisproblem.
2. Thereisatradeoffbetweentransportcosts(includingenvironmentalcostsfromemissions)andtheoverall
utilityorvalueoftherecycledorsalvagedmaterials.Somelocations,especiallymanyruralareas,mayhave
difficultyfindingrecoveryfacilitiesthatarelocatednearenoughtotheprojecttobefinanciallyor
environmentallycosteffective.
3. Technologyisquicklydevelopingforrecyclingofmaterialsintoreconstitutedbuildingmaterials(SeecreditMR
4).However,newtechnologiesmaynotbeavailablelocallyorinruralareas.
4. Carelessbehaviororlackofstewardshipmaybeanissuethatcanresultinrecyclablesbeingdisposedofin
wasteonlyreceptacles,orviceversa,especiallyifobjectivesofaSiteRecyclingPlanarenotmeaningfulor
communicatedwelltoworkers.Thisbehaviorcancontaminatetherecyclablesstreamandmakeanentire
receptacleunsuitableforreprocessingorsalvage,oraccidentallysendrecyclablestoalandfill.
5. Properhandlingofrecyclablematerialsisakeysafetyissuefornewandunfamiliarrecyclingactivities.
Communicationandtrainingiscriticaltominimizeriskandpreservesafety.
6. Safetyandsecurityconsiderationsshouldbetakenintoaccountrelativetoonsitestorageofrecoverable
materialsofhighvalue.Opportunitiesfortheftmaybeincreased,especiallyforsometypesofmetalsthatare
commonlyusedininfrastructureorelectricalutilitieslikecopperwire.
7. Storageareasmustcomplywithrelevantregulationsandthepollutionpreventionplan(seeProject
RequirementPR7).
8. Atthistime,pointsarenotavailableforachievingwastereductionbasedonpercentageoftotalwaste.Thisis
duetolackofdataregardingwastemanagementforroadwayconstructionactivities.
RESEARCH
Thissectiondescribesknownchallengesaboutimplementingarecyclingandrecoveryplanatroadway
constructionsitesandexploresthepotentialenvironmentalbenefitsofsuchplans.Fordetailedbackground
informationonwhatisknownaboutconstructionanddemolition(C&D)wastemanagementforroadways,the
readerisreferredtoProjectRequirementPR6WasteManagementPlan.Similarly,fordetailedinformationon
planningforbulkroadwaymaterialsrecycling,recoveryorreuse(thefirstrequirementfortheSiteRecoveryPlan),
thereaderisdirectedtowardtheMaterials&ResourcesCreditsMR2PavementReuse,MR3EarthworkBalance,
andMR4RecycledMaterials.Thesecreditscontainmanyapproachesandstrategiesthatmaybesynergisticwhen
pursuingthiscredit.
Thissectionaddressestwokeypointswhicharenotaddressedintherequirementsorcreditsnotedabove:whatis
knownaboutthestateofrecyclinghousekeepingpracticesandmunicipalsolidwaste(MSW,alsoknownas
householdorpersonalwaste)generationonconstructionsitesandthebenefitsandcostsofapplicable
constructionmaterialsrecoveryactivities.Helpfulresourcesarealsolistedattheendformoreinformation.
StateoftheRoadIndustryRecyclingPractice
Whileseveralagenciesandauthorspromoterecyclingmaterialwasteproductsusedinroadwayconstruction,
informationontherecyclablematerialwastesgeneratedbyroadwayconstructionanddemolitionprojectsishard
tolocate.Thefollowinglistidentifiesareasofconstructionactivitiesforwhichthereiscurrentlylittleorno
relevantdata:
x Wastemanagementplansfortransportationcontractors
x Sorting,segregationandprocessingactivitiesforroadwayconstructionwaste,andwheretheseactivitiesoccur
(i.e.onsite,offsite)
x Behaviorsandstewardshippracticesofroadconstructionemployees

x Generationratesandquantitiesofpersonaltrash
x Generationratesandquantitiesofofficerelatedtrashforconstructionsiteoffices
x CostsassociatedwithC&DandMSWmanagementfromconstructionworksites
Existingregulatoryrequirementsfocusmainlyonstormwater,sedimentanddustcontrolandotherstandard
pollutionpreventionactivities,suchastheNationalPollutionDischargeandEliminationSystem(seealsoProject
requirementPR7PollutionPreventionPlan).SomeagenciesmayalsohaveEnvironmentalManagementSystems
(EMS)inplace(seeCreditEW1EnvironmentalManagementSystem)whichofteninstitutepersonalandoffice
wastemanagementpolicies,butnoinformationisavailablerelativetowhethertheseEMSplansareimplemented
andfollowedattheconstructionsite.
Thelackofinformationislikelypartlybecauserecyclingactivitiesrepresentamaterialsfeedbackloopatmany
levelsoftheroadwaysystem,fromdesignandconstructiontostartandendofthesupplychain.Waste
managementandrecoveryofresourcesfitneartheendofthepollutionpreventionscheme,buttheseactivities
themselvescaninjectmaterialsintovariouslifecyclephasesoftheoverallproject(EPA,2009b).Thismakes
environmentalcostsandbenefitsofrecyclingdifficulttoquantify,characterizeandcomparebetweendifferent
projects.Someenvironmentalcostsofmaterialsandproductsduetoextractionandinitialproductionare
effectivelyextendedintoasecondservicelifethroughdowncyclingrecoveryactivities(wheresomeoriginalvalue
islost),generalrecyclingorupcycling(valueisgained)practices.(McDonough&Braungart,2002)Italsomeans
longrangeandupstreamplanningandreductionstrategiescanoftenprovidemoreevidentreductionbenefits
laterinthelifecycle(EPA,2009b).
RajendranandGambetese(2007)estimatedwasteratesforC&Dmaterialtypesbasedonliteraturereviewand
quantitativemodeling.Theirestimates,however,donotincludeMSWmaterialsgeneratedfrompersonaloroffice
activitiesorbehaviorsofsitestaff(theirestimatedratesareitemizedinTablePR6.1).Solidwasterecoveryfor
constructionanddemolitiondebrisisaddressedinPR6andMR4.
CostEffectivenessofConstructionRecyclingPrograms
Afewauthors(Seydeletal.,2002;Kourmpanisetal.,2008;Schultmann&Sunke,2007)haveattemptedto
quantifycostsandperceivedbenefitsassociatedwithconstructionwastemanagementpractices.Thosethathave
donesosuccessfullyhaveonlyfollowedconstructionofbuildingsandbuildingsiteinfrastructurecomponents.
Becausebuildingsitesarerelativelycompactcomparedtothelinearnatureofroads,andbecauseofthevast
differenceintheexpectedtypesofmaterialquantities(e.g.hotmixasphaltandconcretematerials),therelevance
ofthesestudiesmaybeminor.However,therecyclingactivitiesandmethodsusedforbuildingsprojectsvary
widely.Manydifferentwastemanagementorwasterecoveryprocessesmayalsobeapplicabletoroadwayand
bridgedemolitionandconstruction.Additionally,noquantitativecostmodelswerebasedonU.S.data.
SchultmannandSunke(2007)usealifecycleenergyanalysismodeltoshowthatrecoveryofwasteconstruction
materialsreduceslifecyclecosts,mostlyduetoreducedenergyuseduringextractionofmaterials.Thesesavings
appeartotranslatewelltoroadwaymaterialsbasedontheenergyanalysisforroadwayconstructioncompletedby
RajendranandGambetese(2007),whichdoesuserelevantU.Sdata.SchultmannandSunke(2007),aswellasthe
ConstructionIndustryResearchandInformationAssociation(CIRIA,2004),alsonotethatclosedloopdesignand
planningfordeconstructionactivities,alsoknownascompleteselectivedemolition(Kourmpanisetal.,2008),
insteadofdestructionactivitiespresentsavaluableroutetopotentialcostsavingsformanymaterialproducts.
Kourmpanisetal.(2008)alsosuggestthatacombinationofconventionaldemolitionanddeconstructionactivities
(partialselectivedemolition)andcompleteselectivedemolitionofbuildingscanlowermaterialhandlingand
transportcostsandincreasedrecoveredvalueofmaterials.However,transportcostsandmachinerycostsforon
siteactivitiesmustbeweighedbecausetheyarehighlyvariablebetweenprojects,especiallybylocation.
Seydel,WilsonandSkitmore’s(2002)study(whichtrackedonlythreematerialsinonebuildingprojectinAustralia)
demonstratedthatrecyclingandsortingpracticesrequireheightenedenvironmentalawareness,moresupervision
ofhandlingoperationsandmoreoverallsortingthatisperceivedtobeinadditiontonormalenvironmental
controls.Theirhighesteffortrecoveryscenario,includingsortinganddisposal,reducedtransportanddisposal

costsofthewasteby18%fromtraditionalpracticesand9.5%fromminimallycontrolledwaste.However,the
bottomlinecostwasincreasedduetothemorecomplicatedwasteplanandmoretimespentmanagingand
monitoringcontractoremployeewasteactivities.Theauthorsstatethattheoverallpotentialforthewaste
recoveryplantobesuccessfullycosteffectiveandenvironmentallybeneficialwasnotrealizedduetocontractor
inexperiencewithsuchplanning.Additionally,theysuggestthataddedplanningandenvironmentalstewardship
couldincreasecostcompetitivenessamongconstructioncontractors.
Poonetal.(2001)statethatsourceseparation,whichtakesplaceattheconstructionsite,isheavilydependenton
anenvironmentallyeducatedworkforce,includingsubcontractors,thathasbeentrainedinpropermaterials
handlingandsortingprocedures.“Formostofthem,itisusuallyalonglearningprocesstobefamiliarandfeel
comfortablewithperformingwasteseparation.”(p.169).Propertraininghascostimplicationswhicharediscussed
furtherinCreditCA2EnvironmentalTraining.Crudeseparation,however,lowerstheoverallvalueofthe
recoverablematerial,becauseitoftenreducesthesortingefficiencydownstreamandrequiresspecialized
employeestocompletetheseparationatanoffsitelocation(Poonetal.,2001).Offsitewastesortingistypically
thepreferredoptionofmostbuildingcontractorsbecauseitdoesnotrequireadditionallaborforce,supervised
workonsite,noadditionalfacilities,oraddedtrainingcosts(Poonetal.,2001).Putsimply:outof“site,”outof
mind.Becausethismanagementoptionavoidsonsitestewardshippracticesentirely,thismethodisnot
recommended(Poonetal.,2001).
NotableRecyclingStatisticsforMSW
NoneofthestudiesnotedaboveconsiderMSWstreamsoriginatingfromanytypeofconstructionproject.What
followsinthissectionaregeneralstatisticsthatmaybeusefulinidentifyingandcharacterizingtheMSWportionof
thewastestreamgeneratedonroadwayandbridgeconstructionsites.
Generally,intheU.S.municipalsolidwastegenerationhasincreasedoverthelastfivedecades,butrecyclingand
compostingrateshavealsoincreased(EPA,2009b;EPA,2009c).ThewastestreamforMSWlandfillshasbeenwell
studiedandcharacterizedbytheEPA.DatabelowisfromtheEPA’sMunicipalSolidWasteGeneration,Recycling,
andDisposalintheUnitedStates:FactsandFiguresfor2008andincludesstatisticsforwastetypesthatmaybe
potentialencounteredatconstructionsites.
x Outof250milliontonsofMSWdisposed,about83milliontonswererecycledorcompostedin2008.Ofthe
totalwastegenerated,theEPAestimatesthatapproximately35%to45%wasfromcommercialand
institutionallocationsbutthemajoritywasresidentialorigin.
x TheU.S.wastestreamwas31%paperandpaperproducts(beforerecycling).SeeFigureCA3.2.
x Approximately54%ofallMSWisdiscarded,while33%isrecoveredforrecycling,andtheremainderis
burnedatlandfillsforenergyproduction.FigureCA3.3showsthetrendsanddistributionsofMSWsince
1960to2008.
x Byweight,paperandpaperproductsarethelargestsourceofwaste,withthehighestoverallrecovered
weight(55.5%recovered),thoughothermaterialshavehigherratesofrecoveryandlessrecoveredmass.
Specifically,71%percentofofficerelatedpapermaterialswererecovered.
x FigureCA3.4showsatableofEPA2008statisticsthatincludesallmaterialscharacterizedinthewaste
streamsmonitored.Manycouldbecommonlyfoundinsiteofficesandpersonalbelongings,includingfood
products.Infact,vegetativewastesanddebris,containers,andpackagingaccountfor44%ofthetotal
MSWstreamsenttolandfilland15%ofwoodpackagingwasrecovered(whichwasmostlypallets).
x AsnotedinPR6WasteManagementPlan,somemunicipalsolidwastelandfillsalsoacceptconstruction
anddemolitiondebris(EPA,2008a;EPA,2008d).Materialssuchashotmixasphaltandconcretemakeupa
smallpercentageofthetotalMSWwastestreamandarecategorizedinFiguresCA3.2andCA3.4as
“Other.”


FigureCA3.2:Compositionof2008U.S.MSWwastestream,
250milliontonstotal(beforerecycling)(EPA,2009c).
FigureCA3.3:DisposaltrendsforMSWintheUnitedStates,19602008(EPA,2009b).

FigureCA3.4:GenerationandRecoveryofMaterialsinMSW,2008(inmillionsoftons
andpercentofgenerationofeachmaterial)(EPA,2009c).

BenefitsofRecyclingMSW
TheEPA(2009c)states,“Recyclinghasenvironmentalbenefitsateverystageinthelifecycleofaconsumer
product—fromtherawmaterialwithwhichit’smadetoitsfinalmethodofdisposal.Asidefromreducing
[greenhousegas]emissions,whichcontributetoglobalwarming,recyclingalsoreducesairandwaterpollution
associatedwithmakingnewproductsfromrawmaterials.”In2008,the83milliontonsofMSWthatwere
recoveredrepresent182millionmetrictonsofcarbondioxideequivalentemissionssavedannually.Thisissimilar
toremovingtheairemissionsimpactgeneratedby33millionpassengercarsinoneyear(EPA,2009c).
ForMSWproducts,paperandwoodproducts(organicmaterials)arethemostcommonmaterialsinthewaste
streamthatendupinlandfills.Diversionofthesematerialsfromlandfills,aswellasotherorganicssuchastopsoils
andlandclearingdebris,offersreducedmethaneemissionsduetofewerlandfillemissionsfromdecompositionof
theseorganicmaterials.Methaneisagreenhousegasthatcontributes21timesasmuchtoglobalwarmingand
climatechangeascarbondioxideemissions.(IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,2007)Also,paperwaste

iseasilyandcommonlyrecycled,reducingtheoverallneedforforestedmaterials.Therefore,theEPA(2008)states
thatbynotdecreasingtrees,morecarbondioxideisabletobestoredinforestresources,(EPA,2008)andpriceless
habitatispreserved.
TheEPApromotessolidwastemanagementthroughprevention(sourcereduction),recyclingandcomposting
(2008c)asthreeclearwaystoreduceclimatechangeimpactsduetogreenhousegasemissionsandenergy
consumption.“Lessenergyisneededtoextract,transport,andprocessrawmaterialsandtomanufacture
productswhenpeoplereusethingsorwhenproductsaremadewithlessmaterial.”(EPA,2009a).Asshownin
SchultmannandSunke(2001),materialsthatcanreducefossilenergyneedmeansfewerassociatedemissions
fromtheenergysectorwiththerecycledmaterialthanforanewmaterialthathasbeenextractedand
manufacturedfromvirginmaterials(EPA,2008b).Wastepreventionpractices(alsoknownaspollutionprevention
orP2:EPA,2008e),whicharesupportedbytheEPAasthemosteffectivewaytoreduceenvironmentalimpacts,
canreducelifecycleemissionsandenergyusethanconstructionanddemolitionandMSWrecycling(2008b).
FutureofthisCredit
Otherfamiliarsustainabilityratingsystems,suchasLEED(USGBC,2009)forbuildingsandtheSustainableSites
Initiative(2009),awardcreditforreductionofsolidwasteanddiversionpracticesforconstructionanddemolition
materials.Currently,nominimumrecyclingstandardordataonaveragewastegeneratedperprojectisavailable
forcommontypesofroadwayconstructionprojects.Atthistime,Greenroadscannotjustifyawardingpointsto
oneprojectoveranotherbasedonwastemanagementpracticesorgoalsettingwithoutaknownbenchmarkfor
thisbestpractice.
AdditionalResources
x CIRIA,theConstructionIndustryResearchandInformationAssociation,providessomehelpfulhintsfordesign
andconstructionbestpracticeformanagingwasteandresources(2004):
x TheCaliforniaIntegratedWasteManagementBoard(CIWMB)offersanumberofresourcesandtools,including
videosofrecyclingbestpractices,(2009)availableat:http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Recycle/
x TheEPA’sP2(PollutionPrevention)ResourceExchangeprovidescontactinformationforregionalagenciesthat
canhelpconnectprojectleaderstotherightresourcesandopportunitiesforcreatingnewwastemanagement
programs:http://www.epa.gov/p2/pubs/p2rx.html
x WasteCapResourceSolutionsofferstipsandtricksusedbythebuildingindustry.Ofparticularinterestand
applicabilitytoroadwayprojectsareprewrittenspecifications(free)andadditionallinksandresources.
Trainingvideosandreceptaclemagneticsignsarealsoavailableforasmallfee.WasteCapalsooffersanonline
documentationprogramforwastemanagementplanningcalledWasteCapDirect(pricenotspecified).More
informationisavailablehere:http://www.wastecapwi.org/resources/constructiondemolition
GLOSSARY
C&D Constructionanddemolition
CIRIA ConstructionIndustryResearchandInformationAssociation
CIWMB CaliforniaIntegratedWasteManagementBoard
Closedloopdesign Anapproachthatconsiderswastemanagementinprojectplanninginorder
toavoidoreliminateprocessesthatgeneratewaste
Completeselectivedemolition See“deconstruction”
CSI ConstructionSpecificationsInstitute
CWMP ConstructionWasteManagementPlan
Deconstruction Thewholeorpartialdisassemblyofaproducttofacilitate
componentreuseandmaterialsrecycling
Demolition Conventionalmeansofdisassembly,ortakingapart,aproductorfacilitythat
istypicallydestructiveandgenerallyunplanned

Diversion Avoidingplacementinalandfillthroughrecoveryprocessessuchasrecycling
orreuse
Downcycling Recoveringaportionofausedproduct ormaterialinamannerthatreduces
theoriginalvalueoftheproductormaterialafterbeingreintroducedintothe
manufacturingorconstructionprocess(McDonough&Braungart,2002)
Partialselectivedemolition Engineeredareaswherewasteisplacedintotheland(EPA,2008)
Receptacle Abinorcontainer
Recycling(recyclable) Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialfromthewastestream
andprocessingsuchthatthosesamematerialscanbereintroducedintothe
manufacturingorconstructionprocess(CIWMB,2009)
Reuse(reusable) Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialfromthewastestream
thatrequiresminimal,ifany,processingtobereintroducedintothe
manufacturingorconstructionprocess
ROW Rightofway
Upcycling Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialinamannerthatincreases
Waste Anymaterialthatmustbehauledoffsitefordisposalorreprocessing,or,if
disposedwithintheprojectROW,isnotintendedforengineereduseonsite

REFERENCES
CaliforniaIntegratedWasteManagementBoard(CIWMB).(2009).Recycle:CIWMB.AccessedDecember21,2009.
Availableathttp://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Recycle/
ConstructionIndustryResearchandInformationAssociation.(2004).CIRIA:ConstructionWasteandResources.
DesignandConstructionGoodPracticePointers.AccessedDecember21,2009.Availableat
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2008)Landfills|MunicipalSolidWaste|Wastes|USEPA.Accessed
December16,2009.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/landfill.htm
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008b).ClimateChangeandMunicipalSolidWasteFactSheet|PayAsYou
Throw|USEPA.AccessedDecember21,2009.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/waste/conserve/tools/payt/tools/factfin.htm
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2009.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/municipal/index.htm
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2008)Landfills|C&DMaterials|Wastes|USEPA.AccessedDecember
16,2009.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/waste/nonhaz/industrial/cd/cdlandfill.htm
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008e).P2ResourceExchange|PollutionPrevention|USEPA.Accessed
December21,2009.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/p2/pubs/p2rx.html.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2009a).WasteHome|GeneralInformationontheLinkBetweenSolidWaste
andClimateChange|ClimateChangeWhatYouCanDo|USEPA.AccessedDecember21,2009.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/climate/climatechange/wycd/waste/generalinfo.html
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.OfficeofResourceConservationandRecovery.(2009b).MunicipalSolidWaste
Generation,Recycling,andDisposalintheUnitedStates:DetailedTablesandFiguresfor2008.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/msw2008data.pdf

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2009c).MunicipalSolidWasteGeneration,Recycling,andDisposalintheUnited
States:FactsandFiguresfor2008.(EPA530F009021)Availableat
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2007:SynthesisReport.“ContributionofWorkingGroupsI,IIandIIItotheFourthAssessment.Reportofthe
IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange.”IPCC:Switzerland,2007.104pp.
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WasteDivision.Availableathttp://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/documents/ConGuide.pdf
KingCountySolidWasteDivision.(2008).Designspecificationsandwastemanagementplansforgreenbuilding
projectsinKingCounty,WA.AccessedDecember20,2009.Availableat
http://your.kingcounty.gov/solidwaste/greenbuilding/constructionrecycling/specificationsplans.asp
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20,2009.Availableat:http://www.greentools.us
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WasteCapResourceSolutions.WasteCapResourceSolutionsConstruction&Demolition.AccessedDecember21,
2009.Availableathttp://www.wastecapwi.org/resources/constructiondemolition/



FOSSIL FUEL REDUCTION

GOAL CA-4
Reducetheoverallconsumptionoffossilfuelsbynonroadconstructionequipment.

CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Reducethefossilfuelrequirementsofnonroadconstructionequipmentbyusing
1-2 POINTS
biofuelorbiofuelblendsasareplacementforfossilfuel.Pointsareawardedasfollows:
1point
Reducethefossilfuelrequirementsofthenonroadconstructionequipmentfleetby RELATED CREDITS
15%throughtheuseofbiofuelorbiofuelblendsasareplacementforfossilfuel. 9 CA5Equipment
EmissionReduction
2points 9 CA6Paving
Reducethefossilfuelrequirementsofthenonroadconstructionequipmentfleetby EmissionsReduction
25%throughtheuseofbiofuelorbiofuelblendsasareplacementforfossilfuel.
SUSTAINABILITY
Details
COMPONENTS
Forthiscredit,atleast15%(for1point)or25%(for2points)ofthefuelconsumed
9 Ecology
bynonroadconstructionequipmentontheprojectshouldbefromasourceother
9 Economy
thanfossilfuel.Inmostcases,themoststraightforwardwayofachievingthisisby
usingabiofuel(B100)orbiofuelblend(e.g.,B20,B50)asonsitefuelforthe
equipmentfleet. BENEFITS
9 ReducesFossilFuel
DOCUMENTATION Use
9 ReducesAir
1. Asignedletterfromtheprimecontractorthatdescribesthefossilfueluse Emissions
reductionmeasuresusedandthepercentagereductionachieved. 9 ReducesGreenhouse
2. Aspreadsheetsummarizingallreceiptsforallfuelusedinnonroadequipmentfor Gases
theproject.Thespreadsheetshouldindicate(andreceiptsshouldshow)associated
biofuelblend(e.g.,B5,B20,B100)used.

CA-4 Fossil Fuel Reduction 303


x Supporttheenvironmentalandhealthbenefitsofbiodieselbyprovidingeconomicincentivetothegeneral
contractor.Thiscanbedoneeitherbybudgetingforaddedcostsofbiodieselfuelsourcestohelpoffset
potentialcostsorthroughothercontractrelatedincentives.
x Purchaseandusebiodieselastheonsitedieselfuel.UsingB20astheexclusiveonsitedieselwouldbea
meanstoensureatleasta20%reductioninfossilfueluseisachieved.
Example
Someexamplescenariosareprovidedbelowbasedonahypotheticalnonroadconstructionequipmentfleet
thatconsumes1,000gallonsoffuelduringprojectconstruction.
Nopoints
x B5(afuelthatis5%biofueland95%petroleumdiesel)isusedforall1,000gallonsoffuel.Thisamountsto
a5%reductioninfossilfueluse.
x B100(afuelthatis100%biofuel)isusedfor100gallonsoffuelandpetroleumdieselisusedforthe
remaining900gallons.Thisamountstoa10%reductioninfossilfueluse.
1point
x B20(afuelthatis20%biofueland80%petroleumdiesel)isusedforall1,000gallonsoffuel.Thisamounts
toa20%reductioninfossilfueluse,whichexceeds15%butislessthan25%.
2points
x B50(afuelthatis50%biofueland50%petroleumdiesel)isusedfor200gallonsoffuelandB20isusedfor
theremaining800gallons.Thisamountstoa26%reductioninfossilfueluse.
x B50(afuelthatis50%biofueland50%petroleumdiesel)isusedfor500gallonsoffuelandB20isusedfor
theremaining500gallonsoffuel.Thisamountstoa35%reductioninfossilfueluse.
Example: Turner Construction Company Case Study

B99,a99%proportionofbiodieseltoconventionalfuel,wasusedduringtheconstructionoftheMicrosoft
WindowsLiveColumbiaOneDataCenterinQuincy,Washingtontofuelequipmentoperatedbysubcontractors
hiredbyTurnerConstructionCompany.DiscussionswiththeSafetyManagerassignedtotheprojectrevealthat
thereasonbehindtheswitchtobiodieselfortheonsiteconstructionequipmentwastoprovidearemedyfor
thenoxiousdieselfumesthatwereemittedbythenonroadconstructionequipment.Workersreportedno
issueswithairqualityduringthefirsthalfoftheproject,howeverthesecondhalfoftheprojectwaswhena
considerableportionoftheconstructionworkwasperformedwithinthesemienclosedshellandcore
structure.Itwasduringthisstagewhentheparticulatematterandcarbonmonoxidelevelsemittedbythe
nonroadconstructionequipmentbecameaconcerntotheoperatorsandlaborersworkingalongside.The
situationwaspromptlybroughttotheattentionoftheSafetyManager.
UpontheSafetyManager’srecommendation,TurnerConstructionnegotiatedtheuseofbiodieselfuelforthe
equipmentbeingleasedfromthesubcontractorwhowasprovidingtheequipmentfortheproject.Theproject
calledforapproximately1520piecesofconstructionequipmentwhichwasleasedfromRSCEquipment
RentalsbasedoutofEllensburg,Washington(NationalBiodieselBoard,2008).DiscussionswiththeTurner
Construction’sSafetyManagerandtheEquipmentManagerfromRSCEquipmentRentalsconfirmedthatno
retrofittingwasrequiredfortheequipmentpriortomakingtheswitchtobiodieselfuel.
Asaproactivemeanstoprovidepreventativemaintenance,andasaresultoftheanticipatedcleansingofthe
fueldeliverysystemattributedtothesolventactionofbiodiesel,fuelfiltersforeachpieceofequipmentwere
replacedafterthefirstandthirdtankfulsoffuel.Observationsfromtheequipmentoperatorsdetectedno
noticeablelossinfuelefficiencyduringtheoperationoftheequipment.Fuelusewasnotmonitoredonan
individualequipmentbasisand,asaresult,dataisunavailabletocalculateandconfirmimprovementsor
304 Fossil Fuel Reduction CA-4

reductionstothefuelefficiencyoftheequipment.Furthermore,operatorsobservednosignificantlossof
powerfortheequipmentoperatingonbiodieselalthoughtheoperatorofaCAT330excavatornoticedasmall
powerlossnearfulloperatingload.Thelackofanoticeablepowerlossforthemajorityoftheequipmentwas
likelyduetotheequipmentnotbeingutilizedtoitsfullpowerpotential.
AirqualitydatawascollectedbyTurnerConstructionCompanyandtheWashingtonStateDepartmentofLabor
&Industriesshortlyaftermakingtheswitchtobiodiesel.Unfortunately,thedatacollectedbyTurner
Construction’sSafetyManagerwaslostasaresultofdamagetotheSafetyManager’sportablecomputer.
BasedontheSafetyManager’srecollectionhowever,thefollowinginformationpertainstotheairquality
managementproceedings:
x TheairqualitywasassessedduringtheoperationofconcretepumptrucksfueledwithB99biodieseland
measuredwhileoperatingwithintheconfinesoftheshellandcorestructure.Themeasurementwastaken
atthetruckexhaustusinganairmonitor.Readingswereasfollows:

x TurnerConstruction:2ppmCOattheexhaust
x DepartmentofLabor&Industries:34ppmCOattheexhaust
Airqualityregulationspermitcarbonmonoxideconcentrationsattheexhausttoapproach4045ppm.An
interestingsidecommentmadebyDepartmentofLabor&Industrytechnicians,andnotedbytheSafety
Manager,wasthattheproperfunctioningoftheirairmonitorswerecalledintoquestionbecausethecarbon
monoxidemeasurementswereunexpectedlylow.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Currently,biodieselinthemostcommonform,B20(a20percentblendofethanolandconventionaldiesel)
offersnosignificanteconomicadvantageandtheenvironmentalandsocialadvantagesareoftenoverlooked.
2. Theremaybeacostpremiumpergallonforbiodieseloverthatofconventionaldieselfuel.
3. Biodieseliscurrentlynotproducedinsufficientquantitiestomeetwidespreaddemand.
4. Enginemanufacturersmaynothonordieselenginewarrantiesifsuchenginesusebiofuels.Asof2009,most
enginemanufacturersallowB5andsomeallowuptoB20undertheircurrentwarranties.
5. Lackofindustrydataforengineperformanceleadstoskepticequipmentmanufacturers.
6. Limitedavailabilityofethanolfeedstockbecauseofthetradeoffwithintheagriculturalindustryforproduction
offoodversusproductionoffuel.
7. Therearealimitednumberofnonroadconstructionequipmentmodelsthatofferhybridelectricdriveengines.
RESEARCH
Afuelthatexhibitspropertiessimilartothatofconventionaldieselbutoffersseveralassociatedbenefitsresulting
fromitsuseisbiodiesel.Biodieselcanbeusedasadirectreplacementforconventionaldieselinitspurestor
blendedformsandisproducedfromtheestersofvegetableoilsandanimalfats(VanGerpenetal.,2007).Thisfuel
sourcecanbeusedtopowerdieselenginesandtypicallyrequiresnoequipmentmodificationsandisabletoutilize
thecurrentfuelinginfrastructurefordistribution(USDOE,1995).
Biodieselisproducedthroughthetransesterficationprocess.Thisprocessrequiresfeedstockmaterialswhich
includerapeseed,soybean,vegetableoilsandanimalfats(USDOE,1995).Theanimalfatorvegetableoilis
combinedwithalcoholinthefirststageoftheprocessinachemicalreactionwhichcombinesthefeedstock
materialwithanalcoholtoproduceanesterandglycerol(VanGerpenetal.,2007).Alcoholstypicallyusedinthe
processincludemethanolandethanolthoughmethanolismorecommonlyusedasaresultofitslowercost(You,
2007).Thisreactionisusuallycatalyzedtoimprovethereactionrateandthequantitythatcanbeproduced.The
byproductofthisreactionisglycerolwhichisremovedandseparatedfromthealcohol/estermixture.Thealcohol
isfurtherseparatedfromtheester.Itistheremainingesterswhichmakeuptherawbiodiesel(You,2007).

Biofuelssuchasethanolandbiodieselarederivedfrombiomassandofferseveraladvantages.Theyareconsidered
renewableformsoffuelbecausetheiruseinvolvesaclosedcarboncycle(Puppan,2001).Inadditiontohelping
reduceourdependencyonforeignoil,theuseofbiodieselhasshownseveralenvironmentalandhumanhealth
benefitsassociatedwithitsuseasaconstructionfuel.Forexample,theuseofbiodieselmitigatestheimpactsof
globalwarmingandclimatechangesincethereisnonetproductionofcarbondioxideduringthelifecycleof
biodieselproductionanduse(VanGerpenetal.,2007).Furthermore,sincebiodieselisanoxygenatedfuel,it
producesfewerhydrocarbons,lesscarbonmonoxideandlessparticulatematterthanthatofconventionalNo.2
dieselfuelfromthecombustionprocessinadieselengine(VanGerpenetal.,2007).Asaresult,theuseof
biodieselpromoteslocalizedimprovementtoairqualityandworkerhealthfromthedecreaseintheemissionof
compoundsthatareclassifiedashumanhealthhazardssuchascarbonmonoxide,sulfurdioxide,leadand
particulatematter(Puppan,2001).
Otheradvantagesincludethelubricitypropertiesofbiodieselthatpermitittocontributetoenhancingthe
efficiencyofanengineaswellasimprovingthelifeexpectancyoftheequipment(VanGerpenetal.,2007).
Moreover,biodieselfeaturesadetergentactionorsolventpropertywhichimprovesengineefficiencybyremoving
sedimentationanddepositsfromanengine’sfuelsystem(USDOE,2001).Thesefactorscontributetothe
possibilityofeventuallongtermcostsavingsasaresultofdecreasedmaintenancecostsoverthatobservedwhen
conventionaldieselisusedtofuelequipment.
Thecosttoretrofitequipmenttooperateonbiodieselistypicallynegligible.Usuallynoretrofittingofengine
componentsisrequiredtopermitequipmenttoutilizebiodieselforfuel.However,thefuelsystemfortheengine
shouldhavenorubberpartssuchasrubberhoses,sealsandgasketswhichcoulddeterioratefromanyphysical
contactwithbiodiesel(USDOE,1995).Rubbercomponentstypicallyexistinequipmentmanufacturedpriorto
1994andenginedamageasaresultoffuelsystemfailureresultingfromthedeteriorationofenginecomponents
couldresultfromthesolventactionofbiodiesel(USDOE,2001).
Animportanteconomicadvantagetotheuseofbiodieselisthatitcanbeusedinitspureform(asB100)or
blendedwithpetroleumderiveddiesel.Assuch,theuseofbiodieselrequireslittletonomodificationstothe
currentfuelinginfrastructureorvehicleengineandfueldeliverysystemsinpreparationforitsuse(USDOEClean
CitiesFactSheet).
Theresultsofalimitedscopelifecycleassessment(LCA)oftheconstructionofonelanemileofportlandcement
concreteroadwayusingagenericsetofnonroadconstructionequipmentrequiredtoplacetheconcrete(i.e.a
pavingmachineandtexture/curingmachine)indicatedthattheproductionandutilizationofbiodieselconsumes
moreenergythanthatrequiredtoproduceandutilizeconventionalorultralowsulfurdieselfuel.However,based
onthedatacollectedfromtheLCA,itisclearthatbiodieselisthefuelsourcethatistheleastcontributingtothe
potentialforglobalwarming.Inotherwords,conventionaldieselandultralowsulfurdieselcontributemoreto
globalwarmingthanbiodiesel.Thedifferenceinthelevelofcontributionbetweenconventionalandultralow
sulfurdieselwasfoundtobealmostnegligible.Ontheotherhand,biodieselwasdeterminedtobringabouta
largercontributiontosmogformationduetotheincreasedformationofNOXandfurtherreactionoftheNOXwith
VOCstoformsmog.Differenceinthecontributiontosmogformationbetweenconventionaldieselandultralow
sulfurdieselwasfoundtobenegligible.
GLOSSARY
Biofuel Renewablefuelsderivedfrombiologicalmaterialsthatcanberegenerated.
Thisdistinguishesthemfromfossilfuelswhichareconsiderednonrenewable.
Examplesofbiofuelsareethanol,methanol,andbiodiesel.
Hybridelectric Apowersystemthatcombinesaconventionalinternalcombustionengine
(e.g.,diesel)andanelectricmotorand/orstoragesystemtoprovidethe
primarypowerforthevehicle.

B5,B20,B50,B100 Shortnotationtodescribeablendofbiodieselwithtraditionalpetroleum
diesel.Thenumberdescribesthepercentageofbiodiesel(e.g.,B20is20%
biodieseland80%petroleumdiesel).

REFERENCES
BioPowerLondon.(2006).“FrequentlyAskedQuestions.”Availableathttp://www.biopowerlondon.co.uk/index.htm.
EnergyInformationAdministration.(2010).“GasolineandDieselFuelUpdate.”Availableat
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/oog/info/gdu/gasdiesel.asp.
EuropeanBiodieselBoard.(2010).“Statistics.”Availableathttp://www.ebbeu.org/stats.php.
Frentress,Dave.“BiodieselandOtherGreenInitiativesatGlacierNorthwest.”Stone,Sand&GravelReview,(Jan/Feb
2008):5053.
Heijungs,R.&Suh,S.(2002).AComputationalStructureofLifeCycleAssessment.KluwerAcademicPublishers,
Netherlands.
NationalBiodieselBoard.(2008).Availableathttp://www.biodiesel.org/.
Radich,Anthony.(2004).“BiodieselPerformance,Costs,andUse.”EnergyInformationAdministration.Availableat
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/biodiesel.
Sawyer,Tom.(December3,2007).“Developer’sChallengetoConstruction:InnovateforDestiny.”EngineeringNews
Record,2427.
U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.(1995).NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory.Biofacts:FuelingaStrongerEconomy.
U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.(2001).EnergyEfficiencyandRenewableEnergyOfficeofTransportationTechnology.
CleanCities:AlternativeFuelInformationSeries:TechnicalAssistanceFactSheet.
U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.(2008).“EnvironmentalPrograms–OnsiteAirQualityAssessment.”
U.S.DepartmentofTransportation.(2007).FederalTransitAdministration.BiodieselFuelManagementBestPractices
forTransit.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2004a).OfficeofTransportationandAirQuality.EPA420P04005,Median
Life,AnnualActivity,andLoadFactorValuesforNonroadEngineEmissionsModeling.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2004b).OfficeofTransportationandAirQuality.EPA420R04007,Final
RegulatoryImpactAnalysis.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2005).OfficeofTransportationandAirQuality.EPA420R05022,Nonroad
EnginePopulationEstimates.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2007).OfficeofTransportationandAirQuality.EPA420R07005.Diesel
RetrofitTechnology:AnAnalysisoftheCostEffectivenessofReducingParticulateMatterandNitrogenOxides
EmissionsfromHeavyDutyNonroadDieselEnginesThroughRetrofits.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008a).“AirandRadiation.”Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/oar.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2008b).“ClimateChange.”http://www.epa.gov/climatechange.(Accessed
Sep.29,2008).
U.S.DepartmentofLabor.BureauofLaborStatistics.(2008).“ConsumerPriceIndex.”Availableat
http://www.bls.gov/cpi.
UnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOfficeReporttoCongressionalCommittee.(1999).MassTransit:UseofAlternative
FuelsinTransitBuses.
VanGerpen,J.H.,Peterson,C.L.,&Goering,C.E.(2007).“Biodiesel:AnalternativeFuelforCompressionIgnition
Engines.”AmericanSocietyofAgriculturalandBiologicalEngineers.Presentationatthe2007Agricultural
EquipmentTechnologyConferenceon1114February2007.
You,YiiDer,et.al.(2008).EconomicCostAnalysisofBiodieselProduction:CaseinSoybeanOil.EnergyandFuels22,
no.1:1829.

EQUIPMENT EMISSION REDUCTION

GOAL CA-5
Reduceairemissionsfromnonroadconstructionequipment.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Useemissionreductionexhaustretrofitsandaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesthat 1-2 POINTS
achievetheEPATier4emissionstandardfornonroadconstructionequipment.Points
areawardedasfollows:
1point RELATED CREDITS

Atleast50%ofthenonroadconstructionequipmentfleetoperatinghoursforthe 9 CA2Environmental
projectareaccomplishedonequipmentwithinstalledemissionreductionexhaust Training
retrofitsandaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesthatachievetheEPATier4emission 9 CA4FossilFuel
standard. Reduction
9 CA6Paving
2points EmissionsReduction
Atleast75%ofthenonroadconstructionequipmentfleetoperatinghoursforthe
projectareaccomplishedonequipmentwithinstalledemissionreductionexhaust SUSTAINABILITY
retrofitsandaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesthatachievetheEPATier4emission
standard.
COMPONENTS
9 Ecology
Details 9 Equity
Forthiscredittobeimplementedsuccessfully,workersmayrequireadditional
trainingonhowtokeeptrackofequipmentoperatinghoursaccurately.Seealso BENEFITS
CA2EnvironmentalTraining. 9 ReducesAir
Emissions
Gases
Providealistofallnonroadconstructionequipmentusedontheprojectthatcontains 9 ImprovesHuman
thefollowinginformationforeachpieceofequipment: Health&Safety

1. Makeandmodelofeachpieceofequipment.
2. Operatinghoursassociatedwiththeproject.
3. ForequipmentachievingTier4emissionsstandards,documentedevidencethatthe
equipmenteither(a)meetsEPATier4emissionsstandards,or(b)hasinstalled
emissionreductionexhaustretrofitsandaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesthat
achievetheEPATier4standard.
CA-5 Equipment Emission Reduction 309


x Retrofitexhaustequipmentonnonroadvehicles.
x Replaceengineswherethisoptionismorecosteffectivethanretrofit.
x Switchtouseultralowsulfurdiesel(ULSD)inconjunctionwiththeaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesinstalled
intheequipmentfleet.
Example: Scenarios
Someexamplescenariosareprovidedbelowbasedonahypotheticalnonroadfleetoperatingforatotalof
1,000equipmenthours.
Nopoints
x 400of1,000totaloperatinghours(40%)areassociatedwithequipmentthatachievetheEPATier4
emissionsstandard.
1point
emissionsstandard.
2points
emissionsstandard.
Example: Case Studies Documented by the U.S. EPA

TheEPAdescribesseveraldieselengineemissionreductioneffortcasestudiesat:
http://www.epa.gov/diesel/construction/casestudies.htm
Example: Washington State Department of Ecology Strategy

OneexampleofanoverallstatewideapproachthatthisVoluntaryCreditisconsistentwithistheWashington
StateDepartmentofEcology’s“DieselParticulateEmissionReductionStrategy.”Thegoalsexpectedunderthis
approachare(Ecology,2006):
1. Installemissionreductionexhaustretrofitsonfiftypercentofthepubliclegacydieselfleetinfouryears.
2. Installemissionreductionexhaustretrofitsandaddonfuelefficiencytechnologiesonfiftypercentofthe
privatelegacydieselfleetineightyears.
3. Evaluate,developandimplementanidlereductionprogramthataddressesandremediesunnecessary
idlingthroughonboardretrofits,onthegroundinfrastructureandantiidlingregulations.
4. Replacetwentyfivepercentofolder(pre1996fornonroad)legacyvehiclesintheprivatefleetineight
years.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Retrofitsandreplacementsofenginescanrepresentasignificantaddedcosttothecontractor.
RESEARCH
Constructionairemissionsarelargelyfromthreemainsources:(1)dustandparticlesfromtheconstruction
activities,alsocalledfugitivedust,(2)emissionsfromconstructionequipmentexhausts,or(3)emissionsfrom
310 Equipment Emission Reduction CA-5

constructionmaterials(suchasfumesandvaporsfromhotasphalt).ThisVoluntaryCreditaddressesconstruction
equipmentemissionsingeneralandspecifically,dieselexhaustemissionsfromnonroaddieselequipment.
NonroadEngineDefined
40CFRPart1068(theGeneralComplianceProvisionsforNonroadPrograms)definespreciselywhatanonroad
dieselengineisandisnot.Insummary(40CFR1068hasexactdefinitionsandexclusions),anonroadengineis
definedtobeanyinternalcombustionenginethatis:
1. Inoronapieceofequipmentthatisselfpropelledorservesadualpurposebybothpropellingitselfand
performinganotherfunction.
2. Inoronapieceofequipmentthatisintendedtobepropelledwhileperformingitsfunction.
3. That,byitselforinoronapieceofequipment,isportableortransportable.
Ingeneral,dieselpoweredselfpropelledandportableconstructionequipmentwithaninternalcombustionengine
areconsideredtobenonroadengines.
HealthEffects
Dieselenginesemitacomplexmixtureofgaseouspollutantsandfineparticlesandareamajorsourceofair
pollution.Particularemissionsarenitrogenoxides(NOx),particulatematter(PM),sulfuroxidegases(SOx),and
othertoxicairpollutantswhichcontributetoseriousadversehealthandenvironmentaleffects(EPA,1995;ICF,
2005).Emissionsfromdieselengineshavebeenfoundtoincludeoverfortycancercausingsubstances,andthe
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)hasconcludedthatdieselexhaustislikelytobecarcinogenicto
humansbyinhalationatoccupationalandenvironmentallevelsofexposure(EPA,2002).InWashingtonState,the
WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcologyhasidentifieddieselexhaustastheairpollutantmostharmfultopublic
healthinWashingtonState.Theyfoundthat70%ofthecancerriskfromairbornepollutantsisfromdieselexhaust,
mainlyduetothePM2.5emissions(WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology,2006).Untilthemid1990s,
emissionsfromtheseengineswerelargelyuncontrolled.Inordertocombatthehealtheffectsofdieselemissions,
theEPAstartedaprogramin2007toreducedieselengineemissionsintheU.S.(EPA,2004).Theplanisestimated
toreduceemissionsbymorethan90%by2030.
ContributionofNonroadDieselEnginestoEmissionsInventory
AccordingtoEPA’sNationalEmissionInventory(2008yeardata)(NEI,2009),nonroaddieselengines(usingthe
categoryof“offhighway”)areresponsiblefor26%ofNOxemissionsnationally(4,255,000tonsperyear),andfor
5.8%offineparticulateemissions(PM2.5)(283,000tonsperyear)nationally.Thesepercentagescanbe
considerablyhigherinsomeurbanareas.InWashingtonState,theDepartmentofEcologystatesthatconstruction
activitiesareresponsiblefor18%oftheState’sPM2.5emissions(2002data)(FigureCA5.1).

FigureCA5.1:
(WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology,2006).
1.
ImprovementEfforts
Recognizingthelargeimpactthatdieselengineexhausthasonhumanhealthandtheenvironment(e.g.,CARB,
n.d.),therearesubstantialeffortstoreducedieselexhaustemissionsthroughburningcleanerdieselfuels(e.g.,
ultralowsulfurdieselorULSD),installingexhaustretrofitstoreduceemissionsfromexistingenginesand
producingnewdieselenginesthatemitless.
PaceofChange
Althougheffortstoreducedieselemissionsareunderway,significantimpactsmaybeyearsaway.Nonroad
dieselequipmentcanlast20to30yearsandtypicalnewemissionsstandardsarenotrequiredtobemetby
existingequipment.Therefore,theimpactsofsuchchangesarelikelytobefeltasamajorityofequipment
fleetsageandarereplacedbyequipmentmeetingnewer,morestringentregulations.Furthermore,change
anditspacewilllikelybecontrolledbytheprivatesectorastheyownnearly90percentofdieselvehiclesand
dieselengines(WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology,2006).Thus,effortstoincenttheprivatesectorto
changeaheadofnaturalequipmentturnoverratesmayhelpmakedieselemissionreductionshappensooner.
CostConsiderations
Amajorityofconstructioncompaniesaresmallfirms.Toretrofitorchangetheirequipmentrequireslarge
capitalinvestments,whichtheymaynotbeabletobear.Formanyprivatesmallerconstructioncompanies,this
costissignificantandinterfereswiththeenvironmentalbenefitsthiswouldachieve.Alsothecostofusing
alternativefuelorlowsulfurfuelisanissue.
TheEPAestimatestheincrementalcostofproducing500ppmfueltobeonaverage2.5centspergallon,and
15ppmaround5centspergallon.(Thistakesintoaccountallthenecessarychangesinbothrefiningand
distributionpractices,howeverthisestimatedcostsvarywidelyforequipmentofdifferentsizesandfor
differentapplications)(EPA,2003).Forthevastmajorityofequipment,thecostofmeetingemissionstandards
willberoughly12%comparedwiththetypicalretailprice.Asanexample,EPAestimatesthatfora175hp
bulldozer,itwillcostanadditional$2,600toaddtheadvancedemissioncontrolsystemstotheengineandto

designthebulldozertoaccommodatethemodifiedengine.Anew175hpbulldozercostsapproximately
$230,000(EPA,2003),sotheincreasedcostsareabout1%ofthetotalpurchaseprice.Costscouldbehigher
forsometypesofequipment.Asabenefit,enginesrunningonlowsulfurfuelwillhavereducedmaintenance
expenses(EPA,2003).Asincentive,thereareseveralgrantprogramsavailableatlocalandfederallevelfor
companiestoretrofitorchangepartoftheirequipmentfleet(WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology,2006;
EPA,2009).
Inthebroadercontext,thebenefitstosocietyofreducedhealthcostsresultingfromfeweremissionsare
substantial.TheEPAestimatedthebenefittocostratio(healthbenefitstocompliancecost)of30(CARB,n.d.).
Ingeneral,theCaliforniaAirResourcesBoard(CARB)reportsbenefitcostratiosintheliteraturefrom2to8.
GLOSSARY
Tier4emissionstandard EPAstandardsthatrequireemissionstobereducedovercurrentTier2and3
standards.Reductionsofparticulatematter(PM)forenginesabove19kW
andnitrousoxides(NOx)forengineslargerthan56kWaresubstantial.
Hydrocarbonlimitsarealsosubstantiallyreducedforengineslargerthan56
kW.Suchemissionreductionscanbeachievedthroughtheuseofcontrol
technologiesincludingadvancedexhaustgasaftertreatment.Tier4
standardsaretobephasedinovertheperiodof20082015.
Ultralowsulfurdiesel(ULSD) Standardtermfordieselfuelhavinglessthan15ppmsulfur.Asof2009,most
onhighwaydieselfuelsoldatretaillocationsisULSD.Thepreviousstandard,
lowsulfurdiesel(LSD),allowed500PPMsulfur.
REFERENCES
CaliforniaAirResourcesBoard(CARB).(nodategiven).HealthEffectsofDieselExhaustParticulateMatter.CARB.
Availableathttp://www.arb.ca.gov/research/diesel/dpm_health_fs.pdf.Accessed14December2009.
ICFConsulting.(2005).EmissionReductionIncentivesforOffRoadDieselEquipmentUsedinthePortand
ConstructionSectors.PreparedforEPA.Availableathttp://www.epa.gov/sectors/pdf/emission_20050519.pdf.
Accessed14December2009.
NationalEmissionsInventory(NEI).(2009).NationalEmissionsInventory,AirPollutantTrendsData,Average
annualemissions19782002,allcriteriapollutants.Availableat
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/trends/index.html#tables.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(1995).CompilationofAirPollutantEmissionFactors,Volume1:
StationaryPointandAreaSources,Chapter13.2.3HeavyConstructionOperations,AP42,FifthEdition.U.S.
EPA,Washington,D.C.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2002).HealthAssessmentDocumentforDieselEngineExhaust.
NationalCenterforEnvironmentalAssessment,OfficeofResearchandDevelopment,U.S.EPA,Washington,
D.C.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2003).SummaryofEPA'sProposedProgramforLowEmission
NonroadDieselEnginesandFuel.EPA420F03008,U.S.EP,Washington,D.C.http://www.epa.gov/nonroad
diesel/420f03008.htm.Accessed14December2009.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2004).CleanAirNonroadDieselRule.RegulatoryAnnouncement,
OfficeofTransportationandAirquality,EPA420F04032.U.S.EPA,Washington,D.C.

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2009).NationalCleanDieselCampaign.U.S.EPA,Washington,D.C.
http://www.epa.gov/otaq/diesel/index.htm.Accessed14December2009.
USEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.(2003).DraftRegulatoryImpactAnalysis:ControlofEmissionsfromNonroad
DieselEngines.EPA420R03008,U.S.EPA,Washington,D.C.
WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology(2006).DieselParticulateEmissionReductionStrategyforWashington
State.WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcologyAirQualityProgram.

PAVING EMISSIONS REDUCTION

GOAL CA-6
Improvehumanhealthbyreducingworkerexposuretoasphaltfumes.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Placeatleast90%ofthehotmixasphalt(HMA)ontheprojectusingapaverthatis 1 POINT
certifiedtohavemetNationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth(NIOSH)
emissionguidelinesassetforthinEngineeringControlGuidelinesforHotMixAsphalt
Pavers,Part1:NewHighwayClassPavers(DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices
(NIOSH)PublicationNo.97105,April1997printing). RELATED CREDITS
9 CA4FossilFuel
Details Reduction
9 CA5Equipment
Ifmorethanonepaverisusedonaproject,thepercentageofHMAplacedbyeach
EmissionReduction
pavershallbedeterminedusingthetotalweightofHMAplacedbyeachpaver.Use
9 PT3WarmMix
EquationCA6.1tocomputethetotalpercentageplacedbytheNIOSHpaver.
Asphalt
CalculationsshouldbedonebyweightofHMAplaced.Forthepurposesofthis
calculation,allplacedbituminousasphalticmixtures(e.g.,hotmixasphalt,warm
mixasphalt,opengradedasphalt,stonematrixasphalt,etc.)shallbecountedas SUSTAINABILITY
“HMA.” COMPONENTS
9 Ecology
EquationCA6.1:
9 Equity
BENEFITS
9 ReducesAir
Emissions
x Copyofthemanufacturingcertificationprovidedwiththepaver(s)when Gases
purchased.Page5oftheNIOSH(1997)documentprovidesanexampleofthe 9 ImprovesHuman
certificationwording. Health&Safety
x Signedstatementbyapavingcontractorrepresentativeindicatingthatthecertified
paver(s)referencedinthefirstdocumentwas(were)usedonthejobanddidplace
atleast90%oftheHMA.
CA-6 Paving Emissions Reduction 315


x UseapaverthatmeetsNIOSHengineeringcontrolguidelines.Aquickcheckcanbedonebylocatingthe
exhauststackorrequired3by5inchinformationplate(FigureCA6.1)onthepaverbeingused.These
informationplatesarerequiredtobeattachedbythemanufacturer.

FigureCA6.1:Exampleofamanufacturerinformationplate(fromNIOSH,1997).
Example: Photos
FiguresCA6.2andCA6.3showexamplesofpaverswithandwithoutexhaustventilationsystems.

FigureCA6.2:Thelargeblackexhauststacktotherightoftheoperator
ispartofaNIOSHcompliantexhaustventilationsystem.
316 Paving Emissions Reduction CA-6


FigureCA6.3:ThispaverisNOTequippedwithanexhaustventilationsystem.

Example: Calculation
Anurbanpavingprojectplacesa1.5inchoverlayona2lanecityarterialstreet.Theoverlayincludes
overlayingsmallareasoneachcrossstreet.ApaverhavingaventilationexhaustsystemmeetingNIOSH
guidelinesisusedforpavingthearterialwhileasmallpaver,notequippedwithaventilationexhaustsystem,is
usedtopavethecrossstreetareas.Oncompletionoftheproject,areviewoftruckticketsshowthattheNIOSH
paverplaced4,250tonsofHMAwhilethenonNIOSHpaverplaced200tonsofHMA.
ܶ‫ ݐ݆ܿ݁݋ݎ݄ܲ݁ݐ݊݋ܣܯܪ݈ܽݐ݋‬ൌ ͶǡʹͷͲ‫ ݏ݊݋ݐ‬൅ ʹͲͲ‫ ݏ݊݋ݐ‬ൌ ͶǡͶͷͲ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
ͶǡʹͷͲ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
Ψ‫ ݎ݁ݒܽܲܪܱܵܫܰݕܾ݈݀݁ܿܽܲܣܯܪ‬ൌ ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ͻͷǤͷΨ ൒ ͻͲΨ
ͶǡͶͷͲ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
Therefore,thisprojectqualifiesfor1pointsince95.5%exceedsthe90%requirement.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. HavingaNIOSHcompliantpaverbuthavingamalfunctioningexhaustsystemornotusingtheexhaustsystem.
2. HavingaNIOSHcompliantpaverwithanexhaustsystemthatnolongermeetsNIOSHrequirementsforindoor
captureefficiency.
RESEARCH
WhilemanypaversbeingusedinconstructionhaveNIOSHengineeringcontrolsonthem,notalldo.Currently,
mosthighwaypavers(manufacturedsince1997)havefumecontrolsinstalledin/ontheminaccordancewith
NIOSHstandards.However,smallerpaversarenotrequiredtohavesuchcontrols.
Theseengineeringcontrolsarebasicallyanexhaustventilationsystemthatcollectsfugitiveemissionsnearthe
augers(FigureCA6.4),andreleasesthemthroughanexhauststackthatishighenoughsuchthatworkersarenot
exposedtoemissionsfromthatstack(FigureCA6.5).Thisreducesworkerexposuretoasphaltfumes.Accordingto
NIOSH(1997),eachnewselfpropelledHMApaverweighing16,000poundsormoreandmanufacturedafterJuly
1,1997“…shoulddevelopandinstallexhaustventilationsystemswithaminimumcontrolledindoorcapture

efficiencyof80%...”TheNIOSH(1997)document,whichwasdevelopedinconcertwiththeNationalAsphalt
PavementAssociation(NAPA),describesthedetailedrequirementsfortheexhaustventilationsystemincluding
theperformancetestingcriteria,labeling,certification,operation,maintenanceandtraining.

FigureCA6.4:Drawingofthecollectionhoodsusedtocollectfumesneartheauger
(fromConstructionInnovationForum,2006)
FigureCA6.5:Drawingoftheexhaustventilationsystemwithkeypartslabeled
(fromConstructionInnovationForum,2006).
TheNIOSHsummaryofhealtheffectsofoccupationalexposuretoasphaltfumesgenerallyindicatesthatthereare
acute(immediateorshortterm)andchronic(longterm)impactstohumanhealth.Whilenotallstudiesagreeon

theeffectsortheirsignificancethereisgenerallystrongenoughevidencetoshowthatsucheffectscanbepresent.
Giventhat,itisbeneficialtoreduceasphaltfumeexposuretopavingworkersevenifitisbelowestablishedlimits.
Establishedexposurelimitsaregenerallytopreventacuteeffects;insomecasestheydonotfullyaddresschronic
effectsanditisverydifficulttodoso.
MoreinformationisavailableinthefullNIOSHdocumentonthewebat:http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/asphalt.html
GLOSSARY
HMA Hotmixasphalt
NAPA NationalAsphaltPavementAssociation
NIOSH NationalInstituteofOccupationalHealthandSafety
WMA Warmmixasphalt(seealsoCreditPT3)
REFERENCES
ConstructionInnovationForum(CIF).(2006).2006NOVAAwardNomination12:HighwayAsphaltPaverFume
Controls.ConstructionInnovationForum,Walbridge,OH.Availableathttp://www.cif.org/nom2006/Nom12
2006.pdf.Accessed6January2009.
NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth(NIOSH).(April1997secondprinting).EngineeringGuidelines
forHotMixAsphaltPavers:Part1NewHighwayClassPavers.DHHS(NIOSH)PublicationNo.97105.U.S.
DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices,PublicHealthService,CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,
NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth,Cincinnati,OH.Availableat
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/asphalt.html



WATER USE TRACKING

GOAL CA-7
Generateprojectlevelinformationaboutconstructionwateruse.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Createaspreadsheetthatrecordstotalwateruseduringconstruction.This 2 POINTS
spreadsheetshouldidentify,atminimum:
1. Datesofuse.
2. Amountsofuse. RELATED CREDITS
3. Locationsandsourcesofwaterused. 9 PR7Pollution
4. Potabilityofwatersource(s). PreventionPlan
5. Eachconstructionactivityrequiringwateruse. 9 PR10Site
6. Totalwaterquantityusedineachconstructionactivity. Maintenance
7. Methodofmeasurementtodeterminetotalquantityused.
8. Disposalpracticeforunusedwater. SUSTAINABILITY
9. Typeofwaterusepermit,ifany.
COMPONENTS
10. Totalcostofwaterusedfromeachsource,ifany.
9 Ecology
Details 9 Expectations
9 Exposure
Waterusecanbemeasuredbymeter,hosecapacity,numberofwatertanks,
pumpingrateovertime,orotherappropriatesourcedependentestimates.
BENEFITS
Thecreditdoesnotrequirespecificperformancecriteriaforwaterconservation. 9 Improves
Eventually,waterusedatawillbecompiledtoestablishbenchmarksforroadway Accountability
constructionwaterefficiencyandtodevelopguidelinesforappropriatewater 9 IncreasesAwareness
conservationpracticesandprinciplestoreducepotablewaterusageandnegative 9 CreatesNew
impactstotheenvironment. Information
DOCUMENTATION
x Copyofthespreadsheetusedtorecordconstructionwateruse.
CA-7 Water Use Tracking 321


x Askindividualworkerstorecordwateruseontheirdailyreports.
x Providecopiesofthetrackingspreadsheetatlocationswherewaterisusedandmeasuredforgathering
consistentrecordings.
Example: Sample Spreadsheet

SamplespreadsheetentriesfordifferentconstructionactivitiesthatcommonlyusewaterareshowninTable
CA7.1forthreedifferenttypesofprojects.Notethateachactivityhasaseparatecolumnandassociateddata.
Notethat,realistically,thedatafortheprojectwillrequireinformationforeachactivityontheprojectthat
useswaterandwilllikelybelargerthanthesmallsampleshown.
TableCA7.1:SampleWaterUseSpreadsheetEntriesforDifferentTypesofProjects
ProjectType Urban Rural(DeliveredWater) Rural(Well Water)
Date(s) 6/1/09 6/12/09 January May 2009 August2009
ConstructionActivity Dustsuppression Mixingconcrete Equipmentcleaning
WaterVolumeUsed 12,000 27,000 3,500
VolumeUnit Gal gal Gal
MeasurementMethod Citywatermeter 750gallontanks Hosemeter
WaterLocation/Source Hydrant Tankdelivery Onsitewell
PotableWater? Yes No Yes
DisposalPracticeofUnusedWater Stormdrain Storage Groundsurface
WaterUsePermitType Hydrant None None
WaterCost(pergal) $8.13 $0.08
WaterCost(perccf) $4.00
TotalCost $64.16 $219,510.00 $280.00
Notes Hydrantpermit Includesdelivery
feesnotincluded. charge

SomecommonlyusefulconversionsforwatervolumeareshowninTableCA7.2.
TableCA7.2:TypicalUnitsofWaterVolume
U.S.CustomaryUnits MetricUnits(S.I.)
1cubicfoot(cf)=7.481gallons(gal) 1liter(L)=0.001cubicmeters(m3)
100cubicfeet(cf)=1centumcubicfoot(ccf) 1cubicmeters(m3)=1000liters(L)

Example: Monitored Water Sources for Road Construction in the U.S.
x Montanalimitswaterleasesforconstructionto60,000gallons/dayor120,000gallons/day/project
(Overcast,2001).Requestsformorewatermustbeaccompaniedbyananalysisofpotentialadverseeffects
andadescriptionofplannedmitigationactionsattheproposedpointofdiversion.
x Oregonallowspublicagenciestoregisterawateruseforroadandhighwaymaintenance,construction;in
lieuofapermitforawaterright(OregonWaterResourcesDepartment,2007).
x TheCityofBend,Oregonrequireshydrantusepermitsforwatermeasurement,protectionofdrinking
waterquality,watersystemoperationalprotection,andfirehydrantintegrityandmaintenance.The
permitsapplytowaterobtainedbynormalmeterinstallation,dailyfillstationuse,monthlyhydrantmeter
andbackflowunits,orcustomwatersupplyinstallation.
x TheCityofSouthlake,Texasregulateswateruseonlyduringdroughtconditions.
322 Water Use Tracking CA-7

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Trackingwateruseonroadwayconstructionprojectsmaybeunfamiliartositeworkers.Trainingmaybe
necessarytoaccuratelytrackallrelevantwaterdata.
2. Wateruseforroadconstructionmayberegulatedbylocaljurisdictions.Checkwithauthoritiestodetermine
wateruserequirements.
3. Whereroadwayconstructionincludestheuseofnonpotablewater,thereisanobligationtoensurethat
workplacehealthandsafetyisnotnegativelyaffectedbytheuseofthewater.Thismustincludethe
managementofanyrisksarisingfromtheuse,handling,storage,transport,anddisposalofthewateratthe
projectsite.
RESEARCH
Growingcitiesareputtingstressonavailablewatersupplies,anddemandforwaterisgrowingfasterthanthe
humanpopulation.Arecentgovernmentsurveyshowedthat,undernormalconditions,atleast36statesare
anticipatinglocal,regional,orstatewidewatershortagesby2013,anddroughtconditionswillexacerbateshortage
impacts(GAO,2003).Communitiesinwatersupplychallengedregionsoftheworldhavebeguntoaddressthe
ongoingissueofpotable(ordrinkingquality)wateruseonroadconstructionandmaintenanceprojects(CFV,MAV
andIPWEA,2007).Criticaltounderstandingtheissueistodetermineexactlyhowmuchwaterisusedduring
roadwayconstructionandmaintenance.
WaterUsesinRoadwayConstruction
Waterhasmanyusesforroadwayconstruction.However,thereislittleinformationavailableontheamountof
waterusedduringroadconstruction.Sandandgraveloperationsaremajorusers,andcementproductionrelies
heavilyonwater.Onsiteconstructionusesofwaterinclude:concretemixing,concretecuring,dustcontrol,
constructionequipmentwashing,vegetationestablishment,geotechnicalborings,addingwatertobackfill
material/soilcompaction,pipeflushingandpressuretesting,andsitecleanup.
WaterSourcesforRoadwayConstruction
Typicalwatersourcesincludenaturalwaterbodies,potablewatersupplypipelines(e.g.,hydrants),nonpotable
waterfromstormwaterorindustrialdischarges,andreusedwaterfromwastewatertreatmentplants.Water
withdrawalsfromthesefacilitiesmayormaynotberegulatedbythegoverningjurisdiction.Frequently,wateruse
frompublicsuppliesrequiresatemporarywaterrightorpermitallowingthelocaljurisdictioncontroloverthe
amountandmethodofwaterwithdrawnforapprovedconstructionuses.Manyregionsalsoregulatepotential
harmtofishfromwaterwithdrawalfromnaturalwaterbodies.Forexample,theNationalMarineFisheriesService
(NMFS)developedintakepumpingandscreeningcriteriaforfishprotectionthatmustbeinstalled,operated,and
maintainedwhenprotectedaquaticspeciesarepresent(NMFS,2008).Occasionally,thesepoliciesrequirewater
systemstomeasureandaccountforallwaterdelivered.However,thesesystemsarealsolikelytobeprovidedby
privatewatersuppliers.
Estimatesofactualwaterusebyprojectactivityareneededformakingmoreinformedwaterusedecisions.To
enableinformationsharingforimprovedwatersourcingdecisions,someregionsaredevelopingacentralized
“WaterAtlas”ofallalternativewatersources,includingqualityandquantityinformation,toreducedemandon
potablesupplies.Also,indevelopmentisan“IndustrialWasteWaterExchange”tomatchproducersofsuitable
industrialwastewaterwithusersofwaterforconstructionpurposes,allowingindustrialuserstohavetheirwaste
waterdisposedofandreused,resultinginpotentiallylowercostsforbothpartiesandlessoverallpotablewater
use.(CCFV,MAVandIPWEA,2007)
WaterPotabilityandQualityIssues
Largevolumesofpotablewaterarecommonlyusedinroadconstruction,butdrinkingwaterissubjectto
competingdemandsbyhumanpopulations.Also,manymunicipalitieschlorinatetheirwatersupply,andthelevel
ofchlorineinchlorinatedtapwater(ashighas1.0milligramofchlorineperliterofwater)istoxictofishandother

aquaticorganisms(GreaterVancouverRegionalDistrict,1997)andmaybeunsuitableforroadwayusewithout
priormitigation.
Alternativewatersuppliesalleviatedemandforpotabledrinkingwaterthroughmanagementofrelatedhealthand
environmentalrisksassociatedwithconstructionworkactivities.Brackishandoilcontaminatedwatershow
promiseforroadconstructioninwaterlimitedregions(Tahaetal.,2005;KansasDepartmentofHealthand
Environment,2000).Constructionsitemanagersareincreasinglyharvestingstormwaterfromtheirownsitesand
storingitforlateruse(QueenslandGovernment,2007a).Recycledwaterfrommunicipalwastewatertreatment
plantsisapotablewatersubstituteforoperationalandlandscapingpurposes(QueenslandGovernment,2007b).
DischargesofconstructionsitewateraregovernedbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyNationalPollution
DischargeandEliminationSystem(NPDES)permits,orstateorlocalequivalentpolicies.
GLOSSARY
Brackish Waterwithmoresalinitythanfreshwaterbutlessthanseawater
Potability Waterthatissuitableforhumanconsumption

REFERENCES
CivilContractorsFederationofVictoria,theMunicipalAssociationofVictoriaandtheInstituteofPublicWorks
EngineeringofAustralia(CCFV,MAV,andIPWEA).(2007,March29).WaterUseonRoadworks–ACommunity
WideIssue.UseofPotableWaterforRoadWorksSummit.
GreaterVancouverRegionalDistrict.(1997).ConstructionWaterUseGuidelinesforReleaseofMunicipalTap
WatertotheEnvironment.GreaterVancouverRegionalDistrict,MetroVancouver,BC.Availableat
www.metrovancouver.org/about/publications/Publications/ConstructionWaterUseGuidelines.pdf.
KansasDepartmentofHealthandEnvironment.(2000).KansasAdministrativeRegulations,Article47—UseOfOil
andGasFieldSaltWaterinRoadConstructionandMaintenanceProjects(28471to28477).KansasSecretary
ofState.
NationalMarineFisheriesService.(2008).Anadromoussalmonidpassagefacilitydesign.NationalMarineFisheries
Service,NorthwestRegion,Portland,OR.
OregonWaterResourcesDepartment.(2007).RegisterWaterUseforRoadandHighwayMaintenance,
ConstructionandReconstruction.OregonWaterResourcesDepartment,Salem,OR.ORS537.040andOAR690
340040.
Overcast,Kim.2001.Waterrightsandroadconstruction.WaterResourcesDivision,MontanaDepartmentof
NaturalResources&Conservation,Helena,MT.WATERLINES.4(1),1.
QueenslandGovernment.(2007a).WorkplaceHealthandSafetyQueensland:ModelWaterManagementPlanfor
theCivilConstructionIndustry.Version1–June2007.DepartmentofEmploymentandIndustrialRelations,
QueenslandGovernment,Australia.Availableat
http://www.deir.qld.gov.au/workplace/resources/pdfs/model_watermgt.pdf.
QueenslandGovernment.(2007b).Guidetotheworkplaceuseofnonpotablewater,includingrecycledwaters.
WorkplaceHealthandSafetyQueensland,DepartmentofEmploymentandIndustrialRelations,Queensland.
www.nebo.qld.gov.au/council/Nonpotablewater_guide.pdf.
RoadsandTrafficAuthority.(2004).WaterPolicy.RoadsandTrafficAuthority,NewSouthWales,Australia.
Availableathttp://www.rta.nsw.gov.au/environment/downloads/wpolicy.pdf.

Taha,Ramzi,AmerAlRawas,SalimAlOraimi,HossamHassan,&MohammedAlAghbari.(2005).TheUseof
BrackishandOilContaminatedWaterinRoadConstruction.ENVIRONMENTALANDENGINEERING
GEOSCIENCE.11(2),163169.
UnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOffice(GAO).(2003).FreshwaterSupply:States’ViewsofHowFederalAgencies
CouldHelpThemMeettheChallengesofExpectedShortages.U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice,Washington,DC.
GAO03514.



CONTRACTOR WARRANTY
GOAL CA-8
Incorporateconstructionqualityintothepubliclowbidprocessthroughtheuseof
warranties.

Theprojectconstructioncontractshallinclude,asaminimum,a3yearwarrantyfor
constructedportionsofthepavementstructuretoincludesurfacing(e.g.,hotmix
asphalt,portlandcementconcrete,etc.)aswellasanyunderlyinglayers(e.g.,granular
basematerial).Otheritemsmayalsobeincludedinthewarrantybutarenotrequired RELATED CREDITS
tobeforthiscredit. 9 PR4QualityControl
Plan
Thetermsofthewarrantyshallbedefinedbytheownerandmayincludecontractor 9 PR9Pavement
inputifdesired.Asaminimum,thecontractualwarrantyspecificationsshallinclude: ManagementSystem
9 CA1Quality
x Definitionofwhatproduct(s)arewarranted ManagementSystem
x Lengthofthewarrantyperiod 9 PT6Pavement
x Responsibilitiesoftheowner Performance
x Responsibilitiesofthecontractor Tracking
x Responsibilityformaintenance
x Conflictresolutionprocess SUSTAINABILITY
x Contractorqualitycontrolplan COMPONENTS
x Measurementmethods
9 Ecology
x Performancebasedrequirementsandassociatedthresholdlevelsthatrequire
9 Economy
correctiveactionbythecontractor
9 Extent
x Requirementsforremedialcorrectiveaction
9 Expectations
x Requirementsforelectiveorpreventativeactions
9 Experience
x Basisofpayment
x Finalwarrantyacceptance

BENEFITS
Details 9 IncreasesServiceLife
9 ReducesLifecycle
Theintentionofthiscreditistoincludeashortterm3yearpavementwarrantyin
Costs
thecontractspecifications.Thiswarrantydurationisintendedtobelongenoughto
9 Improves
coveranypavementperformanceissuesduetopoorqualityconstructionbutshort
Accountability
enoughsoasnottocreatewarrantybondingissuesassociatedwithcontractor
assumptionofriskforundulylongperiodsoftime.
Ultimately,warrantiesmustmeetallapplicablelocalandfederalregulations.
Federalregulationsaredescribedin23CFR635,SubpartD,Section413,Guarantee
andWarrantyClauses.
DOCUMENTATION
x Acopyofthewarrantyspecificationsincludedinthecontract.
CA-8 Contractor Warranty 327


Developastandardwarrantypolicy(oraspecificonefortheprojectinquestion)thathasbeenvettedwith
industrythatincludes:
x Thetypesofworktobecoveredbythewarranty(i.e.thesurfacecourseorentirepavementsection)
x Thewarranteeguaranteeandbondingrequirements
x Anoutletforconflictresolutionforbothcontractorandowner
x Pavementdistressthresholdsandremedialaction
x AgencyMaintenanceResponsibilities
x Methodofperformancebasedmeasurementformonitoringthepavement
x Finalwarrantyacceptance
x Aselectionprocessofprojectsforwhichwarrantieswillbeincluded
TheNCHRPProject1068“GuidelinesfortheUseofHighwayPavementWarranties”finalreportshouldserveasan
excellentsourceforviableapproacheswhenreleased.AsofOctober2010,itisstillinfinalediting.
Example: Wisconsin Department of Transportation Asphalt Pavement Warranty

NCHRPReport451(Anderson&Russell,2001)describesastandardprocessmodelforwarrantycontracting
(FigureCA8.1)andthenshowsacasestudyofWisconsinDepartmentofTransportation(DOT)warranted
asphaltpavementsinitsAppendixAasanexample.
328 Contractor Warranty CA-8

FigureCA8.1:Flowchartprocessmodelforwarrantycontracting(fromAnderson&Russell,2001).

FigureCA8.1(continued):Flowchartprocessmodelforwarrantycontracting(fromAnderson&Russell,2001).


FigureCA8.1(continued):Flowchartprocessmodelforwarrantycontracting(fromAnderson&Russell,2001).

Specificsofthecasestudycanbeviewedat:http://144.171.11.40/news/blurb_detail.asp?id=5476.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Usingawarrantyclauseinroadwayconstructioncontractsistypicallyaprogrammaticdecision(mustbe
implementedasstandardpracticewithinanowneragency)andnotaprojectspecificone.
2. Warrantyprovisionsasamatterofstandardpracticecanreducecontractorcompetitionassuretiesdecide
whichcontractorstobondandwhichonesnotto.Experiencetodatehasbeenthatbondingforshortterm
warranties(likethe5yearwarrantyinthiscredit)havenotbeenanissuewhendonecorrectly.
3. Longtermperformancewarrantiescanreducecontractorbondingcapacitybecauseoftheincreasedriskthey
mustcarryontheirbooks.
4. Warrantiesarenotfree.Theyaregenerallypricedbasedontheriskorperceivedrisktheytransfertothe
contractor.
5. Performancemeasuresonwhichacompletedprojectistobejudgedcanbedifficulttoagreeupon.Itcanalso
bedifficulttofirmlyestablishalinkbetweencontractorconstructionandperformanceparameter
measurement.

6. Institutinganewwarrantyprogramcanbedifficultbecauseofthelearningperiodinvolvedwhereboth
contractorsandownersadjusttothewarrantyclause,itsimplementationandinterpretation.
7. Awarrantydoesnotguaranteeimprovedquality,however,mostresearchtodatecitesbetterqualityasan
outcomeofcontractorwarrantyprograms.

RESEARCH
Awarrantyisafairlycommontoolinconsumertransactions.Essentially,awarrantyisanassurancebytheseller
thatpropertyorgoodsareasrepresentedorpromised.Thisassuranceisoftenbackedbyaspecificallystated
remedyintheeventthepropertyorgoodfailstomeetthewarranty.
ABriefHistory
Inroadways,warrantieshavebeenusedinassociationwithpavementsforquitesometime.Theearliestpavement
warrantiesaroseinthelate1800s;oneexamplebeingthe15yearwarrantyofferedbytheWarrenBrothers
CompanyontheirpatentedWarreniteBitulithicPavement(FHWA,2009).Inthe1900swarrantiesfelloutoffavor.
Forinstance,priorto1991alongstandingFHWApolicyusedtorestrictedwarrantiesonfederalaidprojectsto
electricalandmechanicalequipmentbecauseitwasfeltthatwithoutthisrestrictionfederalfundscouldbeused
forroutinemaintenance,whichwasillegal(FHWA,2007).Inthe1990spavementwarrantiesbegantomakea
comeback.Rulechangesandanevolvingviewofwarrantiesledtoseveralagenciesexperimentingwithandthen
usingwarrantiesonaregularbasis.Althoughtheyarestillmorecommonelsewhere(e.g.,Europe)warrantiesare
commonforsomeowneragenciesintheU.S.Forotheragencies,theyareeithernotusedorexpresslyforbidden.
ReasonsforWarrantyUse
Warrantyusecanbeviewedasdrivenlargelybytwoforces:(1)thedesiretoimprovepavementqualityand
durability,and(2)thedesiretoreduceowneroversightduringconstruction(AGC,n.d.).Thefirstconcern
(improvedquality)canalsobeaddressedbyothernonwarrantysolutionssuchasaqualitycontrolspecificationor
tighterspecifications.Also,awarrantyrequirementdoesnotdirectlyensureanygreaterquality;itonlyrequiresa
contractortoprovidearemedyifcertainparameters(e.g.,smoothness,cracking,rutting)arenotmet.Aswithall
warranties,apavementwarrantyispricedandbidaccordingly.Inanextremesituation,acontractormaychoose
toincludethecostofanentireoverlayorpartialreconstructionintothebidpricetomitigatetheriskofcorrective
actionsrequiredbythewarranty.Thesecondreason(reducedoversight)maynotberealizedbecauseowner
personnelareusuallyneededtooverseewarrantedpavements(AGC,n.d.).
TypesofWarranties
Ingeneral,therearethreebasictypesofpavementwarranties:
x Materialsandworkmanship.Almostallconstructioniscoveredbyashortduration(usually1year)materials
andworkmanshipwarranty.Thistypeofwarrantyassignsrisktothecontractorforfollowingagency
specificationsinregardstomaterialsandworkmanship.Ifaproblemordefectisdetectedwithinthewarranty
period,theagencyusuallyusesaforensicanalysistodeterminethecause.Ifitisdeterminedthatspecification
noncompliancecausedtheproblem,itisrepairedatthecontractor'sexpense.Otherwise,theagencyassumes
repaircosts.Thistypeofwarrantyisalmostuniversal,rarelycollectedonandisusuallycoveredbysuretiesat
noadditionalchargetothecontractor.
x Shorttermperformance.Awarrantybasedontheperformanceofthefinishedpavementproductthatlasts
for27years.Thesewarrantiesspecifyanumberofperformanceparametersthatthepavementmustmeet
overtime.Iftheyarenotmetthecontractorisrequiredtorepair/replacethepoorperformingpavement.The
generalintentoftheseshorttermperformancewarrantiesistoplacetheriskofpoorconstructiononthe
contractor.Inmostsituations,poorpavementconstructionwillmanifestitselfinpoorpavementcondition
withinabout25years.
x Longtermperformance.Awarrantybasedontheperformanceofthefinishedpavementproductthatlastsfor
upto20yearsandbeyond.Thesewarrantiesspecifyanumberofperformanceparametersthatthepavement
mustmeetovertime.Iftheyarenotmetthecontractorisrequiredtorepair/replacethepoorperforming

pavement.Theselongtermperformancewarrantiesessentiallymakethecontractorresponsiblefor
maintenanceandrehabilitationofthepavementinquestion.
BenefitsandMarketRealitiesofWarranties
Mostoften,ownerspursuewarrantiesbecauseofaperceivedbenefit.However,theuseofcontractedwarranties
alsocreatesanumberofmarketconditionsthatmayormaynotnegateanyperceivedbenefits.Thefollowingisa
brieflistingofwarrantybenefitsandmarketrealities.
Benefits
Allowevaluationbasedonperformance.Warrantycontractsoftenprovidelittledirectioninmaterialsand
methodsandrelayinsteadondefiningperformanceovertimeasthekeycontractelement.Thisallowsowner
agenciesandcontractorstoconcentratetheireffortsonendresultsratherthanmethods.Thisalignsowner
evaluationofconstructionwiththepublicperceptionoftheconstructionaswellasallowscontractors
substantiallatitudetoinnovatesincemethodsarenotdefinedinthecontract.
Improvedquality.In2004,Bayraktaretal.(2004)showed13stateswereexperiencedwithwarranty
contractingwithvaryingdegreesofsuccess.Michigan,Ohio,Florida,andSouthCarolinahadthehighest
amountofwarrantycontractseachhavinga10to30percentofconstructioncontractscontainingapavement
warranty.Inthesamestudy,69percentofthestatedepartmentsoftransportationthatresponded,notedan
improvementintheoverallqualityofthefinalproduct(BayraktarM.etal.,2004).
Reducedownerrisk.Warrantiestendtoplacemoreoftheriskofpoorconstructiononthecontractor.
Typically,evenapoorlyconstructedpavementislikelytolast1year(thetypicaldurationofamaterialsand
workmanshipwarranty)infairlygoodcondition.Withawarranty,anownercancollectfromacontractorfor
poorconstructionbasedonpavementconditionmeasuredoverthelifeofthewarranty.
Inclusionofconstructionqualityinacompetitivebid.Inmosttraditionalcompetitivelybiddesignbidbuild
pavementcontracts,pavementqualityisassumedtobeaminimumstandardtobemetratherthanthesubject
ofcontractorcompetition.Warrantyrequirementsusuallywillrequirecontractorstobuildtheirperceivedcost
ofthewarranty(theirpricefortheriskincurred)intotheircompetitivebid.Therefore,contractorsthatbuild
highqualitypavementandhavegoodknowledgeoftheirconstructionqualityaretheoreticallyabletoreduce
theirbidamountbecauseofaknownlowerrisk.Inessence,pavementqualitybecomesacompetitivelybid
item.
MarketRealities(AGC,n.d.)
Limitingcompetition.Askingcontractorstoassumeriskforpavementsaftertheyarebuiltgenerallymeans
thatsuretiesarerequiredtoprovidewarrantybonds.Suretiescanbeselectiveintheirissuanceofwarrant
bonds,whichmaylimitcompetition.
Reducedbondingcapacity.Thevalueofthewarrantybondsacontractorcarriescanreduceitsbonding
capacity,thuslimitingthenumberandvalueofjobsitcanbid.Longtermpavementwarrantiescanespecially
taxbondingcapacityandsuretiesbecausethelongdurationtheymustbecarried.Also,thereisconsiderable
pressureonsureties;thosewhobondcontractors.Withawarrantyessentiallyholdingacontractoratriskfor
thewarrantyperiod,thesuretywillalsobeheldliableforthewarrantyperiod.Therequirementofaseparate
warrantybondhasbeenthecommonpracticeforcontractorsparticipatinginpavementwarrantycontracts.
Suretieshaveaverydifferentresponsibilitywhenevaluatingcontractorsbiddingonwarrantycontracts.Some
suretiesviewtheprocessasadifficultsituation.Forinstance,theyareessentiallyrequiredtopredictthatthe
contractorsthattheyinsurewillbeinbusinessfortheentirewarrantyperiod.Forsureties,themajorsources
ofriskwhenevaluatingcontractorsforwarrantyprojectsincludewarrantyperiod,financialstrength,project
experience,andpastperformance(Bayraktaretal.,2006).
Increasedcost.Warrantiesmayincreaseconstructioncostsbecause(1)higherqualityconstructionmaycost
morebecausebettermaterialsormoremeticulousmethodsareused,or(2)thecostofwarrantiesarebidinto

contracts.Ultimately,awarrantytransfersrisktothecontractorandthatriskispriced.Theinclusionofa
warrantyprovisioncanincreasecontractcostsby510%(BayraktarM.etal.,2004).However,warrantieshave
alsoledtolowerpavementlifecyclecosts(Singhetal.,2007).SpecificallyinIndiana,someestimateshave
shownanincreaseofoverthirtypercentintheexpectedcosteffectivenessofawarrantyprogram(Singhetal.,
2007).
Difficultyinsettingobjectiveperformancemeasures.Itisdifficulttosettleonanobjectivesetofperformance
measuresbywhichanownercanjudgeapavementanddetermineifdefectsareduetocontractor
construction.Typicalperformancemeasurescanberoughness,rutdepth,surfacefrictionandcracking.Itis
oftendifficulttoestablishthatsuchitemsaredirectlyrelatedtoconstructionqualityandnotsomeotherfactor
suchasheavierthananticipatedloadingorpoorsubgrade.
Difficultinginstartingawarrantyprogram.Outsidestatesusingwarrantiesregularly,contractorexperienceis
limited.Themajorityofowneragenciesusingwarrantieshaveseenasimilarnumberofbiddersonprojects
comparedtoprojectswithoutwarranties.However,whenWestVirginiabeganitswarrantyprogram,ithad
manyprojectsthatcontainedasinglebidder(BayraktarM.etal.,2006).Contractorsshowedatendencyto
eithernotbidduetobeingconcernedabouttherisk,ortochargemoreonagivenbid.Ultimately,theremay
besometimeinvolvedwherecontractorsandowneragenciesbecomefamiliarwiththetermsofwarranties
andhowthesetermsareenforced.Duringthistime,itisnotuncommonforcontractorstobidhigherto
compensateforincreasedrisk.
StateofthePractice
TheFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)maintainsawebsiteonconstructionwarrantiesinfederalaid
contracts.Theyalsoincludeasubsectiononpavementwarranties(FHWA,2009).TableCA8.1listsvariousstates
withwarrantyexperienceinroadwayconstruction.
TableCA8.1:WarrantyProvisionsUsedbyVariousStates(FHWA2007)
HMA/RubberizedHMA 38years AL,CA,CO,FL,IN,ME,MI,MO,MS,OH,NM,UT,WI
HMACrackTreatment 2years MI
PCCPavement 510years KY,ME,MI,MS,UT,WI
BridgeComponents 510years WA,ME,NM
BridgePainting 210years IN,MA,MD,ME,MI,NH
ChipSealing 12years CA,MI
ITSComponents/Buildings 23years VA,NC
Landscaping/Irrigation 1year WY
Microsurfacing 2years CO,MI,NV,OH
PavementMarking 26years FL,MT,OR,PA,UT,WV
SignSheeting 712years WV
Roofing 10years HI
Forfurtherdiscussionofwarrantycontracting,seeNCHRPReport451GuidelinesforWarranty,MultiParameter,
andBestValueContracting(Anderson&Russell,2001).
GLOSSARY
Warranty Acollateralassuranceorguaranteebyasellerthatapropertyorgoodsareas
representedorpromised.Thisassuranceisoftenbackedbyaspecifically
statedremedyintheeventhepropertyorgoodfailstomeetthewarranty.

REFERENCES
Anderson,S.D.&Russell,J.S.(2001).NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(NCHRP)Report451
GuidelinesforWarranty,MultiParameter,andBestValueContracting.TransportationResearchBoard,
NationalResearchCouncil,Washington,D.C.Availableat
http://144.171.11.40/news/blurb_detail.asp?id=5476.
Aschenbrener,T.,Goldbaum,J.,&Shuler,S.(2008).EvaluationofShortTermWarrantyandPrescriptive
SpecificationsforHotMixPavementsAfter8Years.TransportationResearchRecord:Journalofthe
TransportationResearchBoard,2081(1),130138.doi:10.3141/208114.
AssociationofGeneralContractors(AGC).(nodategiven).PavementWarrantyTaskForceReport.Availableat
http://www.agc.org/cs/industry_topics/additional_industry_topics/pavement_warranties.Accessed31
December2009.
Bayraktar,M.E.,Cui,Q.,Hastak,M.,&Minkarah,I.(2004).StateofPracticeofWarrantyContractingintheUnited
States.JournalofInfrastructureSystems,10(2),6068.
Bayraktar,M.E.,Cui,Q.,Hastak,M.,&Minkarah,I.(2006).WarrantyBondsfromthePerspectiveofSurety
Companies.JournalofConstructionEngineeringandManagement,132(4),333337.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2007).Briefing:WarrantyClausesinFederalAidHighwayContracts.
Availableathttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/programadmin/contracts/warranty.cfm.Accessed31December2009.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2009).PavementWarranties.Availableat
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/Pavement/warranty.Accessed31December2009.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2009).ShortTermPavementWarrantiesProgramforHMACliffNotes.
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/warranty/cliffnotes.cfm.Accessed10October2010.
Gharaibeh,N.,&Miron,A.(2008).WarrantySpecificationsforHighwayConstruction;CurrentPracticesand
EvolutiontoAdvancedQualitySystems.TransportationResearchRecord2081,7782.
Moynihan,G.,Zhou,H.,&Cui,Q.(2009).StochasticModelingforPavementWarrantyCostEstimation.Journalof
ConstructionEngineeringandManagement,135(5),352359.
Sees,E.,Cui,Q.,&Johnson,P.(2009).LegalEnvironmentforWarrantyContracting.JournalofManagementin
Engineering,25(3),115121.
Singh,P.,Oh,J.E.,Labi,S.,&Sinha,K.C.(2007).CostEffectivenessEvaluationofWarrantyPavementProjects.
JournalofConstructionEngineeringandManagement,133(3),217224.
Thompson,B.P.,Anderson,S.D.,Russell,J.S.,&Hanna,A.S.(2002).GuidelinesforWarrantyContractingfor
HighwayConstruction.JournalofManagementinEngineering,18(3),129137.



MATERIALS & RESOURCES



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Materials & Resources
LIFECYCLE ASSESSMENT
GOAL MR-1
Createnewlifecycleassessmentinformationforroads.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Conductadetailedprocessbasedlifecycleassessment(ISOLCA)orhybrideconomic 2 POINTS
inputoutputlifecycleassessment(HybridEIO)accordingtotheISO14040standard
frameworksforthefinalroadwaydesignalternative.Includeallitemsontheproject
bidlistintheinitialscopeofthestudybeforeanystreamliningofthescopeisdone.
Useprimarydataforallprocesseswherepossible.Wherenoprimarydataexists,use RELATED CREDITS
thebestavailabledataandjustifythesubstitution.Chooseatleastthreeimpact 9 PR2LifecycleCost
categoriestoreportforthelifecycleimpactassessment(LCIA)fromtheEnvironmental Analysis
ProtectionAgency(EPA)FrameworkforResponsibleEnvironmentalDecisionMaking 9 PR3Lifecycle
(FRED:2000).Useequivalencyfactorsfortheimpactassessmentbasedonthemost Inventory
currentversionoftheindicatormodelreferenced.FREDisavailablefromtheAmerican 9 PR6Waste
CenterforLifeCycleAssessmenthere:http://www.lcacenter.org/library/pdf/fred.pdf. ManagementPlan
Notethatsomeequivalencyfactorsinthisdocumentareoutdated.Seethefollowing 9 EW4Stormwater
MR1Researchsectionformoredetails. CostAnalysis
9 CA3SiteRecycling
Details Plan
9 CA7WaterUse
TheLCAmaybestreamlinedaccordingtothestreamliningprocess
Tracking
recommendationsfromthe1999SocietyofEnvironmentalToxicologyand
Chemistry(SETAC)report“StreamlinedLifeCycleAssessment:AFinalReportfrom
theSETACNorthAmericaStreamlinedLCAWorkgroup”(Weitzetal.,1999). SUSTAINABILITY
COMPONENTS
Socialimpactassessmentisnotrequiredforthiscredit,butmaybecompletedif
9 Ecology
socialmetricsorindicesareappropriateorrelevantfortheproject.
9 Economy
9 Extent
DOCUMENTATION 9 Expectations
CopyofthecompletedLCA.Thisdocumentshouldinclude,atminimum,thefollowing 9 Exposure
specificinformation.
BENEFITS
x Nameandcontactinformationofperson(s)whoconductedtheLCA.Besureto 9 Improves
listanyLCACertifiedProfessionals(LCACP)involvedintheproject. Accountability
x Alistofalldatasourcesused,andtheinputdataused.Ifdataisproprietary,list 9 IncreasesAwareness
theownerandcontactinformation,andidentifyallprocessesincludedinthe 9 CreatesNew
proprietarydatasets. Information
x ListanymaterialinputsnotlistedinPR3butincludedintheLCA(thesewillbe
nonpavementitems).
x Detailedresultsofthelifecycleinventory(LCI).
x Lifecycleimpactassessment(LCIA)resultsshowingaminimumofthreeimpact
categories(i.e.globalwarmingpotential,acidification,photochemicalsmog,
humanhealth,etc.)fromFRED.Listsourcesofequivalencyfactorsused.
x Thedataqualityscoreofthefinalalternative(seeMR1Researchsection.)
x Alistofthetopthreecontributingprocessestotheimpactcategories(basedon
normalizedresults,suchasannualenergyuseperAmericanhousehold,etc.)
x Alistofalllimitationsofthestudyscopeanddataused.
MR-1 Lifecycle Assessment 339

Materials & Resources Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

x Createaspreadsheettocapturealloftheprocessesforproductionoftheroadwayprojectandcompletean
LCAinaccordancewiththereferencedISOstandards.
x HireaprofessionalthirdpartyconsultantifpossibletoreviewtheprojectandproduceafinalLCAreport.The
benefits:sometimestheyhaveaccesstosomeproprietarydataandsoftwarethatismorerecentorhigher
qualitythanpubliclyavailablesources.
x UseanopensourcesoftwareprogramforLCA.Thesearebecomingmorecommonandarepublicallyavailable
forfreeviaanumberofLCAorganizations.
x ConsiderusingahybridEIOmodelthatincorporatesbotheconomicsectordataandprocessbaseddata.
x Collectprimaryemissionsdatawhereverpossible.
x Usedatathatiscurrent,localorotherwiseprojectspecifictoimprovedataqualityfortheprojectLCAmodel.
Example: Comprehensive Process-Based LCA Approach (Stripple, 2001)

WhilenotacompleteLCAbecausetheimpactassessmentandinterpretationstepswerenotcompleted,
Stripple(2001)providesthebestavailableexampletodateofwhatshouldbeconsideredinacomprehensive
roadwaylifecycleinventoryanalysisandimpactassessmentbasedonanISOLCAmodel(fromSETACEurope).
Thelifecyclephasesstudiedwereconstruction,operation,maintenanceandassociatedtransportation
activities.Extractionactivitiesandtrafficwereincluded,butdisposalofwasteandproductionofcapital
equipmentwerenotconsidered.Inatrulycomprehensivestudy,wastegenerationandrecyclingactivitiesfor
mostpavementswillhavealargeroleintheoverallassessmentoftheroadway.Capitalequipmentproduction
mayalsobeincludedbutitisnotunusualforittobeexcludedviathestreamliningprocess.
Followingisalistofunitprocesses(andequipment)thatwereconsideredfortheinventoryanalysiswithinhis
definedGoal,Scope,andsystemboundaries(slightlyadaptedforclarity).(Stripple,2001)
TableMR1.1:ExampleunitprocessesinStripple(2001)
x Aggregateproduction(blasting, x Felling(trees) x Quicklimeproduction
crushing) x Foundationreinforcement x Roadmarking,sign,lighting,
x Aluminium[sic]production usingcement/limecolumns trafficlight,otherrailingand
x Bitumenproduction x Foundationreinforcement fenceproduction
x Cementproduction usingconcretepiles x Saltgrittingofroadinwinter
x Cementstabilizationofbase x Freighttransportationbysea roadmaintenance
courseinconcreteroad x Hotmixasphaltproduction x Sandgrittingofroadinwinter
construction x Layingofconcretewearing roadmaintenance
x Landclearingofrightofway courseinconcreteroad x Sawcuttingjointsinconcrete
x Clearingsnow construction x Sealingconcretejoints
x Coldmixasphaltproduction x Layingofroadmarkings x Steelproduction
x Concreteproduction(mixing) x Minoroperationalactivities x Surfacemillingofconcreteand
x Concretetexturing (minorrepairs,other) asphaltpaving
x Drivingdieselmaintenance x Mowingofrightofway x Syntheticrubber(EPDM)
vehicles x Operatingasphaltpavers production
x Electricityproduction x Operatingasphaltrollers x Trenchdigginginroad
x Erectionandremovalofsnow x Operatingdumptrucks maintenance
posts x Operatingexcavators x Trucktransportation
x Extractionofquarrygraveland x Operatingthetackcoattruck x Washingofroadsigns
sand x Operatingwheelloaders x Washingofroadsideposts
x Extractionofsaltforwinter x Polyethyleneplastic x Wildlifefences
roadmaintenance production x Zincproduction

340 Lifecycle Assessment MR-1

Thefunctionalunitsinthestudywere:
x Theconstruction,maintenanceandoperationovera40yearperiodof1lanekmofroad,13metersin
width,with0.5msurfacecourseand1mbasecoursepavedwithhotmixasphaltandusingvehiclesfor
constructionandmaintenancewithlowemissiondieselengines.
width,with0.5msurfacecourseand1mbasecoursepavedwithcoldmixasphaltandusingvehiclesfor
width,with0.5msurfacecourseand1mbasecoursepavedwithconcreteandusingvehiclesfor
TheresultsoftheinventoryanalysisforenergyuseareshowninFigureMR1.1below.
FigureMR1.1:Resultsoflifecycleinventoryanalysisforenergyofthreetypesofroadways.Dottedlines
representstoredenergyinasphalt.(Stripple,2001)

Thefullreport(2ndedition)isavailablefromtheIVLSwedishEnvironmentalResearchInstitute,Ltd.here:
http://www3.ivl.se/rapporter/pdf/B1210E.pdf
Example: Impact Assessment for HMA Overlay Using FRED (EPA, 2000; Schenck, 2000)
IntheirdocumentationfortheFREDtool,theEPAprovidesaperfectlyrelevantexampleofanimpact
assessmentforaroadwayproduct,asphaltcement.ThefollowingistakenfromAppendixC:AsphaltCoating
CaseStudyandSchenck(2000).ThearticlebySchenck(2000)providesfurtherexplanationofhowLCA,
especiallytheimpactassessmentstep,canbeusedtomakeprocurementdecisionsforroadmaintenance
activitiesfortheDepartmentofDefense.

Goal&ScopeofStudy
Thestudymodeleda1.5inchthickoverlayappliedwithafrequencyof79yearsovera20yeartimeperiodand
estimatedthetemperatureofapplicationatorabove165°F.ForpurposesofthisExample,theinventoryand
impactassessmentresultsforthewaterbasedasphaltemulsionalternative,GSB88(gilsonite),areomittedto
minimizeconfusionwiththeLCIAprocessthatisrequiredforthiscredit.Notethatingeneral,thiswasavery
simplifiedlifecycleassessmentmodelduetothesimplicityoftheproductitself(EPA,2000).Explicitdata
criterialimitsensuredthatInputandoutputdatawasnotcollectedifitrepresentedlessthanonepercentof
thetotalmass,energy,orexpectedtoxicityscorecontribution(humanhealthandecosystemhealthindicators).
TableMR1.2belowshowstheprocessesandmaterialdata,sourcesandtypesofdatacollectedforthemodel.
TableMR1.2:DataSourcesforLCAStudy(Schenck,2000;EPA,2000)
ProcessorMaterialData Type Source
Asphalt IndustryAverage IndustryAssociation
Aggregate Primary Manufacturer
Diesel(HMAProduction) Primary:surrogate Applier
Diesel(ConstructionVehicleFuels) IndustryAverage PublishedData
Sand Primary Manufacturer
Gilsonite Primary Manufacturer
Hydrochloricacid(HCl) Primary Manufacturer
Water Primary Manufacturer
NP40(Detergent) Primary Manufacturer
Surfactant IndustryAverage PublishedData
LightCycleOil Primary Manufacturer
LandUse(Road,m2) Calculated Thisstudy
LandUse(Manufacturing,m2) Mixed Manufacturer,Engr.Estimate
InventoryAnalysis
TableMR1.3presentstheresultsofthelifecycleinventoryanalysisfortheHMAapplicationonly.Azero
indicatesthataparticularrawmaterialwasusedtomakethe“ThinLayerofHMA”product.
TableMR1.3:SummaryofHMAInventory
SystemDescription(RawMaterials) ThinLayerofHMA(2Applications)lb/lanemi/20yr
Asphalt 122,621
Aggegate 2,181,960
Diesel(ConstructionVehicleFuels) 3,063
Diesel(HMAProduction) 884
Sand 0
Gilsonite 0
Hydrochloricacid(HCl) 32
Water 4,779
NP40(Detergent) 0
Surfactant 156
LightCycleOil 0
LandUse(Road,m2) 5888
LandUse(Manufacturing,m2) <10
ImpactAssessment
TableMR1.4presentstheresultsofthelifecycleimpactassessmentfortheHMAapplicationonly.Notably,the
valuesinTableMR1.3abovetranslatethroughtoTableMR1.4:azeroindicatesthataparticularvalueinthe
inventoryanalysiswasalsozero.ThisisbecausetheMR1.3valuesaremultipliedbyequivalencyfactorsas
definedintheFRED.(Technically,itcouldalsomeanthat:1.theequivalencyfactorassignedtoaparticular

impactwaszerothoughgenerallyanimpactwithzeroequivalencywouldnotbereported(i.e.notstudied),or
2.theresultcouldbeconsiderednegligibleandreportedaszero.)
TableMR1.4:LCIAResults
Impact ThinLayerofHMA(2Applications)lb/lanemi/20yr
Indicator LCIAResults
GlobalWarmingPotential(kgCO2e) 40,000
OzoneDepletion(kgCFC11e) 0
Acidification(kgSO2e) 300
Eutrophication(kgPO4e) 0.02
PhotochemicalSmog(kgO3e) 80
HumanToxicity
Cancer 0.2
NonCancer 5
Ecotoxicity(dimensionless) 2000
ResourceDepletion
Fossil(tonsoilequivalent) 90000
Mineral(equivalenttons) 0
Preciousmetals(equivalenttons) 0
OtherIndicators
LandUse(ha) 0.6
WaterUse(m3) 2
SolidWaste(ton) 800

FigureMR1.2showsanexampleofacontributionanalysis,wheretherelativecontributions(onascaleof100
percent)areshownasassignedtoeachlifecyclestage.AcontributionanalysismayalsobedonewiththeLCIA
resultstoshowwhichprocessescontributemosttocertainimpacts.
FigureMR1.2:ExamplecontributionanalysisforLCIAofasphaltcement.(Schenck,2000)

SomeNotesonResults(Interpretation)
ThisExampleonlyshowshalfthepicture,butthefullLCAwasactuallycompletedonbothtypesof
maintenancetechniquesandisexplainedinSchenck(2000)andtheFREDdocumentation.However,evaluating
thesetwoalternativesbycomparingtheimpactsofthetwoproductsmusttakeintoaccounttherelativedata
qualityavailable.AfewbriefexamplesofnotesthatmightbeusefultoareaderofanLCAreportforthe
interpretationstepfollow:
x InTableMR1.2,secondarydata(averagedata)forasphaltproductionwasusedandmaynotbe
representativeoftheactualproductstudied.InformationfromthemanufacturerfortheGSB88wasfrom
primarysourcesandmaybemorerepresentative.Ifprimarydatawereavailablefortheasphalt,theresults
maybedifferentthanthoseproducedbythemodel.Thisistrueformanydifferentpartsofthedataused.
x Closescrutinyofthedataintheinventoryanalysisshowsthatmanyofthedatavalueswerenotavailableor
notreportedforeitherproduct,asdenotedby“NA”intheFREDcasestudy.
x IftheFREDcasestudyiscomparedtothepublishedresultsoftheLCIA,itisclearthatthereisveryhigh
uncertaintyintheresultsbecausethecomputedresultsreportuptofivesignificantdigits.Theamount,for
example,ofGWPthatwascomputedwas44,368kgCO2e.Thatcomputedlevelofprecisionisnot
reasonable,andthevaluereportedonlyreflectsonesignificantdigit(40,000kgCO2e).
x Itisunclearwhytheinventoryamountreportedfor“ResourceDepletionMinerals”is0.Thisshould
probablyhavebeendocumentedsomewhere.
x Itisunclearwhattheassumedtransportationdistancewasforeitherproduct(bothinSchenckandthe
FREDdocumentation).
Furtherdiscussionandthefulllifecycleinventory,impactassessment,andinterpretationforthisEPAcase
studyareavailableintheFREDguidancedocumentavailableat:http://www.lcacenter.org/library/pdf/fred.pdf.
Thereaderisreferredtothatresourcetomakehis/herowninterpretationsofthecasestudiesprovided.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Missingorotherwiseunavailabledata(suchasfromproprietarysources).Whereverpossible,datashouldbe
collectedfortheproject.Thisincludes(butisnotlimitedto)emissionsandenergyusesuchasemissionsdata
gatheredfromatthehotmixasphalt(HMA)batchplant,amountsofwaterusedinconcretemixes,fueltypes,
tippingfeereceipts,cut/fillvolumes,etc.Ingeneral,secondarydatachoicesshouldbebasedonrealistic
projectbasedinformation.
2. Professionallifecycleassessmentmayincuranaddedcosttotheproject.Projectsshouldbudgetforthis
additionalcostwherepossiblewhenplanningtoattemptthiscredit.
3. DatamanagementinprocessbasedLCAscanrequiremuchmanpower,betimeconsuming,andalsohighcost.
4. Thereisnosuchthingasasimpleproduct.Allproductsandprocessesaremorecomplicatedthanhumans
couldeverconceive.LCAsstillonlypresentasimplifiedmodeloftheactuallifecycle.ThegoalisthattheLCA
modelisrealisticandrepresentative,notexact.
5. StakeholdersinvolvedinLCAtendtosetsystemboundariesandconditionstotheircredit.Thiscanskewor
discreditresultsinsomecases.Transparencyisakeyissueinpart,forthisreason.
6. Professionallifecycleassessmentinfersthatfinalresultsmaybeproprietary.Verifyrightstosharethis
informationpriortosubmittingdocumentationforthiscredit.Wherepossible,usedatasourcesorLCA
softwarethatdoesnotincorporateproprietarydataunless,adequatelyreferencedanddocumentedforthe
project.UsingOpenSourceLCAprogramsmaybeabletohelpavoidsuchissues.
7. AnyuncertaintiesorassumptionsmadeintheLCAmustbeclearlyspecifiedordocumented(pertheISO
standards).Additionally,anysubstitutionsorgenericdatausedmustbeexplicitlystated.
8. Allocationproceduresusedforestimationsorassumptionsshouldbetransparentandsupporting
documentation(includingreferences)shouldbeprovided(wherepublishingandproprietaryrightspermit).
9. Comprehensivelifecycleassessmentsrequiredetailedattentiontodataquality.

RESEARCH
ThisparticularcreditisavailableasasupplementtothethreerelatedProjectRequirements:PR1Environmental
ReviewProcess,PR2LifecycleCostAnalysis,andPR3LifecycleInventory.Thiscreditrepresentsbothanadded
step(impactassessment)tothebasicprocessinvolvedinthesethreecreditsandanexpandedroadwaysystem
scopefortheinventoryanalysisstepcompletedforPR3.PR2andPR3providedecisionmakinginformation
aboutcostandbaselineenvironmentalperformance(specificallyenergyuseandcarbondioxideemissions)forthe
roadwaypavementsection.Similarly,socialimpactclassificationandcharacterizationispartoftheenvironmental
reviewprocess(seePR1)formanyroadwayprojects,butgenerallythisprocesswillnotrequireorspecifytheuse
ofanyparticularsocialmetric(e.g.birthanddeathrates,obesityrates,productivityrates,etc.)formeasurement
oftheseimpacts.ThiscreditrequiresanexpandedscopeofthesethreeProjectRequirementsthatincludesthe
entireroadwayprojectsystemaswellasanimpactassessmentstepfortheproject.
NotethatanintroductiontoLCA,itsbasicframeworkcomponents,andvarietyofLCAmethodsisprovidedinthe
ResearchsectionofPR3.Thisresearchdiscussionissupplemental.
ExistingLiterature
Mostexistingliteratureforroadwaylifecycleassessmentsfocusontheinitialconstructionandmaintenanceof
pavementsectionsalone.ToourknowledgenostudieshavecompletedafullsystemwideLCAforaroadway
project.However,onestudycompletedbyStrippleetal.(2001),hascompletedafulllifecycleinventory(LCI)that
incorporatesallaspectsofaroadway,fromproductionprocessesofseveralkindsofpavementallthewaytothe
componentsoftheroadwaysuchaselectricutilitiesandwildlifefencing.Thisstudyfollowedthe
recommendationsfortheLCAprocessbytheSocietyofEnvironmentalToxicologyandChemistry(SETACEurope),
butisconsideredanincompleteLCAbecausetheimpactassessmentandinterpretationstepswerenotdone.
However,thepaperservesasagreatexampleofthefirsttwostepsinLCA,butnotethattheapplicabilityand
utilityoftheprimarilyEuropeandatasetisquestionableforapplicationsintheUnitedStates(i.e.itisdifficultto
justifysubstitutionofStripple’sinventorydataintoanonEuropeanLCAstudywithoutclosescrutinyofhisdata).
However,becauseSETACreferencesthesamemethodologyforLCA,namelytheInternationalStandards
Organization(ISO)14040and14044standards,thispaperisagreatexampleoftheframeworkandapproachfor
thiscredit.SeethefirstExampleintheprevioussectionformoredetails.
LCAMethodologySteps
Alifecycleisdefinedas“consecutiveandinterlinkedstagesofaproduct[orproject]system,fromrawmaterial
acquisitionorgenerationfromnaturalresourcestofinaldisposalor[endoflife:EOL]”(InternationalStandards
Organization:ISO,2006a).Generally,therearefourbasicstepstoanytypeoflifecycleassessment.Adifferent
interpretationofthesestepsthanthatshowninFigurePR3.2isshowninFigureMR1.3fromSETAC.Definitionof
thegoalandscope(theboundariesandextentofthestudy)willalwaystakeplaceforeveryLCAproject,andthe
variationinmethodologywillresultfromtheinitialchoicesmadeinthisinitial.InventoryAnalysis,thesecondstep,
willtakeplaceasoneofthreegeneraltypesasnotedinPR3.Thesearebriefly:
x ProcessBasedLCA(alsoISOLCA)
x EconomicInputOutputLCA(EIOLCA)
x HybridLCA(alsoHybridEIOLCA)
Eachoftheseapproacheswillproducedifferentresultsfortheinventoryanalysisandingeneralcannotbe
comparedcrossplatformbecausetheprocessesconsideredandsystemboundarieswillvarywidely.


FigureMR1.3:TheframeworkforLifeCycleAssessment(Consoli,1993)

ThefinaltwostepsoftheLCAaretheimpactassessmentandinterpretationoftheresults.Theimpactassessment
stepinvolvesanassignmentorapplicationofsubjectivevalues,whereinparticularindicatorsormetricsarechosen
toweightheresultsoftheinventoryanalysisaccordingtothosesubjectivevalues.Thesevaluesalsoneedtobe
explicitlydefinedinthegoalandscopeinordertoproduceameaningfulresultforinterpretation.Duetothe
iterativenatureofLCAs,however,itismorepracticaltostatethattheinterpretationstepreallyhappens
throughouttheentireLCAprocess,andoftenresultsinrefiningthescopewhendataiscollectedandanalyzedin
theinventoryanalysis.
ChoosingtheLCAModel
Aprocessbasedlifecycleassessmentisonethatisconducted(usually)accordingtothestandardssetbythe
InternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO)lifecycleassessmentstandards,ISO14040andISO14044(2006a,2006b).
TheISOclearlyoutlinesthestepsanditerativeprocessbehindatechnicalLCAinbothofthosestandards.Thebasic
ideaofaprocessbasedLCAisthateverythingismadeofasumofdifferentparts.Thosepartsarealsoresultsof
differentprocesses.Fundamentally,everypartandprocessneedsmaterialsandenergy(e.g.“makes”)inorderto
fittogetherintoawhole(e.g.“takes”).
Forasimpleexample,makingonetonoftheproductcalled“hotmixasphalt”(“HMA”)isactuallytheresultof
takingtwomaterials,“asphaltbinder”and“aggregate”,throughaprocessthatmakesHMA,“mixing.”Sothe
processesthatthattheHMAproductactuallytakesare:asphaltbinderproduction(material),aggregate
production(material),andHMAmixing(aprocess).
Thesethreeprocessescouldbefurtherbrokendownintoevenmorespecificprocesses,called“unitprocesses.”
Forexample,“HMAmixing”iscomposedof“heating,”“drumplantoperating,”and“fuelcombustionforheating,”
etc.Themodel,andalsothedatacollectionrequirement,expandsastheprocessesgetmorespecific.Similarly,
eachoftheseprocesses“take”morethanjustasphaltandaggregatetomakeHMA:theyalsorequireenergyfrom
electricity,capitalequipmentandworkers,whoalsoneedfoodandhousing,healthcare,acartodrivetowork,and
soon.Iftheprocessbasedmodelwerecontinuedandscaleduptoincludesuchinformation,itwouldbecome
incrediblycomplexanddifficult.Clearly,thescope,systemboundariesandpurposeoftheLCAarekeyissues.
ThisscopingissueissomewhatalleviatedbyEconomicInputOutputLCA(EIOLCA)models.EIOLCAusesabasisof
economicinputoutput(EIO)analysistomodelhowsectorbasednationalindustriesinteractandhowproductsare
intertwined.LCAwaseasilycombinedwithEIOdatabecausethecomputationalstructurewassimilartotheEIO

approach.EIOLCAusesonlypubliclyavailableinformationtodetermineeconomywide,systemlevelresults
insteadofprocessspecificresults(Hendricksonetal.,1998).ThismeansthatEIOLCAaggregatessectorlevelof
datatoquantifytheenvironmentalimpactcontributeddirectlyorindirectlybyeachsectoroftheeconomy.Itis
typicallybasedonmonetaryinputsinsteadofdimensionsormassandoutputsahandfulofcommon
environmentalimpacts,dependingontheindexselected.ThismethodwillnotearnGreenroadscredit.
HybridLCAisacombinationofprocessbasedandEIObasedLCA(Bilecetal.,2006),effectivelyeliminatingmostof
thedisadvantagesofeithermodelasidefrombuiltinuncertaintiesindata.EIOdataareusuallyusedforcommon
productsorprocesses,whileothersaredescribedbytheprocessbasedmethod.HybridLCAcanbefurther
categorizedintofollowingtypes:tieredhybridanalysis,inputoutputbasedhybridanalysis,integratedhybrid
analysis,andaugmentedprocessbasedhybridanalysis(Suh,2004;Bilecetal.,2006).Thesetypesdifferin
technicaldetailssuchashowdataisallocatedoraggregated,wherethespecificboundariesaredrawnbetween
processandEIOanalysis,andgeneraldataprocessingtechniques.
StreamlinedLCAisaproposedmethodofminimizingdatacollectioneffortsatthestartofaLCAprojectbyscoping
outparticularprocessesthrougheducatedassumptions(mostofthetime).Thisinevitablyleadstoatechnically
nonISOconformantframework,becausevaluationisappliedatthestart,beforedatahasbeencollectedand
analyzed.Curranetal.(1996)notethatstreamliningisreallypartofacontinuumthatfallssomewherebetween
thelevelofdetailforanISOLCAandanEIOLCA,andalsotechnicallyallLCAsarestreamlinedtosomeextentdue
totheiriterativenature.
AcomparisonoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthecommontypesofLCAareshowninTableMR1.5.
Ultimatelyitisuptotheprojectteamtodeterminewhichmethodwillbemostappropriate.
TableMR1.5:ProcessBasedLCAandEIOLCA(ExpandedfromHendrickson,Lave&Matthews,2006)
LCAMethod Advantages Disadvantages
ProcessBased x Detailed,processspecificresults x Systemboundariesaresubjective(or
LCA(ISOLCA) projectspecific)
(ISO,2006a;ISO x Allowsforspecificproductcomparisons x Maybehighcostandtimeintensive
2006b) x Identifiesareasinsupplychainfor x Hardtousewheninitiallydevelopinga
improvement(weakestlinks,orlackofdata) processorproduct
x Providesabasisforprocessspecific x Oftenuseproprietarydata
informationthatmaybeusedforother
developmentprocessesandassessments
x Canbedonewithpubliclyavailabledata x Cannotbereplicatedifconfidentialdatais
used
x Uncertaintyindataormissingdata
EIOLCA x Resultsareeconomywide,comprehensive x Productassessmentscontainaggregate
(Hendricksonetal, assessments data(suchasfoodthatfeedsworkersand
1998;Hendrickson, thewoodthatmakestheirhousing)
Matthews&Lave, x Allowsforsystemslevelcomparisons x Processassessmentsaredifficult
2006)
x Providesinformationoneverycommodityin x Mustlinkmonetaryvalueswithphysical

theeconomy units
NOTE:
METHODWILLNOT x Providesabasisforinformationthatmaybe x Economicimportsaretreatedasproducts
EARNTHISCREDIT. usedforotherfuturedevelopmentof createdwithineconomic(region,stateor
DONOTUSE. productsandprocessesandassessments country)boundaries
x Canbedonewithpubliclyavailabledata x Lackofcompletedataforenvironmental
effects
x Difficulttoapplytoanopeneconomy
(withsubstantialnoncomparableimports)
x Uncertaintyindata

LCAMethod Advantages Disadvantages

TieredHybridLCA x CombinesprocessandEIOdatatoproduce x Doublecountingerrorsmaybepresentin
(Suh&Huppes, morerepresentativeresult results
2005)
x Facilitatesinventoryanalysis x Mayomitimportantprocesses
x Reducesdatacollectiontime x Doesnotalwaysmodelinteraction
betweenprocessandIOdata
appropriately
x IncorporatesadvantagesfrombothISOand x Incorporatessomedisadvantagesfrom
EIOmodels bothISOandEIOmodels
HybridEIO x CombinesprocessandEIOdatatoproduce x Requiresiteration
(Treloar,1997;Joshi, morerepresentativeresult
2000;Crawford, x DisaggregatesIOkeysectorsandsubstitutes x Incorporatessomedisadvantagesfrom
2008) detailedeconomicinformation bothISOandEIOmodels
x IncorporatesadvantagesfrombothISOand x SubstitutionofIOdataformissing
EIOmodels processesmayreducemodelreliability
x Useanddisposalphasesareaddressed
manuallyinsteadofbysector
x Fillsprocessdatagapswherepreviouslyno
informationexisted
IntegratedHybrid x CombinesprocessandEIOdatatoproduce x Incorporatessomedisadvantagesfrom
(Suh,2004;Bilecet morerepresentativeresult bothISOandEIOmodels
al.,2006) x IncorporatesadvantagesfrombothISOand x Computationallycomplex
EIOmodels
x ConnectsprocessandEIOmodelsinmatrix x Difficulttolearn
x Eliminatesneedfortieredanalysis x Dataintensive
x Addressesinteractionsbetweensectorand x Timeintensive
processdata
x Consistentcomputationalframework
x Nodoublecounting
AugmentedProcess x Startswithprocessdataandsystemand x Incorporatessomedisadvantagesfrom
BasedHybrid scalesup bothISOandEIOmodels
(Guggemos,2003; x Useseconomyasultimatesystemboundary
Guggemos&
x Usesmostlyprocessdata
Horvath,2005)
StreamlinedLCA x Maysavemoney x Excludesupstreamand/ordownstream
(Curranetal.,1996; processes
Weitzetal.,1999) x Maysavetime x Limitsrawmaterialinputconsiderations
x Requiresreasonabledatamanagement x Resultsmaybemoresubjectivedueto
efforts weightingassignedearly(byscopingout
processesordatarequirements)
x Processesassignedsignificanceearlyin x Mayignoreimportantimpacts
scopingandalignwithgoalsofstudy unintentionally
x Providesfocusedassessment x Mayresultinreportingincompleteresults
topublic
AdditionalNotesonLCIA:FREDFramework
EquivalencyfactorsforimpactclassificationandcharacterizationforthisGreenroadscreditareprovidedbythe
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency’s(EPA)FrameworkforResponsibleEnvironmentalDecisionMaking(FRED)(EPA,
2000).Thefactorsaresubdividedintoeightcategoriesandthreegeneraltypesofflowsareinvestigated:(1)
emissionstoair,(2)emissionstowater,and(3)resourcedepletion(includesrawmaterials,fuels,waterandland).
Werecognizethatthereareanumberofmetrics,indicatorsandindicesavailableforuse;theFREDframeworkis

flexible,broadlyapplicable,comprehensive,anddocumentedrespectably.Currentlythisisthemosttransparent
andflexibletoolthatispubliclyavailableforimpactassessment.
FREDisbasedonavarietyofdifferentindicatortoolsormetricsthathavebeendevelopedbydifferent
institutions,andreflectglobalaveragesorindicators.However,documentationforsomeoftheindicatorsusedin
thetoolhasnotbeenupdated,likelyduetolackoffunding.Theusermayconsultthoseindividualsourcesinorder
tocheckforupdates,determineapplicability,orsubstituteregionalandlocalindicatorvalueswhereappropriate
(EPA,2000).“ThedesignersofFREDconsiderimpactmodelselectiontobeaniterativeprocess.Asthescienceand
thedatasupportingthescience[develop],newer,moreenvironmentallyrelevantmodelswillgraduallyreplacethe
currentmodels”(EPA,2000).SomeotherlimitationsoftheFREDtoolareprovidedexplicitlyinthe
documentation.Notably,anydatauncertaintiesintheestablishedequivalencyfactorsthatareusedwithinthe
toolitselfareinherentissues.Also,FREDdoesnotincludeanysocialoreconomicimpacts.
GreenroadshasprovidedsomesuggestedresourcestouseinplaceofthoselistedintheFREDdocumentation.
Eithermaybeusedinsupportofthiscredit(theprocessiswhatwearelookingforhere),butreferencesforthe
selectedindicatormustbecitedtoearnthiscredit.TableMR1.6(nextpage)liststheFREDimpactcategorieswith
sometypicalexamplesthatwouldbefoundinanLCIandusedintheimpactassessment.Notethatthisisonlya
sample,andthattheFREDdocumentationprovidesanumberofchemicalcompoundstotrack.
NotethatideallyFREDisdesignedtocomparetwoormoreproductsthathavethesamefunctionalunit.Theutility
ofcompletinganimpactassessmentforjustonesingleprojectisthatthereisnotnecessarilyanyestablished
industryaverageintermsofenvironmentalperformancethatcanbeusedforcomparisonofpavements.This
creditaimstohelpdevelopthisinformationinasystematicwaybyusingtheframeworkprovidedforimpact
assessmentbytheEPA’sFREDtool.Resultsoftheimpactassessmentmaythereforenotbesuitableforevaluative
purposes(EPA,2000),however,thisdoesnotmeanthattwodifferentdesignalternativesshouldnotbecompared
usingLCA.ForreportingpurposesinthisGreenroadscredit,wejustwanttoknowaboutthefinaldesign
alternative.
OtherLCIATools
x AnotherEPAtool,theToolsforReductionandAssessmentofChemicalandOtherReleases(TRACI),isno
longeravailablefromtheEPA.Asofthiswriting,weunderstandthatthistooliscurrentlybeingupdated.
(EPA,2008).
x Commonlyusedproprietarysoftwaretoolsmayhavebuiltinimpactassessmentindicators,suchasGaBi
andSimaPro.Thesetoolsoftenreportasinglevalueforallimpacts(anindex)thatdoesnotnecessarily
disaggregatecontributionstothatindexfromeachimpactorprocess,andmaynotbeappropriateforuse
inthiscreditbecausetheweightingcanlacktransparency.
x OthertoolsforimpactassessmentareavailablethroughtheNationalInstituteofScienceandTechnology
(NIST),suchastheBEES(BuildingorEnvironmentalandEconomicSustainability)tool.ThecaveatwithBEES
isthatitismostlyusedinthebuildingindustry,sovaluationandweightingsystemsusedbyNISTimpact
assessmenttoolsmaynotbeadequateforweightingimpactsofpavementorinfrastructureprojects
withoutfurtheradjustmentandreview.Also,thissoftwaretoolgeneratesonlyoneindexasa“score”
insteadofreportingdisaggregatedimpacts.


TableMR1.6:FREDImpactCategoriesandIndicatorModelsfortheFREDLCASystem(EPA,2000)
Impact ImpactIndicator Indicator* ExampleLCIData GreenroadsComment
Category Model/Source NeededforModel
Global Intergovernmental CO2e(kg) Carbondioxide Recommendusingupdated
Warming PanelonClimate (CO2) equivalencyfactorsfromIPCC2007
Potential Change(IPCC) Nitrousoxide(N2O) FAR(Solomonet.al.),especiallyfor
Methane(CH4) CH4,N2O.Othersarelessprevalent
Halons inroads/paving.
Stratospheric World CFC11e Methylbromide Recommendusingupdatedindicator
Ozone Meterological Chlorofluorocarbons forequivalencyfactors:Effective
Depletion Organization (CFCs) EquivalentStratosphericChlorine
(WMO) Hydrofluorocarbons concentration(EECl,EESC).SeeEPA’s
(HCFCs) 2006AirQualityCriteriaforOzone
andOtherPhotochemicalOxidants
Acidification Chemical Acidification Ammonia
Equivalents Potential Nitricoxide
(AP) Nitrogendioxide
Sulfurdioxide
Photochemical EmpiricalKinetic Maximum Acetone RecommendusingaboxorEulerian
Smog Modeling Incremental CarbonMonoxide modelandMIRvaluesfromCarter
Approach(EKMA) Reactivity Formaldehyde (2009)withbinnedreactivitiesbased
(MIR) Alkanes uponnalkane,isoalkane,cyclo
Aromatics(VOCs) alkane,aromaticsandnapthalenes.
Napthalenes SeealsoLeukenandMebust(2008).
Eutrophication RedfieldRatio PO4e(kg) Phosphates
Nitricoxide
Nitrates
Ammonia
HumanHealth Universityof Benzene Toxicchemicals Recommendusingcurrentdatafrom
California, TEP(cancer) theEnvironmentalDefenseFund
Berkeley(UCB) TouleneTEP (EDF)ScorecardandUCBTEPsas
TEPs (non showninFREDdocumentation.See
cancer) alsoMcKoneandHertwich(2001)
andHertwichetal.(2006)
Ecological ResearchTriangle N/A Toxicchemicals RecommendRTImodelanddata

Toxicity Institute(RTI)LCIA fromEPA’sECOTOXdatabaseto
Expert(Version1) determinespecificweightingas
showninFREDdocumentation(EPA,
2000;2010)
Resource LifeCycleStressor Mass, Various Recommendusingcomputed
Depletion Environmental volume “resourcedepletion”equivalency
Assessment (water)or factorsusingupdatedSCS0022008
(LCSEA)Modelby landarea (Draft)asshowninFREDdocument
Scientific (EPA,2000;SCS,2008)
Certification
Systems
DataQuality
ThemostimportantstepintheinterpretationphaseoftheLCAistheidentificationofthedataqualityand
statementofuncertainties.QualityofdatausedinanLCAcanbeevaluatedduringtheinterpretationstageofthe
LCAusingdataqualityscores.Forthiscredit,eachpieceofdatashouldberatedwithnumbers1to5andscored
accordingtothecriteriasetforwardbytheUniversityofWashingtonDesignforEnvironmentLab(Collegeof

Engineering,DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,underthedirectionofDr.JoyceCooper),basedon
ISO14040:2006requirements.ThescoringisshowninTableMR1.7.
TableMR1.7:Dataqualityscores(DQS)bytheUniversityofWashingtonDepartmentOfMechanical
EngineeringDesignforEnvironmentLab(Cooperetal.,n.d.)
Score ISO14040Data Supporting ScoringMethod
ID QualityIndicators Information
DQS1 TimeRelated Startdateofvalid Deviationfromintendedperiod(differenceinyearstoyearof
CoverageData(i.e. timespan study)
dataage) 1. Lessthan3years
Enddateofvalid
2. Lessthan6years
timespan
3. Lessthan10years
4. Lessthan15years
5. Ageofdataunknownormorethan15years
DQS2 Geographical Areaandcountry Deviationfromintendedarea
Coverage names 1. Datafromstudyarea
2. Averagedatafromlargerareawhichincludesstudyarea
3. Datafromareaundersimilarproductionconditions
4. Datafromareawithslightlysimilarproductionconditions
5. Datafromunknownareaorareawithdifferent
productionconditions
DQS3 Technology Technology Deviationfromintendedtechnology

Coverage description 1. Datafromenterprises,processesandmaterialsunder
study
Includedprocesses
2. Datafromprocessesandmaterialsunderstudybut
Extrapolations differententerprises
3. Datafromprocessesandmaterialsunderstudybut
differenttechnology
4. Dataonrelatedprocessandmaterialsbutsame
technology
5. Dataonrelatedprocessandmaterialsbutdifferent
technology
DQS4 Precision, Samplingprocedure Representativenessforintendedprocess
completeness,and 1. Veryhigh(datarepresentallaspectsofsystemunder
Numberofsamples
representativeness study)
ofthedata Absolutesample 2. High(datarepresentamajoritysubsetofthesystem
volume understudy)
3. Moderate(datarepresentaminoritysubsetofthesystem
Relativesample
understudy)
volume
4. Low(datarepresentanexampleofthesystemunder
Extrapolations study)
5. Veryloworunknown(theextenttowhichthedata
Uncertainty
representsthestudyisunknown)
adjustments

Score ISO14040Data Supporting ScoringMethod

ID QualityIndicators Information
DQS5 Consistencyand Descriptionof 1. Veryhigh(dataarebasedondirectmeasurementsusinga
reproducibilityof methodfordata widelyacceptedtestmethodoronsoundengineering
themethodsused collectionanddata modelsrepresentingthecurrenttechnologyandhave
throughouttheLCA treatment beenextensivelypeerreviewed.Also,thesourceprovides
atransparentaccountoftheassumptionsmade.)
2. High(althoughthedataarebasedonagenerallysound
testmethodormodelandthesourceprovidesa
transparentaccountoftheassumptionsmade,thedata
aredatedorlackenoughdetailforadequatevalidationor
havenotbeenextensivelypeerreviewed)
3. Moderate(dataarebasedonanunprovenornew
methodologyorarelackingasignificantamountof
backgroundinformation)
4. Low(dataarebasedonagenerallyunacceptablemethod,
butthemethodmayprovideanorderofmagnitudeflow)
5. Veryloworunknown(dataarebasedonanunknown
method,butthemethodmayprovideanorderof
magnitudevalueoftheflow)
DQS6 Sourcesandtheir Referencesusedfor Typeofreference
representativeness datacollectionand 1. Datafromreviewedsource
datatreatment 2. Datafrompublicwrittensource(notreviewed)
3. Datafromclosedwrittensource(notreviewed)
4. Othersources
5. Unknownsource
DQS7 Uncertaintyofthe Meanvalue Coefficientofvariance
information 1. Below10%
Standarddeviation
2. 1025%
Uncertaintytype 3. 2550%
4. 50100%
Descriptionof
5. Over100%orunknown
strengthsand
weaknesses(e.g.
occurrenceofdata
gaps)

GLOSSARY
CO2 Carbondioxide
CO2e Carbondioxideequivalentemission
e Equivalent
EIO EconomicInputOutput
EIOLCA EconomicInputOutputforLifeCycleAssessment
EOL Endoflife
Functionalunit Thequantifiedperformanceofaproductsystemforuseasareferenceunit
(ISO,2006a)
HybridLCA AtypeofLCAthatcombinesbothprocessbasedandeconomicinputoutput
models

ISOLCA ProcessbasedLCA
LCA Lifecycleassessment
LCCA Lifecyclecostanalysis
LCI Lifecycleinventoryanalysis
LCIA Lifecycleimpactassessment
Lifecycle consecutiveandinterlinkedstagesofaproduct[orproject]system,fromraw
materialacquisitionorgenerationfromnaturalresourcestofinaldisposalor
[endoflife:EOL](ISO,2006a)
Lifecycleassessment Compilationandevaluationoftheinputs,outputsandthepotential
environmentalimpactsofaproductsystemthroughoutitslifecycle(ISO,
2006a)
ProcessbasedLCA AnLCAconductedaccordingtoISOStandard14040
Referenceflow Themeasureoftheoutputsfromprocessesinagivenproductsystem
requiredtofulfil[sic]thefunctionexpressedbythefunctionalunit(ISO,
2006a)
SETAC SocietyofEnviornmentalToxicologyandChemistry
StreamlinedLCA IdentificationofelementsofanLCAthatcanbeomittedorwheresurrogate
orgenericdatacanbeusedwithoutsignificantlyaffectingtheaccuracyofthe
results(Weitzetal.,1999)
Systemboundary Setofcriteriadefiningwhichunitprocessesarepartofasystem(ISO,2006a)
Unitprocess Smallestunitconsideredinthelifecycleinventoryanalysisforwhichinput
andoutputdataarequantified(ISO,2006a)

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PAVEMENT REUSE
GOAL MR-2
Reuseexistingpavementandstructuralmaterials.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Reuseataminimum,apercentageofexistingpavementmaterialsorstructural 1-5 POINTS
elementsbyestimatedvolumeorweightasshowninTableMR2.1.Thematerials
consideredinvolumecalculationscanincludebutarenotlimitedtohotmixasphalt
(HMA),portlandcementconcrete(PCC),unboundgranularbasematerial,stabilized
basematerial,reinforcedconcrete,structuralsteel,andtimber.Ingeneral,pavement RELATED CREDITS
materialswillbeeasiertocalculatebyvolumewhilestructuralmaterialsshouldbe 9 PR2LifecycleCost
calculatedintermsofweight,unlessmaterialvolumesareadjustedfordensity. Analysis
9 PR9Asset
TableMR2.1:PointsforEstimatedVolumeorWeightofReusedMaterials ManagementPlan
CreditMR2Points 1 2 3 4 5 9 MR3Earthwork
%ReuseofExistingPavementMaterialsorStructuralElements 50 60 70 80 90 Balance
9 MR4Recycled
Details Materials
9 PT1LongLife
“Reuse”isdefinedasacontinueduseorrepurposingofexistingmaterialswithin
Pavement
theprojectlimits.Specifically,thismeansthematerialinquestionhasnotbeen
9 PT6Pavement
transportedbeyondtheprojectlimitsatanytimeduringprojectconstructionand
Performance
thatithasbeenminimallyprocessedorchangedfromitsoriginalcondition.
Tracking
Thisdefinitiondifferentiates“reuse”from“recycle.”Pavementreusemethodsare SUSTAINABILITY
intentionallyusedtoextendthelifeoftheexistingpavementstructureinplace.
Similarly,inmostcases,reuseofstructures,suchasbridgesorretainingwalls,is COMPONENTS
typicallyknownasa“retrofit,”wherespecificmethodsareimplementedtoextend 9 Ecology
thelifeoftheexistingstructureinplace.Reusedmaterialsmaybeusedinplace,or 9 Economy
theymaybetemporarilyremovedfromtheiroriginallocationif:
BENEFITS
1. Thematerialssubstantiallyremaininthesameconditionastheywereremoved.
2. Thematerialsarereplacedinthesamelocationontheprojectoraremovedto 9 ReducesRaw
anewlocationontheprojectandrepurposedwithoutprocessing. Materials
9 ReducesFossilFuel
“Retrofit”isdefinedasthereinforcementofstructurestobecomemoreresistant Use
andresilienttotheforcesofnaturalhazardsandotherenvironmentalfactorssuch 9 ReducesAir
asagingandweathering.Itinvolvestheconsiderationofchangesinthemass, Emissions
stiffness,damping,loadpathandductilityofmaterials,aswellasradicalchanges 9 ReducesGreenhouse
suchastheintroductionofenergyabsorbingdampersandbaseisolationsystems. Gases
9 ReducesSolidWaste
“Recycle”isdefinedasrecoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialfromthe 9 ReducesManmade
wastestreamforreprocessingand/orrepurposingwithminimalornotransport Footprint
offsiteorwithintheprojectlimits.A“recycledmaterial”isanymaterial,fromany 9 IncreasesServiceLife
project,thathasbeen: 9 ReducesLifecycle
Costs
1. Processedatalocationoutsideoftheroadwayprojectlimits
2. Processedatalocationinsideoftheprojectlimits,butsubstantiallydisplacedor
otherwisemovedorremovedfromitsexistinglocationspecificallyinorderto
processthematerial,suchastemporaryormobileonsiterecyclingfacilities.
MR-2 Pavement Reuse 357

3. Materialfromanyoutsidesourcethathasbeenrepurposedforuseontheroadwayproject,evenif
salvagedandstillitsoriginalcondition.

“Existingpavementmaterial”isdefinedasallmaterialwithintheprojectlimitsintheexistingpavement
structure(includingsurfacingandbasematerial).Thisincludestravelledlanesandshoulders,andpavement
structuresforphysicallyseparatedbicycleandpedestrianpathways.
“Existingstructuralmaterial”isdefinedasallmaterialwithintheprojectlimitsinexistingnonpavement
structuressuchasbridges(includingoverpasses),retainingwalls,andstormwaterinfrastructuresuchasvaults,
pipesandculverts.Allexistingstructuralmaterialsincludetheirfoundations,forwhichvolumesmaybedifficult
toestimate.Whereactualweightsarenotavailable,reasonableestimatesmaybeusedorvolumemaybe
estimated.Tocomputevolumeofhollowstructuralsectionssuchasprefabricatedmembersorcorrugated
steel,estimatethemassofthematerialandadjustformaterialdensitytodeterminevolume.Notethatfor
typicalreinforcedconcretesections,thesteeldoesnotneedtobeseparatedfromthecompositesectionfor
purposesofvolumecalculationsandacompositedensitymaybeused.
Inordertoachievecredit,someactivitymustbedonetoeitherthepavementorastructuresuchthatthe
materialsorassemblyisimprovedorupgradedinsomeway.Cleaning,regularmaintenanceandminorrepairs
doneaspartofroutineoperationsandmaintenancedonotqualifyforthiscredit.
ThiscreditisNOTappropriateforconstructionofanentirelynewroadwayorbridgereplacement,nordoesit
applytomaterialsinexistingsubgrade(naturalinsitumaterial),fillmaterialorsidewalksthatarenotexplicitly
partofthepavementstructureorstructuralelement.Additionally,thisreusecreditdoesnotincludeminor
structuralelementssuchasluminaires,signs,orsignalsbecausetheydonotmakeupasignificantamountof
thetotalvolumeofmaterialsontheprojectandtheydonotbearregularloadsofpeopleorvehicles.
ThiscreditISappropriatefor:
x Pavementrehabilitationactionsthatplacenewmaterialovertheexistingpavementstructuresuchashot
mixasphalt(HMA)overlays,PCCoverlays(eitherbondedorunbounded)andpavementsurfacetreatments
(e.g.,chipseals,slurryseals).
x Inplacereprocessingoperations(eventhoughsomearereferredtoas“recycling”)suchashotinplace
recycling,coldinplacerecycling,fulldepthreclamation,portlandcementconcrete(PCC)crackandseat
andrubblization.
x Repurposingofexistingmaterialforotherpurposesinthesameproject.Thematerialmustnotleavethe
projectboundarytobeconsidered.Ifitdoesleavetheprojectboundaryitmaystillbeconsideredinthe
RecycledMaterialscredit.
x Anyofseveralbridgeretrofitmethods:
x Stainlesssteelwiremesh(SSWM)composites
x Fullheightsteeljackets
x Elastomericbearings
x Steelrestrainercables
x Shearkeys
x Fiberreinforcedpolymers(FRP)wraps
x Shapememoryalloy(SMA)devices
x Metallicandviscoelasticdampers
x Pipeseatextenders
x Reuseandrepairsofstructuralfoundations
x Retainingwallretrofitssuchasleveling,seismicretrofits,andslopestabilizationmethodsthatleavea
majorityoftheoriginalwallinplace.
358 Pavement Reuse MR-2

DOCUMENTATION
Acalculationthatshowsthecomputedpercentofmaterialreusedincludingthefollowingfouritemsatminimum:
1. Totalvolumeofexistingpavementstructure
2. Totalvolumeofreusedpavementstructure
3. Thecomputedpercentageofthetotalreusedvolume,and
4. Ashortwrittendescriptionofhowthestructurewasreused.

x Wherefeasible,undertakepavementpreservationefforts(e.g.,overlays,diamondgrinds,etc.)thatpreservea
majorityoftheexistingpavementstructure.Pavementstructureshouldnotbereusedifitsengineering
propertiesareinadequateforthepavement’sintendedfunction.Inthisinstance,thiscreditservesasareward
foranagencymaintaininganactivepavementpreservationprogramthataddressesdeterioratedpavement
earlyenoughsoastoavoidatotalreconstructionastheonlyviableremedy.
x Useinplacerecyclingtechniquessuchashotinplacerecycling,coldinplacerecyclingandfulldepth
reclamation.Thesemethodsqualifyasreusebecausethematerialhasnotcrossedprojectboundaries.
x UseacrackandseatorrubblizationoptionfordeterioratedPCCratherthanremovingandreplacingthe
existingPCC.Suchoperationsusuallyinvolvepavingadditionalstructureoverthecrackedandseatedor
rubblizedPCC;therefore,additionalconsiderationswouldbebridgeclearance,drainageflowsandmatching
gradesforcrossstreets,rampsandotheraccessroads.
x Retrofitorrefurbishexistingstructures.Thereareavarietyofmethodsavailableforretrofitsdependingon
existingissues.
x Performalifecyclecostanalysisofretrofitoptionsforbridgeswhenconsideringdesignalternatives.
x Reusethepavementonbridgeswhereitexists.
x Plantoreusefoundationsbecauseitreducesenvironmentalimpacts,especiallyforinwaterwork.
x Reusesubassembliesandcomponentsofstructuresiftheentirestructuralelementcannotbereused.
x Evaluatethestructuralconditionofexistingelementssuchasbridgesandretainingwalls.Thisistypically
determinedbyastructuralengineer.Donotreuseelementsthathavebeendamagedbycorrosionornatural
hazardswithoutreviewbyastructuralengineer.
x Wherestructuralelementsaredeterminedtobeinadequateforreuse,considersalvagingthemor
deconstructingthemforuseonanotherprojectorpurpose.
Example: “Reuse” versus “Recycle”

Greenroadsmakesadistinctionbetweentheterms“reuse”and“recycle.”Thefollowingdiscussionprovides
moredetailsfordistinguishingbetweenthetwo.
Reusedmaterials:Thesematerialsoriginatefromwithintheprojectlimitsandareeithermaintainedinplace
(suchasexistingpavementstructure)ordisturbed/removedbutarenottransportedoutsidetheprojectlimits.
Examplesinclude:
x Overlayinganexistingpavementstructurewithnewpavementmaterial.Theexistingstructureiscounted
asreusedmaterial.Thisisspecifictopavementssince,forinstance,astopsignthatremainsundisturbed
duringaroadwayprojectdoesnotcountasbeingreused.
x Removingcrushedaggregatebasecoursefromonelocationandreusingitascrushedaggregatebase
courseinanotherlocationwithintheproject.
x Hotinplacerecycling(HIR).TheprocessingandtreatmentofanexistingHMApavementsection(usually1
2inchesofthesurfaceonly).TreatmentinvolvesheatingtheexistingHMAsurface,theadditionof
bituminousand/orchemicaladditivesand,often,someadditionalnewHMA.Theexistingpavement
materialsremaininplaceandessentiallyservetheiroriginalpurpose.

x Coldinplacerecycling(CIR).Theprocessingandtreatmentwithbituminousand/orchemicaladditivesofan
existingHMApavementsectionwithoutheatingtoproducearestoredpavementlayer.Theexisting
pavementmaterialsremaininplaceandessentiallyservetheiroriginalpurpose.Inmanycasesthe
resultantproductisusedasastabilizedbasecoursethatmayormaynotbesubsequentlyoverlaidwitha
newsurfacecourse.
x Fulldepthreclamation(FDR).Theprocessingandtreatmentwithbituminousand/orchemicaladditivesof
anexistingHMApavement(mayalsoincludebasematerial)withoutheatingtoproducearestored
pavementlayer.Theexistingpavementmaterialsremaininplaceandessentiallyservetheiroriginal
purpose.Inmanycasestheresultantproductisusedasastabilizedbasecoursethatmayormaynotbe
subsequentlyoverlaidwithanewsurfacecourse.
Recycledmaterials:Thesematerialsmayoriginatewithinorexternaltotheprojectlimitsandarediverted
fromfinaldisposal(i.e.landfill)andarereprocessedorrepurposedforuseintheproject.Theessential
differencebetween“recycling”and“reuse”isthatrecyclinginvolvesreprocessing/repurposingand,usually,
substantialtransportation(usuallytoandfromthereprocessingfacilityandsometimestoandfromtheproject
site).Also,arecycledmaterialcanoftenoriginatefromoutsidetheprojectlimitsbeforeuseontheproject,
whereasreusedmaterialdoesnot.Examplesinclude:
x HMAfromtheprojectinquestionoranotherproject,commonlycalledreclaimedasphaltpavement(RAP),
istransportedtoastoragelocationorHMAplantlocationandincludedasaconstituentofanewHMA
mixturefortheprojectinquestion.
x Anexistingconcretestructurefromtheprojectinquestionoranotherprojectisdemolishedandcrushed
intoanappropriategradationandusedasacrushedaggregatebasematerialoranaggregatecomponentin
newPCContheprojectinquestion.
x Anindustrialbyproduct(e.g.,coalflyash,silicafume,groundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag)isincorporated
asacomponentinanewmaterial(e.g.,PCC).
x Divertedwastematerial(e.g.,discardedrubbertires,crushedglass)isincorporatedasacomponentina
newmaterial(e.g.,HMA,PCC).
Example: What Is and What Is Not “Existing Pavement Structure”

FiguresMR2.1throughMR2.4showexamplesofwhatshouldandshouldnotbeincludedinthiscalculation.
x FigureMR2.1:ThisbicyclepathshouldNOTbecountedasexistingpavementstructurebecauseitisa
separatebicycle/pedestrianpaththatisnotaccessibletoautomobiles.
x FigureMR2.2:Thisbicyclelaneshouldbecountedasexistingpavementstructurebecausealthoughitis
markedasabicyclelane,itisaccessibletoautomobiles.Specifically,itmustbecrossedbyvehicles
accessingcurbsideparking.
x FigureMR2.3:ThispavedmedianshouldNOTbecountedasexistingpavementstructurebecauseitis
separatedfromthetravelledwaybyacurbstructureandisnotaccessibletoautomobiles.
x FigureMR2.4:Thispavedmedianareashouldbecountedasexistingpavementstructurebecauseitis
accessibletoautomobileseventhoughthedoubleyellowlineimpliesthattheyshouldstayout.

FigureMR2.1:AbicyclepathinAuburn,AL. FigureMR2.2:Abicyclepathaspartofthe
roadway(imagefromGoogleMaps).

FigureMR2.3:Apavednonaccessiblemedian FigureMR2.4:ApavedaccessiblemedianonUS101
(imagefromBingMaps). inWashingtonState.
Example: Calculation for Widening an Existing Roadway

Description:Fourmilesofanexistingtwolaneroadwith12footwidelanesandnoshouldersistobewidened
toincludea10footwidetwowayleftturnlaneand8footshoulders.Theexistingpavementstructureconsists
of5inchesofHMAover8inchesofcrushedaggregate.Theexistingpavementiskeptinplaceexceptthatthe
top1.5inchesofHMAisremovedbyamillingmachine.Newpavementofthesamestructureisbuiltoneither
sideoftheexistingpavementstructuretoaccommodatethewiderfinalalignment.
Calculationlogic:All8inchesofthebasematerialand3.5inchesoftheHMAarereused.The1.5inches
removedbythemillingmachineisnotconsidered“reused.”Ifitisrecycledthenitmayqualifyfor
considerationunderMR4RecycledMaterials.
Calculation:
Totalvolumeofexistingpavement:
Reusedvolumeofexistingpavement:

Percentageofexistingpavementreused:
ͳ͹ǡͻͻͳ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ
ൌ ͲǤͺͺ ൌ ͺͺΨ‫݁ݏݑ݁ݎ‬
ʹͲǡ͵͵ͺ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ
Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor4points.
Example: Calculation for Bridge Retrofit Project – State Route 99 Aurora Bridge
Description:ThelandmarkAuroraBridgeintheCityofSeattlewasbuiltin1932andhasundergoneseveral
rehabilitationactivities.Currently,itisscheduledforadditionalretrofitof18ofits48uniquecolumns,aswell
asitssupportingtrusses,girdersandbeamsstartinginlate2010.Thecolumnsare“cruciform”shaped,which
makesitdifficulttousetraditionalretrofitoptionssuchassteelcolumnjackets.TheWashingtonState
DepartmentofTransportationintendstospend$2.1milliontocompletetheupgradetheseismiccapacityof
thebridge.

FigureMR2.5:AuroraBridge,Seattle,WA(PhotoCourtesyofWSDOT)
Calculationlogic:Theentirebridgestructureistoremaininplacefortheplanned2010retrofit,therefore
100%ofitisreused.
Calculation:Noneneeded.Allexistingstructuralmaterialsarereused.
Example: Calculation for Bridge Retrofit Project – State Route 104 Hood Canal Bridge
Description:TheHoodCanalBridgeisthelongestfloatingbridgeoversaltwaterintheworld.At1.5miles,the
bridgeiscomprisedoftwoapproaches,twotransitionspansand36pontoons.Thewest“half”ofthebridge
has19pontoonsandtheeasthas17.Thewestapproachspanofthebridgeandsomeoftheexistingpontoon
structureswereretrofitted.Thisportionofthebridgehadbeenreplacedin1982aftersinkingin1979.Theeast
“half”ofthebridgewascompletelyreplacedwithconstructioncompletinginearly2010.

Calculationlogic:Useweightasanindicatorforactualmaterialvolumeofthepontoons.(Totalvolumeof
materialscanbecomputedfromWSDOTdata,butdensityinformationisnotavailable.)Theeastportionofthe
bridge(17pontoons)weighs107,111tonswithanapproachslabweighing3,800tons.Thewestportionofthe
bridgeweighs127,817tonswithanapproachslabweighing1,000tons.Therearetwotransitionspans(steel
truss)thatare800tonseach.
Calculation:Computethetotalweightofthebridge.
[107,111+127,817+3,800+1,000+2(800)]=241,328tons
Computethetotalweightoftheretrofittedsections.(Notethiscalculationpresumes100%ofthewesthalf
featureswereretrofittedforeaseofcalculation.)
[127,817+1,000+800]=129,617tons
Computethepercentageofthetotalbridgeweightoftheretrofittedsection.
129,617tons/241,328tons=53.7%
Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor1point.Additionally,thepontoonsweresoldtoacompanyinCanadaandthey
havebeenrebornasmarinastructures.Thereplacedbridgetrusseswerenotabletobereusedbutwere
salvagedforscrap.

FigureMR2.6:HoodCanalfloatingbridgeretrofitandreplacementproject.(PhotoCourtesyofWSDOT)
Example: Calculation for Preservation Overlay of an Existing HMA Pavement

Description:Sixmilesofanexistingfourlanehighwaywith12footwidelanesand8footshouldersistobe
overlaidwith2inchesofadditionalHMA.Alloftheexitingpavementstructureistoremaininplace.

Calculationlogic:Alloftheexistingpavementstructureistoremaininplacetherefore100%ofitisreused.
Calculation:Noneneeded.Allexistingpavementisreused.
Example: Calculation for Rubblization of an Existing PCC Roadway

Description:Threemilesofafourlanehighwaywith12footwidelanesand8footshouldersistoberubblized
andoverlaidwith6inchesofHMA.Theexistingpavementstructureacrossalllanesandshouldersconsistsof9
inchesofPCCover12inchesofcrushedaggregate.
Calculationlogic:Alloftheexistingpavementstructureistoremaininplacetherefore100%ofitisreused.
Example: Calculation for Hot In-Place Recycling of an Existing HMA Roadway

Description:Twomilesofatwolanehighwaywith12footwidelanesand4footshouldersistobehotinplace
recycled.Hotinplacerecyclingwillbedoneonthetop2inchesofHMApavementusingaheaterscarification
approach(http://pavementinteractive.org/index.php?title=HIPR).Thismethodusesaplantthatheatsthe
pavementsurface(typicallyusingpropaneradiantheaters),scarifiesthepavementsurfaceusingabankofnon
rotatingteeth,addsarejuvenatingagenttoimprovetheasphaltbinderviscosity,thenmixesandlevelsthemix
usingastandardaugersystem.Thepavementisthencompactedusingconventionalcompactionequipment.
Calculationlogic:Alloftheexistingpavementstructureisreprocessedandreusedontheproject,therefore
100%isreused.
Example: Calculation for Reconstruction of One Lane of an Existing Roadway

Description:Onemileoftheoutsidesouthboundlaneofanexistingsixlanearterialwith12footwidelanesis
toberemovedandreplacedwithPCCtoaccommodateabusrapidtransitlane.Thearterialhasnoshoulders
andhasaraisedvegetatedmedianthatisnotaccessibletoautomobiles.Theexistingpavementstructure
consistsof7inchesofHMAover9inchesofcrushedaggregate.Theoutsidesouthboundlaneconstruction
requiresapavementstructureof12inchesofPCCover7inchesofcrushedaggregate.Therefore,allthe
pavementstructureintheoutsidelanemustberemovedandafurtherthreeinchesofexcavationmustbe
donetoaccommodatethethickerpavementsection.Oncetheexcavationisdone,7inchesofthepreviously
removedcrushedaggregateisplaced.Then,12inchesofnewPCCisplaced.Theprojectscopeincludesall
southboundlanesbecauseothermedianworkandrestripingistobedone.Theprojectscopedoesnotinclude
thenorthboundlanes.
Calculationlogic:Theprojectscopeonlyincludesthesouthboundlanes;onlymaterialintheselanesshallbe
includedinthecalculation.Also,since7inchesoftheexistingcrushedaggregatewasreusedasbasecoursefor
thenewPCClane,itcanbeincluded.
Calculation:Totalvolumeofexistingpavementinthesouthboundlanes:

ͳ݂‫ݐ‬ ͷǡʹͺͲ݂‫ ݀ݕͳ ݐ‬ଷ

ሺ͵͸݂‫ݐ‬ሻሺ͹݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ ݏ‬൅ ͻ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ ሺͳ݈݉݅݁ሻ ൬ ൰ቆ ቇ ൌ ͻǡ͵ͺ͹‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ
ͳʹ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬ ݈݉݅݁ ʹ͹݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ
Reusedvolumepavementinthetwolefthandexistinglanes(thosenotreconstructed):

ሺʹͶ݂‫ݐ‬ሻሺ͹݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ ݏ‬൅ ͻ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ ሺͳ݈݉݅݁ሻ ൬ ൰ቆ ቇ ൌ ͸ǡʹͷͺ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ
ͳʹ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬ ݈݉݅݁ ʹ͹݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ
Reusedvolumeofcrushedaggregateinthereconstructedrighthandlane:

ሺͳʹ݂‫ݐ‬ሻሺ͹݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ ሺͳ݈݉݅݁ሻ ൬ ൰ቆ ቇ ൌ ͳǡ͵͸ͺ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ
ͳʹ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬ ݈݉݅݁ ʹ͹݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ
Percentageofexistingpavementreused:
͸ǡʹͷͺ‫݀ݕ‬ଷ ൅ ͳǡ͵͸ͺ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ

ൌ ͲǤͺͳ ൌ ͺͳΨ‫݁ݏݑ݁ݎ‬
ͻǡ͵ͺ͹‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ
Iftheprojectdidnotreusetheexistingaggregateintherightlane,thecalculationwouldbeasfollows:
͸ǡʹͷͺ‫݀ݕ‬ଷ
ൌ ͲǤ͸͸ ൌ ͸͸Ψ‫݁ݏݑ݁ݎ‬
ͻǡ͵ͺ͹‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ
Theprojectwouldqualifyfor2points.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Aprojectmaymisclassifyamaterialas“reused”insteadof“recycled.”Usuallythisisaminorissuesinceboth
processescanreceiveGreenroadspoints.SeeMR4RecycledMaterialsformoreinformation.
2. Pavementthicknessinolderroadsectionsmaybehighlyvariable;thereforeestimatingexistingvolumemaybe
difficult.Insuchcases,itisimportanttoclearlystateassumptionsandthesourcesofinformationyouareusing.
RESEARCH
Reusedmaterialsareavaluableandcosteffectiveresourcethatmaybeusedtohelpreducetheecological
impactsandlifecyclecostsofroadwayconstruction.Inmanyformsofroadwayinfrastructure(especially
pavements)existingmaterialscanbereusedfortheiroriginalintendedpurposeiftheymeetminimumengineering
standards.Badlydeterioratedhotmixasphalt(HMA)pavement,forexample,maybegroundupinplace,stiffened
withabindingagentandrecompactedtoformthebasematerialforanewpavement.Thisprocessistypically
referredtoascoldinplacerecycling.
Forthebuiltenvironment,materialsreusetypicallyreferstotheideaofcarefullydeconstructingabuildinginstead
ofdemolishingit.Deconstructionmeansdisassemblingabuildinginsuchawaythatthematerialscanbereused
fornewconstruction(BMRA,2010).Thus,itemslikefloorjoists,windows,doors,plumbingfixturesandsidingthat
stillhaveremaininglifecanbereusedfornewconstructionratherthandemolishedandeithersenttolandfillor
recycledasmorebasicmaterials(e.g.,wood,steel,etc.).Forinstance,anassemblyofmaterialslikeadoor
(possiblyconsistingofwood,aluminum,brass,glass,plasticandmore)canbereusedratherthandisposedofor
separatedintoitsconstituentcomponentsforrecycling.

PavementReuseDefined
PavementReuse:theprocessbywhichpavementmaterialswithintheprojectlimitsareeithermaintainedinplace
(suchasexistingpavementstructure)ordisturbed/removedbutarenottransportedoutsidetheprojectlimits.
BythisdefinitionGreenroadsdistinguishes“reuse”from“recycle”becauserecyclingisdefinedmorebroadlyasthe
processbywhichmaterialswithinorexternaltotheprojectlimitsaredivertedfromfinaldisposal(i.e.landfill)and
arereprocessedorrepurposedforuseintheproject.Theessentialdifferencebetween“recycling”and“reuse”is
thatrecyclinginvolvesreprocessing/repurposingand,usually,substantialtransportation(usuallytoandfromthe
reprocessingfacility).Also,arecycledmaterialneednotoriginatefromtheprojectinquestion.Therefore,
materialreuseasdefinedbyGreenroadsoffersthesamesustainabilitybenefitsofrecycling(seeMR4Recycled
Materialsforadiscussionofbenefits,currentwastestreamsanddiversionrates)withtheaddedbenefitof
reducedtransportationandanassociatedreductioninenergy,emissionsandcost.
Thiscreditfocusesexclusivelyonreuseofpavementmaterialsbecauseof(1)thedominanceofpavements
materialsonroadwayprojects,and(2)theabilitytoreuselargepercentagesofexistingpavementstructures.First,
pavementsarethemostprevalentstructureinroadwayconstruction,accountingforabout70%ofstateandlocal
roadwayexpenditures(BTS,2008).Onmostprojects(exceptforperhapsbridgesandtunnels)theymakeupa
majorityofthematerialbyweight.Second,itisquitecommontoundertakearoadwayconstructionprojectthat
keepsinplacetheentireexistingpavementstructure(essentially100%reuse).Thiscanoccurinroadway
expansionprojects,projectsthatreprocessexistingmaterialsinplaceand,importantly,routinepreservation
projectsthateitheraddtotheexistingstructureoronlyreplacethetopfewinchesofanexistingpavement
structure.ForthepurposesofGreenroads,thesetypesofpreservation“overlays”and“millandfill”(removea
thinlayerofpavementandreplacewithacomparablethickness)jobsaredeemedtohavereusedtheentire
remainingpavementstructure.Inthisway,thepavementreusecreditcanserveasarewardforanownerthat
pursuesapreservationprogramdesignedtomaintainpavementnetworkconditionthroughtimelyperiodic
surfaceoverlaysortreatmentsratherthanwholesaleremoveandreplaceprocedures.
PavementReuseMethods
ThissectionbrieflyoverviewssomeofthemorecommonpavementreusemethodsthatmeettheGreenroads
“reuse”definition.Theseare:
x Surfacetreatments
x Overlay/MillandFill
x Hotinplacerecycling(HIR)
x Coldinplacerecycling(CIR)
x Fulldepthreclamation(FDR)
x CrackandSeatofPCCpavements
x RubblizationofPCCpavements
InthecasesofCIR,FDR,crackandseatandrubblizationtheexistingmaterialiseffectivelydowncycled;thatisitis
reusedforalesserpurpose(asanaggregatematerialinsteadofaboundconcretematerial).Inallcases,these
methodsareconsidered“reuse”asdefinedbyGreenroadsbecausenoexistingmaterialleavestheprojectsite.
SurfaceTreatments
Pavementsurfacetreatmentsarematerialsplacedontheexistingpavementsurfaceinordertocorrectminor
surfacedefects,improvewearcoursecharacteristics(i.e.,friction)andprovideawaterproofcovering.Surface
treatmentsaregenerallyquitethin(e.g.,lessthan1inchthick)andcanconsistofanumberofdifferent
treatmentsincluding:
x Fogseal(FigureMR2.7).Alightapplicationofadilutedslowsettingasphaltemulsiontothesurfaceofan
aged(oxidized)pavementsurface.

x Slurryseal(FigureMR2.8).Ahomogenousmixtureofemulsifiedasphalt,water,wellgradedfineaggregate
andmineralfillerusedasamaintenancetreatmentorwearingcourse.Microsurfacingisanadvancedform
ofslurrysealthatusesthebasicingredientsandcombinesthemwithpolymeradditivestoachievebetter
engineeringproperties.
x Chipseal(FigureMR2.9andMR2.10).Alsoknownasasealcoatorbituminoussurfacetreatment,achip
sealisathinprotectivewearingsurfaceappliedtoapavementsurface.Atitsmostbasic,achipsealconsists
ofalayerofasphalt(oftenappliedasanemulsion)appliedtotheexistingpavementsurfaceinwhicha
singlelayerofaggregateisembedded.Moreexoticchipsealscanuseseverallayers(e.g.,doublechipseal),
differentstonesizes(e.g.,rackedinseal),andbecombinedwithothersurfacetreatments(e.g.,capeseal–
combinedwithaslurryseal)(Gransberg&James,2005).
FigureMR2.7:Nofogseal(left),fogseal(right). FigureMR2.8:Microsurfacing(fromthe
WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation).

FigureMR2.9:Chipsealasphaltemulsion FigureMR2.10:Chipsealaggregateapplication.
application.
Overlay/Mill&Fill
Overlays(FigureMR2.11)areoperationswhereeitherPCCorHMAisplacedoveranexistingpavement.
Overlayscanbeusedtoaddadditionalstructuretotheexistingpavement(called“structuraloverlays”)orcan
beusedtoprovideanewpavementsurfacefreeofdefects(called“nonstructuraloverlays”).A“millandfill”is
avariationofanoverlaywheretheexistingpavementsurfaceispartiallyremovedbyapavementmilling
machine(coldplaner,FigureMR2.12)beforetheoverlayisapplied.Thisisusuallydonetoeither:
1. Removeexistingsurfacedefectsinordertoimproveoverallpavementquality,or
2. Maintainexistingpavementelevationsaftertheoverlayiscomplete.

Inmanyinstances(especiallythesecond)themillingdepthisthesameasthesubsequentoverlaydepth.For
HMApavements,overlaysandmillandfillsarethemostcommonformofpavementpreservationandcan
constitutethemajorityofHMAplacedformostowners(asopposedtonewpavements).PCCoverlayscan
consistofbondedorunboundedoverlays.Bondedoverlays,oftenreferredtoas“whitetopping”whenplaced
onexistingHMApavements,consistofathinPCClayer(usually2to7inches)thatisbondedtotheexisting
underlyingpavement.AnunboundedoverlayisaPCClayerplacedoveranexistingpavementwithoutbonding.
Sincethereisnobonding,thenewPCClayeressentiallyperformslikeanindependentstructureandtherefore
mustbethicker;oftentheminimumthicknessforanunboundedoverlayis5to7inches.
FigureMR2.11:1.8inchoverlay. FigureMR2.12:Millingmachine.
HotInPlaceRecycling(HIR)
HIRinvolvesinplacereprocessingofthetopofanexistingHMApavement.Theprocessisaccomplishedby
heatingtheexistingpavementsurfacetoaidinremixing,additiveadditionandremovalofdefects.Despiteits
name,GreenroadsconsidersHIRtobereusesincetheexistingmaterialdoesnotleavetheprojectsite.There
aregenerallythreemethodsofHIR:
x Heaterscarification.Heatsthepavementsurface(typicallyusingpropaneradiantheaters),scarifiesthe
pavementsurfaceusingabankofnonrotatingteeth,addsarejuvenatingagenttoimprovetherecycled
asphaltbinderviscosity,thenmixesandlevelstherecycledmixusingastandardaugersystem.Therecycled
asphaltpavementisthencompactedusingconventionalcompactionequipment.
x Repaving.Heatsthepavementsurface(typicallyusingpropaneradiantheaters),removes(byscarification
and/orgrinding)thetop1to2inchesoftheexistingHMApavement,addsarejuvenatingagenttoimprove
therecycledasphaltbinderviscosity,placestherecycledmaterialbackontheremainingexistingpavement
usingaprimaryscreed,andmaysimultaneouslyplaceaHMAoverlay.
x Remixing(FiguresMR2.13andMR2.14).SimilartorepavingbutaddsnewvirginaggregateornewHMA
totherecycledmaterialbeforeitisreplaced.

FigureMR2.13:HIRheatingequipment. FigureMR2.14:HIRequipmentheatingand
removingthetoplayerofexistingHMA.
ColdInPlaceRecycling(CIR)
CIR(FigureMR2.15)involvesmillingandcrushingtheexistingHMApavement,mixinginmeasuredamountsof
emulsifiedliquidasphaltandlimeslurry,andplacingandcompactingthereprocessedmaterialtoconstructa
newroadwaybase.FollowingCIR,thebaseisoverlaidwithHMAor,insomecases,achipseal.Thedepthof
millingisgenerally2to4inchesand,importantly,doesnotextendbeyondtheexistingHMAlayer.
FigureMR2.15:CIRprocesstrain(photofromtheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation).

FullDepthReclamation(FDR)
FDR(FiguresMR2.16andMR2.17)involvespulverizingthefullexistingpavementstructureandaportionof
theunderlyingsubgradeandcombiningtheresultantmaterialwithwaterand/orastabilizingagenttoforma
uniformstabilizedbasecourse(ARRA,n.d.).TypicalFDRdepthsare6to9inches(ARRA,n.d.).AfterFDR,itis
typicaltopaveeitherathinHMApavementorchipseal.

FigureMR2.16:RoadreclaimerusedinFDR FigureMR2.17:FinishedFDRmaterialbefore
(photofromGracePacific,Inc.). overlay(photofromGracePacific,Inc.).
PCCCrackandSeat
CrackandSeatisamethodforrehabilitatingfailedplainjointedPCCpavementthatinvolvesbreakingupthe
existingPCCpavementintosmallpieces(typically1to4footpieces),seatingthosepieceswithaheavyproof
rollerandthenoverlayingthecrackedandseatedPCCwithnewHMA.Thismethodavoidsremovingtheold
PCC;insteadusingitasahighqualitybasematerial.Typically,PCCiscrackedusingadrophammertruck
(GuillotineBreaker,FigureMR2.18)thatrepeatedlydropsaheavyweightontothepavementsurface.

FigureMR2.18:Guillotinebreakerusedforcrackandseat.

Crackandseatprojectshaveperformedrelativelywelltodate.Forinstance,Rajagopaletal.(2004)showed
thatthecrackandseattechniquereducedreflectioncrackingoveratleasta9yearperiodfortheconditions
analyzed.
PCCRubblization
RubblizationisamethodforrehabilitatingfailedPCCpavement(typicallyplainjointedPCCpavement)that
involvesrubblizingtheexistingPCCpavement(particlessizesof2to15inchesindiameterdependinguponthe
specificmethodused)andthenoverlayingtherubblizedPCCwithHMApavement.Thismethodavoids
removingtheoldPCC;insteadusingitasahighqualitybasematerial.Rubblizationistypicallyaccomplishedby
oneoftwomethods:
x Resonantbreaker(FigureMR2.19).Amachinethatstrikesthepavementatahighfrequency(around44
Hz,theresonantfrequencyofthePCCpavement)andlowamplitude(0.50.75inches)usingtheresonant

frequencytofracturetheexistingPCCintosmalldiameterparticles.Thebreakingshoecanbe2to12
incheswide.
x Multiheadbreaker(FigureMR2.20).Amachinethatstrikesthepavementwithaseriesofdrophammers
(1to5footdropheight)andusestheimpactenergytofracturetheexistingPCCpavementintosmall
diameterparticles.
FigureMR2.19:RMIresonantbreaker FigureMR2.20:Antigomultiheadbreaker
(photofromResonantMachines,Inc.). (photofromAntigoConstruction,Inc.).

Limitedevidencesuggeststhatrubblizedpavements,ifconstructedproperly,canperformwell.Woltersetal.
(2005)examinedrubblizedpavementsin2005thatwere38yearsoldandfoundthemtobeingoodcondition
withtheexceptionofthosesectionsthatdidnothavewelldrainedbaselayers.
GLOSSARY
CIR Coldinplacerecycling(sometimesCIPR)
ColdInPlaceRecycling InplacereprocessingofaportionofexistingHMApavement(usuallythetop204
inches)intoahighqualitybasematerialbymilling,crushingandstabilizing.Usually
thisbaseisthencoveredbyathinHMAlayerorsurfacetreatment.
CrackandSeat MethodforrehabilitatingfailedplainjointedPCCpavementthatinvolvesbreakingup
theexistingPCCpavementintosmallpieces(typically1to4footpieces),seating
thosepieceswithaheavyproofrollerandthenoverlayingthecrackedandseated
PCCwithnewHMA.
Downcycling Therecyclingofamaterialtoamaterialoflowerqualityorreducedfunctionality.
FDR Fulldepthreclamation
FullDepthReclamation InplacereprocessingofaHMApavementstructure(includingthegranularbase
courseandsomesubgradematerial)intoahighqualitybasematerialbypulverizing
andstabilization.UsuallythisbaseisthencoveredbyathinHMAlayerorsurface
treatment.
HIR Hotinplacerecycling(sometimesHIPR)
HMA Hotmixasphalt
HotInPlaceRecycling Inplacereprocessingofathintoplayer(usuallylessthan2inches)ofanexisting
HMApavementbyscarification,rejuvenationandrepaving.
MillandFill AvariationofanoverlayforexistingHMApavementswheretheexistingpavement
surfaceispartiallyremovedbyapavementmillingmachinebeforetheoverlayis
applied.
Overlay AlayerofeitherPCCorHMAthatisplacedoveranexistingpavement.Overlayscan
beusedtoaddadditionalstructuretotheexistingpavement(called“structural
overlays”)orcanbeusedtoprovideanewpavementsurfacefreeofdefects(called

“nonstructuraloverlays”).
Recycle Aprocessthatdivertsmaterialswithinorexternaltotheprojectlimitsfromfinal
disposalinalandfillbyreprocessingorrepurposingthemforuseintheproject.
Reuse Aprocessthatmaintainsmaterialsinplace(suchasexistingpavementstructure)or
disturbsorremovesthembymeansthatdoesnotincludetransportoutsidethe
projectlimits.
Rubblization MethodforrehabilitatingfailedPCCpavement(typicallyplainjointedPCCpavement)
thatinvolvesreducingtheexistingPCCpavementtosmallparticles(215inchesin
diameterdependinguponthespecificmethodused)andthenoverlayingthe
rubblizedPCCwithHMApavement.
SurfaceTreatment Materialsplacedontheexistingpavementsurfaceinordertocorrectminorsurface
defects,improvewearcoursecharacteristics(i.e.,friction)andprovideawaterproof
covering.

REFERENCES
Andrawes,B.,&Desroches,R.(2007).ComparisonbetweenShapeMemoryAlloySeismicRestrainersandOther
BridgeRetrofitDevices.JournalofBridgeEngineering. 12(6),700.

AsphaltRecyclingandReclaimingAssociation(ARRA).(n.d.).FullDepthReclamation:ACenturyofAdvancementfor
theNewMillennium.ARRA,Annapolis,MD.
BiniciB.(2008).DesignofFRPsincircularbridgecolumnretrofitsforductilityenhancement.Engineering
Structures. 30(3),766776.
BuildingMaterialsReuseAssociation(BMRA).(2010).Website.Availableathttp://www.bmra.org.
BureauofTransportationStatistics(BTS).(2008).TransportationStatisticsAnnualReport2007.TABLEG8Public
ExpendituresonConstructionofHighwaysandStreets:January2006May2007.Washington,DC:Researchand
InnovativeTechnologyAdministration(RITA),U.S.DepartmentofTransportation(USDOT).
Choi,JunHyeok.(2008).Seismicretrofitofreinforcedconcretecircularcolumnsusingstainlesssteelwiremesh
composite.CanadianJournalofCivilEngineering, 35(2),140147.

EarthquakeEngineeringResearchCenter(EERC),UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.(n.d.)NorthridgeEarthquake.
AccessedJune2,2010.Availableathttp://nisee.berkeley.edu/northridge/
Gransberg,D.&James,D.M.B.(2005).NCHRPSynthesis342:ChipSealBestPractices.Washington,DC:National
CooperativeHighwayResearchProgram,TransportationResearchBoard.
InternationalStrategyforDisasterReduction(ISDR).(2004,March31).ISDR:Terminology.AccessedJune5,2010.
Availableathttp://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/libterminologyenghome.htm

PadgettJ.E.,&DesRochesR.(2008).Threedimensionalnonlinearseismicperformanceevaluationofretrofit
measuresfortypicalsteelgirderbridges.EngineeringStructures. 30(7),18691878.

bridgeretrofitassessment.StructuralSafety.32(3),165.

Rajagopal,A.,Minkarah,I.,Green,R.&Morse,A.(2004).LongTermPerformanceofBrokenandSeated
Pavements.TransportationResearchRecord.(869),315.

Stanton,J.F.,Roeder,C.W.,MackenzieHelnwein,P.,White,C.,Kuester,C.etal.NationalCooperativeHighway
ResearchProgram(NCHRP).(2008).NCHRPReport596Rotationlimitsforelastomericbearings. Washington,
D.C.:TransportationResearchBoard.

Volpe,JohnA.NorthridgeEarthquakePreliminarySummaryReport.EffectsofCatastrophicEventson
TransportationSystemManagement.22Apr.2002.AccessedJune2,2010.Availableat
http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/jpodocs/repts_te/13775.html

WashingtonDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2010).WSDOT–SR99–AuroraBridgeSeismicRetrofit
Project.AccessedAugust20,2010.Availableat
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/SR99/AuroraBridgeSeismicRetrofit/projectPhotos

WashingtonDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2010).WSDOT–SR104–HoodCanalBridge–2009
FrequentlyAskedQuestions.AccessedAugust20,2010.Availableat
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/SR104HoodCanalBridgeEast/faq.htm

WashingtonDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2010).SR104–HoodCanalBridge–BytheNumbers.
AccessedAugust20,2010.Availableat
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/SR104HoodCanalBridgeEast/numbers.htm

Wolters,A.S.,Smith,K.D.&Peterson,C.V.2007.EvaluationofRubblizedPavementSectionsinMichigan.
TransportationResearchRecord.(2005),1826.



EARTHWORK BALANCE
GOAL MR-3
Reduceneedfortransportofearthenmaterialsbybalancingcutandfillquantities.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Minimizeearthworkcut(excavation)andfill(embankment)volumessuchthatthe 1 POINT
percentdifferencebetweencutandfillislessthanorequalto10%oftheaveragetotal
volumeofmaterialmoved.Forpurposesofthiscredit,usethemethodanddefinitions
detailedinChapter8(Earthwork)oftheRoadDesignManualfromtheSouthDakota
DepartmentofTransportation(SDDOT),orequivalent,tocomputecutandfillvolumes. RELATED CREDITS
Includemiscellaneousadditionalcutandfillsuchasoutletditchesandmuck 9 PR8LowImpact
excavations(seedefinitionsinChapter8oftheManual)andaccountformoistureand Development
densityaswellasshrinkandswell. 9 MR2Pavement
Reuse
Balancecutandfillmaterialvolumes: 9 MR4Recycled
Materials
A=VolumeofCrossSectionCut 9 MR5Regional
B=VolumeofCrossSectionFill Materials
C=VolumeofMiscellaneousCut
D=VolumeofMiscellaneousFill SUSTAINABILITY

Forpoints,showthatdesignvolumesANDactualconstructionvolumesmeet:
COMPONENTS
9 Ecolog
Ecology
9 Econom
Economy

9 Extent
Extent
9 Experie
Experience
Notethatforpurposesofthiscredit,allvolumesarepositivequantities.SDDOT’s
BENEFITS
Chapter8isavailablehere:
http://www.sddot.com/pe/roaddesign/plans_rdmanual.asp 9 ReducesFossilFuel
Use
Details 9 ReducesAir
Emissions
x Projectswithminimalearthworkorwithnoearthworkdonotqualifyforthis 9 ReducesGreenhouse
credit.“Minimalearthwork”meansthatthetotalexcavatedcutorimportedfill Gases
volumeislessthanonefulldumptruckvolume,basedonthesmallestdump 9 Reduces Solid Waste
truckusedontheproject. 9 ReducesManmade
x Wheresoilstabilizermaterialsorothersoiladditivesareused,includethe Footprint
volumeofthosematerialsinthetotalimports.Mechanicalstabilizerssuchas 9 ReducesFirstCosts
rockboltsandgeotextilefabricmaterialsdonotneedtobeincludedinvolume 9 ReducesLifecycle
calculations. Costs
x Removedtopsoilmaterialsmustbeincludedincalculations.
x Unusedcutorimportedfillmaterialsplacedinstockpilesthatservenopurpose
ontheprojectmustbetreatedasexportedmaterialsandmaynotbeusedto
counttowardthefinal“balanced”sectionforpurposesofcalculatingthiscredit.
Sometimesthispracticeiscalled“soilbanking”sincethesematerialsareoften
placedinembankmentsthatmaybeusedatsomelatertime,oftenondifferent
nearbysites.Thispracticeoftenhelpssuccessfullyavoidimportofnew
materials,soitstillmayqualifyfor1point.
x Structuralaggregateforbasecoursesinpavements,foundations,or
MR-3 Earthwork Balance 375

superstructuressuchasbridgesneednotbeincludedinthetotalvolumecalculations.
x Structuralbackfillanddrainrockspecificallyintendedforutilitytrenchesandstormwaterinfrastructure
neednotbeincludedinthetotalvolumecalculations.
x Rock(StableRock,definedbytheOccupationalHealthandSafetyAdministration)cutssourcedwithinthe
projectboundarythatareintendedforuseasstructuralaggregatewithintheprojectboundarydonot
counttowardthetotalcutvolumeofmaterials.
DOCUMENTATION
x Copyofthegradingplan.Thegradingplanmustreporttotalcutandfillquantities,totalmiscellaneouscut/fill,
andshowthattheyarewithin10%ofoneanother.
x Calculateandreportactualconstructionearthworkvolumefortheproject.Thiscalculationshallshowthe
following:
x Actualcutandfillvolumesduringconstruction.
x Actualvolumeofunusedembankmentmaterials(includeexcessimportandexcesscutmaterials)
x Actualvolumeofearthworkmaterialimportedtotheprojectsite.
x Actualvolumeofearthworkmaterialexportedfromthesite.
x Showthat:
ሺ࡭ ൅ ࡯ሻ െ ሺ࡮ ൅ ࡰሻ
ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൑ ͳͲΨ
ͳ
ሺ࡭ ൅ ࡯ ൅ ࡮ ൅ ࡰሻ
ʹ

x Useaprojectdesignthatbalancescutandfillvolumes.Thisassumesthatcutmaterialfromoneareaofthe
projectsiteissuitableforuseasfillmaterialinanother.Thismaynotalwaysbepossible.
x Usesoilimprovementorstabilizationtechniquesinanefforttoavoidremovingexistingsoil.
x Applybindingagents,additivesandotherprocessestounsuitablesoilssuchthattheybecomesuitablefor
use.Thisofteninvolvesimprovingtheirbearingcapacitysotheycanacceptoverburdenorstructures.
x Useinsitumitigationtechniquestosolveproblemswithunsuitablesoilsthroughgroundimprovement
solutionssuch.Usuallythisinvolvesformsofcompacting,preloading,installeddrains(tolowermoisture
levels)orothersimilarmethods.
x Improveloadbearingcapacityofsoilsbyplacinggeosyntheticsoverthem.Thiscanforcethepotential
bearingcapacityfailuresurfacetodevelopalongalternate,higherstrengthsurfaces.
x Userecycledmaterialfromotherstructures(e.g.,crushedrecycledconcretematerial–RCMorreclaimed
asphaltpavement–RAP).
x Usedesignsoftwareandcomputeraideddrawings(CAD)tocalculatethedesignvolumesofearthworktobe
reportedinrelationtothiscredit.Notethatthesedrawingsandcalculationswillbesupersededbyfinalvolume
calculationsinthefieldintheeventthattheydiffer.
Example: Sample Calculation

TheSouthDakotaDepartmentofTransportationRoadDesignManual,Chapter8,containsadetailedexample
ofbalancingcutandfillvolumesusingcomputersoftware,titled“ExampleofEarthworkQuantitieswith
Moisture&DensityControl(Undercut)”(p.86).Theexamplebelowshowshowthecalculationcanbedoneby
handforthiscredit.Thereareanumberofadditionalsamplecalculationsinthereferencedchapter.
Variable Description Volume(cy)

A Normalcrosssectionexcavation 54,889
376 Earthwork Balance MR-3

A Adjustmentformoistureanddensity 9,233
C Miscellaneousextraexcavation(unstable 805
materialbelowundercut)
B Normalcrosssectionembankment 49426
B Adjustment formoistureanddensity 11079
D Miscellaneousadditionalembankment 1490
(unstablematerialbelowundercut)
D Adjustmentformoistureanddensity 298
A+C Totalvolumeofexcavatedmaterials 64927
B+D Totalvolumeofembankmentmaterials 62993
½(A+B+C+D) Averagetotalvolumeofmaterials 63557
͸Ͷͻʹ͹ െ ͸ʹͻͻ͵
ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ૜Ǥ ૙૝Ψ ൑ ͳͲΨ?ϐͳ
͸͵ͷͷ͹

Example: O’Hare Airport Modernization Program – Phase 1
TheChicagoO’HareAirportModernizationProgram(OMP),whichwasongoingasofearly2010,madea
substantialefforttobemoresustainableintheirapproachtoairportdesignandconstruction.Oneofthe
featuresoftheirsustainabilityeffortsisbalancedearthwork.Phase1moved15millioncubicyardsofsoilunder
a“balancedearthworkplan”thatreportedlysavedover$100millionbyreducingtrucktripsandfeesfor
dumpingatlandfills.

FigureMR3.1:Runway10C28CPavingandElectrical(West):ExcavationinAreaG5
(PhotoCourtesyChicagoO’HareModerizationProgram)


FigureMR1.2:June2010Runway10C28CPavingandElectrical(West):PlacingandcompactingBitconcrete
basecourseontaxiway(PhotoCourtesyChicagoO’HareModerizationProgram)

Example: Wattstown Business Park Road Extension
TheWattstownBusinessParkRoadExtensionProjectinColeraine,Irelandimplementedabalancedcutandfill
strategythatallowedalloftheexcavatedmaterialstobereusedonsiteincludingexcavatedtopsoilsinorder
tominimizewasteandhauling.Theverticalalignmentoftheroadwasalsokepttoaminimuminorderto
minimizeearthwork.

FigureMR3.3:WattstownBusinessPark(CEEQUAL,n.d.)
Example: Kicking Horse Canyon – British Columbia Ministry of Transportation

TheKickingHorseCanyonprojectnearGolden,BritishColumbia,isa26kmcorridorupgradethatbegan
constructionin2002.Oneoftheprojectgoalswastominimizetheneedforearthworkalongtheentirecorridor
inordertoreducegreenhousegasemissionsfromhaulingtrips(andtosavemoney)inaccordancewith

objectivesoftheBritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportation(BCMoT)ClimateActionProgram.Thisbalanced
earthworkprogramalsoincludedaddressingsafetyconcernsontheproject,whichcalledforimprovementsto
slopestabilityonroadwayexcavationsaswellasavalanchecontrolandrockfallprotectioninseverallocations
alongthecorridor’snewalignments.
SlopestabilizationonPhase2oftheprojectwasaccomplishedinsomesteepareasusing11,000m3ofhigh
tensilestrengthsteelmeshthatalsoallowedforseedingtogrow,whichcanaddstabilitytouppersoillayers
(BCMOT,n.d.).Themeshistiedtorocklayersbelowtheslopetostabilizethehillside(seeFigure4).Rockfall
areasareprotectedbyapproximately20,000m3ofdraperymesh(BCMOT,n.d.).Excessfillsoilswerealso
stockpiledwithinthecorridorforfuturelanesofhighway(BCMOT,2006).ConstructionofPhase3EastBrake
ChecktoYohoNationalPark(underway)isalsofollowingabalancedearthworkdesignprogram(seeFigures
MR3.6andMR3.7).

FigureMR3.2:Tecco®highstrengthsteelmeshusedforslopereinforcement.(BCMOT,2010)

FigureMR3.3:WestAlignmentofPhase2,KickinghorseCanyon,showingapproximatecutandfillboundaryfor
corridorsegment(BCMOT,2006)


FigureMR3.4:Phase3ofTheKickingHorseProject:Excavationonnorthsideofthehighway(BCMOT,2010)

FigureMR3.5:Phase3earthworkoneastsideofhighway(BCMOT,2010)

Example: Software Tools for Designers
Themoststraightforwardmeansofbalancingearthworkistodesignandconstructtheprojectsuchthatthe
volumeofcutwithintheprojectisequaltothevolumeoffill.Fordesignersandcontractorsthereare
numeroussoftwarepackagesthatcanprovideexactand/orestimatedearthworkquantities.Thefollowingare
examplesofsoftwarepackagingthatcanbeusedtoachievebalancedcutandfill.

x TrakwareInc.EarthworksSoftware
x PizerInc.EARTHSoftware
x TrimbleInc.PaydirtSoftware
x VertigraphInc.SiteWorx/OS
x RoctekInc.WinExMasterSoftware
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Whenusingstabilizationmaterialitispossiblethatthelifecycleinputsforsuchmaterial(e.g.,energyuseand
emissionsassociatedwiththeirmanufacture,transportanduse)maybegreaterthanthatassociatedwith
movingsoilassociatedwithunbalancedearthwork.
2. Subsurfaceconditionsmaynotbewellknownfortheprojectsite.Therefore,abalancedearthworkdesignthat
assumesacertainsoiltypeandcharacteristicsmaynotbefeasibleif,duringearthwork,differentsoiltypes,
moistureconditionsorothercharacteristicsarefound.
3. Geosyntheticsandstabilizationadditivesmayaddsignificantcostoverconventionalmethods.
4. Contractorfamiliarityandexperiencewithalternativemethodsandmaterialscanbehighlyvariable.
5. Someroadworkdoesnotlenditselftoabalancedearthworkplan.Forinstance,workinanurbanareamaynot
workbecausetheprimaryconcernistypicallymaintainingexistingelevation.Therefore,ifathickerpavement
sectionisplaced,someearthmustberemoved.
6. Inawaterwaycorridor(areanearariverorotherwaterway)balancedearthworkmaynotbesufficient.Itis
moreimportanttoensurethatearthworkdoesnotreduceeitherthefloodstorageorfloodcarryingcapacityof
thewaterwayarea(CityofBrisbane,n.d.).
7. Raineventsorprolongedwetperiodscanrenderonsitematerialunsuitableforfilluntilitissufficientlydried.
Theremaynotbeenoughtimeintheconstructionscheduletoallowadequatedryingtime.
8. Designersmayneglecttoconsiderorpoorlyestimateshrinkorswellofsoilmaterial.
9. Earthworkonaphasedprojectmaynotbecompletedbythesamecontractor.
10. Effortsacrossphasesmaybedifficulttocoordinatewithoutcleardocumentationofintentofstockpiled
materials.
RESEARCH
Mostroadwayconstructioninvolvessomeearthwork(movingofsoilmassfromonelocationtoanother).
Earthworkcanrepresentasignificantprojectexpense,especiallyinroadwayprojects.Becauseofthecostof
landfillandtrucktransportmostroadwaydesignsseektominimizeearthworkasmuchaspossible.Whenother
ecologicalcostsareadded(i.e.,landfilledwaste,fueluse,truckemissions)theincentivetominimizeearthwork
grows.Thus,thegoalistominimizetheearthmovedandtominimizethedistanceitismoved.Ideally,abalanced
earthworkprojectisonethatmatchescutandfillvolumesandthereforedoesnotrequiredcutexportorfill
import.Thissectionreviewstypicalmethodsusedtoachievebalancedearthwork.
BalancingEarthwork
Themoststraightforwardmeansofbalancingearthworkistodesignandconstructtheprojectsuchthatthe
volumeofcutwithintheprojectisequaltothevolumeoffill.Inruralprojectsthiscanoftenbeaccomplishedby
choosingtheappropriategradeline(roadwayprofile)sothatcutvolumesareroughlyequaltofillvolumes.For
urbanenvironments,thismaybemoredifficultasurbanprojectsareoftenseverelyconstrainedbyrightofwayor
requiredtomatchexistingabuttingelevations(e.g.,otherstreets,parks,drainageconveyances,etc.).For
designersandcontractorstherearenumeroussoftwarepackagesthatcanprovideexactand/orestimated
earthworkquantities.
Onceinconstruction,abalancedearthworkdesignmaynotbeachievableforseveralreasons.First,earthwork
ofteninvolvesunknownquantities.Althoughgeotechnicalengineerscanattempttocharacterizeexistingsoilwith
testpits,soilboringsandlaboratorytests,thesecharacterizationsareusuallyonlydoneonafewlocationswithin
theprojectsiteandcannotguaranteetheconditionofuntestedlocations.Therefore,itispossiblethatunexpected
soilisencounteredthatwhenexcavatedisunsuitableforuseasfillelsewhere.Second,environmentalconditions

canchangecausingpreviouslyacceptablesoiltobecomeunacceptable.Forinstanceprecipitationcansubstantially
alterthemoisturecontentofinsitumaterialmakingitunsuitableforuseasfillelsewhere.Finally,design
estimationmaybeinaccurateor,morelikely,changestothedesignduringconstructionmayaddcutorfill
quantitiessuchthattheoveralleffectisunbalancedearthwork.
UnsuitableMaterial
Oneofthemostcommonimpedimentstobalancedearthworkisinsitumaterialthatiseither(1)unsuitabletobe
usedasfillelsewhere,or(2)unsuitabletobeusedasafoundationforotheritemssuchasstructures(bridges,
walls,etc.)andpavements.Themoststraightforwardoptioninthesecasesisoftentoremovetheunsuitable
materialandreplaceitwithsuitablefill.Whilethisisfeasible,itmayresultinunbalancedearthwork.Itmaybe
advantageoustotreattheinsitusoilratherthanremoveandreplaceit.Thissectiondiscussesseveraltreatment
options.
TraditionalSoilStabilization
Soilstabilizationistheprocessofimprovingtheengineeringpropertiesofsoilsthroughtheuseofadditives
thataremixedintothesoil(Army,Navy,AirForce,1994).Theseimprovedengineeringpropertiescaninclude:
x Reducedplasticity
x Drying
x Reducedswelling
x Improvedstability
Stabilizationcanbedonebymixingsoilsoftwodifferentgradationstoachievedesirablequalities(mechanical
stabilization)orbyaddingbindingmaterials(additivestabilization).Thissectionbrieflyreviewsthreecommon
soilstabilizationadditives.TheArmy,NavyandAirForceSoilStabilizationforPavements(1994)offersameans
tochoosebetweenportlandcement,limeandasphaltassoilstabilizationadditives.
x Portlandcement.Whenaddedwithwater,portlandcementhydratesandbindsadjacentsoilparticles
togetherresultinginastifferandperhapsstrongerstabilizedmaterial.Portlandcementcangenerallybe
usedwithwellgradedgranularmaterialswithsufficientfinestomixwiththeportlandcement(Army,Navy,
AirForce,1994).
x Lime.Addedintheformofquicklime(CaO),hydratedlime(Ca[OH]2)orlimeslurry.Limedoesthreebasic
things:drying(throughhydrationwithexistingwaterinthesoil),modification(Caionsmigratetoclay
particlesurfacesanddisplacewatermakingthesoilmoregranular),stabilization(increasesthepHofthe
soilcausingclayparticlestobreakdown).TheNationalLimeAssociation(2004)states,“Whenaddedwith
Ingeneral,finegrainedclaysoils(withaminimumof25percentpassingthe#200sieve(74mm)anda
PlasticityIndexgreaterthan10)areconsideredtobegoodcandidatesforstabilization.”
x Asphaltemulsions.Mostsuitableforsiltysandandgranularmaterialssincethesearemorelikelytohave
allparticlesfullycoatedbytheemulsion.
EcologicalImpactsofSoilStabilization
Mrouehetal.(2001)reviewedseveraldifferentcombinationsofindustrialbyproductsforuseinearthwork.
Resultsgenerallyshowthatsoilstabilization(asMrouehetal.describeitthisinvolvescementstabilization)
generallyhasahigherenvironmentalloadingthansimplesoilreplacementinmostallareas(e.g.,fueluse,
energy,CO,particulate,SO2,CO2,VOC)excepttheamountofnaturalmaterialsused.
GLOSSARY
Additives Manufacturedcommercialproductsthat,whenaddedtothesoilintheproperquantities,
improvesomeengineeringcharacteristicsofthesoilsuchasstrength,texture,workability,and
plasticity(Army,Navy,AirForce1994).

Stabilization Processofblendingandmixingmaterialswithasoiltoimprovecertainpropertiesofthesoil.Can
bedonemechanically(blendinggradationsofsoils)orbyusingadditives(Army,Navy,AirForce
1994).
REFERENCES
BritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportationandInfrastructure.(2010).KickingHorseCanyonProjectFactSheet.
Accessed14August2010.Availableathttp://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/updates/KHCP_Fact_Sheet.pdf.
BritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportationandInfrastructure.(2010).KickingHorseCanyonProject:Photo
GalleryPhase3EastConstruction.Accessed14August2010.Availableat
http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/khc_gallery01Phase3_east.htm
BritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportationandInfrastructure.(2010).KickingHorseCanyonProject.Accessed14
August2010.Availableathttp://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/index.htm
BritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportationandInfrastructureandPartnershipsBritishColumbia.(2006,June).
ProjectReport:AchievingValueforMoneyKickingHorseCanyon–Phase2Project.Availableat
http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/reports/0606_PBCKickingHorse.pdf
BritishColumbiaMinistryofTransportation.(n.d.).DidYouKnow?AccessedAugust15,2010.Availableat
http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/kickinghorse/documents/KHCP_Did_You_Know_080304.pdf
CEEQUAL.(2010).WattstownBusinessParkRoadExtension:InterimClientandOutlineDesignAward.Accessed13
August2010.Availableathttp://www.ceequal.co.uk/awards_063.htm
CityofBrisbane.(n.d.).CompensatoryEarthworkPlanningSchemePolicy.Accessed12January2010.Availableat
http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/bccwr/lib181/appendix2_compensatoryearthworks_psp.pdf.
CityofChicago,Aviation.(2010).CityofChicago:ConstructionProgress.AccessedAugust16,2010.Availableat
http://www.cityofchicago.org/city/en/depts/doa/provdrs/omp/svcs/blank.html
DepartmentoftheArmy,theNavyandtheAirForce.(1994).SoilStabilizationforPavements.ARMYTM582214,
AIRFORCEAFJMAN321019.
Mroueh,UM.,Eskola,P.&LaineYlijoki,J.(2001).Lifecycleimpactsoftheuseofindustrialbyproductsinroad
andearthconstruction.WasteManagement,21,271277.
NationalLimeAssociation.(2004).LimeTreatedSoilConstructionManual:LimeStabilizationandLime
Modification.NationalLimeAssociation.
PizerInc.EARTH:EarthworkQuantitySoftware.Accessed14August2010.Availableat
http://www.earthworksoftware.com/
RoctekInc.Excavation/CutandFill:WinExMaster.Availableathttp://www.roctek.com/
TrakwareInc.EarthworksExcavationSoftware.Accessed14August2010.Availableathttp://www.trakware1.com/
TrimbleInc.TrimblePaydirt.Accessed14August2010.Availableathttp://www.trimble.com/paydirt.shtml
VertigraphInc.SiteWorx/OS.Accessed14August2010.Availableat
http://www.interworldna.com/vertigraph/siteworx_os.php


RECYCLED MATERIALS
GOAL MR-4
Reducelifecycleimpactsfromextractionandproductionofvirginmaterials.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Userecycledmaterialsasasubstituteforvirginmaterials.Thefractionofrecycled 1-5 POINTS
materialsusedcanbecalculatedusingoneoffouroptionsbelow:
1. Consideronlythepavementbindermaterials.Thistypicallymeansthecementor
asphaltinthepavementsection.Noothermaterials(e.g.,aggregateinthe RELATED CREDITS
pavement,granularbase,fill,walls,bridge, signs, other structures, etc.) are 9 PR2LifecycleCost
considered. Analysis
2. Consideronlythehotmixasphalt(HMA)orportlandcementconcrete(PCC) 9 PR3Lifecycle
pavementmaterials.ThisencompassesthematerialinOption1plustheaggregate Inventory
aswellasanyotheradditivematerials.Noothermaterials(e.g.,granularbase,fill, 9 MR1Lifecycle
walls,bridge,signs,otherstructures,etc.)areconsidered. Assessment
3. Considerallpavementmaterialsincludinggranularbaselayers.Thisencompasses 9 MR2Pavement
thematerialinOptions1and2plusthegranularbaselayers(eitherunboundor Reuse
boundwithabindingagentsuchaslime,cementorasphaltemulsion)aswellas 9 PT3WarmMix
anyotheraddedmaterials.Noothermaterials(e.g.,fill,walls,bridge,signs,other Asphalt
structures,etc.)areconsidered.
4. Considerallprojectmaterials.ThisencompassesthematerialinOptions1,2and3 SUSTAINABILITY
plus,asaminimum,allmaterialsinthefillandwallstructuresoftheproject.Other
COMPONENTS
structures(e.g.,bridges)andmaterial(e.g.,signs,trafficcontroldevices,etc.)may
beconsideredifdesired. 9 Ecology
9 Economy
Calculatetheaveragerecycledmaterialcontentbyweightusingoneoftheabovefour 9 Expectations
methodsandEquationMR4.1.TableMR4.1showsthepointscale. 9 Experience
TableMR4.1:PointsforAverageRecycledContent(PercentbyWeightofMaterials) BENEFITS
PointsEarned 1 2 3 4 5
9 ReducesRaw
Percentrecycledmaterialrequired Materials
10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
forOptions1and2 9 ReducesAir
Percentrecycledmaterialrequired Emissions
20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
forOptions3and4 9 Reduces Greenhouse
Gases
UseEquationMR4.1tocomputetheaveragerecycledcontent(ARC)thatwillbe 9 ReducesSolidWaste
achievedbythepavementsectionorbythebinders.
(Equation MR4.1)
(EquationMR4.1)
Where:
Where:

x rnisthetotalweightofrecycledmaterialsforthatindividualmaterialorassembly
x Wnisthetotalweightofeachindividualmaterialorassembly
x nrepresentsthenumberofmaterialsusedinthepavementsection
Details
Itmaybedifficulttomeasuretherecycledcontentofamaterialinplace.Forthe
MR-4 Recycled Materials 385

purposesofthiscredit,itissufficienttousetheapprovedmixdesignorspecifiedamountofrecycledmaterial
asanestimateofthefractionofrecycledmaterial.Therefore,ifpavingrubberizedHMA(RHMA)andthe
asphaltrubbermixdesignspecifies20%crumbrubbermodifier(CRM)byweightthenthisnumbercanbeused
asthepercentrecycledmaterialinthebinderprovidedthatstandardqualitycontrolandqualityassurance
testingshowstheproducedmaterialmeetsthemixdesignspecifications.
Similarly,ifthePCCmixdesignspecifies20%recycledconcreteaggregate(RCA)asaminimumthenthis
numbercanbeusedasthepercentrecycledmaterialinthePCCprovidedthatstandardqualitycontroland
qualityassurancetestingshowstheproducedmaterialmeetsthemixdesignspecifications.Ifaminimum
recycledcontentisspecifiedbutacontractorchoosestousemorethantheminimumamount,recordsshowing
theactualrecycledcontentmustbesubmittedifcreditfortheactualamountistobegiven.Otherwise,the
minimumspecifiedshallbeassumedtobepresentinthematerial.
DOCUMENTATION
x Aspreadsheetthatclearlynoteswhichcalculationmethodisusedandlists:totalweightofeachmaterialused,
totalweightofrecycledmaterials,andcomputedARCfortheproject.
x Copyoftheapprovedmixdesignforthepavementmaterialsand(ifoptions3or4arechosen)copiesofthe
specificationsfortheadditionalmaterialsthatstatetherequiredorminimumrecycledcontentifavailable.
x Supportingtestdocuments(usuallyfromqualityassuranceorqualitycontroltesting)suchasplant
proportioningrecords,mixtickets,andmanufacturer’sdocumentationforproducts(steel,rebar,etc.)that
statetheactualrecycledmaterialcontent(ifnominimumisspecifiedorifthecontractorchoosestousemore
thanthespecifiedminimum).

x Specifythetotalpercentageofrecycledmaterialtobeusedinthemixdesignandthetypeofallowablewaste
materialsinthecontractdocuments.Manystatedepartmentsoftransportation(DOTs)alreadyallowacertain
percentageofrecycledcontentintheirstandardspecificationsforcertainmaterialmixturessuchasPCCor
HMA.(SeetheFiguresandexplanationsprovidedinthe“Research”sectionofthiscredit.)
x Updateagencystandardspecificationstospecifyacertainpercentageofrecycledmaterial.
x Duringconstruction,keepupdatedrecordsofallmaterialsandrecycledmaterialsusedontheproject.
x Buildabasicspreadsheetorothermechanismtotrackweightsofmaterialsfortheproject.Usethe
spreadsheettocomputethesumofweightoftherecycledmaterials,compareittothesumoftheweightofall
materials,andcomputetheaveragepercentrecycledcontent.
Example: Calculation for a Rubber-Modified Hot Mix Asphalt

Description:A1.5mile,onelaneHMAconstructionprojectusesCRMasabindingmaterialadditive.Bymix
design,theCRMis20%ofthebindingmaterialbyweight.Nootherrecycledmaterialsareused.TheHMAmix
designcallsfor9.2%binderbytotalweightofmix.
Calculationlogic:Sincethebindermaterialonlyconstitutes9.2%ofthetotalmixtureweight,evenifitwere
100%recycledmaterialitwouldstillnotqualifyforanypointsinthiscreditifmethods2,3or4areusedforthe
calculation.Therefore,useOption1.
Calculation:
‫ܯܴܥ݂݋ݐ݄݃݅݁ݓ‬ ʹͲ
‫ܥܴܣ‬Ψ ൌ ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ʹͲΨ
‫ݎܾ݂݁݀݊݅݋ݐ݄݃݅݁ݓ‬ ͳͲͲ
Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor2pointsaccordingtoOption1.NotethatitisnotnecessarytoweightheCRM
andasphaltbindersincethatisnormallynotdone.Inthiscasethemixdesign,iffollowed,issufficient.
386 Recycled Materials MR-4

Example: Calculation for HMA using Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)

Description:A1.5mileurbanarterialpreservationprojectconsistsofremovingandreplacing(millandfill)the
top2inchesofpavementwithHMA.ThedesignfortheHMAisasfollows:5.4%bindercontent;PG7022
asphaltbinder.Theprojectuses2,720tonsofHMAofwhich630tonsisreclaimedasphaltpavement(RAP).No
otherrecycledmaterialsareused.
Calculationlogic:SinceRAPisincludedinthemixtureandnorecycledmaterialisincludedinthebinder,the
highestpercentageofrecycledmaterialwouldbeobtainedbyusingOption2forthecalculation.
Calculation:
͸͵Ͳ‫݊݋ݐ‬
‫ܥܴܣ‬Ψ ൌ ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ʹ͵Ψ
ʹ͹ʹͲ‫݊݋ݐ‬
Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor2pointsaccordingtoOption2.
Example: Calculation for PCC Using Type 1-SM Cement

Description:A0.75milelongroadisbeingconstructedtoconsistoftwo12ftwidelanesandnoshoulders.The
pavementstructureis8inchesofPCCplacedontopof10inchesofgranularbasematerial.ThePCCmixdesign
isasfollows:
x Type1SM(slagmodified)cement:565lbs/yd3.
x ThecementmanufacturerprovidesdocumentationthatshowsType1SMcementcontains80%Type1
portlandcementand20%groundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag(GGBFS).
x Courseaggregate#1:631lbs/yd3of1.5to0.75inchaggregate
x Courseaggregate#2:1,354lbs/yd3of0.75inchto#4aggregate
x Coursesand:682lbs/yd3
x Finesand:464lbs/yd3
x Water:237lb/yd3
x Water/cementratio:0.42
x Nootherrecycledmaterialsareusedinthepavementstructure.
Calculationlogic:SincetheGGBFSisonlyinthebindingagent,Option1willgivethehighestpercentage.
Calculation:StartbycomputingthevolumeofPCCpavementtobeplaced.
ͷǡʹͺͲ݂‫ݐ‬ ͳʹ݂‫ݐ‬ ͳ݂‫ݐ‬ ͳ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ

ሺͲǤ͹ͷ݈݉݅݁‫ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ ሺʹ݈ܽ݊݁‫ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ ሺͺ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫݌݁݁݀ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ቆ ቇ ൌ ʹǡ͵Ͷ͹‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ
݈݉݅݁ ݈ܽ݊݁ ͳʹ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ʹ ݏ‬͹݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ
Next,determinethetotalweightofcementitiousmaterialandthetotalweightofGGBFS.
ܶ‫ ݈ܽ݅ݎ݁ݐܽ݉ݏݑ݋݅ݐ݅ݐ݈݊݁݉݁ܿܽݐ݋‬ൌ ʹǡ͵Ͷ͹‫݀ݕ‬ଷ ൈ ͷ͸ͷ ݈ܾΤ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ ൌ ͳǡ͵ʹ͸ǡͲͷͷ݈ܾ
ܶ‫ ܵܨܤܩܩ݈ܽݐ݋‬ൌ ʹǡ͵Ͷ͹‫݀ݕ‬ଷ ൈ ͷ͸ͷ ݈ܾΤ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ ൈ ͲǤʹͲ ൌ ʹ͸ͷǡʹͳͳ݈ܾܿ݁݉݁݊‫݈ܽ݅ݎ݁ݐܽ݉ݏݑ݋݅ݐ݅ݐ‬
Then,computetheaveragerecycledcontentforthecementitiousmaterial.
‫ܵܨܤܩܩ݂݋ݐ݄݃݅݁ݓ‬ ʹ͸ͷǡʹͳͳ
‫݈ܽ݅ݎ݁ݐܽ݉ݏݑ݋݅ݐ݅ݐ݂݊݁݉݁ܿ݋ݐ݄݃݅݁ݓ‬ ͳǡ͵ʹ͸ǡͲͷͷ

Notethattheresult,20%,logicallymatchesthepercentageofGGBFSinthecement.Therefore,analternate
wayofdoingthiscalculationistousethemixdesignratio,whichiscomputedasfollows:
‫ܵܨܤܩܩ݂݋ݐ݄݃݅݁ݓ‬ ʹͲ
‫݈ܽ݅ݎ݁ݐܽ݉ݏݑ݋݅ݐ݅ݐ݂݊݁݉݁ܿ݋ݐ݄݃݅݁ݓ‬ ͳͲͲ
Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor2pointsbasedonOption1.
Example: Calculation for an Aggregate Base Using 100% Recycled PCC

Description:A1milehighwayrehabilitationprojectisgoingtousecrushedrecycledPCCfromanearby
pavementdemolitionsiteasthebasematerial.Theexistinghighwayisconsistingoffour12footwidelanes.
Existingshouldersaretobeleftinplace.Thesurfacecourseis9inchesofPCC,thebasecourseis6inchesof
crushedrecycleconcretematerial(RCM).Nootherrecycledmaterialisused.ThedensityofthePCCis150
lb/yd3andthedensityoftheRCMbasecourseis132lb/yd3.
Calculationlogic:Sincetherecycledmaterialisinthebasecourse,Option3shouldbeused.
Calculation:StartbycomputingthevolumeofPCCpavementtobeplaced.
ͷǡʹͺͲ݂‫ݐ‬ ͳʹ݂‫ݐ‬ ͳ݂‫ݐ‬

ሺͳ݈݉݅݁ሻ ൬ ൰ ሺͶ݈ܽ݊݁‫ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ ሺͻ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫݌݁݁݀ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ ൌ ͳͻͲǡͲͺͲ݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ
݈݉݅݁ ݈ܽ݊݁ ͳʹ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬
ComputetheweightofnewPCCpavement:
ͳ‫݊݋ݐ‬
ܹ݄݁݅݃‫ ܥܥܲݓ݂݁݊݋ݐ‬ൌ ͳͻͲǡͲͺͲ݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ ൈ ͳͷͲ ݈ܾൗ݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ ൈ ൌ ͳͶǡʹͷ͸‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
ʹǡͲͲͲ݈ܾ‫ݏ‬
ComputethevolumeofRCMbasecourse:
ͷǡʹͺͲ݂‫ݐ‬ ͳʹ݂‫ݐ‬ ͳ݂‫ݐ‬

ሺͳ݈݉݅݁ሻ ൬ ൰ ሺͶ݈ܽ݊݁‫ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ ሺ͸݄݅݊ܿ݁‫݌݁݁݀ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ ൌ ͳʹ͸ǡ͹ͳͳ݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ
݈݉݅݁ ݈ܽ݊݁ ͳʹ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬
ComputetheweightofRCMbase:
ͳ‫݊݋ݐ‬
ܹ݄݁݅݃‫ ܥܥܲܯܥܴ݂݋ݐ‬ൌ ͳʹ͸ǡ͹ͳͳͳ݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ ൈ ͳ͵ʹ ݈ܾൗ݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ ൈ ൌ ͺǡ͵͸͵‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
ʹǡͲͲͲ݈ܾ‫ݏ‬
Computetheaveragerecycledcontent:
ͺǡ͵͸͵‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
൬ ൰ ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ͵͹Ψ
ͺǡ͵͸͵‫ ݏ݊݋ݐ‬൅ ͳͶǡʹͷ͸‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
Thisprojectwouldqualifyfor2pointsbyOption3.Notethatbyvolumetherecycledcontentis40%butthe
densitydifferenceresultsina37%recycledmaterialcontent.
Example: Calculation for Rubber-Modified Hot Mix Asphalt with RAP

Description:5milesofa6laneInterstatehighwaywillbeoverlayedwitharubbermodifiedHMAinone0.75
inchlift.Lanesare12feetwide.Theasphaltbindercontains20%CRMbyweightofbinder.TheHMAmixture
contains15%ofRAPbytotalweightofmixtureandhasadensityof2.05tons/yd3inplaceaftercompaction.
Thetargetasphaltcontentis9.1%.Asmallsectionofpavementisfailingstructurallyandmustbereplaced.The
replacesectioninvolves:

x 1,200yd3PCCsurfacecoursewiththefollowingmixdesign:
x Type1cement:565lbs/yd3
x Courseaggregate#1:631lbs/yd3of1.5to0.75inchaggregate
x Courseaggregate#2:1,354lbs/yd3of0.75inchto#4aggregate
x Coursesand:682lbs/yd3
x Finesand:464lbs/yd3
x Water:237lb/yd3
x 1,000yd3ofcrushedbasematerialthatis50%RAPbytotalweight,withtherestbeingvirgincrushedrock.
x ThedensityoftheHMAis145lb/yd3=1.96tons/yd3
x ThedensityofthePCCis146lb/yd3=1.97tons/yd3
x Thedensityofthevirginbasecourseis135lb/yd3.
x ThedensityoftheRAPbasecourseis136lb/yd3.
Calculationlogic:Thisscenarioinvolvesrecycledmaterialinthebinder,HMAandbasematerial.Sincethereis
nobaselayerbeingplaced,Option3isnotapplicable,butOptions1,2or4couldbeused.
Option1Calculation
WeightofrubbermodifiedHMApavementtobeplaced.
ͷǡʹͺͲ݂‫ݐ‬ ͳʹ݂‫ݐ‬ ͳ݂‫ݐ‬ ͳ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ ͳǤͻ͸‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬

ሺͷ݈݉݅݁‫ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ ሺ͸݈ܽ݊݁‫ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ ሺͲǤ͹ͷ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬ሻ ൬ ൰ቆ ቇ൬ ൰ ൌ ͺǡ͸ʹͶ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
݈݉݅݁ ݈ܽ݊݁ ͳʹ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ʹ ݏ‬͹݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ
Weightofrubbermodifiedbinderat9.1%bindercontentbytotalweightofmix:
ܶ‫ ݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒݎܾ݈݁݀݊݅ܽݐ݋‬ൌ ͺǡ͸ʹͶ‫ ݏ݊݋ݐ‬ൈ ͲǤͲͻͳ ൌ ͹ͺͷ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
WeightofCRMat20%byweightofbinder:
‫ ݁݉ݑ݈݋ݒܯܴܥ‬ൌ ͹ͺͷ‫ ݏ݊݋ݐ‬ൈ ͲǤʹͲ ൌ ͳͷ͹‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
WeightofPCCbinderinpavementrepairsection:
ͳ‫݊݋ݐ‬
ܹ݄݁݅݃‫ ݎܾ݁݀݊݅ܥܥܲݐ‬ൌ ሺͷ͸ͷ ݈ܾΤ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ ሻሺͳǡʹͲͲ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ ሻ ൬ ൰ ൌ ͵͵ͻ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
ʹǡͲͲͲ݈ܾ
Percentrecycledmaterialinthebinder:
‫ܯܴܥ݂݋ݐ݄݃݅݁ݓ‬ ͳͷ͹‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
‫ܥܴܣ‬Ψ ൌ ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ͳͶΨ
‫ ݎܾ݁݀݊݅ܣܯܪܴ݂݋ݐݓ‬൅ ‫ݎܾ݁݀݀݊݅ܥܥ݂ܲ݋ݐݓ‬ ͹ͺͷ‫ ݏ݊݋ݐ‬൅ ͵͵ͻ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
NotethatitisgenerallyassumedthatthebindercontentoftheRAPcontributestothemixturebinder.
Therefore,ifthebindercontentoftheRAPisdeterminedthenitcanbecountedasrecycledmaterialinthe
binder.Inthiscase,asisoftenthecaseinRAPadditions,thebindercontentoftheRAPisessentiallyignored.
Theprojectwouldqualifyfor1pointaccordingtoOption1.
Option2Calculation
WeightofRAPtobeplaced(15%ofvolumeofrubbermodifiedHMAtobeplaced:
ܴ‫ ݁݉ݑ݈݋ܸܲܣ‬ൌ ሺͺǡ͸ʹͶ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬ሻሺͲǤͳͷሻ ൌ ͳǡʹͻͶ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
WeightofthePCCtobeplaced:

ܲ‫ ݁݉ݑ݈݋ܸܥܥ‬ൌ ሺͳǡʹͲͲ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ ሻሺͳǤͻ͹ ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬Τ‫݀ݕ‬ଷ ሻ ൌ ʹǡ͵͸Ͷ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
PercentrecycledmaterialintheHMAandPCC:
σ ‫ݎ‬௡ ͳǡʹͻͶ‫ ܲܣܴݏ݊݋ݐ‬൅ ͳͷ͹‫ܯܴܥݏ݊݋ݐ‬

‫ܥܴܣ‬ሺΨሻ ൌ ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ൌ ͳ͵Ψ
σ ܹ௡ ͺǡ͸ʹͶ‫ ܣܯܪܴݏ݊݋ݐ‬൅ ʹǡ͵͸Ͷ‫ܥܥܲݏ݊݋ݐ‬
Theprojectwouldqualifyfor1pointaccordingtoOption2.
Option4Calculation
Thismethodincludesthesmallpavementrepairsectionmaterials.
Computetheweightofmaterialsinthepavementrepairbase:
ʹ͹݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ ͳ‫݊݋ݐ‬

ܴ‫ ݁ݏܾܽ݊݅ܲܣ‬ൌ ሺͲǤͷͲሻሺͳǡͲͲͲ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ ሻ ቆ ଷ
ቇ ሺͳ͵͸ ݈ܾΤ݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ ሻ ൬ ൰ ൌ ͻͳͺ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
‫݀ݕ‬ ʹǡͲͲͲ݈ܾ‫ݏ‬
ʹ͹݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ ͳ‫݊݋ݐ‬

ܸ݅‫ ݁ݏܾܽ݊݅݃ݎ‬ൌ ሺͲǤͷͲሻሺͳǡͲͲͲ‫ ݀ݕ‬ଷ ሻ ቆ ଷ
ቇ ሺͳ͵ͷ ݈ܾΤ݂‫ ݐ‬ଷ ሻ ൬ ൰ ൌ ͻͳͳ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
‫݀ݕ‬ ʹǡͲͲͲ݈ܾ‫ݏ‬
ܶ‫ ݐ݄݃݅݁ݓ݁ݏܾ݈ܽܽݐ݋‬ൌ ͻͳͺ‫ ݏ݊݋ݐ‬൅ ͻͳͳ‫ ݏ݊݋ݐ‬ൌ ͳǡͺʹͻ‫ݏ݊݋ݐ‬
PercentrecycledmaterialintheHMA,PCCandbase:
σ ‫ݎ‬௡ ͳǡʹͻͶ‫ ܲܣܴݏ݊݋ݐ‬൅ ͳͷ͹‫ ܯܴܥݏ݊݋ݐ‬൅ ͻͳͺ‫݁ݏܾܽ݊݅ܲܣܴݏ݊݋ݐ‬

‫ܥܴܣ‬ሺΨሻ ൌ ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ൌ ͳͺΨ
σ ܹ௡ ͺǡ͸ʹͶ‫ ܣܯܪܴݏ݊݋ݐ‬൅ ʹǡ͵͸Ͷ‫ ܥܥܲݏ݊݋ݐ‬൅ ͳǡͺʹͻ‫݁ݏܾܽݏ݊݋ݐ‬
TheprojectwouldnotqualifyforanypointsaccordingtoOption4.
BestOption
ChooseeitherOption1or2.Theprojectqualifiesfor1pointwithbothoftheseOptions.Dependingonthe
typeofprojectandtheextentofthework,oneofthesemethodsmayrequirelesspaperworkorbe
significantlylesscomplicatedtocompute.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Workability,compactionandotherperformancequalitieschangeasamountsofrecycledmaterialsincludedin
thematerialchange.
2. Additionaltestingandinspectionisoftenrequiredforhighercompositionsofrecycledmaterialsforsomecases
andmayrepresentanaddedcost.
3. Weather,performance,locationandavailabilityissuesmaylimittheamountofrecycledcontentthatcan
feasiblybeincludedinprojectmaterials.
4. Transportofrecycledmaterialsissometimescostly,dependingonavailabilityanddistanceoftransport.
Occasionallythiscostexceedsthetotalbenefitofusingtherecycledmaterial.
RESEARCH
Recycledmaterialspresentavaluable,common,andcosteffectivematerialresourcethatmaybeusedtohelp
reducetheecologicalimpactslifecyclecostorroadwayconstruction.Inmanyformsofroadwayinfrastructure
(e.g.,pavements,basematerial,walls,etc.)recycledmaterialscanbeusedinplaceofvirginmaterialswithout
degradingfinalproductperformance.Ultimately,thisreducestheneedforproductionofvirginmaterial,including
extraction,processingandmanufacturing,whicheliminatesrelatedcosts,wastedisposal,emissionsandenergy

use.Anumberoflifecycleassessments(Carpenteretal.,2007;Chuietal.,2008;Horvath,2003;Mrouehetal.,
2001;Rajendran&Gambatese,2007)havequantitativelyshownatleastsome,ifnotall,ofthesebenefits.
Thisresearchsectionoutlinesoverallrawmaterialsuse,wastegeneratedfromthatuse,theunsustainablenature
ofthisuseorwaste,currentrecyclingpractices,andwastematerialsthataretypicallyusedinaroadway
constructionproject.
RawMaterialsUse
Rawmaterial(nonfoodandnonfuel)useintheU.S.hasgrowntremendouslyoverthelastcenturyandcontinues
togrowasinfrastructureandmanufacturingrequireevermoreamountstomeetcurrentdemand(FigureMR4.1).

FigureMR4.1:MeasurementoftheamountofrawmaterialsconsumedintheUnitedStates.
(FromMatos&Wagner,1998)

Consumptionin1995was2.8billionmetrictons,over17timesmorethanconsumedin1900.Noticeably,
constructionmaterialshavebeenthelargestcontributortothegrowthinmaterialsproduction;especiallysince
WorldWarII.
Notonlyhastheamountofrawmaterialsconsumedgrownbutthecompositionofthoserawmaterialshas
changedsignificantlytoo(FiguresMR4.2andMR4.3).Ofnote,whilein1900abouthalfoftherawmaterials
consumed(byweight)werefromrenewableresources(e.g.,wood,agriculturalproducts),onlyabout8%ofthe
totalrawmaterialsconsumedwerefromrenewablesources(Matos&Wagner,1998).Sincethe1970s,U.S.raw
materialconsumptionhasleveledoffabit(growingatrateof1%from1970to1995).However,worldwide
consumptioncontinuestogrowat1.8%,almostdoubletheU.S.rate(1.8%(Matos&Wagner,1998).


FigureMR4.2:Measurementoftheamountofrenewableandnonrenewablematerialsconsumed
intheUnitedStates.(FromMatos&Wagner,1998).

FigureMR4.3:MeasurementoftheamountofmaterialsconsumedintheUnitedStatesandtheworld.
(FromMatos&Wagner,1998)

Insum,thislevelofdomesticandworldwiderawmaterialsextractionisgenerallythoughttobeunsustainablefor
anumberofreasons(Fiksel,2006):
x Depletionofnonrenewableresources.Theseresources(e.g.,oil,gas,coal,etc.)canbeextractedatanytime
butcannotbereplenished(atleastnotonatypicalhumantimescale).
x Overexploitationofrenewableresources(e.g.,timber).Renewableresourcesareoftenreferredtoas“natural
capital”becausetheycanbereplenishedovertimeaslongastheexistingstockisnotexhausted.
x Lifecycleimpactsassociatedwithmaterialsextraction,transportationanduse.

Waste
Theotherendofatypicallinearmanufacturingflowiswaste.Aftermaterialsareextractedandusedthey
eventuallyendupaswaste.Worldwide,generalestimatesarethatindustrializedcountries(looselydefinedas
thosebeingmembersoftheOrganizationofEconomicCooperationandDevelopment–OECD)generatewasteat
about12lbsperdaypercapitawhiledevelopingcountriescanbeaslowasabout2lbperdaypercapita.
EstimatesofwastestreamcompositionintheU.S.varybuttheyaregenerallysimilartoFigureMR4.4.The
contributionofconstructionanddemolitionwaste(thetypeofwasteassociatedwithroadwayconstruction)is
generallyestimatedatbetween20and40%ofthetotalwastestream(CascadiaConsultingGroup,Inc.,2004;
GDRC,n.d.).Thisfractionissecondonlytoorganic(e.g.,food,etc.)waste.Inabsolutenumbers,a2003EPA
estimateputconstructionanddemolitionwastefrombuildings(notincludingroads)atabout170milliontonsor
about3.2lbs/daypercapita.Informationonroadwayconstructionanddemolitionwasteisessentiallyspeculative,
butitisnotunreasonabletoassumethatthetotalamountwouldapproachthatforbuildings.Moredetailabout
infrastructureconstructionwasteisgiveninProjectRequirementPR6WasteManagementPlan.

FigureMR4.4:MaterialclassesinCalifornia’soveralldisposedwastestream,2003.
(CascadiaConsultingGroup,Inc.,2004)
CurrentMaterialsExtractionandDisposalPatternsareGenerallynotSustainable
Onesimplemeasureofsustainabilityoftensitedisanecologicalfootprint,whichinthiscasereferstotheamount
ofnature’sproductivecapacity(intermsoflandarea)neededtosupportourhumandemands.Wackernagel
(2001)estimatestheamountofbiologicallyproductivecapacityavailableworldwideat2.1hectarespercapita.He
alsoestimateshumandemandonaverageacrosstheplanetat2.8hectarespercapita.Thus,bythisestimate
currenthumanactivitycannotbesupportedbynatureindefinitely.Thenumbersareworseforindustrialized
countries:12.3hectaresfortheU.S.,6.3forGermanyand5.9forJapan(Wackernagel,2001).
Recycling
Onemeanstoreducetherequiredrawmaterialsandwastestreamvolumesaretorecover,processandrepurpose
wastematerialsasasubstituteforrawmaterials.Generally,thisisreferredtoasrecycling.Generally,“recycling”
impliessomesortofwastestreamrecoveryordiversionaswellassomesortofappliedprocesstoconditionthe
recoveredmaterialintoausableform.Thisisdistinctfrom“reuse,”whichinGreenroadsreferstoamaterialthatis
eitherusedagainwithnoprocessingoratleastisusedagainwithnosignificanttransportoutsideofsite
boundaries.McDonough&Braungart(2002)gofurtherandmakeacleardistinctionbetween“recycling”(reusing
thematerialforthesamepurposeforwhichitwasoriginallymade)andwhattheyterm“downcycling”(reusing

thematerialforalesserpurposethanforwhichitwasoriginallymade)arguingthatrecyclingissuperiorto
downcycling.
QuantificationofRecycling
RecyclingratesarevariableworldwideandintheU.S.accordingtogeographicregionandmaterial.Intermsof
municipalsolidwaste(thisexcludesindustrial,hazardousandconstructionwaste)Americansrecycledabout
onethirdofallgeneratedwastein2008(EPA,2009).FigureMR4.6givesabreakdownoftherecyclingrates
forcertainMSWproducts.

FigureMR4.5:ManagementofMSWintheU.S.,2008(EPA,2008).

FigureMR4.6:Recyclingratesofselectedproducts,2008–doesnotincludeenergyrecoverybycombustion.
(EPA,2009)

Dataonrecyclingintheconstructionanddemolitionfieldislessexact;howeversomenumbersexistforcertain
materials.Recyclingratesforhotmixasphalt(HMA)andportlandcementconcrete(PCC)arequitehigh.The
mostcommoncitationintheHMAindustryisthatabout80%oftheHMAwastestreamisrecycled(Bloomquist
etal.,1993).PCCrecyclingratesaresimilar,ifnothigher.DatafromtheWashingtonStateDepartmentof
Ecology(DOE)showthatPCCandHMAtogetherarethelargestcontributorstothedivertedwastestream
(wastethatiseitherrecycledorreusedandthus,keptoutoflandfills).About30%ofalldivertedwastein
WashingtonState(byweight;2.3milliontonscombined)wasPCCandHMA(WashingtonDOE,2007).Ferrous
materialsat1milliontonsweresecond.
18
Landfilled
16
OtherDivertedWaste
14 DivertedHMAandPCC
12
MillionsofTons
7.91
8.12
10 7.06
6.12
8 6.08
6.58 6.23
6
5.39
5.28
4 4.23
3.63
3.46
3.15
3.02
2 30%of
2.00 2.30 diverted
1.45 1.60 1.78
0.89 1.12 waste
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year

FigureMR4.7:DispositionofgeneratedwasteinWashingtonState(datafromWashingtonDOE,2007).
UsingRecycledMaterialsinRoadwayConstructionMaterials
Asubstantialfractionofroadwaymaterialsarerecycled(about80%inthecaseofHMA).Muchofthisisusedin
roadwayconstructionand,thus,replacesatleastsomevirginrawmaterial.Additionally,otherwastematerials
outsideofconstructionanddemolitionwastecanalsobeusedinroadwayconstructionmaterials.Thissection
brieflyreviewsthemajormaterialsinapavementstructureandthetypesofrecycledmaterialsusedineach.
Withallofthesematerials,oneoftheprimaryissuestoovercomeisthegeneralnonuniformityofrecycled
materials.Theirvariabilityisoftengreaterthanthatofthevirginrawmaterialswhichtheyreplace,andthis
variabilitycanmakequalitycontrolmoredifficult.Often,thisissueleadstoalimitormaximumfractionofrecycled
materialsthatisallowedinaconstructionmaterial.Inotherinstancesamaximumfractionisspecifiedsoasto
preventasubstantialundesirablechangeinmaterialpropertiesfromthatofamaterialmadeentirelyfromvirgin
rawmaterials.
RecycledMaterialsinGranularBase,SubbaseandFill
Recycledmaterialscanbeusedingranularmaterialandinsomeinstancescanimpartdesirablequalities.Table
MR4.2listtypicalmaterialsthatcanandhavebeenusedingranularorstabilizedbasematerials.

TableMR4.2:SomeExamplesofBaseandSubBaseAssemblies(FHWA,1997)
Assembly PossibleRecycledMaterials
GranularBaseandEmbankmentFill
GranularBase BlastFurnaceSlag
CoalBoilerSlag
MineralProcessingWastes
MunicipalSolidWasteCombustorAsh
NonferrousSlags
ReclaimedAsphaltPavement
ReclaimedConcrete
SteelSlag
WasteGlass
EmbankmentorFill CoalFlyAsh
NonferrousSlags
ReclaimedConcrete
ScrapTires
StabilizedBase
CementitiousMaterials CoalFlyAsh
CementKilnDust
LimeKilnDust
SulfateWastes
Aggregate CoalBottomAsh
CoalBoilerSlag
FlowableFill
CementitiousMaterial CoalFlyAsh
CementKilnDust
LimeKilnDust
Aggregate CoalFlyAsh
FoundrySand
QuarryFines

AccordingtoroughestimatesbytheU.S.GeologicalSurvey(2000),abouthalf(53%)ofrecycledHMAisusedas
agranularbasematerial.Whilethisiscountedas“recycling”itmaybemoreappropriatelyclassifiedas
downcyclingsinceusingreclaimedasphaltpavement(RAP)asagranularfilldoesnottakeadvantageofthe
asphaltbinderinthemixture;themostexpensive(intermsofcostandecologicalimpact)component.The
predominantbeliefisasRAPcontentincreasestohigherlevels,theshearstrengthofthebasematerial
decreasesandothermaterialpropertieschangetoo(McGarrah,2007).Becauseofthis,manystateslimitthe
RAPcontentinbasematerialsto50%orlower(McGarrah,2007).
Similarly,accordingtoroughestimatesbytheU.S.GeologicalSurvey(2000),abouttwothirds(68%)ofrecycled
PCCisusedasagranularbasematerialorotherrocklikematerialsuchasfillorriprap.TheMichigan
DepartmentofTransportationhasfoundthatportlandcementconcretehasshowntohavesimilarproperties
tothatofaggregatewhenusedinbase(Venner,2004).Moststatesuseoratleastallowcrushedrecycled
concretematerial(RCM)asbasematerial(FigureMR4.8).

FigureMR4.8:StatesrecyclingPCCasaggregatebase(fromFHWA,2004).
RecycledMaterialinHotMixAsphalt
RecycledmaterialscanbeusedinHMAandinsomeinstancescanimpartdesirablequalities.TableMR4.3list
typicalmaterialsthatcanandhavebeenusedingranularorstabilizedbasematerials.
TableMR4.3:SomeExamplesofBaseandSubBaseAssemblies(FHWA,1997)
Assembly PossibleMaterials
HotMixAsphalt(HMA)
AsphaltBinder Modifiers
RecycledasphaltbinderfromRAP
Aggregate BlastFurnaceSlag
CoalBottomAsh
CoalBoilerSlag
FoundrySand
MunicipalSolidWasteCombustorAsh
NonferrousSlags
RoofingShingleScrap
ScrapTires
SteelSlag
WasteGlass

Byfar,themostcommonrecycledmaterialinnewHMAisRAP(reclaimedasphaltpavement,or“oldHMA”).In
theU.S.thequalitiesofRAParegenerallyassumedtobeidenticaltothatofvirginrawmaterialsandthusno
additionaltestingonHMAmixturesthatcontainRAPisrequired.However,inbothgradationandasphalt
qualityRAPisdifferentthanvirginaggregateandasphalt.Therefore,aspercentagesgethigher,theytendto
affectoverallmixturebehavior,whichnecessitatesspecialtesting.Asaresult,mostagenciessetlimitsforthe
amountofRAPallowedbutrequirenospecialmixdesignifyouuseRAP.AsurveybytheNationalAsphalt
PavementAssociation(NAPA,2008)identifiedallowableRAPpercentagesandtypicallyRAPinclusionratesin
theU.S.ResultsaresummarizedinFiguresMR4.9andMR4.10.


FigureMR4.9:RAPuseinHMAbasecourses(fromNewcomb&Jones,2008).

FigureMR4.10:RAPuseinHMAsurfacecourses(fromNewcomb&Jones,2008).

NotethatinalmostallcasestheaverageRAPcontentinHMAmixturesissomewhatlessthanthemaximum
allowed.
RecycledMaterialinPortlandCementConcrete
RecycledmaterialscanbeusedinPCCandinsomeinstancescanimpartdesirablequalities.TableMR4.4lists
typicalmaterialsthatcanandhavebeenusedingranularorstabilizedbasematerials.

TableMR4.4:SomeExamplesofPortlandCementConcrete(PCC)Assemblies(FHWA,1997)
Assembly PossibleMaterials
PortlandCementConcrete(PCC)
CementitiousMaterial CoalFlyAsh
SilicaFume
GroundGranulatedBlastFurnaceSlag
Aggregate ReclaimedConcrete
WasteGlass
FoundrySand

Onlyabout9%ofRCMisusedinnewPCC(USGS,2000)andfewstatesdoit(FigureMR4.11).Whenusedinnew
PCC,RCMhasseveralkeypropertiesthatdistinguishitfromvirginaggregate(Celeen,2007):
x Lowerspecificgravity.Specifically,itisabout510%lower.
x Highabsorption.Theconstituentcementpasteismoreabsorptivethanvirginaggregate.Typicalabsorptionfor
virginaggrgateisinthe12%rangewhileRCMmaybefrom28%.
x Lowerslump.Thisreallymeanslowerworkability.LikelythisisduetothemoreangularshapeoftheRCM.
x Alkaliasilicareactivity(ASR)potential.Thisisreallydependentontheoldconcrete’ssusceptibilitytoASR.RCM
willnotnecessarilybesusceptibletoASRbutoneshouldcheckontheoldconcretesourcesincetherecycled
stuffislikelytohavethesameissues.
x Dryingshrinkage.About40100%moreforRCMduetothemortarandcementpasteintheRCM.
Ingeneralthereseemstobeanunofficial“30%rule”thatwhennaturalsandisused,itisgenerallyacceptedthat
upto30%ofnaturalcrushedcoarseaggregatecanbereplacedwithcoarserecycledaggregatewithout
significantlyaffectinganyofthemechanicalpropertiesoftheconcrete.Someagenciesgoabovethisrulebutitis
stilloftenfollowed(Celeen,2007).
.
FigureMR4.11:StatesrecyclingPCCasaggregatenewPCC(fromFHWA,2004).

Coalflyashandgroundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag(GGBFS)arethemostrecycledmaterialsusedinPCCfor
roadwayapplications.HeadwatersResources(n.d.)reportsthatall50statesallowflyashinPCC.Inpavementuse,
typicallyflyashreplacementislimitedto1525%ofthecementitiousmaterialbyspecification(FHWA,n.d.).
Groundgranulatedblastfurnaceslaglimitsaresimilar.
GLOSSARY
Diversion Avoidingplacementinalandfillthroughrecoveryprocessessuchasrecycling
orreuse

Downcycling Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialinamannerthatreduces
manufacturingorconstructionprocess(McDonoughandBraungart2002)
HMA Hotmixasphalt
RAP Reclaimedasphaltpavement
RCA Recycledconcreteaggregate(seealsoRCM)
RCM Recycledconcretematerial(seealsoRCA)
Recycling(recyclable,recycled) Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialfromthewastestream
andprocessingsuchthatthosesamematerialscanbereintroducedintothe
manufacturingorconstructionprocess(CIWMB2009)
Reuse(reusable) Recoveringaportionofausedproductormaterialfromthewastestream
thatrequiresminimal,ifany,processingtobereintroducedintothe
Waste Anymaterialthatmustbehauledoffsitefordisposalorreprocessing,or,if
disposedwithintheprojectrightofway(ROW),isnotintendedfor
engineereduseonsite

REFERENCES
Bloomquist,D.,Diamond,G.,Oden,M.,Ruth,B.,&Tia,M.(1993).EngineeringandEnvironmentalAspectsof
RecycledMaterialsforHighwayConstruction.WesternResearchInstituteforU.S.Departmentof
Transportation,FederalHighwayAdministration,McLean,VAandU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,
Cincinnati,OH.
CaliforniaIntegratedWasteManagementBoard(CIWMB).(2009).Recycle:CIWMB.Accessed21December2009.
Availableathttp://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Recycle.
Carpenter,A.C.,Gardner,K.H.,Fopiano,J.,Benson,C.H.&Edil,T.B.(2007).LifeCyclebasedriskassessmentof
recycledmaterialsinroadwayconstruction.WasteManagement27,14581464.
CascadiaConsultingGroup,Inc.(2004).StatewideWasteCharacterizationStudy.PublicationNo.34004005.For
theCaliforniaIntegratedWasteManagementBoard(CIWMB).
Celeen,S.(2007).AReviewoftheCurrentSpecificationsandPracticesoftheUseofRecycledConcreteAggregate
Nationwide.Unpublishedgraduateresearchpaper,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,WA.
Chui,CT.,Hsu,TH.&Yang,WF.(2008).Lifecycleassessmentonusingrecycledmaterialsforrehabilitating
asphaltpavements.Resources,ConservationandRecycling52,545556.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(1997).UserGuidelinesforWasteandByproductMaterialsinPavement
Construction.FHWARD97148,U.S.DOT,FHWA,Washington,D.C.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(2004).TransportationApplicationsofRecycledConcreteAggregate,
FHWAStateofthePracticeNationalReview.U.S.DOT,FHWA,Washington,D.C.
FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA).(n.d.).FlyAsh.Accessed8January2010.Availableat
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/materialsgrp/flyash.htm.
Fiksel,J.(2006).AFrameworkforSustainableMaterialsManagement.JOM58(8),1522.

GlobalDevelopmentResearchCenter(GDRC).(n.d.).WasteManagement:FactSheet.Accessed8January2010.
Availableathttp://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/wastefactsheet.html.
HeadwatersResources.(n.d.).FlyAshforConcrete.Brochure.Accessed8January2010.Availableat
http://www.flyash.com/data/upimages/press/HWR_brochure_flyash.pdf.
Horvath,A.(2003).Lifecycleenvironmentalandeconomicassessmentofusingrecycledmaterialsforasphalt
pavements.Berkeley,Calif:UniversityofCaliforniaTransportationCenter.Availableat
http://www.uctc.net/papers/683.pdf
Matos,G.&Wagner,L.(1998).ConsumptionofMaterialsintheUnitedStates,19001995.USGeologicalSurvey,
Washington,DC.http://pubs.usgs.gov/annrev/ar23107/aerdocnew.pdf.
McDonough,W.,&Braungart,M.(2002).Cradletocradle:Remakingthewaywemakethings.NewYork:North
PointPress.
McGarrah,E.J.(2007).EvaluationofCurrentPracticesofReclaimedAsphaltPavement/VirginAggregateasBase
CourseMaterial.Thesis,UniversityofWashington,Seattle.
Mroueh,U.M.,Eskola,P.,&LaineYlijoki,J.(2001).Lifecycleimpactsoftheuseofindustrialbyproductsinroad
andearthconstruction.WasteManagement.21(3),271.
Newcomb,D.,&Jones,C.(2008).TheStateofHMARecyclingintheUS.HMAT,July/August2008,2025.
Rajendran,S.&Gambatese,J.A.(2007).SolidWasteGenerationinAsphaltandReinforcedConcreteRoadwayLife
Cycles.JournalofInfrastructureSystems.13(2),88.
Saeed,A.(2008).NCHRPReport598:PerformanceRelatedTestsofRecycledAggregatesforUseinUnbound
PavementLayers.WashingtonDC:NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram,TransportationResearch
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U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2009).MunicipalSolidWasteGeneration,Recycling,andDisposalin
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Report.PublicationNo.0707048,WashingtonDOESolidWaste&FinancialAssistanceProgram,Olympia,WA.



REGIONAL MATERIALS
GOAL MR-5
Promoteuseoflocallysourcedmaterialstoreduceimpactsfromtransportation
emissions,reducefuelcosts,andsupportlocaleconomies.

Makeanitemizedlistofallmaterials,parts,componentsandproductsintendedfor
permanentinstallationontheprojectincludingweights,totalcosts,shippingcosts,and
locationofpurchaseand/orsourceofthesematerials.Usingaspreadsheetortableis
recommendedfordocumentationofthiscredit.Showthatyourprojectmeetsthe RELATED CREDITS
requirementsofOption1orOption2below. 9 PR2LifecycleCost
Analysis
Option1.Chooselocalmaterialsandproductsuppliers. 9 MR1Lifecycle
Computethetotalcostofallmaterials,parts,componentsandproductsusedfor Assessment
projectconstructionincludingallshippingandtransportcostsbasedontheprojectbid 9 MR2Pavement
list.Computethepercentageofthistotalcostthathasbeenpaidtomaterials Reuse
suppliers,processors,distributorsandproducerswithina50mileradiusofthe 9 MR3Earthwork
geographiccenteroftheproject.Pointsareawardedaccordingtotheminimum Balance
percentagesshowninTableMR5.1. 9 MR4Recycled
Materials
Option2.Minimizetraveldistanceforprojectconstructionmaterials.
Disaggregateeachmaterial,part,componentorproductintoits“basicmaterials”by SUSTAINABILITY
weightandexpressasapercentageofthesumoftheseweights.Computethe
cumulativefronthauldistancetraveledforeachbasicmaterialfrompointoforiginto
COMPONENTS
thefinalendpointontheproject.Notethisdistanceincludesallintermediarypoints, 9 Ecology
suchasassemblyordistribution,betweentheoriginalsourceandthefinalplacement 9 Equity
ontheproject.Reportthetotaldistanceintermsoftotalfreightmiles(road,air,railor 9 Economy
barge)traveledforeachbasicmaterial.Showthatatleast95%ofthesebasicmaterials 9 Extent
byweighthavetraveledlessthanthemaximumhauldistancesshowninTableMR5.1.
BENEFITS
TableMR5.1:PointScale*
9 ReducesFossilFuel
CreditMR5Points 1 2 3 4 5
Use
Option1by%oftotalcost 60 75 84 90 95
9 ReducesAir
Option2bymaximumfronthauldistance(miles) 500 337.5 225 150 100 Emissions
Bothoptionsassumeexponentialdifficultyassociatedwithachievingthiscredit. 9 ReducesGreenhouse
Gases
Details 9 ImprovesLocal
A“basicmaterial”usedintheprojectmayinclude(butisnotlimitedto):anyandall Economies
binders(asphalt,cementproducts,etc.),aggregate,baseandsubbaseor 9 ReducesFirstCosts
embankmentmaterials,metal,finishedplasticandwoodorwholecomponents 9 ReducesLifecycle
assembledwiththesematerials.Theruleofthumbfordetermining“basic”isthatit Costs
cannotbetakenapartwithoutchangingthechemicalcompositionofthematerial
componentitself.Forexample,typicalnewasphaltpavementismadeoftwobasic
materials:rocksandanasphaltbinder.However,existingasphaltpavementisa
basicmaterialwhenusedasrecycledasphaltpavement(RAP).Thisisbecauseitis
difficulttoseparatetheasphaltbinderfromtherocks.
Generally,the“origin”or“source”ofabasicmaterialmeanswhereitcameoutof
theEarthorwasinitiallyfabricated.“Fronthaul”meanstravelingfromtheoriginof
MR-5 Regional Materials 403

thebasicmaterialandanyoftheplacesithastraveledonitswaytothefinaldestinationintheproject.This
includesanymaterialthatissourcedatthesiteandtakenoffsiteforreprocessing,suchasrecycling,laterto
returnatthesiteinadifferentform.Bycontrast,theterm“backhaul”istypicallyusedtodescribematerials
takenawayfromthesite,usuallydestinedforlandfill,butsometimesisjustanemptytruckreturningtoits
pointoforiginforanotherload.Thedistancetraveledbyemptiedvehiclesleavingthesite(backhaul)neednot
beconsideredforpurposesofthiscredit.Also,wastematerialsnotintendedforreuseorrecyclingonthe
project(i.e.theyaretransportedoffsiteanddonotcomeback)neednotbeincludedincalculations.Materials
thatqualifyforcreditMR2PavementReusemaynotbecountedtowardthiscredit.However,recycled
materialsthatoriginatefromtheprojectsiteandaretransportedoffsiteforreprocessingbeforebeing
returnedtothesiteareconsidered.Besuretotrackweightsofanyaddedorlostmaterialsduringsucha
recyclingprocess.
Twooptionsareavailableforthiscreditandprojectsmayelecttodemonstrateeitherofthem,whicheveris
mostbeneficial.Notethata50mileradiushasa100milediameter,sothehighestpotentialpointsavailablein
bothOptionsareessentiallyconsistent.Also,mostpavementandstructuralmaterialsarehighinweight,and
constitutethemajorityofmostroadwayprojectmaterialsbycost.However,mosthighvalueitems,suchas
binders,maynotbeaseasilylocallysourced,andrepresentalimitedamountofthetotalmaterialweight.In
somecases,bothOptionsmayearnthesamenumberofpoints,butinmostcasesonewillgoverndepending
ontheprojectlocation.Also,dependingonthelocationandthetypesofmaterialsusedontheproject,one
optionmaybesubstantiallyeasiertodocumentandtrackthantheother.Option1,forexample,addresses
wheretheprojectmoneyformaterialsactuallygoes.Forlargeprojectsthismaybealesscomplexapproach
andsimplyrequirestrackingmaterialcostsaccordingtotheprojectbidlistandpickinganearbymaterials
contractor.Ontheotherhand,Option2forthiscreditintendstominimizethetotaltransportation(and
thereforefuelcosts,energyandemissions)associatedwithtransportationofmaterialstothesite.Thismaybe
easierforsmallerprojectswithlimitedcomplexityofmaterials,orforprojectsthatarenotnearurbancenters.
Forconsistencybetweenallprojects,mapandcomputehauldistancesusingtheGoogleMapstool
(http://maps.google.com).Forproductsthatareshippedbyair,barge,orrail,useweightsanddistances
reportedbyshippingagencyororganization.
DOCUMENTATION
Option1
x Aspreadsheetincludinganitemizedlistofallpurchasedbasicmaterialsusedontheprojectandthebilling
addressofthesourceforeach.
x Acomputationofthetotalpercentageofbasicmaterialssourcedwithina50mileradiusoftheproject.
x Amapshowingthegeographiccenter(inlatitudeandlongitude)oftheproject.Thismay,inmanycases,bea
milepostorstation.Themapmustshow:
x Thenameandlocationoftheproject.
x Thegeographiccenteroftheproject.Showthelatitudeandlongitudeormilemarker.
x Aclearlydrawncirclewitharadiusof50milesdrawntoscale.
x Ascale.
x Labelsoriconsforeachbasicmaterialwithabillingaddressthatlieswithinthe50mileradius.
Option2
x Aspreadsheetshowing:
x Thenameandlocationoftheproject.
x Anitemizedlistofeachbasicmaterialanditsweight.
x Cumulativefronthauldistanceforeachbasicmaterial.
x Alistofthelocationsthatthebasicmaterialvisitedduringfronthaul.
x Acomputationshowing95%ofthetotalmaterialweightmeetsthemaximumhauldistancerequirementsto
qualifyforpointsinTableMR5.1.Fuelreceipts,mixtickets,dumptickets,andsimilarsupportingdocuments
mayberequestedtoverifyspreadsheetcalculations.
404 Regional Materials MR-5


x Establishadocumentationpipelineformaterialsextractionandfabricationbeforeconstructionstarts.
x Ensurethatalocalmaterialsclauseiswrittenintothespecialprovisionsintheconstructioncontract.
x Makesurethattheprojecthaslocalcontractorsthatcanperformthework.
Example: Option 1 Calculation – New Roadway in Suburban Neighborhood

Asmallnewroadisbeingconstructedinasuburbanneighborhooddevelopment.TheHMAaggregateismined
atthelocationoftheasphaltplant,whichis35milesawayfromtheproject.Theasphaltbinderissourcedfrom
anoutoftownsupplierthatislocated220milesawayfromtheprojectsite,andthemarkingpaintwasshipped
from86milesnorthofthegeographiccenteroftheproject.Noelectricalorstormwaterinfrastructure
materialsareincludedinthescopeofwork,becausetheseutilitiesarealreadyinplace.
Thebidlistcostsforallmaterialcomponentsorproductsontheprojectare:
HMAAggregate Asphalt AggregateBase Paintfor

Markings
Weight(ton) 21,200 896 17,300 0.21
Distance(mi) 25 220 25 86
UnitCost($/ton) $7.50 $100 $7.50 $153,377
TotalCost($)withshipping $159,000 $89,600 $129,750 $32,080

Thetotalcostformaterialsis$410,430.Thetotalcostoftheitemsthatoriginatefromwithina50mileradius
ofthegeographiccenteroftheproject(theHMAaggregateandaggregatebase)is$288,750.Thisequatesto
70.3%ofthematerialsbycostbeinglocatedwithina50mileradius,whichwouldallot1pointtotheproject.
Example: Option 2 Calculation – Rural Overlay with Stormwater Treatment

Anewprojecttooverlaytwomilesofaruralcountyroadwillbeoccurringinthenextfewmonths.Stormwater
istobetreatedinlinearditchesalongtheroadwayusingcompostamendedsoilprovidedfromafarmerwhose
plotisapproximately120milesfromtheproject,whereitisproducedandmixed.TheHMAaggregatesare
beingtruckedintoamobileplantlocated45milesfromthequarryand35milesfromtheproject.Theasphalt
binderisbeingtruckedviatankerfromthenearestrefinerywhichislocated295milesawaytothemobile
plant.Paintformarkingsisprovidedfromthenearestcitycenterwhichis410mileswestoftheproject.
Aggregate Asphalt HMA Compost Soil Compost Paintfor

forHMA Binder AmendedSoil Markings
Weight(ton) 5,200 200 350 325 0.25
Distance(mi) 45 295 35 0 0 120 410
%ofTotalWeight 85.6% 3.3% 88.9% 5.8% 5.3% 11.1% 0.0%

Thetotaldistancetravelledbytheaggregatefromsourcetoplanttoprojectsite(fronthaulonly)is80miles
andthismaterialaccountsfor85.6%ofthetotalweightofmaterialsforthisoverlay.However,sincethisisless
than95%ofthetotalweightofmaterials,thecriticalmaterialcomponentisactuallythecompostamended
soil.Thetotaldistancetraveledbythecompostamendedsoilis120miles,meaningthat96.7%ofthetotal
materialsbyweighthavetraveled120milesorlessfrompointoforigintotheprojectsite.Thisqualifiesthe
projectfor4pointsaccordingtotableMR5.1.
Forthisexample,notethatthetotaldistancetravelledbytheasphaltbinderfromsourcetoplanttoproject
siteis330miles,butthisonlyaccountsfor3.3%ofthetotalweightofmaterials.Thepaintmaterialsalsodid
notcontributemeasurablytothetotalweightofmaterialstransportedtothesite.Theseproductsarelikelyto
havehighunitcost,makingitunlikelytheprojectwouldscoreashighlyaccordingtotheOption1method.

Example: Case Study - I-5 James to Olive Project (Mixed Pavement)

TheI5JamestoOliveprojectwasconstructedindowntownSeattlein2005.Thisprojectconsistedof
constructing2milesof13inchconcretepavementover3inchesofHMA.TheHMAwassuppliedapproximately
30milesfromthejobsitebyroad.AggregatesforHMAwereminedatthebatchplantlocation.Steelwas
suppliedfromalocalsupplierthatwasapproximately35milesfromthejobsite.Portlandcementconcrete
aggregateswerequarriedwithinaradialdistanceof30milesfromtheproject,butweretrucked25milestoa
concretebatchplantlocated12milesfromtheprojectbyroad.Asphaltwastruckedfromoutoftown150
milesawaytotheHMAplant.Portlandcementconcreteandgroundgranulatedblastfurnaceslag(GGBFS)
wereproduced5milesfromtheconcretebatchplantandina10mileradiusfromtheprojectsite.
ForOption1thematerialscostbreakdownwouldlooklike:
MaterialorComponent Aggregate Asphalt Aggregate Cement GGBFS Steel

forHMA Binder forPCC Binder
Weight(ton) 2,400 100 7800 3250 1950 35
RadialDistance(mi) 30 150 30 10 10 35
CostofMaterials($/ton) 7.50 100.00 7.50 50.00 30.00 650.00
Cost $18,000 $10,000 $58,500 $162,500 $58,500 $22,750

Thetotalcostforthesematerialswas$330,250.Thetotalcostofmaterialsthatwerelocatedwithin50miles
was$320,250whichamountsto96%ofthematerialscost.Thiswouldscore5pointstowardsthiscredit.
ForOption2thematerialsbreakdownwouldlooklike:
Materialor HMA Asphalt HMA Aggregate Cement GGBFS PCC Steel

Component Aggregate Binder forPCC Binder
Weight(ton) 2400 100 2500 7800 3250 1950 1,000 35
TravelDistance(mi) 30 180 30 37 17 17 12 35
TotalWeight(ton) 2500 13000 35

Thetotalweightofthematerialsis15,535tons.Theasphaltbinder,whichtraveledfarthest(180milesfrom
sourcetoplanttoprojectsite),accountsfor0.6%ofthetotalweightofpavementassemblymaterials.The
remaining99.3%ofmaterialstraveledlessthan100milestotheirfinaldestinationonsite.Thismethodwould
alsoscore5points.
Example: Case Study - Mountlake Terrace Freeway Station, Mountlake Terrace, WA

TheMountlakeTerraceFreewayStationprojectbeganconstructioninMay2009toprovideI5medianaccess
totherecentlyconstructedMountlakeTerraceTransitCenter.Currently,busesmustmergeacrossI5toexit
andusesurfacestreetstoreachthetransitcenter.Thefreewaystationwillallowbusestoloadandunload
riderswithoutstrayingfromtheHOVlanes.Thecoveredfreewaystationwillconnecttothetransitcenter
throughapedestrianbridge,andisdesignedtoincreasebusspeedandreliability.Theroadwayprojectconsists
ofundergroundutilityworkforinfrastructureimprovements,soundwalls,andalsostandardpavements.
Option1isusedtocomputethepointsforthisproject.Thecomputationisshowninthetableonthefollowing
page.Theprojectqualifiesfor4points,with94%ofmaterialsbycostbeingsourcedfromwithina50mile
radiusoftheprojectsite.


Materialsand Unit %ofTotal Miles Within50

Quant. Unit Total($) Origin
Components Cost($) Cost toSite miles?
Conc.Class4000for
2800 cy 576 1,612,800 30.5 Seattle 20 Yes
retainingwall
Bremerto
HMACl1/2inPG6422 15520 ton 83 1,288,160 24.4 38 Yes
n
Conc.Class4000for
1407 cy 706 993,342 18.8 Seattle 20 Yes
station
St.Reinf.Barfor
229970 lb 1 229,970 4.4 Seattle 18 Yes
retainingwall
PrestressedConc.
663 lf 285 188,955 3.6 Spokane 299 No
GirderW74G
CrushedSurfacingBase
7060 ton 25 176,500 3.3 Monroe 26 Yes
Course
GravelBackfillforWall 6060 cy 29 175,740 3.3 Monroe 26 Yes
QuarrySpalls 8686 ton 20 173,720 3.3 Monroe 26 Yes
36inClV.Reinf.Conc.
1149 lf 113 129,837 2.5 Spokane 299 No
StormSewerPipe
36inDuctileIron
456 lf 210 95,760 1.8 Marysville 21 Yes
StormSewerPipe
24inCorrugated
2291 lf 41 93,931 1.8 Edmonds 2 Yes
PolyethyleneCulv.Pipe
ProfiledPlasticWide
16040 lf 4 64,160 1.2 Edmonds 2 Yes
LaneLine
CementConc.
221 cy 287 63,427 1.2 Seattle 17 Yes
Pavement
TotalCost $5,286,302 %byCostin50mileRadius: 94.0%

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Aswritten,thiscreditcurrentlydoesnotincludecontributionfrombackhauldistancesofemptiedvehicles
becausetheycarryzeromaterials.Additionally,thereishighvariabilityinvehiclesusedfortransportwhich
makestrackingdistances(inameaningfulway)travelledbasedongasmileageorengineefficiencyquite
tedious.ThesetwoissuesmaybeaddressedmorecomprehensivelybypursuingtheMR1LifeCycle
Assessmentcredit.
2. Aswritten,thiscreditcurrentlydoesnottrackwasteproductsleavingthesite.Thisvalueofsuchanactivitycan
beaddressedintheCustomCreditscategory.However,materialgatheredonsiteandtakenoffsitefor
reprocessing(e.g.fillmaterial,recycledasphaltpavementfrommillingwaste,etc.)needstobeconsideredand
hasbeennoted.Thisrecyclingactivityassumestheinitialproductionstageoccursatthesite,goesthrough
additionalproductionattheprocessingfacility,andislaterconstructedbackatthesiteinadifferentform.
3. Aswritten,thiscreditdoesnotrequireprojectstoincludedistancestraveledfromtheextractionsitesofraw
materialsusedtomakebasicmaterialproductssuchasasphaltbinder(petroleumextraction).
RESEARCH
Usinglocalmaterialsonprojectscannotonlylowerthetransportationcostsoftheproject,butwillalsoreducethe
amountofemissionsassociatedwithtransportbyreducingtransportdistancesforhaulingmaterials.Thispractice
canthereforedecreasetheoverallgreenhousegasemissionsandenergyuseassociatedwithroadconstruction.
Reducinghauldistancesdecreasesemissionsandfossilfueluse.Accordingtomostlifecycleassessments
completedforpavementconstruction,transportationofmaterialsaccountsfor738%ofenergyuseand410%of
CO2emissionsontypicalroadwayprojectsmodeled(Muench&Anderson,Submitted).Thismeanstransportation

ofmaterialsusesabout8timestheenergyandproducestwiceasmanyCO2emissionsastheconstruction
processesfortheroad.Therefore,limitinghauldistanceshasasizableimpactonenergyandgreenhousegas
emissions,aswellasreducingemissionsofmanyotherharmfulairpollutantsfromburningfossilfuelsthatare
detrimentaltohumanhealth(Bilecetal.,2006).(SeealsoProjectRequirementPR3LifeCycleInventory).
Localeconomiesalsobenefitfromprojectsusinglocalmaterials.Usinglocalsupplierscreatesormaintainsjobs,
establishescommunityidentity(SustainableSites,2009),andoftensupportslocalsmallbusinessowners.Typically
manypavingcompaniesthatbidlargescaleroadprojectsarelocatedlessthan100milesawayfromaprojectdue
tolocalspecificationrestraintsonmaterialproperties(e.g.standardbindergradesandaggregatequality),and
becausetransportationofheavymaterialsisfuelintensiveandexpensive.Also,mostpublicworkpavingprojects
uselocalmaterialsuppliersduetothecostimplicationsofcompetitivebidding.Thatbeingsaid,usinglocal
contractorsandsupplierswillnotalwaysresultinthelowestbid.Thecostofsocialexternalitiesfortheresultant
transportationemissionsisnotnormallyincludedinabidandcanbesignificant(Bilecetal.,2006).

BoththeLeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesign(LEED™)RatingSystemandtheSustainableSitesInitiative
awardcreditforminimizingtransportdistance.InLEED,theradiusthatdeterminesa“regional”productis
establishedat500milesfromthesite.LEEDhasexperiencedissueswiththeirspecificationduetoincorrectreports
ofhauldistancesduringextractionandmanufactureprovidedbycontractors.Thisislargelyacommunicationissue
betweenthecontractor,materialssupplierandtheprojectteamattemptingaLEEDcertification(DavisLangdon,
2004).ThereisalsosomedifficultyinunderstandingtheLEEDcreditcalculationrequirementsforcomputing
supplychainresponsibilitybycost:manybuildingproductsareextractedorproducedinonelocationthatmaybe
outsidetheradius,andthentheyareassembledlocally(DavisLangdon,2007).InSustainableSites(2009),the
radiusvariesdependingonthetypeofproductfrom50miles(soilsandaggregate)to500miles(forspecialty
products).Forthiscredit,a50mileradiusisusedandcalculationsaredonebyweight,becausesoiland
aggregatesrepresentthelargestpercentageofmaterialsonmostpavingprojects,aretypicallysuppliedlocallydue
tocosteffectiveness,andweightsofthesematerialsarealreadytracked.Additionally,weightofmaterialsdirectly
correspondstototalfueluseandthusbidcostforthemostcommonhaulingequipmentusedinconstruction.
GLOSSARY
Backhaul Thereturntripafteragoodhasbeendelivered
Basicmaterial Amaterialcomponentthatcannotbetakenapartwithoutchangingthe
chemicalcompositionofthematerialcomponentitself
Fronthaul Thetripassociatedwithdeliveryofagood
Hauldistance Thedistanceagoodtravelstogettothelocationofintendeduse
Waste Unwantedmaterialproducedasaresultofconstructionactivity

REFERENCES
Bilec,Melissa;Ries,Robert;Matthews,Scott&Sharrard,Aurora.(2006).ExampleofaHybridLifeCycle
AssessmentofConstructionProcesses.ASCEJournalofInfrastructureSystems,Volume12,Issue4.pp207
215.
DavisLangdon.(2004).CostingGreen:AComprehensiveCostDatabaseandBudgetingMethodology.Availableat:
http://www.usgbc.org/Docs/Resources/Cost_of_Green_Full.pdf
DavisLangdon(2007).TheCostofBeingGreenRevisited:ReexaminingthefeasibilityandCostImpactof
SustainableDesignintheLightofIncreasedMarketAdoption.Availableat:
http://www.davislangdon.com/USA/Research/

Muench,S.T.&Anderson,J.L.(n.d.).WeightingaSustainabilityPerformanceMetricforRoadways:Greenroads.
Manuscriptsubmittedforpublication.




ENERGY EFFICIENCY
GOAL MR-6
Reducelifetimeenergyconsumptionoflightingsystemsforroadways.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Installlightingsystemswithluminairesthatmeetorexceedthe2009EnergyStar 1-5 POINTS
standardforroadwaylightingandarecompliantwithallsafetyrequirements
applicabletotheroadwayproject.The2009EnergyStarStandardisavailableat:
http://www.drintl.com/htmlemail/ESOutdoorDraft2_01Jul09.pdf.
RELATED CREDITS
Pointsareawardedbasedonthefractionoftotalluminairesinstalledontheproject 9 EW8LightPollution
withenergyefficientfixturesthatare2009EnergyStarcompliantinthefollowing 9 AE3Context
manner: SensitiveSolutions
9 AE5Pedestrian
x 1point:20% Access
x 2points:40% 9 PT4CoolPavement
x 3points:60%
x 4points:80% SUSTAINABILITY
x 5points:100% COMPONENTS
Details 9 Ecology
9 Economy
Lightingfacilitiesandsystemsmustbeappropriatefortheproject.Thismeansthat 9 Extent
installingpedestriansafetylightingonaprojectwithnopedestrianaccessibilitywill
notbeawardedcredit.Similarly,lightingfornewand/orimproveddrivewaysand
BENEFITS
parkinglotsaresubjecttothecreditsonlyiftheyareincludedwithintheproject
scopeandbudgetboundaries.Projectsthatdonotincludelightingwithintheir 9 ReducesFossilFuel
scopecannotachievethiscredit. Use
9 ReducesAir
Emissions
Provideacopyofthespecificationand/orcutsheetsoftheluminairesbeinginstalled Gases
ontheproject.ShowthattheseareEnergyStar2009compliant.Showthatthelighting 9 IncreasesServiceLife
designcomplieswithallapplicablesafetyregulationsfortheproject. 9 ReducesLifecycle
Costs
MR-6 Energy Efficiency 411


x Installluminairesthatare2009EnergyStarcompliant.
x Uselightemittingdiode(LED)lamptechnologies.
x Considernotinstallinglightingsystemswhereaveragedailytrafficcountsdonotwarrantlightinginstallation
foraparticularroadwayconfiguration,orwherepedestriansafetyisnotanissue.
x ReviewandapplyChapter2oftheAASHTORoadwayLightingDesignGuidetoachieveaMasterLightingPlan.
x PerformalightinganalysisoftheprojectlightingsystemaccordingtotheAmericanAssociationofState
HighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)RoadwayLightingDesignGuidemethodortheIlluminating
EngineeringSocietyofNorthAmerica(IESNA)RoadwayLightingstandard“RP800”method.Thesemethods
canhelpdetermineifsolidstatelightingtechnologieswillbeappropriatefortheproject.Designtablesforthe
referencedluminanceorilluminancemethodsarenotedinTableMR6.1.Notethatacombinationof
luminanceandilluminancemethodsmaybeappropriateforsomeprojects,andthatsomeprojectsinclude
multipavementtypes,whichmustbeconsideredintheanalysis.Theanalysisshouldincludeconsiderationof
initiallumens,lamplumendepreciationfactor,anddirtdepreciationfactor.
TableMR6.1:LightingAnalysisMethods
ReferenceSource Luminance Illuminance
AASHTORoadwayLightingDesignGuide Table35a Table35a
IESNARP800,RoadwayLighting Table2 Table3

Example: Solid State Lighting Case Study - I-35 Bridge in Minneapolis, Minnesota
ReplacementoftheI35BridgeinMinneapolis,whichtragicallycollapsedin2007,wasusedasanopportunity
bytheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyandMinnesotaDepartmentofTransportationtodemonstratetheuseof
solidstateroadwaylightingonahighprofileproject.LEDswereusedwiththegoalofprovidingadequate
uniformlightingwhilereducingoperationalenergyuseandmaintenancerequirements.(PacificNorthwest
NationalLaboratory:PNNL,2009)AnaerialphotoofthebridgeatnightisshowninFigureMR6.1andFigure
MR6.2(nextpage)showsapairofluminaires.

FigureMR6.1:AerialViewofLEDLightingonI35.PhotobyBetaLighting.
(http://www.ledwaystreetlights.com/Benefits/pdf/casestudy/ledwayI35WCaseStudy.pdf)
412 Energy Efficiency MR-6


FigureMR6.2:LitLEDluminairesatnightonI35.PhotobyFiggEngineeringGroup.
(http://www.ledwaystreetlights.com/Benefits/pdf/casestudy/ledwayI35WCaseStudy.pdf)

Somehighlightsoftheprojectinclude(PNNL,2009):
x Bridgeilluminationwasaccomplishedusing20luminairesoftwodifferentdesigns.
x OperationalenergyrequirementsoftheLEDluminaireswereestimatedtobeaminimumof13%lowerthan
thoseofMinnesota’sstandard250watthighpressuresodiumluminaires.
MoreinformationaboutthisprojectisavailablefromPNNLandtheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyat:
http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/gateway_i35wbridge.pdf
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Atradeoffexistsbetweenprovidingenoughluminanceforsafety,limitinglightpollution,andreducingor
conservingenergy.
2. Compliancewithveilingluminanceratiosmayalsoberequiredinsomejurisdictions.
3. Incolderclimates,LEDlightingmaynotprovideasmuchheatthatassistswithdeicingofluminairesortraffic
signalsasdoincandescentbulbs.
RESEARCH
Withalargeproportionoftheworld’selectricitybeingproducedbyunsustainablemethods,reductionof
electricityconsumptionisanimportantgoalinthepursuitofsustainableinfrastructure.Afterconstructionis
completed,thedirectelectricityconsumptionofvirtuallyallroadwayscanbeprimarilyattributedtoroadway
lightingsystems.TheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyestimatesthatroadwaylightingsystemsconsume31terawatt
hoursofelectricityeachyearintheUnitedStates(USDOE,2008).

SolidStateLighting
Inrecentyears,lightingtechnologieshavebeenrefinedtoprovidefeasiblealternativestotraditionalmethodsthat
canprovidecomparableperformancewithsignificantlyreducedenergyuse.Solidstatelighting,whichuseslight
emittingdiodes(LED),canreplacetypicalsodiumormercuryluminairesaboveroadwaystomeetlightingneeds.
Notably,theopticalefficacy(lightoutputinlumensperwattofelectricity)ofLEDshasbecomecomparableor
betterthancurrentalternatives,andlightfromLEDscanbemoreeffectivelydirectedandthereforeusedtolight
anareawithlessenergy(Wuetal.,2009).Inaddition,theincreasedlifespanofLEDsdecreasestheneedfor
replacementandmaintenance.
Solidstatelightingisatechnologystillverymuchunderdevelopment.Becauseofthis,theefficiencyofLED
luminairesiscontinuallyincreasingasdevicesarerefined.In2006,LEDsweredevelopedthatapproximatedthe
sameopticalefficacyastypicalmoderndaymercurylamps,about70lumensperwattofelectricity(Wuetal.,
2009).In2007,commercialluminaireswereproducedthatcouldperformat80lumensperwatt(Craford,2008).
Efficacylevelsreachedaround130lumensperwattexperimentallyby2008anditisexpectedthatalongterm
feasiblemaximumforLEDefficacyisabout150lumensperwatt(Longetal.,2008;Schubertetal.,2006).In
additiontoenergysavings,LEDroadwaylightingprovidesalongerlastingalternativetotraditionalluminaires,
reducestheneedforreplacementandmaintenance,anddecreasesmaterialwasteandpollution.
EnergySavings
LEDswithcomparablelevelsofopticalefficacycanprovidesignificantenergysavingsovertraditionallight
sourcessuchasmercuryandsodiumbulbs.ThisisduetotheincreasedabilitytofocusoraimLEDlightthrough
design.Over85%ofthelightfromanLEDmaybedirectedtohittheroadwaysurface,whileonlyabouthalfof
thelightfromconventionalfixturesdoesso(Wuetal.,2009).Therefore,lesstotallightoutputisrequiredto
illuminatetheroadwaysurface,reducingenergyuseaswellaslightpollutionandtrespass.
Inroadwaylightingfieldtests,LEDluminaireshaveshownenergysavingsbetween30%and75%(Wuetal.,
2009;USDOE,2008,Longetal.,2008).Decreasedenergyusealsoallowsforreductionintheamountofcopper
wireusedforelectricaltransmission(Huangetal.,2009).AssumingthattheopticalefficacyofLEDswill
continuetoimproveandsurpassthatofmercuryandsodiumlamps,LEDluminairespromisetobeavery
attractivealternativetotraditionalsystems.
IncreasedServiceLifetime
Inadditiontoreducingelectricityconsumption,LEDshavesubstantiallylongerfunctionallifetimesthansodium
andmercurybulbs.LEDluminairescanprovideadequatelightlevelsforabout50,000hours(nearlysixyears),
oraboutfourtimeslongerthancurrentalternatives(Wuetal.,2009;McClear,2007).Thismeansdecreased
longtermcostsandlessneedforreplacement,whichisadifficult,dangerous,andsometimesfatalprocess,
particularlyonbusyhighways(NewJerseyDOT,2005).
OtherBenefits
Ratherthanburningoutliketraditionalbulbs,LEDsslowlylosebrightnessovertime.Thisincreasesthesafety
ofLEDlitroadways,eliminatingperiodsofcompletedarknessbetweenbulbfailuresandreplacements.Finally,
incontrasttosomecommonlyusedluminaires,LEDluminairescontainnomercury,meaningreducedmercury
pollutionattheendoftheusefullifetimeofthelight(Longetal.,2008).TheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy(2008)
estimatesthatifallhighpressuresodiumluminairesinthenationwerereplacedwithLEDluminaires,8.1
terawatthourswouldbesavedannuallyatminimum,amountingto5.7millionmetrictonsofatmospheric
carbondioxide.
LifecycleCostSavings
ThemostsignificantbarriertouseofLEDroadwaylightingistheincreasedinitialcapitalcostsofsuchsystems.
However,decreasedelectricityandmaintenancecostsmeanthatthesesystemsarecapableofpayingfor
themselvesinthelongterm,evenwithoutconsideringenvironmentalbenefits.Studiesofdifferent
technologiesandmethodsonvariousroadwayprojectshavefoundpaybacktimesrangingfrom1.2to6.3years

(Wuetal.,2009;USDOE,2008).ThesedurationswillcontinuetodecreaseasLEDtechnologybecomesless
expensiveandmoreefficient.
WhatisInductionLighting?
Inductionlightingisanotheralternativetotraditionallightingsystems,andusesinducedmagneticfieldstocause
mercuryvaportoemitlight.Becauseofthelackoffilamentsandelectrodes,inductionlightscanhaveextremely
longlifetimesof100,000hrs(Lippert,2009).Thisisespeciallyattractiveforapplicationswheremaintenanceis
difficultordangerous,suchasroadwaylighting.Inductionlightscanprovideenergysavingsovertypicalluminaries
whilemaintainingsafeconditions(Dahuaetal.,2008).However,largescaletestingandcomparisonisstillneeded
beforethistechnologycanbewidelyimplemented.
GLOSSARY
IESNA IlluminatingEngineeringSocietyofNorthAmerica
InductionLighting Atypeoflightingthatusesinducedmagneticfieldstocausemercuryvaporto
emitlight.
Illuminance Quantityoflightthatreachesagivensurface
LED Lightemittingdiode
Lumen Unitofluminousflux
Luminaire Acompletelightingunitthatincludes lightsource,covering,mounting,
wiring,etc.
Luminance Quantityoflightreflectedbyagivensurface(measureofbrightness)
Opticalefficacy Numberoflumensanelectricallightsourceproducesperwattofenergyused
Solidstatelighting Atypeoflightingproducedbylightemittingdiodes

REFERENCES
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).(2005)RoadwayLightingDesign
Guide.Washington,DC.
BetaLED.(2009,March6)LEDwayStreetlightsProjectSummary:I35WSt.Anthony’sFallsBridge,Minneapolis,
MN.AccessedDecember23,2009.Availableathttp://www.ledwaystreetlights.com/benefitscase
studies.html
Craford,M.(2008)HighPowerLEDsforSolidStateLighting:Status,TrendsandChallenges.JournalofLightand
VisualEnvironment,2,5862
Dahua,C.,Liping,G.,Wencheng,C.,Yandan&L.,Zheng,H.(2008)PerformanceofinductionlampsandHPSlamps
inroadtunnellighting.TunnelingandUndergroundSpaceTechnology,23,139144.
ENERGYSTAR.(2009).ENERGYSTARProgramRequirementsforSolidStateLightingLuminaires:ProposedCategory
“A”AdditionsOutdoorArea&ParkingGarage.Availableat
http://www.drintl.com/htmlemail/ESOutdoorDraft2_01Jul09.pdf
IlluminatingEngineeringSocietyofNorthAmerica(IESNA).(2000).RoadwayLighting(RP800).NewYork,NY.
Lippert,J.(2009)InductionLighting:AnOldLightingTechnologyMadeNewAgain.RetrievedNovember18,2009,
FromDepartmentofEnergy:EnergySaversBlogwebsite:
http://www.eereblogs.energy.gov/energysavers/post/InductionLightingAnOldLightingTechnologyMade
NewAgain.aspx

Long,X.,Liao,R.,Zhou,J.(2008)DevelopmentofStreetLightingSystemBasedNovelHighBrightnessLEDModules.
IETOptoelectronics3,4046
McClear,M.(2007,September)RiseoftheLEDCity.LightingDesignandApplication.4850
NewJerseyDepartmentofTransportation(NJDOT).(2005).UseofLEDorOtherNewTechnologytoReplace
StandardOverheadandSignLighting.NJDOTResearchReportNo:FHWANJ2005029.
PacificNorthwestNationalLaboratory(PNNL).(2009).DemonstrationAssessmentofLightEmittingDiode(LED)
RoadwayLightingattheI35Bridge,Minneapolis,MN.(PNNLDoc.No.18687).PreparedforUnitedStates
DepartmentofEnergy.
Schubert,E.,Kim,J.K.,Luo,H.&Xi,J.Q.(2006)SolidStateLightingABenevolentTechnology.ReportsonProgress
inPhysics,69,30692099
U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.(2008).LEDStreetLightingHostSite:CityofSanFrancisco,California
Wu,M.S.,Huang,H.H.,Huang,B.J.,Tang,C.W.&ChengC.W.(2009)EconomicFeasibilityofSolarPoweredLED
RoadwayLighting.RenewableEnergy,34,19341938

PAVEMENT TECHNOLOGIES


Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Pavement Technologies
LONG-LIFE PAVEMENT
GOAL PT-1
Minimizelifecyclecostsbypromotingdesignoflonglastingpavementstructures.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
ThefirstrequirementANDEITHERofthefollowingtworequirementsmustbemetto 5 POINTS
achievepoints.
Requirement1:Designatleast75%ofthetotalneworreconstructedpavement
surfaceareaforregularlytraffickedlanesofpavementtomeetlonglifepavement RELATED CREDITS
designcriteria.Computethetotalsurfaceareaofalltraffickedlanesandshowthata 9 PR2LifecycleCost
minimumof75%ofthatareaisdesignedforlonglife.Donotincludeshoulders, Analysis
medians,sidewalksandotherpavedareasinthecomputation.Longlifepavementis 9 MR2Pavement
definedasapavementstructurethatisdesignedusingaminimum40yeardesignlife. Reuse
Requirement2a:MeettherequirementsofFigurePT1.1. SUSTAINABILITY
OR
COMPONENTS
9 Ecology
Requirement2b:Pavementdesignisinaccordancewithadesignprocedurethatis 9 Economy
formallyrecognized,adoptedanddocumentedbytheprojectowner. 9 Extent
9 Expectations
Details 9 Experience
Generally,notallpavementsectionsonaprojectwillbedesignedaslonglasting
sections.Also,thiscreditisnotapplicabletoroadsthatarenotsurfacedwithhot BENEFITS
mixasphalt(HMA)orportlandcementconcrete(PCC),suchasgravelroads,dirt 9 ReducesRaw
roads,androadssealedwithbituminoussurfacetreatments. Materials
9 ReducesFossilFuel
FigurePT1.1Method.RequirementsforsubgradeCaliforniaBearingRatio(CBR) Use
andbasematerialCBRcanbetakenasaveragesacrosstheentireprojectwhere 9 ReducesAir
morethanonetestisdone.IfsubgradeorbasesupportisnotmeasuredbyCBR, Emissions
usethecommonconversiontechniquesinTablePT1.1oranylocalconversionthat 9 ReducesGreenhouse
iscommonlyusedindesignandhasabasisinempiricalevidence.Soilstestingdata Gases
shouldsupporttheconversionused. 9 ReducesSolid
Wastes
TablePT1.1:CommonlyAcceptedCBRConversionMethods(AASHTO,1993) 9 IncreasesServiceLife
Conversion Equation Limitation 9 ReducesLifecycle
CBRResilient
CBRResilient Fine grained soils with a
Finegrainedsoilswitha Costs

Modulus
Modulus(M(MR)) soakedCBRof10orlessonly
soaked CBR of 10 or less only 9 Improves
CBR
CBR i d nonexpansive
Fi grained
Fine grained, i
Finegrained,nonexpansive Accountability
Resistance
Resistance soils with a soaked CBR of
soilswithasoakedCBRof88
Value(Rvalue)
Value (Rvalue) orlessonly
or less only
DesignProcedureMethod.Theintentionistoallowanowneragencytouseits
existingdesignproceduretodesignthepavementsectionaslongasasufficiently
longdesignlifeischosen(atleast40years).Somecommondesignprocedures
include(butarenotlimitedto):
x 1993AASHTOMethod.Themethoddescribedinthe1993versionofthe
PT-1 Long-Life Pavement 419

Pavement Technologies Greenroads™ Manual v1.5
AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures (1993) and computerized in DARWin, and AASHTOware
product.
 Asphalt Institute Method. The method described in the Asphalt Institute’s MS‐1 Asphalt Pavements for
Highways and Streets and computerized in the Asphalt Institute’s publication, SW‐1 Asphalt Thickness
Design Software for Highways, Airports, Heavy Wheel Loads and other applications (1981).
 Mechanistic‐Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG). The method described in AASHTO MEPDG‐1
Mechanistic‐Empirical Pavement Design Guide, Interim Edition: A Manual of Practice (2008). This method is
eventually intended to replace the 1993 AASHTO method.
Existing Pavements. Existing pavements that are to at least partially remain in place (in any condition) can also
qualify for this credit. In these cases, evaluation for this credit shall be based on the final pavement structure,
which may include (1) existing pavement remaining in place, and (2) any new pavement structure added. In this
manner, a diamond grind of an existing PCC pavement or an overlay of an existing HMA pavement can qualify
for this credit if the resultant pavement structure meets the criteria of this credit.

DOCUMENTATION
 A list of pavement sections to be built (or reconstructed) and their associated pavement material type, surface
areas, equivalent single axle loads (ESALs), design thicknesses, subgrade CBR, and if design was intended to be
long‐life or not in accordance with the requirements of this credit. This may be included as part of the standard
project documentation or as a separate document.
 A calculation to indicate the total percentage of trafficked lane pavement surface areas that are designed for
long‐life.
 A drawing or project map showing locations of pavement sections designed for long‐life. These pavement
sections should be highlighted on the plan, a scale should be on the plan, and the total surface area of each
pavement section should be called out as a note on the plan.

Figure PT‐1.1: Long‐life pavement design graph.
Long-Life Pavement PT-1


x Considerdesigninglonglastingpavementthatmeetstherequirementsofthiscredit.Anynumberofpavement
designmethodscanproducepavementsectionsthatmeettherequirementsofthiscredit.
x Havearehabilitation/preservationprogramthatstrivestokeepexistingpavementsinsatisfactorycondition
suchthattheymayremaininplaceforoverlaysordiamondgrinds.Thisallowssimplerehabilitationssuchas
diamondgrindsandoverlaystoqualityforthiscredit.Ultimately,thisgivescreditforaroadbeingdurable
enoughsuchthatitdoesnotneedtobeentirelyreplaced.

Example: Sample Calculation using Figure PT-1.1
Apavementistobedesignedforaroadwaythatwillhavealoadingof5millionequivalentsingleaxleloads
(ESALs)overa40yearperiodbuiltonasubgradewithanaverageCBRof11.ESALcalculationmethodsand
definitionsarefoundintheAASHTOGuideforDesignofPavementStructures(1993).Determinetherequired
pavementthicknessasfollows:
a. EnterFigurePT1.1at5millionESALs.NotethattheESALscaleisalogscaleso5millionismorethanhalf
waybetween1millionand10million(FigurePT1.2).
b. Findwhere5millionESALsintersectstheplottedlinesforHMAandPCC.Inthiscasebothplottedlineslie
ontopofoneanother.
c. FindwherethispointliesontheThicknessaxis.Inthiscase,itis10inches.
d. SincetheaverageCBRis11,thegraphnoteallowsthesurfacingthicknesstobereducedby1inchleavinga
finalsurfacingthicknessof9inches.
e. Notethe5itemsthepavementmusthaveaslistedintheupperleftcornerofthegraph(minimum
subgradeCBRof5,basematerialCBRof80orgreater,minimumbasethicknessof6inches,surfacing
materialofeitherHMAorPCC,andaminimumsurfacingthicknessfromthegraph).
f. Thefinalpavementshouldbe9inchesofHMAorPCC,placedonatleast6inchesofbasecoursewithaCBR
ofatleast80,placedonthesubgrade.

20
inf lection point: 28,000,000 ESALs
The pavement must have:
inf lection point: 50,000,000 ESALs
18 400
1. Minimum subgrade CBR = 5
2. Base material CBR = 80 or better
16 3. Minimum base thickness = 6 inches (150 mm)
4. Surfacing material = HMA or PCC HMA Maximum
5. Minimum surfacing thickness = from this graph 14 inches (350 mm)
14
Thickness (inches)
If subgrade CBR 10 then surfacing thickness
Thickness (mm)
can be reduced by 1 inch (25 mm) from that
12 shown on graph.
PCC Maximum 300
13 inches (325 mm)
10
PCC Minimum
8 7 inches (175 mm) 200
inf lection point: 870,000 ESALs
6 inf lection point: 500,000 ESALs
HMA Minimum
6 inches (150 mm)
4 100
Portland Cement Concrete Surfacing
2
Hot Mix Asphalt Surfacing
0
10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 100,000,000 1,000,000,000
Lifetime Eqivalent Single Axle Loads (ESALs)

FigurePT1.2:Examplecalculation.
Example: HMA Pavements

Currently,theAsphaltPavementAlliance(APA)hasa“PerpetualPavementAward”givennearlyannuallyto
provenlonglastingpavements.TheAPAdefinesa“PerpetualPavement”as“…anasphaltpavementdesigned
andbuilttolastlongerthan50yearswithoutrequiringmajorstructuralrehabilitationorreconstruction,and
needingonlyperiodicsurfacerenewalinresponsetodistressesconfinedtothetopofthepavement.”(APA,
2002).AllpavementsthatreceivethePerpetualPavementAwardareevaluatedforstructure,condition,
maintenanceandrehabilitationeffortstoensuretheymeettheAPArequirements.Awardeesfor2006,which
canserveasexamplesofinservicelonglastingpavementswere:
x CaliforniaDepartmentofTransportationforasectionoftheSanDiegoFreeway(Interstate405)between
HarborBoulevardandBeachBoulevard
x MinnesotaDepartmentofTransportationforTownHighway(TH)61betweenWabashaandKellogg
x MontanaDepartmentofTransportationfora10milelengthofInterstate90overHomestakePass
x NebraskaDepartmentofRoadsfora5milesectionofStateHighway35inWayneCounty
x TennesseeDepartmentofTransportationfora14milesectionofStateRoute14inTiptonCounty
x VirginiaDepartmentofTransportationfora6.5mileportionofInterstate81inFrederickCounty
Whilethesepavementsareallgenerallyhighervolume,examplesofalowvolumeHMAlonglastingpavement
canbefoundinMuenchetal.(2004).TheyinvestigatedtheWSDOTpavementnetworkandfound1,339lane
milesoflowvolumepavementofwhichamajority(about64%)hadbeeninserviceforover35yearswithout
havingundergonereconstruction.Thesepavementswerealsofoundtoexistinallareasofthestateandbein
goodcondition.
422 Long-Life Pavement PT-1

Example: PCC Pavements

ItmaybemorelikelythataPCCpavementwillbedesignedforatleast35years.TheNCHRPReport132lists7
statesin1997thatalreadyusedPCCpavementdesignlivesofatleast35years.EvenPCCpavementsdesigned
forshorterlivesoftenlastinexcessof35years.Forinstance,mostoftheStateownedPCCpavementsin
WashingtonStateweredesignedfor20yearsbuthavelastedmuchlonger:thereareover400lanemilesof
PCCpavementinWashingtonStatethatarealreadyolderthan35yearsandarestillfunctioning.Thereare
manyexamplesofthistypeofperformancenationwideincluding:
x I80(GrundyCounty),I70(ClarkCounty),I290(CookCounty),I80(GrundyCounty)andI74(Peoria
County)inIllinois(Winkelman,2006).
x TheMotorwayE40fromBrusselstoLeigeinBelgium(Caestecker,2006)
x US40/I80inFairfield,CA(Rao,etal.,2006)
Additionally,manycitiesthatsurfacetheirresidentialstreetswithPCChaveexperiencedlonglife.Forexample,
theCityofSeattlepavedmanyurbanstreetswithconcretebefore1940andmanyofthosearestillinservice
(Flynn,2002).Someremainintheiroriginalstatewhileothershavebeencoveredupbysubsequentlayersof
HMA.However,innearlyallcasestheoriginalPCCpavementremainsinsomefashion.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Inmanyapplicationsanadequatepavementdesignmaynotcallforhotmixasphalt(HMA)orportlandcement
concrete(PCC)surfacing.Theseincludegravel,dirtorbituminoussurfacetreated(BST)roads.Thiscreditdoes
notapplytotheseroadseventhoughthesesurfacesmaybethemostappropriateforthegivenproject.
However,thedesignapproachisstillapplicableandappropriateforsuchprojects.
2. Somecommonlyusedpavementdesignmethodsmayproducepavementthicknessesthatdonotmeetthe
requirementsofthisgraph.Suchdesignsdonotqualifyforthiscrediteventhoughtheyconformtocommon
pavementdesignpractice.
3. Theideathatpavementdesigncanbereducedtoasinglegraphmaybecontroversialamongexperts.However
itisanecessarycompromiseinordertoengagedecisionmakerswhomayotherwisearriveatinadequate
pavementdesignsdrivenbybudgetaryconstraintsorunfamiliaritywiththeconceptsoflonglastingdesign.
RESEARCH
A“longlastingpavement”isonewherethebulkofthepavementstructureisdesignedtolastforatleast35years.
Theonlyrequiredmaintenanceandrehabilitationactionsareperiodicsurfacerenewalstoaddressroughnessand
surfacedistress.ThisdefinitionistakenlargelyfromtheAsphaltPavementAlliance(APA,2002).
Thisisincontrasttothehistoricalpracticeofdesigningpavementsforshorterlives(often10to20years)andthen
reconstructingtheentirepavementstructureattheendoflife.PartofNationalCooperativeHighwayResearch
Program(NCHRP)Project132,SystemsforDesignofHighwayPavements(1997),consistedofasurveyofU.S.
statedepartmentoftransportation(DOT)pavementdesignpractices.ThissurveyshowedthatmoststateDOTs
usepavementdesignlivesof20to30years(FigurePT1.3).Basedonthe35yearcutoffofthiscredit,mostof
thesedesignlivesdonotqualifyas“longlife.”However,since1997thegeneraltrendhasbeentodesign
pavementsforlongerlife.Forexample,theMinnesotaDOThasextendeditsPCCpavementdesignlifestandard
from35to60years(Burnhametal.,2006).
Longlastingpavementsgenerallyleadtohigherinitialcosts(duetomorematerialbeingused)butlowerlifecycle
costsbecauselessrehabilitationandmaintenanceisneededovertime.BothHMAandPCCsurfacedpavements
canbelonglastingaccordingtothisdescription.
ForlowvolumeHMApavementsMuenchetal.(2004)performedalifecyclecostcomparisonconformingtothe
guidelinesofWallsandSmith(1998)betweenanarchtypelonglastinglowvolumepavementwithonethatwas

designedtobereconstructedafter25years.TheyusedtypicalWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation
(WSDOT)designcharacteristicsandfoundacostsavingsover50yearsofabout25%forthelonglastingpavement.
30
27
25
HMA
PCC
20
NumberofStates
18
15
13
10
6
5
5
3
2 2
1
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 More
DesignLife
FigurePT1.3:PavementdesignlivestakenfromNCHRPProject132survey.

Lookingatjusttheperformancelifeofthepavementsurface(oftencalledthe“wearingcourse,“theOrganisation
forEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)(2005)concludedthatdevelopinglonglastingsurface
coursesthatcostthreetimesasmuchastraditionalones(e.g.,theonesinusetoday)thatwouldonlyrequire
resurfacingevery3040yearswouldgenerallybeeconomicallyviablefortrafficlevelsofatleast70,000to80,000
AADTinbothdirections.Withdiscountratesbelow6%theycouldbeviablebetween40,000and60,000AADTin
bothdirections.Ingeneral,economicsavingsincreasesastrafficlevelsincreaseandasdiscountratesdecrease.
DevelopmentofFigurePT1.1
FigurePT1.1wasdevelopedbasedonoutputfromanumberofgenerallyacceptedpavementdesignmethods
(AASHTO,1993;Muenchetal.,2007;Timm,2007;AsphaltInstitute,1981;Nunn,1998)andisanattemptto
capturethebasicpavementstructurethatislikelytoresultinlonglife.FigurePT1.4showshowFigurePT1.1was
developedusingthesedesignmethods.PavementsdesignedaccordingtoFigurePT1.1arelikelytobelonglasting
pavementsandthusresultinlowerlifecyclecosts.Additionally,designthicknessesandsubgraderequirementsare
straightforward.
ThedesignassumptionsthatwereusedtodevelopFigurePT1.4aresummarizedhere.
1993AASHTORigidDesign(AASHTO,1993)
x Reliability=75%fordesignsof500,000ESALsorless.
x Reliability=85%fordesigns>500,000and<20,000,000ESALs.
x Reliability=95%fordesignsof20,000,000ESALsormore.
x PCCmodulus(Ec)=4,000,000psi
x PCCmodulusofrupture(S'c)=700psi
x Drainagecoefficient(Cd)=1.0
x Loadtransfercoefficient(J)=3.2
x Modulusofsubgradereaction(k)=200psi/inch
x Basethickness=6inchesofgranularbasematerial

FigurePT1.4Developmentofgraphusingexistingdesignmethods.

1993AASHTOFlexibleDesign(AASHTO,1993)
x Reliability=75%fordesignsof500,000ESALsorless.
x Reliability=85%fordesigns>500,000and<20,000,000ESALs.
x Reliability=95%fordesignsof20,000,000ESALsormore.
x Changeinservicabilityoverthepavementlife(deltaPSI)=1.5
x HMAstructuralcoefficient(aHMA)=0.44
x Granularbasematerialstructuralcoefficient(abase)=0.13
x Granularbasematerialresilientmodulus(MR)=30,000psi
x Basethickness=6inchesofgranularbasematerial
x SubgradeCBR=5,equivalenttoasubgradeMR=7,500psi
AsphaltInstituteMS1(AsphaltInstitute,1981)
x Designtable:HMAover6inchesofuntreatedgranularbasematerialwithMAAT=60F
x DesignChartA29inMS1
LowVolumeroads(Muenchetal.,2007)
x Theplotfor“Honolulu,lowvolume”comesfromtheCityandCountyofHonoluludesignstandardsthat
weredevelopedasdescribedinthispaper.
TRLstandards(asreportedbyNunn,1998)
Theplotsforthevarious“Nunn,1998”comefromtheTRLstandards.
x Thefullreport(Report250)canbefoundat:
http://www.trl.co.uk/online_store/reports_publications/trl_reports/cat_highway_engineering/report_desi
gn_of_longlife_flexible_pavements_for_heavy_traffic.htm

x Aversionofthegraphused(fromFigure8onpage9of10)togetthevaluesplottedabovecanbeseenat:
http://www.transportlinks.org/transport_links/filearea/publications/1_764_PA3736_2001.pdf.
GLOSSARY
AADT Annualaveragedailytraffic
ADT Averagedailytraffic
APA AsphaltPavementAlliance
BST bituminoussurfacetreatment
CBR CaliforniaBearingRatio
DOT departmentoftransportation
ESAL Equivalentsingleaxleload
HMA Hotmixasphalt
Longlifepavement anypavementdesignthatfallsonorabovetheplottedlineforthegiven
pavementtypeandmeetsthecriteriadescribedinthePT1.1graph
MR Resilientmodulus
Rvalue Resistancevalue

REFERENCES
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).AASHTOGuideforDesignof
PavementStructures.AASHTO,Washington,DC,1993.
AsphaltInstitute.ThicknessDesign.MS1.AsphaltInstitute,Lexington,KY,1981.
AsphaltPavementAlliance(APA).(2002).PerpetualPavements:ASynthesis.AsphaltPavementAlliance,Lanham,
MD.
Burnham,T.,Izevbekhai,B.&Rangaraju,P.R.(2006).TheEvolutionofHighPerformanceConcretePavement
DesigninMinnesota.ProceedingsoftheInternationalConferenceonLongLifeConcretePavements,Chicago,IL,
2527October2006.P.135151.
Caestecker,C.(2006).TheMotorwayE40(FormerlyE5)FromBrusselstoLiege.ProceedingsoftheInternational
ConferenceonLongLifeConcretePavements,Chicago,IL,2527October2006,pp.221232.
Flynn,P.A.(2002).Seattle’sEarlyStreets18701920.Researchpaper,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,WA.
Muench,S.T.,Mahoney,J.P.,Wataru,W.,Chong,L.&Romanowski,J.(2007).BestPracticesforLongLastingLow
VolumePavements.JournalofInfrastructureSystems,Vol.13,No.4.pp.311320.
Muench,S.T.,White,G.C.,Mahoney,J.P.,Pierce,L.M.&Sivaneswaran,N.(2004).LongLastingLowVolume
PavementsinWashingtonState.Proceedings,InternationalSymposiumonDesignandConstructionofLong
LastingAsphaltPavements,Auburn,AL,June79,2004,pp.729773.
Nunn,M.(1998).DesignofLongLifeRoadsforHeavyTraffic.Proceedings,AustralianAsphaltPavement
AssociationIndustryConference,SurfersParadise,Queensland,Australia.
OrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD).(2005).EconomicEvaluationofLongLife
Pavements,Phase1.OECDPublishing,

Rao,C.,Darter,M.I.&Pyle,T.(2006).ExtendedServiceLifeofContinuouslyReinforcedConcretePavementin
California.ProceedingsoftheInternationalConferenceonLongLifeConcretePavements,Chicago,IL,2527
October2006,pp.6178.
Timm,D.H.PerRoad3.2.PerpetualPavementDesignSoftware.NationalCenterforAsphaltTechnology(NCAT),
AuburnUniversity,Auburn,AL,2006.
Walls,J.&Smith,M.R.(1998).LifeCycleCostAnalysisinPavementDesign–InterimTechnicalBulletin.FHWA
reportFHWASA98079.FederalHighwayAdministration,Washington,D.C.
Winkelman,T.J.(2006).DesignandConstructionofExtendedLifeConcretePavementsinIllinois.Proceedingsof
theInternationalConferenceonLongLifeConcretePavements,Chicago,IL,2527October2006,pp.318.



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Pavement Technologies (PT)
PERMEABLE PAVEMENT
GOAL PT-2
Improveflowcontrolandqualityofstormwaterrunoffthroughuseofpermeable
pavementtechnologies.

Useapermeable(porous)pavementorpaverstocontrolandtreatatleast50%ofthe
90thpercentileaverageannualrainfalleventpostconstructionrunoffvolumeto25
mg/Lconcentrationoftotalsuspendedsolids(TSS)orless.
RELATED CREDITS
Details 9 PR8LowImpact
Development
Lowimpactdevelopment(LID)stormwatercontrolsmustbeconsideredinthe
9 EW2RunoffFlow
scopeandbudgetoftheprojectforthiscredittobeapplicableANDpermeable
Control
pavementmustbeconsideredafeasibledesignbestmanagementpracticewithin
9 EW3RunoffQuality
thestormwatermanagementplan.Thismeansthatthefeasibilitystudycompleted
9 EW4Stormwater
forPR8LowImpactDevelopmentmustclearlyshowthatpermeablepavement(of
CostAnalysis
anytype)isappropriateforapplicationontheproject.
9 PT4CoolPavement
9 PT5QuietPavement
DOCUMENTATION
x Copyofthedrainageorhydrologyreportandsupportingcalculationsshowing SUSTAINABILITY
treatmentareaandpercenttreatmentachieved.Thisdocumentmaybeincludedas COMPONENTS
partofthesubmittalrequirementsforPR8LowImpactDevelopment,butrelevant
permeablepavementcalculations,areas,andtreatmentlevelsshouldbe 9 Ecology
highlightedforthiscredit. 9 Expectations
x Copyofthepermeablepavementmixdesign.Themixdesignshouldhavethe 9 Experience
followingitemshighlighted:
BENEFITS
x Nameofpermeabletechnology,ifused(e.g.pavers,turf,etc.) 9 ReducesWater
x Totaltonsofpavementontheproject,includingportlandcementconcreteand Pollution
asphaltconcrete(hot,warmandcoldmix) 9 RestoresHabitat
x Totalairvoidsinthemix(ormanufacturertestedvoidsspecificationsforpavers 9 CreatesHabitat
basedonmethodofinstallation) 9 ReducesManmade
x Totaltonsofpermeablepavementused Footprint
x Copyofthemaintenanceplaninplaceforthepermeablepavement(s).
x Photoofthepermeablepavement(s)installedontheproject.
PT-2 Permeable Pavement 429

Pavement Technologies (PT) Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

Followingsomeofthesekeydesignandmaintenanceelementswillpromotemaximumperformanceofpermeable
pavements.(PennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection:PDEP,2006)
DesignElements
x Useamixdesignforthepavementwithsignificantpermeability(>8inchesperhr).
x Useanopengradedsubbasewithminimum40%voidspace(typicallyawashedaggregate).
x Designthepavementsurfaceandstonebedtosuitablefordesigntrafficloads.
x Ensureplacementonuncompactedsubgrade.
x Usenonwovengeotextileunderlayments.
x Uselevelinfiltrationbedbottomstopreventpooling.
x Donotplaceontraffickedslopeswithgradesover>5%(withoutcarefuldesign).
x Providepositivestormwateroverflowfrombeds.
x Donotplacebedbottomoncompactedfill;fillwithstone,asneeded.
x Protectfromsedimentationduringconstruction.
x Linebedwithnonwovengeotextile.
x Provideperforatedpipenetworkalongbedbottomfordistribution.
x Allowthreefootbufferbetweenbedbottomandseasonalhighgroundwatertableandtwofeetforbedrock.
x Placeinfiltrationbedsonuplandsoilswhenpossible.
x Attempttomakeperiodicmaintenanceeasyforownersinthedesignprocess.Pavementareasshouldbe
accessibleandslopegraduallytoaccommodatestandardmaintenancevehicles.
ClogPreventionMaintenance
x Vacuumthepavementtwiceperyear(oralignwithrainyseason).
x Maintainplantedareasadjacenttopavement.
x Immediatelycleananysoildepositedonpavement.
x Donotallowconstructionstaging,soil/mulchstorage,etc.onunprotectedpavementsurface.
x Cleaninletsdrainingtothesubsurfacebedtwiceperyear.
WinterSnow/IceRemoval
x Monitorthepermeablepavementinthewinter.Porouspavementsystemsgenerallyperformbetterand
requirelesstreatmentthanstandardpavements.
x Donotapplyabrasivessuchassandorcindersonoradjacenttoporouspavement.
x Placesnowplowbladesslightlyhigherthanforconventionalpavements.
x Applysaltasnecessary;however,keepinmindthatsaltswillinfiltrate,soorganicdeicersarepreferable.
MaintenanceRepairs
x Donotsealcoatpermeablepavementsurfaces.
x Patchdamagedareaslessthan50squarefeetwithporousorstandardpavement.
x Patchdamagedareaslargerthan50squarefeetwithanapprovedpermeablepavement.
Example: Types of Permeable Pavement
PorousAsphalt
Porousasphalt,developedabout1970,greatlyresemblesnonporousasphaltexceptthefines(veryfinesand
anddust)havebeenremoved,leavingadditionalairvoidswherethefineswouldhavebeen.Thisleavesspace
forwatertoflowthroughandcollect.Largeaggregateisalsousedtoraisethevoidspace.Asphaltistypically
designedwithasmallamountofairvoids,typically4%ofthetotalmixvolume,inordertoallowthebinderto
migratealittle.Thebinderremainssomewhatsoftlongafterpavementislaid,andsometimesmovesinto
thesevoids,whichiscalledmigration.Therewereproblemsinthepastwithearlyporousasphalt,asthebinder
wouldmigrateintothehighervoidspaces,blockingthetravelpathofthewater.Thishasbeenameliorated
430 Permeable Pavement PT-2

withtheuseofadditivesandadditionalbinders.(NorthCarolinaDepartmentofEnvironmentandNatural
Resources,2007;HunDorris,2005)
Additivesandadditionalbindersareoftenusedtoenhancethecharacteristicsofporousasphalt.Polymers
keepthebinderfrommigratingintothevoidspaces.Polymerreinforcingfibersassistwithcohesionofthemix.
(HunDorris,2005)
FigurePT2.1:Theappearanceofporousasphaltismuchthesameasnonporousasphalt.Theporous
asphaltisplacedovercourseofporousaggregatebeneathatemporarygeotextilefabric,whichistoprevent
cloggingissuesduringconstruction.(PhotobyK.Hansen,NationalAsphaltPavementAlliance)

PorousConcrete
Porousconcrete,muchlikeporousasphalt,hasthefinesremovedinordertocreatevoids.Itwasalso
developedinthe70s.Portlandcementconcrete(PCC)istypicallymadewithcoarseaggregate(gravel),fine
aggregate(sand),water,cement,andoptionaladditives.Inporousconcrete,thefinesaregreatlyreducedor
entirelyremoved.Fifteentotwentyfivepercent(1525%)voidspacesmaybeachieved,withanaverageflow
rateofaround480inchesperhr.(HunDorris,2005)TheappearanceofporousPCCisgenerallyrougherthan
nonporous.SeeFigurePT2.2.Finishingduringtheconstructionprocessmaycreateanimperviouslayeronthe
surfaceandattentionneedstobepaidtotheprocesstopreventthisfromhappening.


FigurePT2.2:PorousconcretesurfacecourseinWestSeattle,Washington.Quarterprovidedforscale.
(PhotobyJ.Anderson)
BlockPavers
Concretepavers,orporouspaverblocks,areinterlockingunitswhicharepartiallypervious.Waterdrains
throughtheareasbetweeneachblock.Thesespacescanbefilledwithgravelorgrass,andofferdrainageand
anattractivefinish.Voidspace(openarea)ofpaverstendstobe1315%(HunDorris,2005).Paverblocksare
typicallyusedinlowtrafficareas,suchaswalkingpathsordriveways,andareeasytoinstall.SeeFigurePT2.3.

FigurePT2.3:Avarietyofpermeablepavers,bricks,andnonporousasphalt.(PhotobySeanThayer)

OtherPermeablePavements
Otherpermeablepavementsincludeopengradedaggregates,artificialturfandturfreinforcement.
Opengradedaggregate.Opengradedaggregateiswashedtoremovefinesandistypicallymadeofsingle
sized,angularpieces.Thisallowsforlowsettlingcompaction,andvoidspacesmayconstituteupto40%ofthe

material.Opengradedaggregateisextremelypermeable.Thiskindofbasehasastrongtendencytosegregate
andstepsmustbetakenthroughproduction,transport,andplacementtooffsetthistendency.Regularly
wettingthestonethroughthelaydownandcompactionprocesseskeepsthematerialmorestable.

FigurePT2.4:Washedaggregatebasewithkeysforscale.

Artificialturf.Artificialturfistypicallythetopmostlayerofoneormoreotherpermeablelayers,suchasopen
gradedaggregate.Artificialturfisrolledoutinlargesheets(seefollowingphotos)andpinnedtothe
underlayer.Theseamsbetweenlengthsofturfarestitched.Artificialturftypicallylastsfor12to15years.
FigurePT2.5:Permeableartificialturf(keysfor FigurePT2.6:Undersideofpermeableartificialturf,
scale).Thismaterialistypicallylaidoverabaseof showingdrainageholes.
washedopengradedaggregate.

Turfreinforcement.Similarly,turfreinforcement(commonlycalled“geogrid”)istypicallyachievedviaanopen
plasticgridorhoneycombmatrixthatisfilledwithgravelatthesurface,placedonawelldrainingaggregate,
overalayerofgeosyntheticfilterfabric,andfinallyontopofawelldrainingsoilsubbase.Usuallythese
installationsaremostcommoningravelparkingareasoremergencyaccesswaysthatneedabitofextra
reinforcementinordertocarrya(lowvolume)vehicleload.WedonotexpectmanyGreenroadsprojectstobe
madeofturforgeogridsorgravel,butthesemethodsaretechnicallyvalidandmaybeappropriatefor
pedestrianareaswithintheprojectrightofway.SeeFigurePT2.7.


FigurePT2.7:TurfreinforcinggridinstalledingravelparkingareainPennsylvaniatoalleviateponding
issues.(BlairCountyConservationDistrict,n.d.)

SemiPermeableMaterialsNotSuitableforRoadwayTraffic
Forpurposesofthiscredit,wedonotexpectmanyGreenroadsprojectstobemadeoftimberdecking,wood
mulch,shellsorturf.Thesematerialsmaybeinstalledonaprojectaspartofalowimpactdevelopment
scheme(toreduceactualimpervioussurfaces,suchasconventionalconcretesidewalks);however,areasmade
withthesematerialsdonotcounttowardpointsinthiscredit.
Softmaterials.Softpavingmaterials,suchaswoodmulchandcrushedshells,aretypicallyusedforfoottraffic.
Highvoidspacesallowforgoodpermeability,andsuchmaterialstendtooffergreataestheticbenefits.
TimberDecking.Decksallowforeaseofwalkingthroughswampyorsandyareaswhilecreatingverylow
environmentalimpactstructures.Woodenstructuresarealsonaturallookingandaestheticallypleasing.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Cloggingofvoidsinthepavement.Routinemaintenanceisrecommendedtohelppreventcloggingand
optimizeinfiltrationrates.
2. Qualitycontrolandcontractorfamiliarityvarieswidelywithlocation,contractorandpavementtype.
3. Preexistinggroundwaterissuesmaynotallowpermeablepavementswithincertaindistancesofaquifers.
However,qualitytreatmentisprovidedbypermeablepavementstosomeextent.
4. Longtermdataisgenerallynotavailable.
5. Permeablepavementsmaynotbesuitableforhighvolumetrafficloadsorarterials.However,shoulderareas
andsidewalksmaybeappropriateapplicationstoconsider.
RESEARCH
Permeablepavementisalowimpactdevelopmenttechniquethatcanbeusedaspartofacomprehensive
roadwaystormwatermanagementplan.Theterms“permeable,”“porous”or“pervious”areusedinterchangeably
todescribeapavementstructuralsystemthathasmorevoidsthanaconventionalpavedsurfacesuchasconcrete
orasphalt.Forstormwaterdesign,permeableimpliesthatthecurvenumber(CN)forareaspavedwiththese
surfacematerialsislowerthanaconventionallypavedsurface.Forcompositemixes,suchasasphaltandconcrete,
thisgenerallymeansintentionallydesigningforahighervoidratiointhemix,i.e.fewerfineaggregates,larger
coarseaggregateorintroductionofairduringmixing.

Apermeablesurfacemayalsobeachievedthroughastrategiclayoutofstoneormasonrypaversandfillingpaver
gapswithawelldrainingmaterial,whichmaybedesignedtowithstandvehicularloading.Thisalsoprovidesan
increaseinoverallvoidratiooveralargesurfacearea.Further,artificialturforgridreinforcementareothertypes
ofsurfacesthatmayalsobeconsideredpermeable“pavements,”butingeneralforroadwaysthatcarryhigh
volumesoftraffic,thereisnolongtermperformancedatatojustifythattheyofferenoughstructuralcapacityto
carrythoseloads.Generally,thelatterapplicationswillbeseenmostcommonlyinpedestrianareasorareaswith
verylowtrafficvolumes.
HowDoPermeablePavementsWork?
Duetotheincreasedvoidratio,waterisconveyedthroughthesurfaceandallowedto(1)infiltrate,(2)evaporate,
whereasconventionalsurfaceswillnotdoso.(NCDWQ,2007)Apermeablepavementsurfacethereforebecomes
anactiveparticipantinthehydrologicalcycle:rainfallandsnowmeltareconveyedbackthroughsoilsinto
groundwater.Therefore,permeablepavementscanbecomepartofastormwaterinfiltrationsystemif
appropriatelydesigned,constructedandmaintained.Thismeansthatkeyelementsofthepavementmustbe
considered:(1)longtermhydrauliccapacityofthematerial,and(2)infiltrationcapacityofthebasematerial.(City
ofSeattle,2008)
Permeablepavementsallowrainwater,snowmeltandairtopassthroughthematrix,rechargingthegroundwater
tableandrefreshingsoilnutrients.Thisreducestotalvolumeofrunoffflowsleavingthepavedsurface.Thevoid
spacecaptureswaterandslowlyreleasesittoinfiltratethesubgrade.Thisfiltrationprocessreducesthetotal
quantityandconcentration(generally)ofpollutantsthatwouldotherwiserunoffthepavedsurfaceandrequire
treatment,volumecontrolandflowattenuation.Typicalpollutantsremovedorimprovedarehydrocarbonsand
heavymetals,(HunDorris,2005)aswellasanumberofotherchemicalcompoundsthatareconsidered
deleterious.(GeosyntecConsultantsandWrightWaterEngineers,2008)
Theairvoidsalsoallowforevaporation,whichoffersacoolingprocessonthesurfaceandtothestormwater
runoff.Thisisespeciallybeneficialincitieswhichexperienceextremelyhightemperaturesinsummertraditional
"blacktop"temperaturescanmakesomepublicspacesunusableinwarmerweather.(HunDorris,2005)
ExistingLiterature
Stormwaterqualityandquantityperformancedataisrelativelysparseforpermeablepavements,especiallyfor
longtermdata.“Longterm”performancedata(6years)isavailablefromfourdifferentperviouspaverandturf
reinforcinggridsystemsinstalledinurbanparkinglotsinwesternWashingtonfromBratteboandBooth(2003).
TheselotswereoriginallytestedbyBoothandLeavitt(1999)in1997.Sitesoilsweresandswithahighhydraulic
conductivitytoisolatethepavementhydraulicconductivity.Thesetwostudiesshowedsignificantlyorcompletely
reducedsurfacerunoffforwinterstormconditionsevenlongterm,exceptinoneconditionmeasuredintherevisit
byBratteboandBooth:a72hourstormproducedaboutfourmillimetersofsurfaceflow.
IntheUK,aporousasphaltparkinglotwastestedinplaceandmonitoredforflowcontrolperformanceovera13
monthperiod.Theresultsindicatedthatthepavementsreducedpeakflowsandincreasedtimeofconcentration.
(Abbott&CaminoMateos,2003)ArelativelyrecentstudyofanotherporousasphaltparkinglotinRhodeIslandby
Bovingetal.(2008)investigatedthepotentialforcontaminantstoleachfromthelotintothegroundwatertable
directlybelowthelot’sinfiltrationbed.Theyfoundaretentionrateofmorethan90%formetals,nobacteria,and
amuchlowerratefornutrients(27%).However,theydetectedpolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAHs)atnear
minimumallowablelevels.
Informationonpavementstructuralperformanceinhightrafficvolumeroadwayenvironmentsisverylimited.
Opengradedsurfacecourses(OGFC)inOregonhavetraditionallybeeninstalledtoreducenoiseandspray.
However,theymaytheoreticallyalsoreducesurfaceflowsviahorizontalhydraulicconductivity,whichoccurs
belowthesurfacecourseandmoveswatertotheshoulderareas,butthishasnotbeenwellstudied.(Cityof
Seattle,2008)

However,theInternationalStormwaterBMP(BestManagementPractice)database(BMPDB)reportsthat,ofsix
reportingpermeablepavementsites,qualityindicatorsforeffluentheavymetalandtotalsuspendedsolid
concentrationwereasfollows(showncomparedtoadetentionpond)basedonmedianvaluesfrommeaneffluent
concentrations.Forcomparison,rangesarealsoprovided.
TablePT2.1:Constituentremovalperformancedatafor6permeablepavementinstallationsand25detention
ponds.(GeoSyntecConsultantsandWrightWaterEngineers,2008)
Constituents Unit Value PermeablePavementEffluent DetentionPondEffluent Relative
(6reporting) (25reporting) Removal(%)
SuspendedSolids (mg/L) Median 16.96 31.04 183
Range 5.90– 8.72 16.07– 46.01
TotalCopper (μg/L) Median 2.78 12.10 435
Range 0.88– 8.78 5.41– 18.80
TotalLead (μg/L) Median 7.88 15.77 200
Range 1.64– 37.96 4.67– 26.87
TotalZinc (μg/L) Median 16.60 60.20 363
Range 5.91– 46.64 20.70– 99.70
TotalPhosphorus (mg/L) Median 0.09 0.19 211
Range 0.05– 0.15 0.12– 0.27
TKN (mg/L) Median 1.23 1.89 154
Range 0.44– 3.44 1.58– 2.19

Inallsixqualitymeasurestested,permeablepavementinstallationstreatedeffluentstormwatertoahigherlevel
oftreatmentthanconventionaldetentionponds.Notethatdataforthesestatisticscomesfrom15U.S.statesand
alsotheUnitedKingdom(UK)andSweden,butneitherthelocationsnorthetypesofthesepermeablepavements
werespecified,norwerethestormconditionswhenthesedataweremeasured.Additionally,datawasnot
providedforinfluenttreatmentlevelsbecauseitwasnotmeasuredforthepavementsortherewerenotenough
samplesforstatisticalanalysis.However,theBMPDBmaintainsaworkingdatabaseanditiscurrentlyupdating
statisticsfor2009.
Finally,studiesonsafetyarealsolimited.OnestudyofsafetyofsurfacecourseporousasphaltinEurope(where
permeablepavements)aremorecommonwasinconclusiveduetoinconsistentreporting.(ElvikandGreibe,2005)
PermeablePavementBenefits
Permeablepavementsoffermanybenefits,bothaestheticandpractical.Theseinclude(CharlesRiverWatershed
Association:CWRA,2008):
x Reducesstormwaterrunoff,totalwatervolume,andflowrate
x Treatswaterrunoff,includingreductionoftemperature
x Increasesgroundwaterinfiltrationandrecharge
x Provideslocalfloodcontrol
x Improvesthequalityoflocalsurfacewaterways
x Reducessoilerosion
x Reducestheneedfortraditionalstormwaterinfrastructure,whichmayreducetheoverallprojectcost
x Increasestractionwhenwet
x Reducessplashupintraffickedareas
x Extendsthelifeofpavedareaincoldclimatesduetolesscrackingandbucklingfromthefreezethawcycle
x Reducestheneedforsaltandsanduseduringthewinter,duetolittleornoblackice
x Requireslesssnowplowing
x Reducesgroundwaterpollution
x Createsgreenspace(grassgroundcover,shadefromtreecanopies,etc.)

x Offersevaporativecooling
x Porouspavementsreducethevolumeofstormwater,increasetherecharge,controlthepeakrate,andoffera
highoutflowingwaterquality.
x Pollutantsareremoved:totalsuspendedsolidsarereducedby85%,NO3by30%,andtotalphosphorousby
85%.(PDEP,2006)
CostConsiderations
Withapermeablepavementsystem,traditionalstormwatersystemsmaybereducedorbypassedentirely.This
mayreducethetotallifecyclecostoftheprojectsignificantly.Costdependsonthesystemchosen,andvaries
widely.Awashedaggregategravelpathwaythatmaybeappropriateinsomepedestrianareaswillbeextremely
inexpensiveandhaveextremelyhighhydraulicconductivities(HunDorris,2005).Forsurfacecourses,permeable
asphaltismoreexpensivethantraditionalasphalt.Theprojectspecificsalsosignificantlydictatethecost,andmust
beconsideredindividually.(EPA,2000)
x Porousasphalt,withadditives,maycostmorethanstandardasphaltonaunitareabasis.Generallythis
dependsonavailabilityandcontractorfamiliarity.(PDEP,2006)
x Porousconcreteasamaterialisgenerallymoreexpensivethanporousasphaltandrequiresmorelaborand
experienceforinstallationduetospecificmaterialconstraints.(ibid.)
x Porouspaverblocksvaryincostdependingontype,manufacturer,ordervolumeandsitelayout.(ibid.)
DesignElements
Designofpermeablestructuresgenerallyincludesapermeablesurfacesuchasasphaltorportlandcement
concreteoverabaseoffines,whichhelptofilterthewater,anduniformlygradedgravel,whichstoresthewater
asitinfiltratesthroughthegroundbelowthestructure.Anuncompactedsoilbaseishighlyrecommended,and
constructionpracticeswhichemphasizethisarecriticalforgroundwaterrecharge.(CRWA,2008)
Thedesignofpermeablepavementsvariesconsiderablyduetolocationandcostconsiderations.However,three
thingsmustbeconsideredregardlessofwhichdesignisbeingconsidered:(1)thelocationandanyuniquefeatures,
hydrogeologicandgeotechnicalcharacteristics,localcodes,etc.;(2)properstructuraldesign;(3)andquality
construction(HunDorris,2005).Soilbeneaththepermeablepavementstructuremustallowtheaccumulated
watertodrain,meaningthesesoilsmustnotbeovercompacted.Caremustalsobetakentoensurethatdebrisand
waterdrainsawayfromthepermeablestructure,inalldirections,toensurethatcloggingdoesnotbecomea
problem.
MaintenanceRequirements
Regularmaintenanceisrecommendedforpermeablepavements.Thismayincluderesodding,layinggravel,and
othersmallrepairs.Othertypicalconcernsformaintainingthepermeablepavementarelimitedtoaesthetics,
snowandiceconditionsandtheprevention/repairofclogging.
ClogPrevention
Moretypically,maintenanceofapermeablestructurereferstovacuumsweeping,pressurewashing,orair
blowingtoremovedebris.Vacuumingisrecommended(PDEP,2006).Dependingonthesite,thismayneedto
happen24timesayear(CRWA,2008).Cloggingcanbepreventedormitigatedthroughproperroutine
maintenanceofplantedareas,cleaningupsoilspills,thoughtfulconstructionstagingandstorageofsoils,
coveringpermeablepavementinstallationsduringconstructionandcleaningdrainageinletsatleasttwicea
yearorseasonally(PDEP,2006).Properdesignmaypreventclogging,suchasdesigningfordrainageawayfrom
theporoussectionofpavement.Thiswillkeepdebrisfromsweepingontothepavementwhileallowingrainto
infiltratethesoilbelow(PDEP,2006).
WinterMaintenance
Wintermaintenanceforpermeablepavementsissimplerthanthatfortypicalpavementsbecausethe
increasedairvoidsandheatretentioninthestonebedbeneaththepavementtendstoprovidegoodsnow

melt,leadingtoreducedsnowandiceproblems.Abrasivesthatmightpromotelocalizeclogging,suchassand,
onorneartheporouspavementshouldbeavoided.Snowplowingmaybeusedwithcaution,settingtheblade
aboutaninchhigherthannormal.Saltmaybeused;however,nontoxicorganicdeicersarepreferred,asthe
contaminatedwaterwillgodirectlytothewatertable.
Repairs
Drainagestructurerepairhasthehighestpriority,inordertokeepthesystemworkingasdesigned.Pavement
structuralrepairswilllikelybelimitedprimarilytoareasthatmayhavesettledduetosoftsoils.Theseareas
maybepatchedwithstandardorpermeablepavement.Potholeswillrarelybeaproblem,duetothelackofa
freezethawcycleasintypicalpavements.Sealcoatsoughtnottobeused,astheywouldnullifythebenefitof
apermeablepavement.
GLOSSARY
OGFC Opengradedfrictioncourse
CurveNumber Ahydrologicalparameterthatisusedtomodelrunoff
TKN TotalKjeldahlNitrogen
Permeablepavement Apavementstructuralsystemthathasmore voidsthanaconventionalpaved
surfacesuchasconcreteorasphalt

REFERENCES
Abbott,C.L.&CominoMateos,L.(2003).InSituHydraulicPerformanceofaPermeablePavementSustainable
UrbanDrainageSystem.WaterandEnvironmentalManagement:JournaloftheInstitutionofWaterand
EnvironmentalManagement.17,187190.
BlairCountyConservationDistrict.(n.d.)StormwaterBestManagementPractices.AccessedJanuary9,2010.
Availableathttp://www.blairconservationdistrict.org/SWBMP.htm
Booth,D.B.&JenniferLeavitt.(1999).Fieldevaluationofpermeablepavementsystemsforimprovedstormwater
management.JournalofPlanningLiterature.14(2).
Boving,T.,Stolt,M.,Augenstern,J.,&Brosnan,B.(2008).Potentialforlocalizedgroundwatercontaminationina
porouspavementparkinglotsettinginRhodeIsland.EnvironmentalGeology.55(3),571582.
BratteboB.O.&BoothD.B.(2003).Longtermstormwaterquantityandqualityperformanceofpermeable
pavementsystems.WaterResearch.37(18),436976.
CharlesRiverWatershedAssociation(CRWA).(2008)LowImpactBestManagementPracticesInformationSheet:
PermeablePavement.AccessedJanuary9,2010.Availableat
http://www.crwa.org/projects/blackstone/maintenance_brochure_web.pdf
CityofSeattleDepartmentofPlanningandDevelopmentandSeattlePublicUtilities.(2009,June30).
EnvironmentallyCriticalAreas:BestAvailableScienceReview.(SupplementalReport).StormwaterCode&
GradingCodeRevisions.AccessedNovember22,2009.Availableat
http://www.seattle.gov/DPD/Planning/Stormwater_Grading_and_Drainage_Code_Revisions/Overview/
ElvikR,&GreibeP.(2005).Roadsafetyeffectsofporousasphalt:asystematicreviewofevaluationstudies.
Accident;AnalysisandPrevention.37(3),51522.
GeosyntecConsultantsandWrightWaterEngineers.(2008)BMPDB:BMPPerformanceSummaries.Tableof
PerformancebyBMPCategoryandCommonPollutantType.AccessedJanuary9,2010.Availableat
http://www.bmpdatabase.org/BMPPerformance.htm

HunDorris,T.(2005,March1).AdvancesinPorousPavement|stormh20.comStormwater.AccessedJanuary9,
2010.Availableathttp://www.stormh2o.com/marchapril2005/pavementmaterialswatershed.aspx
NorthCarolinaDivisionofWaterQuality(NCDWQ).(2007).NCDWQStormwaterBMPManual.N.C.Divisionof
WaterQuality.Availableathttp://h2o.enr.state.nc.us/su/bmp_updates.htm
PennsylvaniaDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection.(PDEP).(2006).PennsylvaniaStormwaterBest
ManagementPracticesManual.(3630300002).Availableat
http://www.elibrary.dep.state.pa.us/dsweb/View/Collection8305
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2000,October).FieldEvaluationofPermeablePavements
forStormwaterManagement.(EPA841B00005B)Washington,D.C.:OfficeofWater,Environmental
ProtectionAgency.



WARM MIX ASPHALT

GOAL PT-3
Reducefossilfueluseatthehotmixasphaltplant,decreaseemissionsattheplant,and
decreaseworkerexposuretoemissionsduringplacement.

Reducethemixingtemperatureofhotmixasphaltbyaminimumof50°Ffromthat
recommendedasthemixingtemperaturebytheasphaltbindersupplier.Mixing
temperatureshallbemeasuredasthetemperatureofthemixtureasitexitsthemixing
drum(fordrumplants)orpugmill(forbatchplants).Thisreducedtemperaturemix RELATED CREDITS
mustcompriseaminimumof50%ofthetotalprojectpavement(hotmixasphaltor 9 MR4Recycled
portlandcementconcrete)byweight. Materials
Details SUSTAINABILITY
ThiscreditrequiresarecommendedHMAmixingtemperaturetobeprovidedby COMPONENTS
theasphaltbindersupplier.Thisrecommendedtemperatureshouldbeasifno
9 Ecology
WMAtechnologyweretobeused.Iftherecommendedmixingtemperatureis
9 Equity
providedasarange,usehighendoftherangeforcalculationoftherequired50°F
9 Experience
degreereduction.
Notethatconcreteproductsdonotqualifyforthiscredit. BENEFITS
9 ReducesFossilFuel
SeveraladditivesandplantequipmentoptionsareavailableforWMAtechnology. Use
Allareacceptable.Basedonregionalavailability,oneadditiveorequipmenttype 9 ReducesAir
maybepreferredoveranother. Emissions
9 ReducesGreenhouse
DOCUMENTATION Gasses
9 ImprovesHuman
x AcopyoftheWMAmixdesignshouldbesubmitted.Themixdesignshouldhave Health&Safety
thefollowingitemshighlighted: 9 ReducesFirstCosts
a. NameofWMAtechnologyused
b. Ifanadditivewasused,percentagebyweightofbinderorbyweightofmix
c. Totaltonsofhightypepavementontheproject,includingPortlandcement
concreteandasphaltconcrete(hot,warmandcoldmix)
d. TotaltonsofWMApavementused
e. WMAmixtemperatureasitexitsthedrum(drumplant)orpugmill(batchplant)
f. Recommendedasphaltbindermixingtemperaturefromtheasphaltbinder
supplier.
g. TotalfuelusedintheburnerpertonofWMA
h. TotalfuelusedintheburnerpertonofHMAifHMAwasused.IfHMAwasnot
used,ageneralplantaverageisacceptable.
x Aphototakenduringplacementofthemix,clearlylabeledtoidentifytheWMA.
PT-3 Warm Mix Asphalt 441


x Considerspecifyingatemperaturereductionattheplantofaminimumof50°Finthedesigndocumentsand
listallapprovedadditivesormethodsallowedtoachievethistemperaturereduction.
Example: Case Study – Warm Mix Asphalt on I-90 in Vantage, WA

TheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)recentlycompleteda10.6milemillandoverlay
projectontheeastboundtrucklaneofInterstate90betweenVantageandGeorge,WA(WSDOT,2008).Partof
theproject(approximately5.0miles)waspavedusingconventionalHMA,whiletheremainingfinal5.6miles
waspavedusingWMA.Thesamecontractor,productionplant,trucksandpavingequipmentwereusedfor
bothmixes.Bothmixeswereplacedinonetwoinchliftandcontained20percentrecycledasphaltpavement
(RAP),themaximumallowedbyWSDOTwithoutspecialtesting.ThemixdesignwashalfinchSuperpavewith
5.2percentPG7628binder.Sasobit®wasaddedtothewarmmixat2.0percentbyweightofthebinder.The
Sasobit®additivewasprovidedbySasolwax,Inc.andproducedattheSasolSouthAfricaplantinSasolburg,
RSA.Theadditivecostwasroughly$25,000(includingshipping),orabouttwopercentofthetotal$1.36million
pavingportionoftheproject.
Basedonfielddatacollected,theWMAwasmixedat300°FandtheHMAwasmixedat350°F.Thisresultedina
23.5percentreductionofdieselfueluseintheburner.Themanufacturingprocessesforthesetwotypesof
asphaltpavementweregenerallyidentical,savethattheWMAincludestheSasobit®additivetoallowalower
productiontemperaturetobeusedintheburner.(Itisworthnotingthatthistemperaturewasmuchhigher
thantheminimumtemperaturenecessaryfortheadditive,accordingtoSasolwax)(SasolWaxGmbh,1997).
Othernotesonthisproject:
x Fieldcompactiontestresults(usingstandardWSDOTprocedures)averaged93.7forWMA(11lotswith5
randomsamplesper400tonlot)and93.6percentforHMA(19lots),withWMAallowingmoretimeforthe
rollerstoreachcompaction.
x Duringplacement,infraredphotographstakenduringobservationsindicatedthattemperaturesweremore
uniformacrosstheWMAmatthantheHMAmat.
Moreinformationonthatprojectcanbefoundhere:http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/I90/WGeorgePaving/
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Monitortheplantoperationstoensurethatthetemperatureismaintainedat50°Fbelowtherecommended
mixingtemperature.
2. Donotuserecommendedmixingtemperaturesthatmightresultinasphaltbinderthermaldegradation,
typicallydefinedbytheAsphaltInstituteastemperaturesabove350°F(175°C).
RESEARCH
Warmmixasphalt(WMA)isarelativelynewtechnologytotheUnitedStates’pavingindustrythatshowsgreat
promisetoreduceboththeamountofenergyusedinconstructinghotmixasphalt(HMA)pavementsandtheair
emissionsassociatedwithpavementconstruction.WMAiscommonlyusedinEurope,wherenonrenewable
resourcesarestrictlyregulatedandoftenheatandfuelenergyrequiredforconventionalhotmixasphalt(HMA)
arecostprohibitive(D'Angeloetal.,2008).Lately,WMAhasbecomeanintriguingenvironmentalmarketing
incentive,bothpopularizedandheavilyadvocated,andthematerialisbecomingmoreacceptedduetothe
relativelynewsustainabilitymovementamongengineeringandconstructionprofessionals.Emphasisonclimate
change,energyconservationandhumanhealthimpactshasbroughtWMApavingtotheforefrontofthis
newfoundenvironmentalmovement.Recentfieldandlaboratorystudies(Hurley,2006;Wasiuddin,Selvamohan,
Zaman,&Guegan,2007)conductedintheU.S.haveproducedpositiveresults,indicatingthatWMAisaviable
optiontoreducethepotentialenvironmentalandsocietalimpactsassociatedwithpavingandconstruction.
442 Warm Mix Asphalt PT-3

Mostofthewarmmixasphaltstudiesandresearchciteseveralpositiveandfewnegativetraitsofthematerial.
ParticularlydetailedresearchandreferencescanbefoundintheKristiandottir’sthesis(2006)andGhandi’s
dissertation(2008).Bothoftheseresearchersreviewtheexistingtypesofwarmmixadditivesavailable,discuss
theengineeringpropertiesofthematerialsandadditivesindetail,andaddresspotentialapplicationssuchascold
weatherpavingandhighrecycledcontentmixes.Themostcommonincentivescitedarelowerfuelconsumption
duringthemixproductionandimprovedcompactionandworkabilityduringplacementofthemix(Kristjansdottir,
2006).Bothofthesetraitsallowformoreuniformmattemperaturesandextendedcompactiontime.
However,longtermWMAperformancedatainU.S.applicationsisscarcebecausethetechnologyissorecent.
Noteddrawbacksgenerallyincludeslightlyheightenedconcernforruttingpotential,thoughttobedueto
inadequatedryingoftheaggregatesforuseinthelowertemperaturemixes(Hurley,2006;Kristiandottir,2006;
Wasiuddin,Selvamohan,Zaman,&Guegan,2007;Ghandi,2008)and,simply,cost(Muench,Kristiandottir,Pierce,
&Willoughby,2007).
Morerecently,interestinwarmmixmaterialhassparkedfieldexperimentsforperformancetestingwithusinga
highercontentofrecycledasphaltpavement(RAP)toalleviatestiffmixes(Mallick,Bradley,&Bradbury,2007)and
anoteworthyshortdurationhighloadstudyattheNCATtrack(Prowell,Hurley,&Crews,2007).Generally,the
resultsshowagreementwiththebenefitsnotedaboveforcomparingperformanceofWMAwithasimilarly
designedandplacedmatofHMA.
Airemissionscontributetoglobalwarming,acidrainandsmogformationthroughoutthelifecycleofapavement.
Additionally,studieshaveshownthatasphaltpavingmayhavedetrimentaleffectsonhumanhealth(Herrick,
McClean,Meeker,Zwack,&Hanley,2007;Gasthauer,Maze,Marchand,&Amouroux,2008)duetothepresence
ofvolatilehydrocarbons(PAHs,polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons)releasedwhentheasphaltisheated.For
example,themostcommongasemittedfrombituminouspavementsisnaphthalenewhichisclassifiedbythe
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)asacarcinogen.Lifecycleemissionscomefromtransportationsources,any
constructionordemolitionequipment,stationarymanufacturingequipmentandanypartofthemanufacturing
processthatusesfossilfuelsasanenergysource(includingelectricity).Othersubstanceemissionscomefrom
fumesofthepavementitselfduringboththemanufacturingprocessandconstruction,whichcanadverselyaffect
humanhealth.AiremissionsarethushighlyregulatedbytheEPA.Ofparticularinterestareemissionsduringthe
pavingprocess,whichareknowntodirectlyimpactworkerhealth(NIOSH,1997).
Fossilfuelderivations,suchascoal,dieselfuel,andgasolinearemajorinputstoallprocessesintheproductionof
asphaltpavements.Thesefuelsareusedinmanytypesofpavingequipmentduringaggregateexcavation,truck
andrailtransportation,manufacturingequipment(suchasburnersandcrushers),pavingconstruction(and
deconstruction),andindisposalatlandfills.Also,electricityandheatattheplantaregeneratedusingmostlynon
renewablefossilfuelsourcesinmostU.S.locations.Thiscreditfocusesonreducinglifecycleairemissionsonly
fromthemixproductionandplacementprocessesbyencouragingreducedfueluseattheplantthroughuseofa
temperatureloweringwarmmixadditive.
Lifecycleassessments(LCA)havebeencompletedbyvariousinstitutionsattemptingtoidentifyandquantifyair
emissionsandenergyuseforasphaltpavements(Zapata&Gambetese,2005;Meil,2007;Horvath,2007).Zapata
&Gambetese(2005)notethatbecauseexistingLCAsvaryinmethod,theytendtoproducecontradictoryresults
accordingtotheirinputvariablesandmodelassumptions.Further,reliableandpubliclyaccessibledataon
environmentalemissionsorfuelconsumptionforanytypeofHMApavement,includingWMA,israre,outdatedor
simplydoesnotcurrentlyexist.However,theEPApublishedgeneralemissionsestimationtechniquesforstandard
hotmixplantsbasedonaverageU.S.datacollectedforthe1997industrycensus(EPA,2000).Sinceairemissions
increasewithhighertemperatures,andWMAallowsforlowertemperaturestobeusedinproduction,itfollows
thatWMAapplicationswillgenerallyreduceemissionsduringthepavementproductionprocess.


GLOSSARY
HMA Hotmixasphalt
LCA Lifecycleassessment
PAH Polycyclicaromatichydrocarbon
WMA Warmmixasphalt

REFERENCES
D'Angelo,J.etal.WarmMixAsphalt:EuropeanPractice.ReportNo.FHWAPL08007
http://www.warmmixasphalt.com/submissions/68_20080223_FHWAPL08007.pdf.(28June2008).72pp.
Gandhi,T.(2008).Effectsofwarmasphaltadditivesonasphaltbinderandmixtureproperties.Thesis(Ph.D.)
ClemsonUniversity,2008.
Gasthauer,E.,Maze,M.,Marchand,J.P.,&Amouroux,J.(2008).Characterizationofasphaltfumecompositionby
GC/MSandeffectoftemperature.Fuel:Guildford.87(7),14281434.
Herrick,R.F.,McClean,M.D.,Meeker,J.D.,Zwack,L.,&Hanley,K.(2007).PhysicalandChemicalCharacterization
ofAsphalt(Bitumen)PavingExposures.JournalofOccupationalandEnvironmentalHygiene.4,209216.
Horvath,A.UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.PaLATE.PavementLifecycleTool.
http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~horvath/palate.html5June2007(20May2008).
Hurley,G.C.&Prowell,B.D.(2006).Evaluationofpotentialprocessesforuseinwarmmixasphalt.Journalofthe
AssociationofAsphaltPavingTechnologists.ProceedingsoftheTechnicalSessions,2006AnnualMeeting.75,
4190.
InternationalOrganizationforStandardization.ISO14040:2006(E)EnvironmentalManagement—Lifecycle
Assessment—PrinciplesandFramework.2nded.2006:IHS.
InternationalOrganizationforStandardization.ISO14044:2006(E)EnvironmentalManagement—Lifecycle
Assessment—RequirementsandGuidelines.1sted.2006:IHS.
Kristjansdottir,O.(2006).Warmmixasphaltforcoldweatherpaving.Thesis(M.S.C.E.)UniversityofWashington,
2006.
Kristjansdottir,O.,Muench,S.,Michael,L.,&Burke,G.(2007).AssessingPotentialforWarmMixAsphalt
TechnologyAdoption.TransportationResearchRecord.(2040),9199.
Mallick,R.,Bradley,J.,&Bradbury,R.(2007).EvaluationofHeatedReclaimedAsphalt.PavementMaterialand
WaxModifiedAsphaltforUseinRecycledHotMixAsphalt.TransportationResearchRecord.(1998),112122.
Meil,Jaime.AthenaResearchInstitute.ALifecyclePerspectiveonConcreteandAsphaltRoadways:Embodied
PrimaryEnergyandGlobalWarmingPotential.SubmittedtotheCementAssociationofCanada.15November
2006.
NationalInstituteforOccupationalSafetyandHealth(NIOSH).(1997)EngineeringControlGuidelinesforHotMix
AsphaltPaversPart1NewHighwayClassPavers.PublicationNo.97–105.
Prowell,B.,Hurley,G.,&Crews,E.(2007).FieldPerformanceofWarmMixAsphaltatNationalCenterforAsphalt
TechnologyTestTrack.TransportationResearchRecord.(1998),96102.

SasolWaxGmbh.Sasobit.TheBitumenAdditiveForHighlyStableEasilyCompactibleAsphalts.
http://www.sasolwax.com/sasolwaxmedia/Downloads/Bitumen+Modification/Sasobit+since+1997.pdf(28July
2008).
UnitedStatedEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.HotMixAsphaltPlantsEmissionAssessmentReport(EPA454/R
00019).FinalreportdatedDecember2000.http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch11/related/eareport.pdf
(28July2008).
UnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy(USDOE).DepartmentofEnergy–Homepage.http://www.doe.gov/(31July
2008).
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.IndividualEmissions–PersonalEmissionsCalculator.
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/ind_calculator.html25February2008(31July2008).
WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation.“WSDOTProjectI90WestofGeorgePaving.”
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/I90/WGeorgePaving/27July2008).
Wasiuddin,N.,Selvamohan,S.,Zaman,M.,&Guegan,M.(2007).ComparativeLaboratoryStudyofSasobitand
AsphaMinAdditivesinWarmMixAsphalt.TransportationResearchRecord.(1998),8288.
Zapata,P.&Gambatese,J.A.(2005).EnergyConsumptionofAsphaltandReinforcedConcretePavementMaterials
andConstruction.JournalofInfrastructureSystems.11(1),920.



COOL PAVEMENT
GOAL PT-4
Reducecontributiontolocalizedincreasedairtemperaturesduetopavement
reflectanceandminimizestormwaterrunofftemperatures.

Useapavementsurfacewithaminimumalbedoof0.3(measuredusingASTME903)
foraminimumof50%ofthetotalprojectpavementsurfacingbyarea.
OR RELATED CREDITS

9 MR6Energy
Useaporouspavementorpaversforaminimumof50%ofthetotalprojectpavement Efficiency
surfacingbyarea. 9 PT2Permeable
Pavement
Ineithercase,thesurfacesintendedforusebyvehicles(e.g.,roads,parkinglots)must
allbeincludedinthecalculation.Othersurfaces(e.g.,sidewalks)maybeincludedif SUSTAINABILITY
desired.Acombinationofmaterialsmaybeusedtomeetthe50%arearequirement.
COMPONENTS
Details 9 Ecology
9 Equity
Calculatethepercentofcoolpavement(CP)surfaceareaontheprojectusing
9 Economy
EquationPT.4.1.
9 Extent
9 Expectations
(Equation PT-4.1)
9 Experience
Where:
BENEFITS
x LSAisthetotallightcoloredorhighalbedosurfaceareatestedtohavea 9 ReducesFossilFuel
minimum0.3albedo Use
x PSAisthetotalpermeableorporoussurfacearea 9 ReducesAir
x Aisthetotalpavedsurfaceareaontheproject. Emissions
9 ReducesGreenhouse
Areacalculationsmustbeconsistentacrossallcreditsrequiringcomputationsof Gases
thistype(i.e.thetotalarea,A,mustmatchthroughout).Notethatcombinationsof 9 IncreasesAesthetics
materialsmaybeusedtoachievethiscredit.
DOCUMENTATION
Providethefollowingsupportinginformation,asapplicable:
x Copyorcopiesofalbedotestresults.
x Copyoftheporouspavementmixdesignnotingtotalairvoidsinthemix,orvoids
specificationsforpaverblocksbasedonmethodofinstallation.
x Aphotoofthepavementwithcoolpavementareasidentifiedeitherwithtext
describingthemorgraphicshighlightingthem.
x Aplanshowingthelocationsofthecoolpavementsontheprojectwithcool
pavementareashighlighted.
PT-4 Cool Pavement 447


x Considerspecifyingahighalbedoaggregatewearingcourseforthepavementsection(especiallyforHMA),
highalbedopavements(likePCC)orconsiderhighalbedosurfacecoatings.
x Considerporousorpermeablepavementmaterialsorproducts.
Example: Calculation
A2milesectionofInterstatehighwayisreconstructedconsistingoftwo12ftwidetravelledlanespavedwith
PCC(albedomeasuredat0.46)andan8ftwideoutsideshoulderpavedwithHMA(albedooftheHMA
measuredat0.18).Inthisinstance,thePCCcountsasacoolpavement.Thetotalcoolpavementareais
calculatedusingequationPT4.1:
‫ ܣܵܮ‬ൌ ሺʹ݈݉݅݁‫ݏ‬ሻሺͷʹͺͲ ݂‫ݐ‬Τ݈݉݅݁ሻሺͳʹ݂‫ݐ‬ሻሺʹ݈ܽ݊݁‫ܥܥ݂ܲ݋ݏ‬ሻ ൌ ʹͷ͵ǡͶͶͲ݂‫ ݐ‬ଶ
ܲܵ‫ ܣ‬ൌ Ͳ
‫ ܣ‬ൌ ሺʹ݈݉݅݁‫ݏ‬ሻሺͷʹͺͲ ݂‫ݐ‬Τ݈݉݅݁ሻሾሺͳʹ݂‫ݐ‬ሻሺʹ݈ܽ݊݁‫ܥܥ݂ܲ݋ݏ‬ሻ ൅ ሺͺ݂‫ݐ‬ሻሺͳ‫ݎ݈݁݀ݑ݋݄ݏܣܯܪ‬ሻሿ ൌ ͵͵͹ǡͻʹͲ݂‫ ݐ‬ଶ
ʹͷ͵ǡͶͶͲ ൅ Ͳ
‫ܲܥ‬ሺΨሻ ൌ ൤ ൨ ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ͹ͷΨ
͵͵͹ǡͻʹͲ
Thisprojectwouldsatisfythecreditrequirements.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Albedoisnottheonlyindicatorofapavement’scontributiontotheUHIeffect.
2. Forapavementinaruralarea,itmaynotbeappropriatetopursuethiscreditsincetheUHIeffectisadistinctly
urbanphenomenon.
3. Pavementalbedoschangeovertimeastheyweatherandage.
4. Pavementalbedosalsovarywithsurroundingssuchastimeofdayandshadecover.
5. Retentionofheatinthepavementsectionsvarywiththickness.
6. Permeablepavementscanbecomelesspermeableovertimewithoutpropermaintenance.
RESEARCH
Theurbanheatisland(UHI)effectis“…ameasurableincreaseinambienturbanairtemperaturesresulting
primarilyfromthereplacementofvegetationwithbuildings,roads,andotherheatabsorbinginfrastructure.”(EPA
2009).Thisoccurrence(FigurePT4.1)isduetothereductionofnaturalvegetation,increasedhumanactivityand
theabsorptionandradiationofsolarenergyinallbuiltsurfaces.Roofs,parks,waterbodiesandpavementsallhave
differentpropertiesthatdeterminehowmuchofthesun’sheatisabsorbedandreleased,andtheyallinteract
togetherandwithothersystemsinanurbanareatoproduceatotalHeatIslandEffect(HIE).TheUHIeffectshould
notbeconfusedwithclimatechange(globalwarming);theyareseparateandratherunrelateditems.TheUHI
effectisspecificallyalocaltemperatureincrease(generallythedifferencebetweenurbanandsurroundingrural
areas)whileclimatechangereferstolargerscalevariationsinglobalclimatecaused,ingeneral,bygreenhousegas
emissionsresultingfromhumanactivity.Studiesandsimulationsperformedfor10largecitiesintheU.S.indicate
anaverageUHIeffectofabout3.5°F(2°C),comparedtosurroundingruralareas(Pomerantzetal.,2000)andsome
citiesareasmuchas10°F(5.6°C)warmerthansurroundingnaturallandcover(EPA2008).UHIcanimpact
sustainabilityinthefollowingways(EPA,2009):
x Energyconsumption.Highertemperaturesincreaseartificialcooling(airconditioning)demand.Akbari(2005)
claimsthatincreasedcoolingdemandcanaccountfor510%ofurbanpeakelectricitydemand.FigurePT4.2
showshowenergyloadscanincreaseastemperaturerises.
448 Cool Pavement PT-4

x Emissions.Increasedelectricitydemandresultsinmorepowerplantoperationandresultantairpollutionand
greenhousegasgeneration.
x Humanhealth.TheUHIeffectcancontributeto“…generaldiscomfort,respiratorydifficulties,heatcrampsand
exhaustion,nonfatalheatstroke,andheatrelatedmortality.”(EPA,2009).
x Waterquality.Higherpavementtemperaturescanheatstormwaterrunoff.Higherwatertemperaturescan,in
turn,affectmetabolismandreproductionofaquaticspecies.
FigurePT4.1:UrbanHeatIslandEffect(UHI).Thegraphshowshownighttimetemperaturesremainwarmerin
theurbanareasduetotheUHI(fromEPA,2009).

FigurePT4.2:Increasingelectricalloadswithincreasingtemperatures.
ThisisanexampleofNewOrleansfromSailor(2002).

Impacts
Inshort,UHIeffectsustainabilityimpactsaredrivenbyenergyconsumption(forenergyandemissionsimpacts)
andheat(forhumanhealthandwaterqualityimpacts).
Energy
Increasedlocalurbantemperaturestypicallyleadtohigherelectricalloadsandmoreresultantenergyuseand
emissions.Forevery1°F(0.6°C)increaseinsummertimetemperature,peakutilityloadsinmediumandlarge
citiesincreasebyanestimated1.52.0%(EPA,2008).Areductionof1.83.6°F(12°C)inregionalaverage
temperaturescanresultina10%decreaseofthepeakenergydemand,hencelessenannualenergycostandall
impactsrelatedtoenergyextraction.Rosenfeldetal.(1996)estimatedthateliminatingtheUHIeffectinLos
Angeles(areductionof5.4°F(3°C))couldreducepeakpowerconsumptionby1.6GWresultinginasavingsof
about$175million/year.Ofnote,Rosenfeldetal.(1996)estimatedthecontributionofcoolerpavements(a
theoreticalincreaseofallpavementalbedoby0.25)tothistotalat$15million/year.
HumanHealth
Higherurbantemperaturesleadtotheformationofmoresmog.Specifically,thechemicalreactionbetween
sunlight,nitrogenoxides(NOx)andvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)intheatmospherethatleadstothe
formationofparticulatematter(PM)andgroundlevelozoneisatemperaturesensitivereaction;productionof
PMandsmogisincreasedwithincreasedtemperature.Theimpactsofthisreactiononhumansaresignificant
andincludebreathingdifficulties,headaches,fatigueandexacerbatedrespiratoryproblems.Thus,theUHI
effectcanincreasePMandgroundlevelozoneinanurbanareabyraisingthelocaltemperature.Inmodeling
theLosAngelesBasin,Rosenfeldetal.(1996)estimatedthateliminationoftheUHIeffectinLosAngeles(a
reductionof5.4°F(3°C))couldreducesmogexceedanceby12%(reducetheamountoftimetheareaexceeds
theCaliforniastandardof90ppbvatthetimeofthestudy)resultinginasavingsofabout$360million/year.Of
note,Rosenfeldetal.(1996)estimatedthecontributionofcoolerpavements(atheoreticalincreaseofall
pavementalbedoby0.25)tothistotalat$76million/year.
PavementContributiontotheUrbanHeatIslandEffect
PavementsarefoundtobeasignificantcontributortotheUHItemperatureincreasebecause(1)theyconstitutea
substantialportionoftotalurbanlandcoverageand(2)pavementscanstoreandradiateasignificantamountof
heat.Inlookingatfourcities(Sacramento,Chicago,SaltLakeCityandHouston)Roseetal.(2003)found
pavements(roads,parkinglots,sidewalks,etc.)makeup2945percentofthetotallandcoverage,andabouthalf
thetotalUHIcontributingsurfacecoverage.Roseetal.(2003)furtherreportthatroads(theitemmostdirectly
addressedbyGreenroads)makeup3359percentofthetotalpavementcoverage.Thus,asagrossapproximation,
roadpavementsconstituteaboutonequarterthetotalsurfaceareacontributingtotheUHI(about3359%ofone
halftheUHIcontributingsurfacecoverage)inurbanareas.Thenextsectiondiscussestheimpactcooler
pavementscanhaveontheUHIeffect.
CoolPavementImpacts
Coolpavementsaredesignedtoreducetheabsorptionofthesun’senergyandconsequentlyradiatelessheatto
thesurroundingenvironment.Solarenergyisabsorbedbythepavementsurfaceandbecomesstoredasheatin
thepavement.Pavingmaterialscanreachasmuchas150°F(EPA,2005)onsunnydays,radiatingthisheatduring
thedayandduringthenightbackintotheairaswellasheatstormwaterthatreachesthepavementsurface.
Inadditiontotheimpactsmentionedintheprevioussection,studiesinCalifornia(Pomerantzetal.,2000)have
estimatedthatifthesolarabsorptionofallpavementswerereducedfrom90%to65%,thepeakairtemperature
inanurbanareawoulddecreaseby1°F(0.6°C).Thisdecreaseisroughlyequivalenttoanalbedoof0.25on25%of
allpavementsinacertainurbanarea(Pomerantzetal.,2000).Experimentallyandbycalculationitisfoundthatan
increaseinalbedoof0.1producesachangeinpavementsurfacetemperatureofabout7°F(4°C)(Pomerantzet
al.,2003).Itmayalsobe,althoughithasnotbeenseenexperimentally,thatifpavementsurfacetemperaturesare
decreasedonhotdaystheresultingcoolerpavementsmayalsohavelongerlifetimesduetoreducedthermal
stresses.

PropertiesofCoolPavements
Coolpavementstrategiesarethosethatseektopurposelyreducepavement’simpactontheUHIeffectby
affectinghowpavementsabsorb,storeandradiateheat.FigurePT4.3illustratestherelationshipofheat
transfermechanismsinapavementstructure.
FigurePT4.3:Heatrelatedcharacteristicsandprocessesinpavement(CambridgeSystematics,Inc.,2005).

Therearetwomaintypesofcoolpavementstrategies:
1. Reducesolarreflectance.Uselightercoloredmaterialsbecausetheyhavehighersolarreflectance(as
measuredbyalbedo)sotheyabsorblessofthesun'senergyandstaycooler.
2. Improvecooling.Useporousmaterialsbecausethey(1)allowforconvectivecoolingbecauseaircanflow
throughthepavementvoidsand(2)allowforevaporativecoolingbecausewatercanalsoenterthe
pavementvoidsinarainevent.
ReduceSolarReflectance
Moststudiesmentiontheeffectofheatislandmitigationtakingplaceinthetoplayerduetovariationsinsolar
reflectanceandporosity.However,otherstudieshaveshownthatachangeinsolarreflectancealonemaynot
betheonlyimportantfactorindeterminingthepavementsurfacetemperaturethroughawholeyear.Factors
suchaspavementthickness,heatstoragecapacity,thematerial’sthermalconductivityanddensityarealso
importantconsiderations(Golden&Kaloush,2006;CambridgeSystematics,Inc.,2005).
Thesolarreflectanceofapavementiscorrelatedtoanumberofpavementpropertiesincluding(Pomerantzet
al.,2000):
x Pavementage.Asalightpavementgetsolderitgetsdarker.Forinstance,concreteisdarkenedbythe
presenceofironoxideanddirt.Asadarkpavementgetsolderitgetslighter.Forinstance,astheasphalt

binderwearsofftheaggregateonthepavementsurfacetheaggregateshowsandthealbedoofthe
pavementapproachesthealbedooftheaggregate.Also,theasphaltitselfbecomeslighterduetooxidation.
x Aggregatecolor.Pomerantzetal.(2000)examinedseveraldifferentchipsealsandfoundthattheiralbedo
wasapproximately5080%thatofitsconstituentaggregate.
x Nonpavementfactors.Otherfactorssuchaswind,seabreeze,shadowingtrees,buildings,andeven
vehicleshadows.Thus,thepropertiesofthepavementarenottheonlypropertiesthatcontributeto
pavementsolarreflectivity.
FigurePT4.4showsseveraldifferentpavementsandtheircorrespondingalbedointhePhoenix,Arizonaarea
(CambridgeSystematics,Inc.,2005).
FigurePT4.4:Surfacetemperatureandalbedoforselectedtypesofpavementsin
Phoenix,Arizona(CambridgeSystematics,Inc.,2005).

DesignOptions.Thereareanumberofwaystoprovidehighlyreflectivepavementsurfaces.Thissectionlistsa
fewofthemorepopular:
x Useamorereflectivematerialsuchasportlandcementconcrete(PCC)forthepavementsurface.The
averageofPCCalbedoisusuallyhigherthanthatofagedhotmixasphaltorbituminoussurfacetreatments
(Pomerantzetal.,2003).Therearealsoanumberofadditivesthatcanbeusedtofurtherlightensurface
colorandincreasereflectivityincludingslagcement,whitecementandlightflyash.
x Usealightercoloredaggregate.Forbituminousmixtures(e.g.,hotmixasphalt,HMA)thebinderisusually
quitedark.Thiscanbeatleastpartiallyoffsetbyusingalightcoloredaggregatelikelimestone.
x Changethepavement’ssurfacecolor.Thereareanumberofexistingtechniquesthatcanbeusedtocolora
pavementmixtureorsurfacetreatment.Theseusuallyinvolvepigmentdyesmixedwiththinsurface
treatmentstobeappliedoverthepavementstructure.
ImproveCooling
Usingporouspavementmixturescanalsoreduceapavement’scontributiontotheUHIeffect.HMA,PCCand
blockpaverscanbeusedtomakepavementsporous(orpermeable).Porous/permeablepavementsare

designedwithahighairvoidcontent(usually1525%ofthetotalvolume),whichresultsininterconnected
voidsandapavementthatisessentiallypermeabletowater.Theseairvoidsalsoprovideanopportunityfor
convectivecooling(asairflowsthroughthem)andevaporativecooling(iftheycontainwater,e.g.,afterarain
event).
Designoptions.Thereareessentiallytwomainoptionstoimprovepavementcooling:
x Porouspavement.Buildtheentirepavementstructurewithaporous/permeablematerial(e.g.,block
pavers,permeableHMAorPCC).Generallythisisdoneforstormwatertreatmentreasons;howevera
secondarybenefitisareductioninthepavement’scontributiontotheUHIeffect.
x Permeablewearingcourses.Buildanormalimpermeablepavement(e.g.,traditionalPCCordensegraded
HMA)andcoverthesurfacewithalayerofpermeablematerial.Whiletheentirepavementstructureisnot
permeable,thesurfaceis.Thereissomeevidencetosuggestthatthishelpspavementscoolmorequicklyat
night.
AdditionalInformation
TheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)maintainsanextensivewebsiteontheUHIeffect
(http://www.epa.gov/hiri).OfspecificinterestistheCoolPavementReport(CambridgeSystematics,Inc.)available
at:http://www.epa.gov/hiri/resources/pdf/CoolPavementReport_Former%20Guide_complete.pdf.
GLOSSARY
Albedo Ameasure ofamaterial'sabilitytoreflectsunlightonascaleof0to1.An
albedovalueof0.0indicatesthatthesurfaceabsorbsallsolarradiation,and
a1.0albedovaluerepresentstotalreflectivity.
UrbanHeatIslandEffect “…ameasurableincreaseinambienturbanairtemperaturesresulting
primarilyfromthereplacementofvegetationwithbuildings,roads,andother
heatabsorbinginfrastructure.”(EPA2009).

REFERENCES
Akbari,H.(2005).EnergySavingPotentialsandAirQualityBenefitsofUrbanHeatIslandMitigation(PDF)(19pp,
251K).LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory.
CambridgeSystematics,Inc.(2005).CoolPavementReport–EPACoolPavementsStudyTask5.PreparedforHeat
IslandReductionInitiative,EPA,Washington,D.C.
Golden,J.S.&Kaloush,K.E.(2006).Mesoscaleandmicroscaleevaluationofsurfacepavementimpactsonthe
urbanheatislandeffects.InternationalJournalofPavementEngineering7(1).
Gui,J.,Phelan,P.E.,Kaloush,K.E.,&Golden,J.S.(2007).ImpactofPavementThermophysicalPropertieson
SurfaceTemperatures.JournalofMaterialsinCivilEngineering,19(8),683690.
Levinson,R.&Akbari,H.(2002).Effectsofcompositionandexposureonthesolarreflectanceofportlandcement
concrete.CementandConcreteResearch,32(11),16791698.
Marks,H.(2009).UrbanHeatIsland:NotaBlackandWhiteIssue.HMAT,November/December2009,4041.
PomerantzM.,AkbariH.,ChangS.C.,LevinsonR.,&PonB.(2003).Examplesofcoolerreflectivestreetsforurban
HeatIslandMitigation:PortlandCementConcreteandChipSeals.LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory,
LBNL49283.

Pomerantz,M.,B.Pon,H.Akbari,&S.C.Chang.(2000).TheEffectofPavementsTemperaturesonAir
TemperaturesinLargeCities.LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory,LBL43442.
Rose,L.S.,H.Akbari,&H.Taha.(2003).CharacterizingtheFabricoftheUrbanEnvironment:ACaseStudyof
GreaterHouston,Texas.PaperLBNL51448.LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory,Berkeley,CA.
Rosenfeld,A.H.,Romm,J.J.,Akbari,H.,Pomerantz,M.,&Taha,H.(1996).PoliciestoReduceHeatIslands:
MagnitudesofBenefitsandIncentivestoAchieveThem.LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory,LBL38679.
Sailor,D.J.(2002).UrbanHeatIslands,OpportunitiesandChallengesforMitigationandAdaptation.Sample
ElectricLoadDataforNewOrleans,LA(NOPSI,1995).NorthAmericanUrbanHeatIslandSummit.Toronto,
Canada.14May2002.DatacourtesyEntergyCorporation.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2008).ReducingUrbanHeatIslands:CompendiumofStrategies.EPA,
Washington,D.C.
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(2009).HeatIslandEffectwebsite.http://www.epa.gov/hiri.Accessed
9June2009.

QUIET PAVEMENT
GOAL PT-5
Improvehumanhealthbyreducingtirepavementnoise.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
Designatleast75%ofthetotalneworreconstructedpavementsurfaceareafor 2-3 POINTS
regularlytraffickedlanesofpavementwherethespeedlimitmeetsorexceeds30miles
perhour(mph)withasurfacecoursethatproducestirepavementnoiselevelsator
belowthoselistedinTablePT5.1,whichdescribestestvehiclespeedparametersand
thepointscorrspondingtothelevelofnoisereductionachieved.Testthepavements RELATED CREDITS
accordingtotheonboardsoundintensity(OBSI)methoddesribedbythecurrent 9 PR5Noise
versionofAASHTOTP76.Computethetotalsurfaceareaofalltraffickedlanesthat MitigationPlan
meetsorexceedspeedlimitsof30mphandshowthataminimumof75%ofthisarea 9 PT2Permeable
meetsthetabulatedcriteriafortirepavementnoise.Donotincludeshoulders, Pavement
medians,sidewalksandotherpavedareasoutsideofthetravelledwayinthe
computation. SUSTAINABILITY
COMPONENTS
TablePT5.1:TestingSpeedsandMaximumAverageOBSINoiseLevels
MaximumAverageNoiseLevel 9 Ecology
FacilityPostedSpeedLimit TestSpeed 2points 3points 9 Equity
55mphormore 60mph 99dBA 95dBA 9 Experience
30to54mph 35mph 91dBA 88dBA
lessthan30mph Doesnotqualifyforcredit BENEFITS
9 ImprovesHuman
Details Health&Safety
x OneOBSImeasurementshouldbedoneforeachroadwaysection.Aroadway 9 IncreasesAesthetics
sectionisdefinedashavingthefollowingattributes:
x Thesamespeedlimitoveritsentirelength
x Astraightsectionatleast500ftlong(thetestrequires440ft)
x Thesamenominalsurfacingmaterialovertheentirelength

Therefore,insomeinstancesaprojectwillneedtoconductseveralOBSI
measurementsdependinguponthenumberofsectionsidentified.Portionsof
roadwaythatdonotmeetthesectiondefinition(usuallythismeansportions
thatdonotcontainatleasta500ftstraightsection)shallbedeemedtohave
metthecriteriafor2pointsprovidingtheprojecthasatleastonesectionthat
hasbeentestedandmeetsthecriteriafor2points.
x OBSItestingneedonlybedoneononelaneofagivenroadwayinonedirection.
Forinstance,onafourlanedividedhighwaytestingneedonlybedoneonone
laneforonedirectiononly.
x OBSItestingmaybecompletedatanytimeonthefinalpavementsurface.
x ThenoiseleveltocomparewithTablePT5.1valuesistheweightedaverageof
alltestedsections(weightedbythelengthofeachsection).Forasectionthat
doesnothaveastraightportionofatleast500ft,butdoesmeettheothertwo
sectiondefinitionrequirements,theOBSImeasurementvalueshallbeassumed
equaltothe2pointvalueinTablePT5.1.
PT-5 Quiet Pavement 455

DOCUMENTATION
x Alistofpavementsectionstobebuilt(orreconstructed)andtheirassociatedsurfacematerialtype,AASHTOTP
76testresults,andsurfaceareas,andifdesignwasintendedtobequietornotinaccordancewiththe
requirementsofthiscriterion.Thismaybeincludedaspartofthestandardprojectdocumentationorasa
separatedocument.
x Acalculationtoindicatethetotalpercentageoftraffickedlanepavementsurfaceareassurfacedwithquiet
pavement.
x Adrawingorprojectmapshowinglocationsofquietpavements.Thesepavementsshouldbehighlightedon
theplan,ascaleshouldbeontheplan,andthetotalsurfaceareaofeachpavementsectionshouldbecalled
outasanoteontheplan.

x RefertoSandbergandEjsmont(2002),whichisanexcellentoverviewofquietpavementoptions,
fundamentalsandresearch,includingacomprehensivelistof33differentpavementdesignguidelinesfor
reducingtirepavementnoise.Wherenoisereductionlevelsarementionedtheyrefertoanewlyconstructed
quietpavementsurfaceandrelateittoamorestandardsurface;oftenthesurfacethatwaspreviouslyusedor
previouslymeasured.Thesenoisereductionlevelsaredifficulttocomparefairlyfromonetest/experimentto
anotherbecausethereferencenoiselevelisdifferentinmanycases.
x Forconcretepavements,refertoRasmussenetal.(2008)fortypicalmeasurementvaluesandmethodsto
reducetirepavementnoise.
x Useopengradedhotmixasphalt(HMA)andportlandcementconcrete(PCC).Ingeneral,opengraded
pavementshaveshownnoisereductionsfrom38dBAalthoughnumbersvarygreatlydependingupon
materials,designandmeasurementtechniques(Sandberg&Ejsmont,2002).Thefollowingmixturequalities
generallyleadtolesstirepavementnoise:
x Highporosity.Thismeansahighlevelofinterconnectedairvoidsonandnearthesurface.Typically
effectiveairvoidcontentrangesare1530%withairvoidcontentsabove20%beingbetter.
x Smallermaximumaggregatesizes.Sizesunder0.4inchestendtoworkwellwithevensmallersizesworking
evenbetter.
x Smoothsurfaces.Especiallyimportantintherangeof“Megatexture”and“Macrotexture.”Megatexture
referstopavementsurfaceelevationchangesontheorderof220inchesinwavelength,whichisoften
perceivedasunevenwavinessorroughsurfaceimperfections.Macrotexturereferstopavementsurface
elevationchangesontheorderof0.220inches,whichisintherangeofmaximumaggregatesize.
x Morecoverage.Opengradedmaterialplacedoutsidethetravelledlanescanreducetirepavementnoise
propagationbyitssoundabsorbingcharacteristics.(Sandberg&Ejsmont,2002)
x UsetexturingmethodsforPCC.Ingeneral,transversetining(themostpopulartexturingmethodintheU.S.)
producestheloudestsurfaceswithalternativemethodssuchaslongitudinaltining,carpetdragsanddiamond
grindingproducingquietersurfaces.(Sandberg&Ejsmont,2002)
x Usefinesurfacetreatmentswithaggregateontheorderof0.05to0.25inches.Thissurfacetexturegenerally
canalsoreducenoise.ExamplescitedinSandbergandEjsmont(2002)includedanumberofproprietary
materials(e.g.,EPGrip,EpoxyDurop,Pavetex,ITALGRIP,Novachip,Colsoft,Safedress,Masterpave,Tuffgrip,
Hitex,Smatex,ULM,Euroduit,Ultraflex,Microduit,Microflex,Microchape,Microvile,Microvia,Mediflex,
Miniphone,Citychape,Colrug,Viaphone,Tapiphone)andshowednoisereductionsintherangeof16dBA.
Example: Sample Calculation

Anexistingfourlanedividedfreewayistoberesurfacedwithasphaltrubberopengradedfrictioncourse
(ARFC).Tenlanemilesoffreeway(5ineachdirection)with12footwidelanesaretoberesurfaced.Also,two
14footwideofframps,each2,000feet(ft)long,andtheexisting10ftwideshouldersaretoberesurfaced
456 Quiet Pavement PT-5

withdensegradedHMA(notaquietpavement).Thepostedspeedlimitforthefreewayis65mphwhilethe
postedspeedlimitfortheofframpsis40mph.

‫ ܽ݁ݎܣܥܨܴܣ‬ൌ ሺͳͲǦሻ ൈ ൬ͷǡʹͺͲ ൰ ൈ ሺͳʹሻ ൌ ͸͵͵ǡ͸ͲͲ ʹ

‫ ܽ݁ݎܣܣܯܪ݀݁݀ܽݎܩ݁ݏ݊݁ܦ‬ൌ ሺʹǡͲͲͲሻൈሺʹሻൈሺͳͶሻൌͷ͸ǡͲͲͲ ʹ
ܶ‫ ݀݁ݒܽܲܽ݁ݎܣ݈ܽݐ݋‬ൌ ͸͵͵ǡ͸ͲͲ ʹ ൅ͷ͸ǡͲͲͲ ʹ ൌ͸ͺͻǡ͸ͲͲ ʹ
͸͵͵ǡ͸ͲͲ
Ψ‫ ݐ݊݁݉݁ݒܽܲݐ݁݅ݑ݄ܳݐ݅ݓ݂݁ܿܽݎݑ݂ܵ݋‬ൌ ൌͻͳǤʹΨ
͸ͺͻǡ͸ͲͲ
Theareaoftheshouldersisexcludedbecauseitisnotintheregularlytraffickedlanes.OBSItestsafter
constructionweredoneat60mphinaccordancewithAASHTOTP76ontheinsidenorthboundlane.Theentire
jobconsistedofonedefinedsection.Withinthatsectiontherewereseveralcurvesbutatleastonestraight
stretchofover500ft.ResultsshowedthatthemeasuredOBSIsoundlevelonthissectionwas96.5dBA.No
testswererunontherampsbecausetheywerenotsurfacedwithquietpavementandwereexcludedfromthe
quietpavementsurfaceareacalculation.
Thisprojectwouldearn2pointsbecausetheminimumarearequirementof75%wasmet(91.2%was
achieved)andthemaximumsoundlevelasmeasuredbyOBSIof99dBAwasnotexceeded.
Example: States with Quiet Pavements

SomeofthelargestusersofquietpavementintheU.S.areArizonaandCaliforniaAfewspecificexamplesare:
x TheArizonaDOThasplacedover4.2milliontonsofrubberizedasphalt(muchofwhichisasphaltrubber
frictioncourse–ARFC–usedfornoisereduction)since1988(seemapof19882001locationsat:
http://www.asphaltrubber.org/ari/Performance/ADOT_Projects_19982001.pdf).Surfacelivesaretypically
1012years(MorrisandCarlson,2001)withnoisetypicallyinthe96101dBArangedependingon
conditionsandage.
x Caltranshasplacedasignificantamountofopengradedfrictioncoursethroughoutthestate.Specific
locationsofsectionstoberesearchedintheCaltransQuieterPavementResearchPlancanbefoundat:
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/QuieterPavements.html.Thelongestcontinuallymonitored
quietpavementintheU.S.isasectionofI80nearDavis,CA
(http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/env/noise/pub/IH80_davis_ogacpvmntwtudy_7yrrpt.pdf).
x TheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT)hasseveralpavementsurfacesunder
evaluation(http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/QuieterPavement).PCClocationsareat:
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/NR/rdonlyres/5F022BDBB9B3437F9016
2F1624EA0589/0/QuieterconcreteinWA.pdf.OpengradedHMAsurfacesat:
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Projects/QuieterPavement/Maps.htm.
OtherstatesandareasalsohaveactivequietpavementuseandresearchprogramsincludingGeorgia,
Alabama,Florida,NewJersey,NewMexico,Minnesota,Kansas,UnitedKingdom,Belgium,theNetherlands,
Denmark,Germany,Austria,Swedenandmore.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Withoutadequatepriortestingonthesurfacecoursemixdesign,thereissomeriskthattheconstructed
surfacecoursewillnotmeettherequiredmaximumaveragenoiselevelsforthiscredit.
2. Ingeneral,opengradedsurfacecourseshaveshorterperformancelivesthantraditionalsurfacing.Therefore,
lifecyclecostingoftheroadwaysurfaceshouldbecarefullyconsideredandthepotentialforshorterservicelife
shouldbeconsidered.

3. Whileothermethodsmaybesuccessful,opengradedsurfacecourseshavebeenthemostthoroughly
researchedandarereasonablywellunderstoodalthoughtherearestillmanyunknowns.
4. Finesurfacetreatmentscanimprovepavementsurfacetexture,butingeneralthesearesurfacesusedfor
primarypurposesotherthannoisereduction.Theyoftenhavenoisereductionvaluesassociatedwiththembut
thesevaluesoftenhavenotbeenadequatelytestedorindependentlyverified.
5. Measurementofnoise“reduction”canbeinconsistent.Usuallynoisereductionsarereportedinrelationto(1)
anestablishedreferencepavement,(2)acomparabledensegradedpavement,or(3)thepreviouspavement
surface.Inallcasesthesereferencesareusuallynotwelldefinedortheirdefinitionsvaryfromlocationto
location.Forinstance,severalEuropeancountrieshavestandardreferencepavementsfromwhichreference
noiselevelsaremeasured,butthesereferencepavementsvaryfromcountrytocountry.Becauseofthis
referenceleveldilemma,twopavementswiththesamemeasuredtirepavementnoisemaybereportedas
havingentirelydifferentnoisereductions.
RESEARCH
Thiscreditfocusesonroadwaynoisefromtrafficthatisgeneratedfromaroadwayprojectafterconstructionis
complete.Inparticular,certainroadwaysurfacingmaterialscanbeusedtoreducetirepavementnoise.For
purposesofthiscredit,surfacingmethodsthatreduceaveragetirepavementnoisebelowdefinedOnBoard
SoundIntensity(OBSI)levels(showninTablePT5.1)aredefinedas“quietpavements.”Itisworthnotingthatthe
aestheticterms“quiet”and“noise”arebasedentirelyonsubjectivehumanperceptionsanddependonanumber
ofvariables.However,thedecibelcriteriausedinthiscreditisnecessarytodistinguishandrecognizeroadway
projectswhereteamsintentionallyapproachlongtermnoisemitigationthroughpavementdesign.
Noisemitigationeffortsandalternativesforminimizingtemporaryconstructionnoiseandlongtermtrafficnoise
areaddressedinProjectRequirementPR5NoiseMitigationPlan(NMP)andalsogenerallyinthefirstProject
Requirement,PR1EnvironmentalReviewProcess.Quietpavementsmaybeaviablestrategyforoperationalnoise
mitigationfortheroadwayproject,andmaybeincludedinboththeNMPanddocumentationfortheproject
environmentalreviewprocess.Detailsandbasicdefinitionsofnoise,howitismeasured,anddiscussionofadverse
humanhealthimpactsareprovidedinPR5andarenotrepeatedhere.
Thefollowingdiscussionfocusesondetailsofroadwaytrafficnoiseandvariousmethodsofdesigningthe
pavementsectiontobequieterthanconventionallydesignedpavements.Othertrafficnoisemitigationefforts,
suchaspermanentsoundwallsorothercommontechniques,arenotaddressedbythiscredit.
TrafficNoise
Noisefromaroadwayisgeneratedlargelybythetrafficactivitiestakingplaceontheroad.Noisegeneratedfrom
trafficdependsontrafficvolume,trafficspeed,vehiclemix,enginetypes,tiretypes,vehiclecondition,roadway
geometryandphysicalfeaturesalsodependsonthecharacteristicsofthesurroundingenvironmentsuchas
topography,developmentandpopulationdensity.Trafficnoisecanbedisturbingeitherasaconstantnoisesuchas
asteadystreamoftrafficsuchasfromahighwayorassingleeventssuchaspassbyofatruck,busorevenacar.
Sometypicalnoiselevelsyoumightexpectifyouwerestanding50feetawayfordifferentvehicleclassestraveling
at55mph(MichaelMinor&Associates,n.d.):
x Passengercars:7274dBA
x Mediumtrucks:8082dBA
x Heavytrucks:8486dBA
Trafficnoisegeneratedfromvehiclescanbefurthercategorizedintofourmajorsources(Bernhardetal.,2005):1)
engineanddrivetrainnoise,2)exhaustnoise,3)aerodynamicnoiseand4)tirepavementinteractionnoise.Above
about30mphtirepavementnoiseisthepredominantsource(Bernhard&Wayson,2005).

PavementSurfaceandNoiseGeneration
Tirepavementnoiseisinfluencedbyboththetireandpavementtypeandcondition(Sandberg&Ejsmont,
2002).Whileitmaynotberealistictoregulatetiretypesandconditionforaparticularproject,pavementtype
canbespecifiedinprojectdesign.Someofthecharacteristicsofapavementsurfacethatcaninfluencenoise
generationare(Sandberg&Ejsmont,2002):textureofthesurface,skewing(orientationofpavementtexture),
thicknessofthepavement,porosity,tirepavementadhesionandelasticityofthepavementsurface.Also,as
thepavementagesthesecharacteristicsoftenchangewhichcancausechangesinnoisereductionproperties
(Munden,2006).
PavementSurfaceNoiseMeasurement
Tirepavementnoisecaneitherbemeasuredfromthesideoftheroadasavehiclepassesbyorfromapoint
(orpoints)verynearastandardtireasitdrivesdowntheroad.Thereareanumberofvariationsofnoise
measurementsthatcanbemadeinthesetwomannersbutIntheU.S.theonboardsoundintensity(OBSI)
measurementmethod(FigurePT5.2)enjoysgrowingpopularityandisthemeasurementuponwhichthis
creditisbased.Thismethodismostusefulforcomparingpavementsurfacesandisrelativelyportableandcost
effective.SincetheOBSImethodmeasuresnoiseverynearthetire,OBSIreadingsarenotequivalenttonoise
readingsalongsidetheroadway.However,thetwocanberoughlycorrelated(FigurePT5.3).Additionally,OBSI
measurementscanvarybyseason(summergivesslightlylowervalues–Illingworth&Rodkin,2005),weather
(wetpavementsarenoisier)andlocation(measurementsmayvaryalongtheroadwaysurfacebyabout2dBA:
Bennertetal.,2004).

FigurePT5.2:OBSImeasurementdevice(picturefromIllingworth&Rodkin,Inc.)


FigurePT5.3:Relationshipbetweenpassby(roadside)measurementsandOBSI
measurementsforoneparticularstudy(graphfromDonovan&Rymer,2003).
PavementSurfaceDesignOptions
Anumberofdesignoptionshavebeenshowntoproducelowertirepavementnoise.Theprimaryconsiderations
inchoosinganoptionare(1)amountanddurationofnoisereduction,(2)pavementdurabilityand(3)cost.This
sectionbrieflydiscussesmajoroptionsavailabletothepavementdesigner.
OpengradedQuietPavements
ThemostrecognizedoptionisanopengradedmixtureofHMAorPCCusedforapavementsurfacecourse.
Opengradedreferstoagenerallackoffineaggregatematerialinthemixtureresultingininterconnectedair
voids.Asaroughruleofthumb,mixtureswithanairvoidcontentabove15%cangenerallybeconsideredto
beopengradedandhaveinterconnectedairvoids.Theinterconnectedairvoidstendtoreducenoiseby(1)
reducingthegenerationofnoise,and(2)absorbinggeneratednoiseintheairvoidstructureofthemixture
(Sandberg&Ejsmont,2002).
Noisereductionabilityisgenerallyreportedinthe39dBArangebutcanvarywidelydependinguponthe
referencepavementusedforcomparisonandenvironmentalandgeometricconditions.FigurePT5.4shows
somenoiselevelsmeasuredintheU.S.andEurope.


FigurePT5.4:ComparisonofsoundintensitylevelsforvarioustypesofHMAopengradedsurfacecoursesin
California,ArizonaandEuropeat97km/hr(60mph).(FromDonovan,n.d.)

Ingeneral,opengradedpavementsurfaceshaveequalorshorterservicelivesthanastandardpavement
surfaces.Specifically,opengradedpavementsmayhavemaximumservicelivesinthe8to10yearrangewith
thelengthofeffectivenoisereductionbeingsomewhatless.Bendtsenetal.(2008)reportthatthetimehistory
ofquietingeffectonnoiselevelsofvariousEuropeanopengradedpavementsvarieswidelybutthaton
averageoneshouldexpectnoiselevelincreasesperyearasseeninTablePT5.2.Harveyetal.(2008)studied
54CaliforniaquietpavementHMAsurfacesandfoundthatforanyspecificmaterialolderpavementswere
generallylouderthanyoungerones.However,theolderpavementsstilltendedtoproducelesstirepavement
noisethansimilarnonquietpavements.
TablePT5.2:OverallTimeHistoryofNoiseIncrease(indBAperyear)ofPavementServiceTimeforVarious
PavementTrafficConditions(FromBendtsenetal.,2008).
LightVehicles HeavyVehicles
Surfacing Highspeedtraffic Lowspeedtraffic Highspeed traffic Lowspeedtraffic
DenseHMA 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
PorousOpengradedHMA 0.4 0.9 0.2

Studdedtirewearisamajorconcerninthelongevityofopengradedpavements.ObservationsinWashington
Stateindicateaneartotallossinnoisereductioninjustovertwoyearsforanexperimentalasphaltrubber
frictioncourse(similartothosepavedinArizona)placedonI5,andBendtsenetal.(2008)alsodescribe
durabilityunderstuddedtiretrafficasamajorconcernnotingthatwearincreasesbyapowerof2withan
increaseinspeed.Cloggingoftheinterconnectedairvoidscanalsobeaproblem.Forhigherspeedfacilities
(ontheorderof60mph)aselfcleaningeffecthasbeenfound(Ongeletal.,2008)resultingfromthe
combinationofwater(contributedbyrainfall)andasuctioneffectcreatedbytirepavementcontact.However,
onsomepavementsOngeletal.(2008)didnotseeacleaningeffectwhereonewasexpectedbecauseofhigh
speedtraffic.Finally,Chibaetal.(2008)foundthatinJapansnowremovalequipmentandtirechainstendedto
damageopengradedpavementsurfacesandcausealossofpermeabilityafterabout2years.Thisseemsto

haveledtoanincreaseinnoiselevelbutmeasurednoiselevelsafter6yearswerestillslightlybelowthatfora
conventionalpavementsurface.
Costsforopengradedpavementsurfacesaretypicallyreportedasabovethosefortraditionalsurfacingand
cancommandapremiumonapertonbasisof20200%dependinguponmixtype,locationandavailability.
PCCSurfaceTexturing
QuietpavementoptionsforPCCcaninvolveopengradedPCCbutcanalsoinvolvevariousmeansoftexturing
thePCCsurface.Surfacetexturingcanhaveasignificanteffectontirepavementnoiseandtherearecertain
techniquesthatarebetterthanothers.TablePT5.3listssurfacetexturingandtypicalnoiselevels.Ofnote,
transversePCCjointsalsocontributesignificantlytonoiselevels.
TablePT5.3:TypicalPCCSurfaceTexturingandAverageNoiseLevels.MeasuredbyRasmussenetal.(2008).
Technique TypicalNoiseLevel Notes
Transversetining 104dBA Small,shallowgroovesacrossthepavementsurface
transversetothedirectionoftraffic.Themostpopularmeans
ofPCCpavementtexturingintheU.S.
Longitudinaltining 102dBA Small,shallowgroovesacrossthepavementsurfaceinline
withthedirectionoftraffic.
Carpetdrag 100.5dBA Uneventexturecreatedbydraggingapieceofartificialturf
acrossthepavementsurface.
DiamondGrinding 99dBA Removesthesurfacewithagangmountedspindleofsaw
blades.Theresultingsurfacetypicallyhasagrooved
appearancewiththespacinganddepthofgroovesbeing
controlledbythetechniqueused.

PCCtexturinglifedependsontrafficandthepresenceofstuddedtires.Tiningcanlastinexcessof6years
(WSDOT,2006)ifnosignificantstudtrafficexistswhileexperienceinWashingtonStatehasshowntiningtolast
only36years(dependingupontrafficlevels)becauseofstuddedtirewear.Thedurabilityofcarpetdrag
surfacesisnotyetwellunderstood.Finally,TheAmericanConcretePavementAssociationexpectsatypical
diamondgrindtolast14yearswhileresultsfromIdaho(wherestudsareallowed)pointto10yearsandresults
fromCalifornia(wherestuddedtirewearisinsignificant)pointto1617years(Cotter,2007).
PCCtexturingisgenerallynotasquietasopengradedoptionsbutmosttechniquescanachievesomenoise
reductionwhencomparedtotransversetining.Rasmussenetal.(2008)pointoutthatconstructiontechnique
anddetailscanalsoinfluencetexturingeffectsonnoise.Noisereductionstrategiesthatrelyondiamond
grindingusuallydesigntheoriginalpavementthickerthanneededtocompensateforthelossinthickness
resultingfromeachgrinding.Whilethistechniqueworks,itmaynotbesustainablebeyond23grinding
operations.Finally,studdedtirewearcangreatlyreducethelifeexpectancyofanysurfacetexturingtechnique.
Withtheexceptionofdiamondgrinding,PCCsurfacetexturingisastandardprocedureandthus,doesnot
commandapremium.Diamondgrindingcostscanvarywidelydependinguponquantity,aggregatehardness,
contractoravailabilityandgeometry.Someexample5yearaveragecostsprovidedduringtheopencomment
periodforVersion1.0are:
x Washington:$9.45/yd2
x Kentucky:$2.67/yd2
x Washington:$2.27/yd2
OtherTechniques
Othersurfacingtechniquesthatarenotengineeredprimarilyfornoisereductionhavebeenshowntobe
somewhatquieterthanconventionalmethods.Proprietarythinsurfacingandstonematrixasphalt(SMA,which
isagapgradedmixture)arethetwomostcommonlycitedsurfaces.Bothworkbycreatinganegativetexture

(whereamajorityofthesurfacetextureisatthesameheightwithsmallairvoidindentations)and/orusing
smallermaximumaggregatesizes(e.g.,3/8inchorsmallerinHMA).Oneconcernwiththesetypesofsurfacing
methodsisthattheymaylosetheirnoisereductioncapabilitiesmorequicklythanpavementsspecifically
engineeredtoreducenoise.Harveyetal.(2008)foundthatCaltransRACGmixes(agapgradedmixture)
increasednoiselevelsoverthefirstseveralyearstowheretherewerecomparabletoatypical1/2inchdense
gradedHMA.
Pricesforthesesurfacingmethodsvarywidely.ProprietarymixturesaregenerallynotpredictablewhileSMAs
maycost2030%morethantraditionaldensegradedHMAsurfacingonapertonbasis.
GLOSSARY
AASHTO AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayTranportationOfficials
dB Decibel
dBA Aweighteddecibels
Ft foot(feet)
HMA Hotmixasphalt
Mi mile(s)
Mph milesperhour
Noise Unwantedsound
OBSI OnBoardSoundIntensity
SMA Stonematrixasphalt

REFERENCES
Bendtsen,H.,Kragh,J.,&Nielsen,E.,ed.(2008).Useofnoisereducingpavements–Europeanexperience.
Technicalnote69,DanishRoadInstitute,Denmark.http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/DRIDK
TechNote69Report.pdf.
Bennert,T.,Hanson,D.,&Maher,A.(2004).DemonstrationProject–TheMeasurementofPavementNoiseonNew
JerseyPavementsUsingtheNCATNoiseTrailer.ReportNo.FHWANJ2003021.NewJerseyDepartmentof
Transportation,Trenton,NJ.
Bernhard,R.J.&Wayson,R.L.(2005).AnIntroductiontoTire/PavementNoiseofAsphaltPavement.Departmentof
Civil&EnvironmentalEngineering,UniversityofCentralFlorida,SQDH20051.Accessed18September2008.
AvailableattheAsphaltAlliancewebsiteathttp://www.quietpavement.com/docs/AnIntroductiontoTire
PavementNoiseofAsphaltPavement.pdf
Cotter,A.(2007).BestPracticesforPCCPavementsinWashingtonState:StuddedTireWearMitigation.Master’s
Thesis,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,WA.
Donavan,P.R.&B.Rymer.(2003).AssessmentofHighwayPavementsforTire/RoadNoiseGeneration.SAENoise
&VibrationConferenceandExhibition,GrandTraverse,MI,USA,Session:DriveByNoise.
Donovan,P.R.(nodategiven).ComparativeMeasurementsofTire/PavementNoiseinEuropeandtheUnited
States:ASummaryoftheNITEStudy.Illingworth&Rodkin,Inc.preparedfortheCaliforniaDepartmentof
Transportation,Sacramento,CA.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(1973,July)PublicHealthandWelfareCriteriaforNoise.(550/973002).
OfficeofNoiseAbatementandControl(ONAC).Washington,D.C.:EPA,ONAC.AccessedJanuary1,2010.
Availableathttp://www.nonoise.org/epa/Roll1/roll1doc3.pdf

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).(1978).Noise:AHealthProblem.EPA,OfficeofNoiseAbatementand
Control,Washington,DC.OfficeofNoiseAbatementandControl(ONAC).Washington,D.C.:EPA,ONAC.
AccessedJanuary1,2010.Availableathttp://www.nonoise.org/epa/Roll15/roll15doc152.pdf
Illingworth&Rodkin,Inc.(2005).I80DavisOGACPavementNoiseStudy:TrafficNoiseLevelsAssociatedwith
AgingOpenGradeAsphaltConcreteOverlay,7thYearSummaryReport.PreparedfortheCaliforniaDepartment
ofTransportation,DivisionofEnvironmentalAnalysis,Sacramento,CA.
MichaelMinorandAssociates.TrafficNoiseBackgroundInformation.MichaelMinorandAssociates,Portland,OR.
Accessed24September2008.Availableathttp://www.drnoise.com/PDF_files/Traffic%20Noise%20Primer.pdf.
Morris,G.R.&Carlson,D.D.(2001).TheArizonaRubberProjectReviewPart1:EvaluationofARPavements
ConstructedBefore1992.ArizonaDepartmentofTransportationandtheRubberPavementsAssociation.
Munden,H.(2006).LowerNoisePavementOptionsForWashingtonState.MasterThesis,DepartmentofCivil&
EnvironmentalEngineering,UniversityofWashington.
PasschierVermeer,W&Passchier,W.F.(2000).NoiseExposureandPublicHealth.Environ.HealthPerspect.Vol.
108,Suppl1,pp.123131.
Rasmussen,R.O.,Garber,S.I.,Fick,G.J.,Ferragut,T.R.,&Wiegand,P.D.(2008).HowtoReduceTirePavement
Noise:InterimBetterPracticesforConstructingandTexturingConcretePavementSurfaces.NationalConcrete
PavementTechnologyCenter,Ames,IA.
Sandberg,U.&Ejsmont,J.A.(2002).Tyre/RoadNoiseReferenceBook.InformexEjsmont&SandbergHandelsbolag,
Sweden.
WashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation(WSDOT).(2006).PavementsandStuddedTireDamage.WSDOT
MaterialsLaboratory,Olympia,WA.Accessed25September2008.Availableat
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/biz/mats/pavement/PavementsStuddedTiresFinalv2.pdf

PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE TRACKING

GOAL PT-6
Allowformorethoroughperformancetrackingbyintegratingconstructionqualityand
pavementperformancedata.

Useaprocessthatallowsconstructionqualitymeasurementsandlongtermpavement
performancemeasurementstobespatiallylocatedandcorrelatedtooneanother.This
impliesfourrequirements:
RELATED CREDITS
1. Constructionqualitymeasurementsmustbespatiallylocatedsuchthatthelocation 9 PR4QualityControl
ofthequalitymeasurementisknowntowithin25ftoftheactuallocationwhere Plan
thematerialorprocessthatwasmeasuredisactuallylocated. 9 PR9Asset
2. Pavementconditionmeasurementsmustbetakenatleastevery2yearsandmust ManagementPlan
bespatiallylocatedtoaspecificportionofroadwayorlocationwithintheroadway. 9 CA1Quality
3. Anoperationalsystem,computerbasedorotherwise,thatiscapableofstoring ManagementSystem
constructionqualitymeasurements,pavementconditionmeasurementsandtheir
spatiallocations. SUSTAINABILITY
4. Thedesignatedsystemmustbedemonstratedinoperation,becapableofupdates
COMPONENTS
andhavewrittenplansforitsmaintenanceinperpetuity.
9 Extent
Details 9 Expectations
9 Experience
Thisgenerallymeansspatiallylocatingconstructionqualitymeasurementsina
9 Exposure
permanentlocationsystemandmaintainingthoserecordsindefinitely.Examplesof
constructionqualityrecordsincludebutarenotlimitedto:
BENEFITS
x Densitytests 9 IncreasesServiceLife
x Watercontenttests 9 ReducesLifecycle
x Aircontenttests Costs
x Slumptests 9 Improves
x Compressivestrengthtests Accountability
x Asphaltcontenttests 9 CreatesNew
x Gradationtests Information
Examplesofpavementconditionmeasurementsinclude,butarenotlimitedto,the
extentandseverityof:
x Cracking
x Permanentdeformation(rutting)
x Bleedingorflushing(inrelationtohotmixasphaltpavements)
x Faulting(inrelationtoportlandcementconcretepavements)
x Jointspalling(inrelationtoportlandcementconcretepavements.
DOCUMENTATION
x Asignedletterfromanownerofficialstatingthattheperformancetrackingsystem
isoperationalandhasbeenpopulatedwiththerequireddata.
PT-6 Pavement Performance Tracking 465


Developandimplementapavementperformancetrackingsystem.Offtheshelfsystemsthatmeetthecredit
requirementsaredifficultifnotimpossibletofind.
Example: Sample Systems

Twoexamplesofsystemsthatcouldaccomplishtheintentofthiscreditare:
HMAView.AwebbasedsystemdevelopedattheUniversityofWashingtonbetween2000and2004(Whiteet
al.,2002).Nosignificantdevelopmenthashappenedsinceabout2005anditisnotreadyforcommercialuse.
However,itdoesdemonstratethatsuchasystemcanbecreatedanddoeswork.Itiscapableofmaintaining
constructionqualityandpavementconditionrecordsinthesamedatabase.Thespatiallocationfeaturewas
neverfullydeveloped.ThesystemwasusedforatimebytheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation
(WSDOT)andtheMarylandStateHighwayAdministration(SHA).
PavementInteractive(PI)Maps.Ansysteminproofofconceptstagedevelopedin20089andaccessibleat:
http://maps.pavementinteractive.org.PIMapsisatoolforstoringandsharingspatialdata.Itiscurrentlyina
publicbetatestingperiod,sothefunctionalitymaychangefromtimetotime.PIMapsusestheGoogleMaps
APItoallowviewingandinputofpoints,lines,andpolygons.PIMapsrunsonGoogleAppEngine,soittakes
advantageofGoogle'srobuststorageandserverinfrastructure,whichallowsuserstohaveconfidenceintheir
data'swellbeing.
GoogleMyMapsorWindowsLiveLocalApplication.Attheverysimplestlevel,aGoogleMyMaps
(http://maps.google.com)couldbecreatedandaplacemarkercouldbeusedtodesignatetestingwiththe
associatedtextusedtodescribethetestandtestresult.Pavementconditioncouldbedescribedinassociation
withalinethatisdrawnovertheparticularsectionofroadwaybeingdocumented.Whilethissystemissimple
itcouldquicklybecomeunwieldyforlargerorganizationssuchaslargecities,countiesandstates.
POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Thegeneraltrendinroadconstructionistodisposeofconstructionrecordsafteraprescribedamountoftime.
Usuallythistimeissetbylegalobligations,butforthiscredit,recordswouldnotbeabletobedisposed.
2. Therearenoexistingcommerciallyavailablesystemsforaccomplishingtheactionsofthiscredit.Whereno
systemexists,implementingthiscredit(i.e.creatingasystemfromscratch)willlikelybeverydifficult.The
projectteamhastodevelopasystemortheownermustwanttodeveloporoperateasystemlikethis
independentoftheGreenroadscredit.However,longtermbenefitsofsuchasystemmayoutweighthecosts
ofdesigningandimplementingone.
3. Itisdifficulttodefinetheconceptsofperformanceandqualityinsimpleterms.Tyingconstructionqualityand
pavementperformancedatatogethercaninvolvesomeveryspecificideas.
4. Thelocationoftheconstructionqualitytestshouldbethefinallocationofthematerialorprocessassociated
withthetestandnotthelaboratoryortestinglocation.
5. Currentlythereisnomajororganizationthatintegratesconstructionqualitycontroldatawithlongterm
pavementperformancedata.Asaresult,itisdifficulttotracepavementperformanceissuesbackto
constructionquality.
RESEARCH
Manyotherindustries(e.g.,computers,automobiles,etc.)areabletotraceeachelementoftheirfinalassembly
backtooriginalconstruction.Theabilitytoaccomplishthiswouldimprovepavementperformancethrougha
betterunderstandingofhowconstructionqualityinfluenceslongtermpavementperformanceandallowexisting
datatobebetterusedtoevaluatetheperformanceofnewmaterials,conceptsanddesignmethods.Duetothe
limitedresearchinthisareaforpavements,thissectionisnecessarilyshort.
466 Pavement Performance Tracking PT-6

CurrentMeansofPerformanceTracking
Almostallagenciesthattrackpavementperformancedosobymeasuringsurfacedefectsandtheirqualities
includingsuchitemsas:cracking(longitudinal,transverse,reflective,alligator),rutting,raveling,faulting,spalling,
roughness,etc.).However,databasesthatcontainthisinformationdonot,asageneralrulecontainconstruction
informationandthereforeareunabletolinkpavementperformancewithconstructiondata.Typicallyconstruction
dataissavedforafiniteamountoftime(e.g.,3or5years)andthendiscarded.
TheProblemwithUnlinkedData
Hudsonetal.(2002)describetheproblemwhenreferringtotheirinterviewresultswithseveralstatedepartments
oftransportation(DOTs):
“Oneofthemainchallengesdiscoveredinallthestatesvisitedistheabsenceofaconvenientlinkbetween
essentialdataonmaterialscharacteristicsusedineachprojectontheonehandandPMS[Pavement
ManagementSystem]dataincludingperformancedataontheother.Thisismostoftencausedbythefactthat
thefirstgroupofdata(informationondesign,testing,inplaceproperties,thickness,andQAdata)iscommonly
storedinflatfiles,difficulttoaccessandsometimesincomplete…Performancedatacanonlybelinkedto
materialsandconstructiondatawhenuseismadeofacommonlocatorreference.”
TheGeneralSolution
Provideapavementperformancedatabasethatislinkedspatiallytoapavementconstructiondatabase.This
meansthatbothperformanceandconstructiondatamustbeavailableelectronically.Whereas10yearsagothis
wasnotlikely(constructionfileswereoftenpaperfiles),todayitismorelikelysincemostfilesarenowstored
electronically.Ideally,linkingandstoragecouldbeaccomplishedinawebbasedsystem(Whiteetal.,2002).To
improveefficiency,Whiteetal.(2002)proposedthatconstructiondatabeinitiallyrecordedinelectronicformand
geotaggedattheconstructionsite.ThiswouldtypicallyinvolvehandhelddataentrydevicesandGPSunits.Atthe
time(2002)thesetypesofGPSunitswerelesscommon,howevernowtheyarerelativelycheapandareroutinely
includedinpersonalelectronicssuchassmartphones.
DemonstrationofaPavementPerformanceTrackingSystem
BothHudsonetal.(2002)andWhiteetal.(2002)describethesystemdevelopedprimarilybyWhiteetal.called
“HMAView”thatallowsintegratedperformancedatatobeuploaded,displayedandanalyzedontheweb.Figure
PT6.1showsthebasicarchitectureofwhatbecameHMAView(atthetimeitwassimplyknownasthe“hotmix
database”).Thisbasicarchitecture(minusthemobilefieldsetup)wasdemonstratedonalimitedbasiswiththe
MarylandStateHighwayAdministration(MDSHA)andtheWashingtonStateDepartmentofTransportation
(WSDOT)inthemid2000sbuthasnotbeenreceivingnewdatasince2005andhasnotbeenoperationalsince
about2007.Currently,therearenoplanstorestartthesystemorrefineit.
PT-6 Pavement Performance Tracking 467

FigurePT6.1:OverviewofcontentacquisitionanddeliveryforHMAView(fromWhiteetal.,2002).

REFERENCES
Hudson,W.R.,Monismith,C.L.,Dougan,C.E.,&Visser,W.(2002).UseofPMSDataForPerformanceMonitoring
WithSuperpaveAsAnExample.Volume1.FHWAContractDTFH6198C00075,B98C75007Battelle
Subcontract156421TRDIProject001.http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/management/pms.cfm.Accessed
8January2010.
White,G.C.,Mahoney,J.P.,Turkiyyah,G.M.,Willoughby,K.A.,&Brown,E.R.(2002).OnlineToolsforHotMix
AsphaltMonitoring.TransportationResearchRecord,No.1813,TransportationResearchBoard,National
ResearchCouncil,Washington,D.C.p.124132.
468 Pavement Performance Tracking PT-6

CUSTOM CREDIT



Greenroads™ Manual v1.5 Custom Credit
[YOUR TITLE HERE]

GOAL CC-#
Recognizeinnovativesustainableroadwaydesignandconstructionpractices.
CREDIT REQUIREMENTS
1. Comeupwithanideaforadesignorconstructionbestpracticeforroadwaysthatis 1-5 POINTS
notcurrentlyincludedinGreenroadsandismoresustainablethanstandardor
conventionalpractices(bepreparedtojustifywhy).
2. DownloadandcompletetheGreenroadsCreditTemplate.Besuretofollowthe
guidelinesprovidedinthebodyofthisdocumentonhowtofillintheareasofthe RELATED CREDITS
Templateandformatyourinformation. 9 Listrelatedcreditsas
3. UsetheweightingschemedevelopedforGreenroads(seetheIntroductiontothis XX#TitleorNone
Manual)todeterminehowmanypointsthecreditisworth.Justifyyourresponse
withempiricaldataormatchacurrentlyexistingweightingscheme. SUSTAINABILITY
4. Submitthetemplateforpeerreviewbythereviewteamandmakeadjustmentsif
COMPONENTS
requestedorasneeded.
9 Choosewhichapply
Inthissection(yes,thisone;theonecalled“CreditRequirements”atthetoptherein thendeletethisline
the“WhiteonGreenHeader”fontstyle),youmust: 9 Ecology
9 Economy
1. Answerthequestionhere:Whatmeasureablethingingeneralneedstobedoneto 9 Equity
meetthegoalyoustate? 9 Extent
2. Hint:Sometimesitiseasytodisplaywhatneedstobedoneinabulletedor 9 Expectations
numberedlist.(Youcanusestylescalled“Bullet”or“ListNumber;”tryitout.) 9 Experience
9 Exposure
YoucanalsousetheStylescommandtochooseTemplatestylesasshownbelow,like:
BENEFITS
BodyTextstyle.Thisstylecanbeitalized,boldedandunderlined,ifyouwish.
9 Choosefromlist
(pickfrombracketed
Details
items),thendelete
Thissection,called“Details,”maynotbenecessaryforallcredits(forexample,no 9 Reduces[Water,
moreexplanationthanwhatisnotedaboveisneeded),butshouldanswerthe FossilEnergy,Raw
question:whatspecificationcurrentlyexists(national,international,state,local) Materials]Use
thatcanbeused/mettomeetthecreditgoalabove,ifany?Useabolded“OR” 9 Reduces[Soil/Solid
betweendifferentoptions,ifany.Youmightwanttoincludeanyequationshere. Waste,Wastewater,
Air]Emissions
Note:Donotspecifytechnologiesorbrandsordimensions(unlessitmatchesor 9 OptimizesHabitat&
mimicsanexistingacceptedstandard).Forthemaintextinthissection,useBody LandUse
TextIndentStyle.Similartoabove,youcanuseBodyTextIndentstyle.Thisstyle 9 Improves[Human
canbeitalized,boldedandunderlined,ifyouwish.Thedefaultindentincrementis Health&Safety,
0.2inches,whichalsoappliestonumberingandletteringandbullets. Access&Mobility,
BusinessPractice]
DOCUMENTATION 9 Increases[Lifecycle
Savings,Lifecycle
x CopyofthespecificationXX.Beveryspecificandindicatewheresuchadocument Service,Awareness,
maybefoundinastandardsetofplansandspecifications,orifitneedstobe Aesthetics]
createdandsubmittedseparately.Photosareanexampleofaseparateitem. 9 Creates[New
x Thisis“Bullet”style. Information,Energy]
x NOTETHATEVERYTHINGINTHEFIRSTTHREESECTIONSCANFITONTHIS1PAGE.
CC-# [Your Title Here] 471

Custom Credit Greenroads™ Manual v1.5

Explainsomecommonapproachesandstrategiesinthissection.Thisiswherepracticalexperiencecomesinvery
handy,especiallywhenitcanbeexplainedinafewshortwords.Theheadingaboveisinthestylecalled“Heading
BlueLine.”Thereshouldbeapagebreakbeforethissection,evenifthefirstpageofthecreditoverlapsontoa
secondpage(seelastsentenceonfirstpagethough).
x Bulletstyleisoftenaneasywaytodisplayapproachesandstrategiesinthissection.
x YoucanuseBulletIndentstyletonotesubtopicsundereachstrategyorapproach,too.
Belowisanexampleofatablefortextornumbers.Tablebordersshouldbeoutlinedwithsimpleboxesusingthe
officialGreenroadscolorofgray(ifyoushouldneedtoknowthecolorpalettetomakeadjustmentswhichyou
shouldnotpleasecontactyourGreenroadsreviewer).Importantitemsinthetablecanbeboldedoritalicized
manuallyforemphasis,suchasheadings.TextinthetablesisstyleNoSpacing.Notethatalltableshavea0.2”
bottomseparationfromtextonthebottom,whichisaccomplishedbyaddingacarriagereturn(ablankline)inthe
NoSpacingstyle,followedbyBodyText,BodyTextIndent(iftableisindented),oroneoftheheadingfontsfora
newsection.
TableXX#.1:TableofValuesorTextItems
Item1 SampletextornumbersinNoSpacingstyle XX.XX
Item2 Sampletextornumbers XX.XX

AlineunderneathtablesshouldhavenotextandbeinstyleNoSpacing,

Note:Ifthisisanindentedtable,useBodyTextIndentfollowingthesingleNoSpacingline(justlikethis
paragraphandtheprecedingline).
Example: Case Study [or Calculation]

Thissectioncanbeusedtodemonstratehowacreditwasachieved.Itisoptional,butagoodidea,especiallyif
youareprofilingsomethingyoudidonyourownprojectthatsupportsthecaseforawardofthiscredit.If
numbersareusedtocomputeacredit,thisiswhereexamplesareworked.(Besuretotitletheheader
appropriately.Notealsothatyoucanhavemorethanoneexampletoo!)Thisis“BodyTextIndent”style.The
headingstylefortheExamplessectioniscalledIndentedHeadingOrangeLine.
x Thisis“BulletIndent”style.
x Avoidhighlightingspecificproductswherepossible.
Hereisanexampleofaphoto(theycanbebiggerorplacedinpairsintablecells).Itisembeddedinatablecell
thatisalignedforthewidthoftheheadedsectionandcenteredinthecell.Figuresarelabeledsimilartotables,
withthestylecalledCaption,buttheFigureandtheFigurecaptionarecenteredbelowimageinthesamecell.

FigureCC#.1:Asnowystockphoto.(Windows2000)
472 [Your Title Here] CC-#

POTENTIAL ISSUES
1. Write“None”hereorprovideashortsummaryofwhatmightgowrongwhentryingtoimplementthecredit
(basedontheresearchorpilotprojects).Ifyouhavemisgivingsaboutthiscredit,orareawareofanytradeoffs
thathavebeenencounteredalongtheway,putthemonthetablebyincludingthemhere.
2. Explanationofanotherpotentialissueifany.Thisis“ListNumber”style.
RESEARCH
TheGreenroadsRatingSystemisacollectionofbestpracticesfordesignandconstructionofroadwayprojects.
Greenroadssupportssustainableperformanceanddesigngoalsthatgobeyondmostexistingfederal,state,and
localregulations.IfyoufindyourselfwritingaGreenroadscredit,whatyouwriteshouldfitwithinthisframework.
CreditWriting101
Greenroadsunderstandsthatwehavenotbeenabletorecognizeallpossiblesustainableinnovationsandbest
practicesbecauseroadwayprojectsareverydiverseandspecialized.Thiscreditcategory,CustomCredits,is
designedtorepresentusercontributionstotheongoingdevelopmentofGreenroadsviacuttingedgeresearchand
innovativedesignandconstructionpractices.
BeforeYouWrite
Beforeyouwritethecredit(andasyouarewritingit)considerwhetherornotthiscreditshouldevenexist.
Coulditbereplacedbyanothercreditthatmakesmoresense?Shoulditbefundamentallydifferent?Isit
neededatall?Wearehopingthatthecreditwriterexercisesher/hisexpertisehereandgivesthissomegood
thought.ACustomCreditmustdemonstratebeneficialimpactsontheoverallsustainabilityoftheroadway
systemanddemonstrateatleastoneofthesevencomponentsofsustainability:Ecology,Equity,Economy,
Extent,Expectations,ExperienceandExposure.Ifyouarewonderingwhatthoseideasareallabout,readthe
introductiontotheGreenroadsManualonemoretimeandgetfamiliarwiththephilosophythatunderliesallof
thecreditsandrequirementsinthesystem.
WritingaGoodCredit
Ultimately,Greenroadscreditshavethefollowingcharacteristics.
x Straightforwardandunderstandable.Simplicityisvaluedoverexcessivedetailbecauseitismore
understandable.Creditsareoftensimplisticinterpretationsofcomplexideas;theyareboundtocontainsome
controversy,howevertheinterpretationshouldholdtruetothefundamentalideaandintent.
x Supportedbyempiricalevidenceandexistingevaluativetechniques.Creditsshouldbethoroughly
researched,basedonempiricalevidencewhenavailable,and,totheextentpossible,capableofevaluation
usingexistingtools,techniquesanddocumentation.Greenroadsdoesnotseektodevelopevaluationtoolsor
subsetsofmetricsatthecreditlevel.
x CommensuratewithImpact.Highinvestmentlongtermimpactitemsaregivenmorecreditthanlow
investmentshorttermimpactitems.Theweightingschemeisexplainedlaterinthisdocument.
x Flexibleanddynamic.Thesystemshallcontinuallyevolve.Overtime,betterideas,morecompleteknowledge,
andtechnologyadvanceswillrequireGreenroadstobeupdatedandchanged.
x Supportedbyexistingprojectdocumentswherepossible.Mostcredits,withveryfewexceptions,shouldbe
abletobeclearlyspecifiedandincorporatedintoaprojectusingtypicalcontractdocumentationsuchasplans,
specificationsanddesignreports.Anyadditionaldocumentsshouldbesimpleandinexpensivetoproduce(and
digitalwhereverpossible)andalsomayuseotherstandardreportssuchasstandardconstructionquality
controlreports,changeorders,etc.Noneworunfamiliartypesofdocumentationshouldbenecessaryto
satisfycreditintent.
x Verifiablebyadesignprofessionalorinspectionagency.TheGreenroadssystemshallpresupposethe
integrityofindividuals,unlessprovenotherwise,andholdaccountabletheprofessionalsinvolved.

Onceyouhaveyourideareadytoputintowords,downloadthisGreenroadsCreditTemplateandstarteditingitin
place.Ifyouhavereadthisfar,youhaveprobablynotedthesuggestionsforwhattoincludeinpreviouspartsof
thetemplateasfarascontent,aswellassuggestionsforformattingandpresentingyourideas.
ThenecessarysectionsofaGreenroadscreditarelistedbrieflyinTableCCX.2.Eachpartlistedbelowisessential
tomakingthecreditcomplete.
TableCCX.2:GreenroadsCreditStructure
MAINBODY OPTIONAL FRONTPAGESIDEBAR
CreditTitle CreditNumber
Goal Points
CreditRequirements Details RelatedCredits
Documentation SustainabilityComponents
Approaches&Strategies Examples Benefits
PotentialIssues
Research Glossary
References

Theremainderofthisdocumentprovidesguidanceregardingcontentandintentofeachofthesectionslisted
above.Additionally,thereareformattingsuggestionsfortheResearchsection.
CreditTitle
Nameyourcreditinthreewordsorless.
Goal
Statetheoverallgoalofthecredit.
x Thisshouldbenomorethantwofullsentences,writtenconcisely,inplainlanguageandinimperativetense.
x Theoverallgoalofthecreditshouldbewritteninthesimplesttermspossibletomakeitcleartoeventhe
casualobserverwhatisdesired.Itshouldbefreeoftechnicaljargonorlong,ramblingsentences.Forinstance,
thegoalfortheRoadwaySafetyAuditcreditwouldbebetteras"Reduceroadwaycrashesandfatalities"rather
than"Improvethesafetyoftheroadwaycorridorthroughamultidisciplinaryauditwhosepurposeistoreduce
pedestrian,bicycleandmotorvehiclesafetyissuesrelatedtopublicmobility."Itisobviousthatthefirstismore
simpleandstraightforward.Thesubtletiesofcreditmaynotbeobviousbythegoalstatementbutthegoal
shouldbecrystalclear.
x Ifthecreditisbasedonsomeotherstandardmethodofpracticeordocumentation(liketheAE1Roadway
SafetyAuditcreditisbasedonNCHRPSynthesis336)thenitishelpfultolookinthatdocumentforasimple
goalstatement.(Seealso“Research”below.)
CreditRequirements
Writethesimpletextdescribingwhatmustbedone.
x Ifyouthinkthereshouldbedifferentpointvaluesassociatedwithdoingdifferentsteps,specifyhowmany
pointsthatactivityisworth.Forexample,theMR4RecycledMaterialscreditisworthupto5points,butitis
awardedin10%incrementseachworth1point.
x Thecreditrequirementsshouldbewritteninclear,simpletermstomakeitobviouswhatmustbedonetoearn
thecreditorcredits.Again,simplicityisthekey.Thelitmustestisthatadecisionmaker(e.g.,politician,
executive,departmenthead,etc.)withoutdetailedknowledgeoftransportationdesignorconstructionshould
understandwhatmustbedone.Theymaynotunderstandthedetailsbuttheyshouldhaveageneralidea
aboutwhatactionmustbetakentoachievethecredit.
x Donotdevelopstandardsofpractice,measurementtechniquesoranyotherregulatoryliketext.Rather,use
existingstandardsthathavebeenprovenrobustandworthyandthenaskGreenroadsapplicantstocomply

withsomethingthatexceedsthosestandardsbysomemeasurableincrementorverifiableaccomplishment.In
mostcasesthereisastandardsomewherethatworkswelloriswellworded.Theadvantageofusingthese
standardsisthattheyaregenerallywellthoughtoutandvettedforpossiblelegal,design,regulatory,etc.
conflicts.Forexample,ProjectRequirementPR8LowImpactDevelopmentusesexistingguidelinesfromthe
WashingtonStateDepartmentofEcology.Inthisinstance,theguidanceusedappliesspecificallytoonestate
butmaybeeasilyrewordedtobegenerallyapplicabletoanytypeofprojectorlocation.
Details(Optional)
Providefurtherexplanationofthecreditrequirements.
x Thistextaddsdetails,suchasdefinitions,totheCreditRequirementswherenecessary,orshowsan
equation,ifany.Noteinthissectionwhenaparticularcreditmaybeinappropriateornotapplicable.
x Besuretonoteinstanceswhereacreditmaynotbeappropriateorapplicable.Creditsshouldreward
intentswhichfallwithincontextsensitivedesign.Forexample,aprojectteammighttrytoearntheAE7
TransitAccesscreditbyputtingabusstopandshelteronaruralforestroad,milesfromthenearestcity,
claimingpotentialforfuturegrowth.Or,perhapstheAE8ScenicViewscreditshouldonlyapplytonon
urbanenvironments.Itisimportanttoclearlyidentifytheseissuesinthetextofthecreditonthefront
page:providingthesedisclaimersisultimatelyacourtesytofutureusersofthecredit.
Documentation
Providedabulletedlistoftheitemsrequiredtoprovethatthecreditwascompletedandthatthegoalwasmet.
x ThepurposeistousestandardprojectdocumentstoverifythattheintentofeachGreenroadscreditisbeing
met.ProjectsapplyingforGreenroadscertificationwillprovidethefollowingdocumentation:
a. Fullprojectplansanddrawings(90%minimumforinitialreview).
b. Projectspecifications(90%asabove).
c. Projectdesignreport(whereavailable).
d. Alinktoanonlinegallerywithphotosoftheconstructionprocess.
e. Achecklistshowingwhichcreditsarebeingattempted,andwhereevidenceofeachcreditmaybefoundin
theabovedocuments.(Thisistostreamlinethereviewprocessforcertification.)
x Anyadditionaldocumentationisdiscouraged.Theideaistousedocumentationthatalreadyexistsinatypical
roadwaydesignandconstructionproject.Creditsshouldbeabletoberepresentedwithintheplans,
specificationsordesignreport(biddocument,etc.)orwithaphotograph.Forexample,thecompliancewith
NEPA(arequirement)usesachecklistwhichcanbeattachedasanAppendixtothedesignreportorXeroxed
ontoasheetofthedrawings.
x However,someConstructionActivitiescreditsmayrequireadditionaldocumentation,suchascompactiontest
reportsormixdesigns.Notethatthesetypesofreportsarecommonlyavailableoninfrastructureprojects,and
shouldbeabletobesubmittedscannedorotherwisedigitized.DonotaskforaCityInspectororengineerto
writeanessaydescribingtheconstructionprocess.Instead,youmayrequestacopyofadailyreport(if
absolutelynecessarytoverifyyourcreditintentwasmet).
x ThewebbasedsystemforGreenroadswillallowdocumentationtobesubmittedviatheweb(e.g.,file
attachments,links,etc.).Nopaperorphysicaldocumentation(e.g.,apaintsample)willbeaccommodated.File
formatshouldbeAdobePDFfordocumentsanduniversalimageformats(GIF,JPG)forphotos.
Approaches&Strategies
Suggestthingsthatmaybedonetoachievethecreditrequirements.
x Inthissection,youshouldidentifyanypotentialcreditsynergies,especiallyifyouhavelistedthemas“Related
Credits”inthefrontpagesidebar.Forexample,aprojectusingporousasphaltorconcreteshouldbeableto
satisfytheintentofthePermeablePavementcreditandalsomeetatleastoneofthepointsforEW3Runoff

Qualitywithminimaltomoderateadditionaleffort.Wheresometechnologiesareunfamiliar,thesetypesof
relationshipsareveryimportanttonoteforprojectteamstoconsidergoingbeyondtheirstandarddesignsto
maketheoverallroadwaysystemmorecomprehensive.
x Mostofthetime,anactualexampleisthebestwaytoportrayanideaorstrategy.Considerusingtheoptional
Examplessectionasmanytimesasnecessarytoillustrateyourideamoreclearly.
x Also,photosandtablesareencouraged.
Examples(Optional)
Giveanexample.
x Examplescanhavedifferentlevelsofquality.Thefollowingisalistthatgoesfromhighestqualitytolowest
qualityofexamples.
a. Anexamplethathasactuallybeendoneonaprojectsuccessfullyandyoucanshowevidence(e.g.,
pictures,documents,etc.)thatithas.
b. Anexamplethathasactuallybeendoneonaprojectsuccessfullybutyoucannotshowanyevidenceofit
otherthanthedescription.Youshouldstillhavestrongevidencethatishasactuallybeendone.
c. Anexamplethatisplannedtobedoneonaprojectandyoucanshowevidence(e.g.,projectdocuments)
thatitis.
d. Anexamplethatisplannedtobedoneonaprojectbutyoucannotshowanyevidencethatitis.You
shouldstillhavestrongevidencethatisactuallyplanned.
e. Anexamplethatismadeupbutrealistic.Ithasnotbeendoneonanyprojecttoyourknowledge.
PotentialIssues
Stateanytypicalproblemsorsituationsthatmayhavebeenidentifiedintheresearchoranypotentialproblems
thatcouldbeforeseen.
x Thisisalsoagoodplacetostateanymisgivingsyoumayhaveorcommentsaboutpotentialmisinterpretations
forthecredit.Also,besuretostateanyuncertaintiesthatresultfromunderlyingassumptionsmadeabout
particularprojecttypes,places,agencies,etc.
x Fromtheresearch,youshouldbeabletonoteproblemsthatwereencounteredduringconstructionor
limitationsofatypeofmaterial,etc.ItisimportanttoidentifythesefortheReviewTeamtounderstandthe
fulldepthoftheissueyouaretryingtopresent.Also,useyourimaginationtoidentifythingsthatcouldpossibly
gowrongifadesignteamorconstructioncrewistryingtoimplementthecredit.Thingsthatcanbeoverlooked
ormisinterpretedareimportanttonote.
Research
Researchyourtopicandwriteaboutit.
x Ingeneral,startwithaneedorpurposestatement,discusscurrentavailableknowledge,andpresentperceived
costsandbenefits.
x Inthissectionyoushouldbrieflydescribetheempiricalevidenceandexistingresearchthatsuggeststhiscredit
isfeasibleandcontributestosustainability.Thissectioniscrucialandshouldlikelyinvolvethebulkofyourtime
writingacredit.However,thekeywordhereistheword“briefly”andthekeyconceptis“contributesto
sustainability.“Ifempiricalevidenceisunavailable,besuretonotethishere.
x Thepointofthissectionistodemonstratethatsignificantsleuthingwascompletedinordertosupporteach
credit.So,ifyouhaveapopulartopic,youmightfindquiteabitofexistingresearch.(Ifthisisthecase,
sometimesitiseasiertopresenteachdocumentinatablewithabriefsummaryinasecondcolumn.)Ifyou
havearecenttechnologyyoumightnotfindanything.Dothebestyoucanandpleasebesuretociteyour
documentssowecanalwaysgobackandcheckthemlater.Whatwe’relookingforhereisafewshort
paragraphsthatsummarizetheexistingresearchonyourtopicinaclearandconcisemannerthatwillbe
understandabletosomeoneusingtheGreenroadssystem.

EvidenceGuidelines
WehavehighstandardsforvettingandapprovingGreenroadsCustomCredits.Followingaresomeguidelines
forresearchthatwillhelpbackupeachcredit.
Researchandevidenceshouldbeproperlydocumentedandreferenced.Evidenceshouldbereferencedtothe
report,study,etc.whereitwasoriginallyinvestigated.Referencesshouldbeincludedinthissection(atthe
end)justastheyareincludedattheendofarefereedjournalarticle.APAcitationformatispreferred.
(Additionally,adigitallibrarywillbeimplementedontheGreenroadswebsitetomanageandmaintainallof
thesesupportingdocuments.)
Researchandevidenceshouldbecredible.Differentsourcesofevidencehavedifferentsourcesofcredibility.
AgenerallistofmostcredibletoleastcredibleisasfollowsinTableCC#.3(thisisnotstrictlytruebutcanserve
asagoodguide).
TableCC#.3:TableofValuesorTextItems
BEST Peerreviewedjournalarticle,publishedpeerreviewedconferencepaper,orotherindependent
research.Keepinmindthattheseoftencomefromlargerstudyreports.Ifthisisthecase,find
thelargerstudyreport.Certainly,thesethingscanbeoutrightwrongtoo,buttheprobabilityof
anyblatanterrorsissubstantiallyreducedduetothereviewprocess.
STRONG Publicagencyreportorstudy.Again,thesecanbewrongorincompleteorbiasedbutthe
possibilityofanyblatanterrorsissubstantiallyreducedbecausetheytendtobereviewed.
GOOD Substantiatedcommercialortradeorganizationwork.Thisissimilartothe"STRONG"work
abovebutcomesfromasponsor(e.g.,companyortradeorganization)withanobviousinterest
intheresultsandhowtheycomeout.Forinstanceatradeorganizationthatsponsorsa
professortodoastudythatprovestheirmaterialissuperiorfallsintothiscategory.
FAIR Tradepublicationsorothernewsitemswrittenforthegeneralpublic.Duetotime/space
constraintstheseitemscanoftenglossovertheimportantdetailsbecausetheyarewrittenfora
moregeneralaudience.Thiswritingstyleisfineandeffectivebutnotidealforthisevidence
section.Oftenyoucanfindthemoredetailedworkonwhichsuchpiecesarebased.
POOR Unsubstantiatedclaims.Thesecancomeintheformofstatementsbycommercialentitieswitha
vestedinterestintheevidence(eitherproorcon),blogs,YouTubeorothervideo,claims
overheardinconversation,marketingclaimsandthelike.Thekeyisunsubstantiated.

Anecdotesareinsufficient.Somethingthathappensonceortwiceisnotevidencethatitsoccurrenceiswell
established.Oftenanecdotescan,however,provideleadstobetterevidence(seeabovelistfromBESTto
POOR),sofurtherdiggingmighthelp.
Researchandevidenceshouldbecorroborated.Thereshouldbemorethanonecredibleindependentsource
foryoursupportingevidence.Twopapersbythesameresearchteaminvolvingthesamestudyarenot
considered"independent."SeeTableCC#.4.
TableCC#.4:RulesofThumbforCorroboratingEvidence
No.ofIndependentSources CredibilityofEvidence
3orMore Threeindependentsourcesallarrivingatsimilarconclusionsislikelytomean
thattheefficacyofaconcept,ideaorpracticeiswellestablished.
2 Thereisevidencethattheefficacyofaconcept,ideaorpracticeisestablished
butitmaynotbefullyvetted.
1 Itispossiblethataconcept,ideaorpracticeisproperandunderstoodbut
thereisnotyetenoughevidencetosayitiswellestablished.

Dissentingviewsshouldbeincluded.Sometimesthereisqualityevidenceformorethanoneinterpretationof
aparticularthing.Iftherearedissentingviewstheyshouldallbelistedanddiscussedinthecommentssection

ofthecredit.Itisbetterbothfortheenduserandthecreditdevelopertobeawareofthesethannot.Issues
arisewhenthereareoneormorepiecesoffair/good/bestevidencewithopposingviewsordifferent
interpretations.Forinstance,theremaybethreestudiesthatgiveonepointofviewandtwostudiesthatgive
anoppositepointofview.Inthesecases,itisuptothecreditwritertousehis/herbestjudgmenttodetermine
thequalityoftheevidenceandrenderadecision.(Ifthedecisionisthattheremaynotbeenoughevidenceto
suggestacreditcontributestoroadwaysustainability,thenitisbesttoremovethatcredit.)
Glossary
Includedefinitionsofunfamiliarterms.
x ThisiswheredefinitionsofjargonornonplainEnglishlanguagetermsshouldbedefined.
References
Citeyoursources.
x Attheendofthecredit,providealistofallthereferencesused.
CreditNumber
AssignaGreenroadscreditnumber.
x CreditsarenumberedonaprojectbasisforpurposesofyourCustomCreditapplication.Forexample,ifyouare
applyingforyourprojecttoearntwodifferentCustomCredits,thefirsttemplatewillbenumberedCC1[Your
Title1]andthesecondwillbeCC2[YourTitle2].
Points
Determinethetypeofcreditandhowmanypointsthecreditisworth.
x CustomCreditsarevariableinpointvalueandmaybeworth1to5pointsdependingontheiroverallimpacton
comprehensiveroadwaysustainability.
x AsfarascreditweightingandthevaluationsystemusedinGreenroadscredits(includingsupportingresearch),
wehavewrittenaboutthisinexcruciatingdetail.Wewillsparethatdetailhereandgiveyoubasichintsonhow
tochoosethepointvalueforyourcredit.
x TherearethreegeneraltypesofGreenroadsrequirementsandcreditsshownanddescribedinTableCC#.5
(nextpage).
x ForGreenroads,thedefaultminimumforanypracticeis1point,andthedefaultmaximumis5points,butyour
creditcanfloatanywhereincludingorinbetweenthosevalues.
x AgoodwaytoapproachweightingyourowncreditistolookforsimilarcreditsalreadyincludedinGreenroads.
Trytoidentifycharacteristicsthatmightwarrantdifferentpointvaluesforyourowncredit.TableCC#.6may
offersomeinsight(nextpage).
x Ultimately,theReviewTeamwillvalidatethispointvalueinlinewiththeexistingweightingandreservesthe
righttomodifythispointvalueasappropriate.Formoreinformation,thereisalsoabriefdiscussiononthis
weightingtaxonomyintheIntroductiontothisManual

.

TableCC#:5:HintsaboutAssigningGreenroadsPoints
Type CreditCharacteristics Example
Binary ThisisthesimplesttypeofGreenroadscredit.The TheentireProjectRequirements
projectteameithermeetstherequirements(1)and categoryisagooddefaultexampleof
getspoints,ordoesnot(0)anddoesnotgetpoints. thebinaryapproach:ifanyrequirement
isunmet,nocertificationispossible.
ThereareanumberofVoluntary
Creditsthatalsousethisbinary
approach,suchastheCA1Quality
ManagementSystemcredit.
Incremental Thisisanextensionofthehigherlevelofthebinary Agoodexampleofthistypeofcreditis
credit.Stillawardedintheallornothing(binary) MR4RecycledMaterials,where1point
fashion,thesecreditsareearnedbasedonspecified isawardedbasedonevery10%added.
percentagesofachievement.Ingeneral,the
incrementislinearorexponentialdependingonthe
levelofdifficultyperceivedoreffortrequiredto
completesuchatask.
Buffet Thesecreditsallowyoutopickandchoosefroma AgoodexampleofaBuffetstylecredit
numberofdifferentspecifiedpracticesor isAE2IntelligentTransportation
technologiesinordertoearnbetweentheminimum Systemsbecauseyoucanpickanumber
andmaximumpointsforthatactivity.Ingeneral, ofcategoriesandapplicationsthatmay
thesetypesofcreditsrecognizethattherearea beappropriatetoyourproject.
numberofgoodpracticesinexistence,butnotallof
themarefeasible,costeffective,oreasyto
implementatonce,anditwouldberarethatany
singleroadwayprojectwouldfindallofthem
appropriate.However,implementingmorethanone
mightresultinamoresustainableroadwayoverall.
Foundation Thesecreditsbuildonone(ormore)particularcredit TheAEseries(AE4,5,6,and7)credit
asanextensionofanexistingbestpractice.Inorder setisagoodexampleofaFoundation
forthiscredittobeawarded,thisprerequisitecredit credit.CreditAE3ContextSensitive
stepmustbecompletedandachieved.Thistypeof Solutionsmustbeachievedinorderto
creditisinfrequentandoftendifficulttoimplement, qualifyforthese4credits.Generally,
measureorotherwisespecify.Usesparingly. though,all11ProjectRequirementsare
alsoexamplesofFoundationcredits
with0pointvalue.

TableCC#:6:HintsaboutAssigningGreenroadsPoints
Points CreditCharacteristics
1 Defaultpointvalue.Shortterm impacts.Generallylowcostoreasyprocesswithlittletono
additionaleffortneeded.Mightberegulatedinmoststatesbutnotall.Mostconstruction
creditsfallherebasedonlifecycleassessmentdata.
2 Incentivebased(fordatacollection)orinfluentialatorganizationoragencylevel.Access
andmobilityimprovementcredits.
3 Mostecologyandwatercreditsfallhere,includingcontextsensitivity,noiseandhuman
perceptionsofenvironmentalquality.Moderateefforttoimplement,possibleextensions
toscopeofworktoachieve.
4 Usuallyacombinationof1,2and3pointcredits,orthiscanbeachievedthroughcredits
withincrementalpoints.
5 Influencesphasemostcitedinlifecycleassessmentsforroadways:materialsuseortraffic
operations.Longtermorpermanentimpacts.Couldbehighcost,orhighlevelofperceived
difficultyduetoneededchangesinscopeorbeingagainstexistingregulationorstandard.

RelatedCredits
Identifycreditsynergies.
x Listanycreditsthatmightbepartofarelatedpracticeoractivity.Usetheformat“XX#:CreditTitle”andSide
Checkmarkstyle.NotethatitisagoodideatodiscusstheseintheApproaches&Strategiessectionaswell.
SustainabilityComponents
Identifysustainabilitycomponents.
x Pickthemajorsustainabilitycomponentsthataresupportedbythiscredit.Thereareseventochoosefrom:
9 Ecology 9 Economy 9 Expectations 9 Exposure

9 Equity 9 Extent 9 Experience

x Thissectionofthesidebarhelpsidentifywhatresourcesandprinciplesofsustainabilityapplytoaparticular
credit.Pickatleastoneresourceandoneprinciplefromthelistsbelowthatareinfluenced,supportedor
enhancedbyyourcredit.Itislikelythatthecreditwillhavemorethanonesustainabilitycomponents.
However,itisrarethatasinglecreditwilladdressallsustainabilitycomponents.
x Notethat,whilewerecognizethatallprojectstaketime(Extent)andcostmoney(Economy),thesetwo
principlesshouldnotbenotedforeverycreditunlessthereisasignificantimpactduetoimplementationofthe
credititselfontimeormoney.Forexample,theLongLifePavementcreditdirectlyconsiderstheprinciples
ExtentandExpectations,whereastheEnergyEfficiencycreditprobablyfallsunderbothEconomyandEcology.
Benefits
Highlightdirectandindirectbenefits.
x Themajorbenefitsthatrepresentinfluencedresourcesandneedsmetbyyouractivityorpractice.Thereare
16tochoosefrom:
9 ReducesWaterUse 9 ImprovesHuman 9 IncreasesLifecycle 9 OptimizesHabitat

9 ReducesFossilEnergyUse Health&Safety Savings &LandUse
9 ReducesRawMaterialsUse 9 ImprovesAccess& 9 IncreasesLifecycle 9 CreatesNew
9 ReducesAirEmissions Mobility Service Information
9 ReducesWastewaterEmissions 9 ImprovesBusiness 9 IncreasesAwareness 9 CreatesEnergy
9 ReducesSoil/SolidEmissions Practice 9 Aesthetics

x Essentiallythissectionofthesidebaranswersthequestion:Whatisachievedorimprovedbyattemptingto
satisfythecreditrequirements?Ausercanlookbrieflyatthefrontpageofthecreditandhaveaquick
understandingofthebeneficialconsequencesassociatedwithimplementingthecredit.
x Thesebenefitscanbequalitativeor,moreoften,quantifiableattributesofthecredit.Forexample,isairquality
improved?Isthereanovelimpactonlifecycleserviceorsavings?Foranybenefitwheretherelationshipisnot
immediatelyobvious,pleaseprovidesomesupportingresearchtomakethatconnectionclear.Sometimes
thesebenefitsmaybeindirectlyachievedordifficulttoquantify,buttheseshouldstillbenotedinthesidebar.
AnexampleisachievingAE5PedestrianAccesswhichhasthedirectbenefitofimprovedaccessandmobility,
butalsotheindirectbenefitofreducedgreenhousegasairemissions.
ApplicationReviewProcess
Yourteam’screditapplicationwillbereviewedbyGreenroadsdevelopersbasedonthefollowingcriteria.
1. GreenroadsCreditTemplateissubstantiallycompleted.
2. Goalstatementisclearandconcise.
3. CreditRequirementsareclear,concise,andactionable.

4. Documentsneededareclearandconciseandeasytoproduce.
5. PotentialIssuesandassociatedsustainabilitytradeoffsarestated.
6. Atleastonestrategyandoneexampleareprovided.
7. Researchisthoroughlyreferencedorhasclearlydenotedlimitations.
8. Researchclearlyexemplifiesoneormorecomponentofsustainability.
9. Researchclearlyexemplifiesoneormorebenefitduetothesuggestedpracticeandnotesanytradeoffs
associatedwithimplementationofsuchpractice.
10. Allsourcesusedarelisted.
x YouwillbenotifiedofcommentsandquestionsbyamemberoftheReviewTeam.
x Afterthat,yourcreditwillbesubmittedtoapanelofprofessionalsforreviewandcomment.Thismightbea
longprocess,anditwilllikelybeiterativeandrequireinteractionbetweenGreenroadsReviewersandyour
projectteam.
WhatHappensNext?
x Ifyourapplicationisaccepted,yourcustomcreditwillbeputintheGreenroadsbankofideasandpublished
onlineathttp://www.greenroads.usinaformsimilartootherexistingcredits.Itwillbereassigneda
numberbasedonotherCustomCreditsthathavealsobeenapproved.Itwillbemadeavailabletoother
projectstousefollowingapproval.Therefore,pleasetakecaretopreserveproprietaryknowledgewhere
necessary.
x Ifyourapplicationisnotaccepted,youarewelcometoreviseandresubmit,orwriteanentirelynewcredit.
FormattingfortheResearchSectionintheTemplate
Thisisanexampleofthestandardstyle,inparagraphs,ofBodyText.Besuretodefinetermsorprofessionaljargon
usedtomakeyourcaseintheglossary.PresentanyvocabularyterminboldfaceanddefineitintheGlossary.
ThisisResearchHeadingstyle
BodyText,ListNumber,Bullet
ThisisResearchHeadingIndentstyle
BodyTextindent,ListNumberIndent,BulletIndent
ThisisResearchBlockquote.Useitwhendisplayinglargeamountsofdirectlyquotedorverbatimtext
fromotherreferences.
FinalComments
Besuretochangebothheadersandfooterstoincludeyourcredittitleandcreditnumber.Thistemplateis
designedtoprintdoublesidedandbound(orholepunched)ontheleftsideofthefrontpageofeachcredit.
GLOSSARY
Thissectionisoptional.DefinewordsthatmightbeunfamiliartoawideaudienceofGreenroadsusersinthis
section.Vocabularyisdefinedina2columntable,termsonleft(2”column),definedonright(theremaining
width).Donotusecaptionsforthistable.Orangetextiscalled“Vocabulary”styleandthedefinitionisinthestyle
called“NoSpacing.”Alltableshavea0.2”bottomseparationfromtextonthebottom,whichisaccomplished.No
introtextingiveninthissectionbelowtheheader,sodeletethisparagraphwhenwritingyourowncredit.This
glossarycontainsanexampleofthewordsustainability.
Sustainability Asystemcharacteristicthatdescribesthesystem’scapacitytosupport
naturallawsandhumanvalues

REFERENCES
Forthissection,useAmericanPsychologicalAssociation(APA)referencestyleandapplyReferencesstyle.
Therearemanyresourcesavailableonlinetohelpyouformatyourreferences.Hereisagoodonewithmany
examplesfromtheOnlineWritingLabatPurdueUniversity:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
Hereisanexampleofhowtoformattheabovereferencefromthewebcorrectly:
PurdueUniversityOnlineWritingLab(2009,Nov.11).APAFormattingandStyleGuide–TheOWLatPurdue.
RetrievedNovember25,2009,fromhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/.

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HOW TO SUBMIT YOUR COMMENTS

University of Washington © 2011 1

2 University of Washington © 2011

AUTHOR S & CONTR IBUTORS

University of Washingto on CH22M HILL, Inc.

Greenroads Manual v1.5 © 2011 5

6 Greenroads Manual v1.5 © 2011

University of Washington © 2011 7

Fundamentally,Greenroadshelpsquantifythesustainableattributesofa WHAT IS A GREENROAD?

8 University of Washington © 2011

HOW GREENROADS™ WORKS

University of Washington © 2011 9

IS GREENROADS RIGHT FOR ME?

GENERAL PHILOSOPHY OF THE RATING SYSTEM

WHO DEVELOPED GREENROADS?

10 University of Washington © 2011

University of Washington © 2011 11

12 University of Washington © 2011

SCOPE OF THE GREENROADS RATING SYSTEM

HOW DOES GREENROADS FIT WITH REGULATORY STANDARDS?

WHAT ARE THE SYSTEM BOUNDARIES?

How Do Greenroads Projects Relate To Transportation Planning?

University of Washington © 2011 13

How Does Greenroads Address Upstream Supply-Chain Processes?

How Does Greenroads Address Structures?

What about Operations & Maintenance Projects?

14 University of Washington © 2011

Does Greenroads Fit Pathway and Trail Projects?

University of Washington © 2011 15

University of Washington © 2011 17

18 University of Washington © 2011

SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABILITY

University of Washington © 2011 19

PrimarilyEcocentricBenefits Primarily AnthropocentricBenefits

TRACING GREENROADS PRACTICES TO SUSTAINABILITY AND BENEFITS

20 University of Washington © 2011

University of Washington © 2011 21

HOW GREENROADS IS WEIGHTED

22 University of Washington © 2011

LIFECYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA) BASED WEIGHTING

University of Washington © 2011 23

DEVELOPED AREA WEIGHTING

24 University of Washington © 2011

University of Washington © 2011 25

26 University of Washington © 2011

Greenroads Manual v1.5 © 2011 27

28 Greenroads Manual v1.5 © 2011

ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW PROCESS

PR-1 Environmental Review Process 29

APPROACHES & STRATEGIES

Example: SEPA Checklists

30 Environmental Review Process PR-1

Example: States with Environmental Review Processes

PR-1 Environmental Review Process 31

32 Environmental Review Process PR-1

PR-1 Environmental Review Process 33

34 Environmental Review Process PR-1

PR-1 Environmental Review Process 35

36 Environmental Review Process PR-1

PR-1 Environmental Review Process 37