Geo and Get Full Mark (3rd)

GEO
AND GET
FULL MARK
ALL YOU NEED TO KNOW FOR
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
FRANCIS AU
All rights reserved © 2020 by Francis Au
The content and illustrations in this book are for reference only. The author
shall not be liable for any consequences resulting from any inaccuracies.
First edition November 2020
Second edition February 2021
Third edition May 2022
For orders or information about special discounts for bulk purchases, please
send a email to [email protected]
Photograph Credits © Francis Au
Illustration Credits © Francis Au
Cover design by Ashley Chung

Cover art copyright © 2020 by Ashley Chung (Ink Artist)
Vice President of Young Artist Development Foundation CHAMPS
Vice President of Hong Kong Youth Art Association
Member of Hong Kong Ink Association
Contact: +852 5366 3883

Dedicated to you,
the committed student,
who harbours the wildest dream.
May this book saves you time, effort & stress.
CONTENTS
Preface 8
Part I. Tectonic Process & Hazard 10

Types of Plate Boundary 10
Volcanism / Vulcanicity 12
Tectonic Processes at Destructive Plate Boundary 16
Tectonic Processes at Constructive Plate Boundary 19
Tectonic Processes at Conservative Plate Boundary 22
Hot Spot 23
Tectonic Hazards 24
Destructions Caused by Tectonic Hazards 30
Measures to Minimise Impacts 35
Reasons for People Living / Remaining in Hazard-prone Areas 39
Part II. River Process & Landform 44

Water Cycle 44
Drainage Basin & River Discharge 46
Major Fluvial Processes 48
Fluvial Erosion 50
Fluvial Transportation 53
Fluvial Deposition 55
Characteristics of Different River Courses 56
Interlocking Spur 58
Rapid 60
Waterfall & plunge Pool 62
Buff 64
Meander 66
Oxbow Lake 68
Braided Stream 70
Floodplain, Leave & Deferred Tributary 72
Delta 74

Part III. Coastal Landform & Management 77

Characteristics of Waves 77
Fetch, Swash & Backwash 79
Wave Refraction 80
Tidal Range 81
Wave Erosion 82
Wave Transportation 83
Longshore Drift 84
Coastal Deposition 85
Coastal Erosional Landform 86
Coastal Depositional Landform 87
Sea Cliff & Wave-cut Platform 88
Sea Cave & Geo 90
Sea Arch & Stack 92
Beach 94
Spit & Bar 96
Tombolo 98
Sand Dune 99
Coastal Protection — Structural / Hard Engineering 100
Coastal Protection — Non-structural / Soft Engineering 105
Part IV. Weather & Climate 109

Weather vs Climate 109
Factors Affecting Temperature Pattern 110
Atmosphere 112
Pressure Belt & Planetary Wind System 121
Relative Humidity, Dew Point & Condensation 124
Precipitation 126
Monsoon System 130
Tropical Cyclone 132
What Others Like You Say About The Author 135

PREFACE
There are many books on Geography that help you prepare for your study and
exam. Often the moment you open the book, you feel overwhelmed by those
paragraphs of words and complicated graphs.
What do you do next? You close the book, put it away and never look at it
again — that doesn't help.
Even if you feel you know more about a topic after reading it, you soon
become confused and don’t know how to use the new information in your
homework or exams — that doesn't help either.
The Secret of This Book

The content of this book is probably not the most comprehensive, but it’s
comprehensive enough and written in a way that is very easy to understand
and remember. It’s simply what you need to know to get full marks in your
exam.
Memorising more information and case studies won’t necessarily get you
full marks in Geography. It’s about using the right information for the right
question. Knowing what to write is as important as knowing what not to write.
Being concise and getting to the point is always more rewarding than writing a
lot of irrelevant information.
As the saying goes, “any fool can make it complex, but it takes a genius to
make it simple.” This book is about what you really need to know to prepare
for the exam, not what you will see in most textbooks, not what is good to
know, and not what people say you should know.
You will find simplified bullet-points that give the exact words you can use
in your homework or exam. They are so easy to use that you can just pick
what you need, and you will never have to read those long sentences on
textbooks or notes again.
Also, all diagrams are designed to make sure you can draw them in the
exact same way in your exam, so you don't have to spend any time and effort
to create your own (you can find the hand-drawn version at the end of the
book).
8

How to Use This Book

The physical environment of the Earth is what it is, and no matter why you
are studying Geography, maybe for your school study, for a public exam, for a
scholarship or entrance exam, or others, this book will work for your syllabus
as relevantly as it will for another. You will find what you need to understand
the basics of Physical Geography here.
To get the most out of this book:
1. Always keep 2 questions in mind: “how come?” and “so what?”. By asking
yourself these 2 questions, you will be able to understand the cause-effect
relationships between different concepts and form a logical flow between
the bullet-points (especially useful for formation processes).
2. Don’t just read through it rapidly. Read it thoroughly and understand it. One
way would be reading with a pencil, pen or highlighter to underline or
highlight what you feel you can use, or will help you understand. In this
way, you will memorise better and save time when you go back to the
important information.
3. At the end of each chapter, there’s a blank page for you to organise your
thoughts and work on your understanding. You can also write down notes
and information you feel useful from other sources (e.g. textbooks, mark
schemes, teacher’s or tutor’s notes, etc) there or on the empty space.
Make this book your go-to notes for homework and revisions.
4. Share this book with your friends who you believe will benefit from. You
may even form a study group (if you haven't already!) with this book and
have everyone share their resources and revision tips for different subjects.
It’s much more rewarding to your friendships and academic performance if
you can do that, rather than trying to keep everything for yourself!
In fact, you can use this book in whatever way (morally and legally) you
can imagine, as long as you can benefit from it and it helps the pursuit of your
dream. If you are committed and follow the above suggestions, over time you
will get full mark in your exam and, more importantly, save time, effort and
stress.
Francis Au, 2020
PART I.
TECTONIC PROCESS & HAZARD
Types of Plate Boundary
Conservative / Transform Plate Boundaries

• 2 plates slide past each other
• no construction nor destruction of plates
• e.g. Pacific Plate & North American Plate
10
Convergent / Destructive plate boundaries

• formed by converging / sinking convection currents
• 2 plates collide / converge / move towards each other
• the denser, thinner & heavier plate subducts into the asthenosphere
• great heat in asthenosphere melts parts of the subducted plate into magma
• e.g. Philippine Plate & Eurasian Plate
Divergent / Constructive Plate Boundaries

• formed by diverging / rising convection currents
• 2 plates move apart / diverge from each other
• magma wells up from the asthenosphere through cracks
• magma cools & solidifies → new rocks / crust
• e.g. Nazca Plate & Pacific Plate
11

Volcanism / Vulcanicity
Extrusive volcanism / Vulcanicity

• magma in the asthenosphere is under great heat & pressure
• when cracks in the crust extend downwards & reach the asthenosphere →
pressure releases
• magma rises along cracks through the crust via:
- a vent → vent eruptions → a volcano
- a fissure → fissure eruptions → a lava plateau
• materials ejected to the Earth’s surface in a vent eruption:
- e.g. lava, steam, volcanic ash, broken rock fragments & gases
(carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide)
volcanic ash from a composite volcano — Sakurajima Volcano, Kyushu, Japan
rock fragments inside a crater & crater wall — Mount Vesuvius, Naples, Italy
12

Structure of volcanoes
Crater
• a circular depression at the volcano top
Crater Lake
• the crater is filled with rainwater
Secondary Cone / Conelet

• small volcanoes in the crater
• formed by minor eruptions at the vent
• when formed inside a crater lake → a volcanic island
Caldera
• a large & circular depression at the volcano top
• formed when:
- violent volcanic eruptions → blow off the top of the volcano
- the magma chamber is removed → collapse of the ground → the top of
the volcano subsides
Parasitic Cone
• a small cone on the slope of the main volcano
• eruptions form cracks → repeated eruptions through these cracks
13
Types of Volcanoes
active strato volcano — Mount Vesuvius, Naples, Italy
an active strato volcano — Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland
14

Volcanoes Characteristics
Based on Eruption Frequency
active volcanoes frequent eruptions in any moment
dormant volcanoes inactive / no eruptions for a long time
extinct volcanoes without magma supply & unlikely to erupt
Based on Materials Erupted
• mainly lava (acid lava)

• with high silica content
acid lava cones /
• viscous - lava solidifies closer to the crater
strato volcanoes
• violent eruptions
• steeper gradient & greater height
• mainly lava (basaltic lava)

• with low silica content
basic lava cones / • not viscous - lava solidifies further from the
shield volcanoes crater
• mild eruptions
• gentler gradient & lower in height
• built up of volcanic ash & rock fragments

ash and cinder cones
• formed by the alternating deposition of lava &

pyroclastic materials (rock fragments & ash)
composite cones
• presence of parasitic cones
15
Tectonic Processes at Destructive Plate Boundary
Tectonic landforms formed along convergent / destructive plate boundaries

• fold mountains
• submarine volcanoes & volcanoes
• volcanic islands & volcanic island arcs
• ocean trenches
Continent – continent Collision

• convection currents of magma converge / sink
• 2 plates collide under compressional force
• Eurasian Plate collides with Indo-Australian Plate
• 2 continental plates (thicker, less dense & lighter)
• none of them subduct into the asthenosphere
• no subduction zone & ocean trench formed
• sediments on the plates are compressed into sedimentary rocks
• sedimentary rocks are folded up under compressional force
• fold mountains are formed (i.e. the Himalayas)
16
Ocean-ocean Collision
• convection currents of magma sink / converge
• Pacific Plate collides with North American Plate
• the heavier, denser & thinner Pacific Plate (oceanic plate without continental
crust) subducts under the relatively lighter, less dense & thicker North
American Plate (oceanic plate with continental crust) into the
asthenosphere
• subduction zone & ocean trench (e.g. Aleutian Trench) are formed
• great heat in the asthenosphere melts the edge of the subducted Pacific
Plate
• magma is produced & accumulates
• stress / pressure builds up
• pressure releases → magma rises through cracks
• submarine volcanic eruptions → a submarine volcano is formed
• repeated eruptions increase the height of the submarine volcano → rise
above the sea level
• a volcanic island is formed
• a chain of volcanic islands → a volcanic island arc (e.g. Aleutian Islands)
17

 
Ocean-continent Collision
• Nazca Plate collides with South-American Plate
• the heavier, denser & thinner Nazca Plate (oceanic plate) subducts under
the lighter, less dense & thicker South-American Plate (continental plate)
into the asthenosphere
• subduction zone and ocean trench (Peru-Chile Trench) are formed
• sediments on the plates are compressed into sedimentary rocks

• sedimentary rocks are folded up under compressional force
• fold mountains are formed (i.e. the Andes)
• great heat in the asthenosphere melts the edge of the subducted Pacific
Plate
• magma is produced & accumulates
• stress / pressure builds up
• pressure releases → magma rises through cracks
• volcanic eruptions occur
• repeated eruptions form a volcano
18
 
Tectonic Processes at Constructive Plate Boundary
Tectonic landforms formed along divergent/constructive plate boundaries

• mid-oceanic ridges
• submarine volcanoes & volcanoes
• volcanic islands
Mid-oceanic Ridges & Sea-floor Spreading

• convection currents of magma rise
• 2 plates diverge / move apart under tensional force
• large fissures are formed where plates split apart
• pressure in the asthenosphere releases
• magma rises through cracks → pushes plates up at the edges
• lava cools & solidifies after contact with seawater
• a mid-oceanic ridge is formed (e.g. East Pacific Rise & Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
• continuous plate movements → old ridges break & move apart
• magma rises through new openings → new ridges
• continuous process of sea-floor spreading → the ocean floor expanded &
mid-oceanic ridge extended
19

Faulting & Rift Valley

• extension of mid-oceanic ridges → a new ocean floor with cracks
• under tensional force → normal faulting
• central blocks of the mid-oceanic ridge sink → a rift valley
• continuous plate movements → old ridges & the rift valley break & move
apart
• magma rises through new openings → new ridges
• central blocks sink → a new rift valley
• this process continues → the mid-oceanic ridge extends sideway
rift valley — Thingvellir, Iceland
*Notes: Strike slip / transform fault can be found along the mid-oceanic
ridges.
20
Vulcanicity
• rising magma along cracks → volcanic eruptions
• a submarine volcano is formed
• repeated eruptions → height of the submarine volcano ↑
• when the submarine volcano rises above the sea level
• a volcanic island is formed (e.g. Easter Island & Iceland)
• continuous plate movements carry old submarine volcanoes / volcanic
islands away
• magma rises through new openings → new submarine volcanoes / volcanic
islands
• a chain of volcanic islands
21
 
Tectonic Processes at Conservative Plate Boundary
• at conservative / transform plate boundaries

• plates slide past each other (neither destruction nor construction of plates)
• under lateral force → transform / strike slip faults
• e.g. North American Plate slides past Pacific Plate → the San Andreas Fault
in California, USA
*Notes: Earthquakes are a common tectonic hazard found along conservative

/ transform plate boundaries.
22

Hot Spot
Hot Spots
• in a fixed location (usually not at any plate boundaries)
• convection currents move plates but not the hot spot
• great heat & pressure accumulate in the asthenosphere

• plate movement forms cracks
• cracks reach the asthenosphere → pressure releases
• magma in the hot spot rises through cracks
• volcanic eruptions occur at the ocean floor → a submarine volcano
• repeated eruptions → height of the submarine volcano ↑
• submarine volcano rises above the sea level → a volcanic island
• continuous plate movement moves the old volcano away from the hot spot
• the old volcano becomes extinct
• continuous plate movement forms new cracks → reach the hot spot →
volcanic eruptions → a new volcanic island
• this process occurs continuously to form a chain of volcanic island (e.g.
Hawaiian Islands)
23
Tectonic Hazards
Earthquakes
• earthquake zones can be found in all types of plate boundaries
- more severe & frequent earthquakes at destructive & transform plate
boundaries
• Focus: a point where energy / seismic wave is released
• Epicentre: a point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus → highest
amount of seismic energy
Examples
Destructive: continent-continent collision
• 2013 Lushan earthquake, China (Indo-Australian – Eurasian)
Destructive: ocean-continent collision
• 1995 Kobe earthquake, Japan (Eurasian – Philippine)
Destructive: ocean-ocean collision
• 2010 Christchurch earthquake, New Zealand (Indo-Australian – Pacific)
Constructive:
• 2008 Iceland earthquake (North American – Eurasian)
Conservative:
• 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake, Haiti (North American – Caribbean)
Faulting:
• 2008 Sichuan earthquake, China (reversed fault)
24
How earthquakes are measured

I. Depth of Focus
• shallow (0 – 70km underground)
• intermediate (70 – 300km underground)
• deep (> 300km underground)
II. Intensity of Earthquakes
• Modified Mercalli Scale
- measure the degree of damage resulted
- scale from I (not felt at all ) – XII (widespread destruction)
III. Magnitude of Earthquakes
• Richter Scale
- measure the amount of energy released & recorded by seismograph
- scale from 1 (recorded by seismographs only) – 9 (total destruction)
*Notes: Earthquakes induced by human activities:

• nuclear testing
• methane explosion
• construction of dams & reservoirs → rock displacement
• collapse of underground mines
• blasting operations
25
Formation of earthquakes:
• at the destructive plate boundary (e.g. 1995 Kobe earthquake, Japan)
• 2 plates converge under compressional force
• Philippine Plate collides with Eurasian Plate
• the heavier, denser & thinner Philippine Plate (oceanic plate without
continental crust) subducts under the lighter, less dense & thicker Eurasian
Plate (continental plate) into the asthenosphere
• subduction zone & ocean trench are formed
• at the conservative plate boundary (e.g. 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake,

Haiti)
• plates are driven by convection currents of magma under lateral force
• North American Plate & Caribbean Plate slide past each other
• the lateral movement of 2 plates → a tear fault along the plate boundary
• plate movement → large friction → great pressure exerted on rocks

• stress accumulates
• stress > strength of rock structure → rocks fracture to release stress &
energy
• seismic waves (shock waves) are released
• seismic waves are transferred to the ground surface → ground surface
vibrates
26
Volcanic Eruptions
• occur along destructive & constructive plate boundaries
- e.g. more severe & frequent eruptions along the Pacific Ring of Fire
• cooling of magma & the loss of gas → lava is formed
Examples
• 1980 USA’s Mount St Helens (Juan de Fuca – North American)
• 2009 Japan’s Sakurajima eruption (Eurasian – Philippine)
• 1963 Mount Agung, Indonesia (Indo-Australian – Pacific)
• 1991 Mount Pinatubo, the Philippines (Eurasian – Philippine)
Constructive:
• 2010 Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull eruption (North American – Eurasian)
• 2011 Iceland’s Grímsvötn eruption (North American – Eurasian)
Hot spots:
• 1950 Hawaii’s Mauna Loa eruption
an active strato volcano — Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland
27
Tsunamis
• the sudden vertical movement of sea floor → displacement of seawater
• tsunamis travel in all directions
• more active at destructive plate boundaries
- coastal areas around the Pacific Ocean are most frequently affected
- islands in the middle of the ocean are vulnerable to tsunamis (e.g.
the Hawaiian Islands)
Characteristics
• very low wave heights (< 1 m) in deep ocean
• huge wave lengths (100-200 km)
• high wave height (> 15 m) reaching the coast
• high wave velocity (> 600 km/hr)
Causes for the Vertical Movement of Sea Floor

I. Submarine earthquakes
• strong submarine earthquakes close to the sea floor
• vertical displacement of rocks at the sea floor
• e.g. 2004 Sumatra earthquake
II. Submarine volcanic eruptions
• violent eruptions → displacement of seawater
• e.g. 1883 eruption of Krakatau, Indonesia
III. Submarine landslides
• large-scale movement of slope materials to the sea floor → displacement
of seawater
• 1929 Grand Banks submarine landslides
*Notes: Tsunamis induced by human activities:

• submarine nuclear testing (e.g. Marshall Islands in the 1940s & 50s)
28
Examples
• 2011 Tōhoku tsunami in Japan (Eurasian – Pacific)
• 2004 South Asian tsunami (Indo-Australian – Eurasian)
• 1946 tsunami in Aleutian Islands (North American – Pacific)
Formation of tsunamis
• at the destructive plate boundary
• 2 plates converge under compressional force
• Pacific Plate collides with Indo-Australian Plate
• the heavier, denser & thinner Pacific Plate (oceanic plate without continental
crust) subducts under the lighter, less dense & thicker Indo-Australian Plate
(oceanic plate with continental crust) into the asthenosphere
• subduction zone are formed
• at the constructive / divergent plate boundary

• convection currents of magma rise
• 2 plates diverge / move apart under tensional force
• large fissures/cracks are formed where plates split apart
• plate movement → large friction → great pressure exerted on rocks

• stress accumulates
• stress > strength of rock structure → rocks fracture to release stress &
energy
• seismic waves (shock waves) are released
• seismic waves are transferred to the sea floor → sea floor vibrates
• sea floor displacement → displacement of seawater
• seawater moves out in all direction
• seawater arrives at shallow sea coasts → towers up to form huge waves
• tsunamis are formed
29
Destructions Caused by Tectonic Hazards
Earthquakes
Socio-economic impact:
• loss of / damage to properties
- collapses of infrastructure (e.g. roads, dams & bridges) & social
amenities (e.g. hospitals)
- injure / kill people
• breakdown of communication links (e.g. underground cables),
transportation networks, utility networks
- destroy roads & railways → disruption in transport
- e.g. 1995 Kobe earthquake in Japan: bending of rails → derailment
of bullet trains
- difficulty of relief work ↑
- delay resumption of normal life
• damage power lines & underground gas pipes
- power & gas suspension
- gas leakage / electrical short circuits → outbreaks of fire
- e.g. 1923 Tokyo earthquake: widespread household fires → high
death toll
- e.g. 1995 Kobe earthquake, Japan: extensive fires → additional
damage & casualties
• injure or kill people / loss of lives
- people buried / killed by collapsed buildings
• secondary hazards
- landslides & tsunamis → extensive damage & greater casualties
- e.g. 2004 South Asian tsunami & 2011 Tōhoku tsunami in Japan
- e.g. 2008 Sichuan earthquake → landslide materials blocked roads
→ difficulty of relief work ↑
30
• aftershocks → greater destruction

- collapse of weakened structures → further loss of life & property
- e.g. 2008 Sichuan earthquake: 6 aftershocks (6 on Richer scale)
- e.g. 2010 Haiti earthquake: 10 aftershocks (5.0 on Richer scale)
• spread of waterborne diseases & epidemics (e.g. malaria & cholera)
- broken water pipes → lack of clean drinking water
- broken sewage pipes & damaged water treatment stations →
sewage spills out → contaminate water supplies
- diseases / germs from dirty & polluted water
- dead bodies not properly buried
• severe economic loss
Environmental impact:
• landslides / rockfalls / avalanches
- violent ground vibration → loose slope materials & debris move down
- e.g. landslides after 1999 Taiwan’s Chi Chi earthquake,
• damage vegetation
• flooding
- collapse of quake lakes formed by rock debris blocking a river
- collapse of dams or waterworks along rivers
- e.g. collapse of dam after 1999 Taiwan’s Chi Chi earthquake
• soil liquefaction & land subsidence
- ground water pressure ↑ → poorly compacted soil mixes with ground
water → shear strength of soil ↓ → weaken foundations of buildings
→ buildings sink & collapse
- breaking of underground water pipes
31
Volcanic Eruptions
• loss of / damage to properties
- molten lava → outbreaks of fire → burns houses, communication
links, infrastructure, social amenities (e.g. hospitals)
• loss of lives
- hot gases & volcanic bombs (large rock fragments) → people killed
- poisonous sulphuric gases → health problems
• volcanic ash makes air difficult to breathe → respiratory illnesses
• destruction of crops → crop failure → crop yield & food supply ↓
- molten lava burns & destroys crops & farmland
- volcanic ash cover farmland → crops cannot carry out
photosynthesis & die
- acid rain kill crops
• volcanic ash & suspended particulates block insolation → visibility ↓
- disrupt road traffic by posing dangers to road-users → risk of
accidents ↑
- disrupt air traffic by causing delays & cancellations of flights &
shutdowns of airports
- disruptions in passengers, businesses, trades → severe economic
losses
- e.g. 2010 Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull eruption & 2011 Iceland’s
Grímsvötn eruption: airport shutdowns & cancellations of flights in
many European countries
- e.g. 2020 Indonesia’s Mount Merapi eruption: airport shutdowns (ash
reached 6000m high & cities 10km far)
• airplanes damaged by in-flight encounters with volcanic ash → power loss
of engines → emergency landings
• huge economic losses
32
• hydrosphere
- volcanic ash mixes with rainwater to form mudflows → bury houses &
villages
- mudflows → flooding
- water pollution → water quality ↓
- disturbance aquatic lives → extinction of aquatic species
• molten lava → mountains on fire
- lava & fire injure or kill animals
• ash & suspended particulates block insolation → ground surface T°C ↓
- e.g.1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption: fine ash & gases in stratosphere
→ drifting large volcanic clouds → slight lower T°C worldwide
• sulphuric gases may mix with rainwater → acid rain (pH 4.0)
- kill a large area of vegetation covers
• air pollution → air quality ↓
• landslides
- violent eruptions → landslides on steep & unstable slopes of a
volcano
- e.g. 1993 Krakatau eruption: massive landslides
• large amounts of CO2 released into the atmosphere may intensify the
greenhouse effect → global warming
33
Tsunamis
• drown people → loss of lives
• crush buildings & highways → loss of properties
- 1964 Alaska tsunami: US$311 million in property losses
• sweep away heavy objects inland (e.g. ships)
- 2011 Tōhoku tsunami, Japan
• drown farmland & crops → crop failure → crop yield & food supply ↓
• disruptions in industries & trades
• spread of diseases & epidemics
- pollute drinking water lack of clean drinking water
- dead bodies not properly buried
- 2011 Tōhoku tsunami, Japan: black tsunami water contained a lot of
mud, sand & pollutants (e.g. lead & mercury) → huge health risks to
survivors who swallowed the toxic water (e.g. lung problems &
illnesses like pneumonia)
• breaking of power lines & gas pipes → fires
• damage to high-risk facilities like nuclear power plants & oil depots
- e.g. 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, Japan: explosions &
leakage of radioactive materials / wastes
• severe economic losses
- e.g. 2004 South Asian tsunami: serious economic losses in many
South Asian countries like Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka & India
• coastal flooding & sea water intrusion
• uproot trees / destroy vegetation cover
• wash away beaches
• water pollution
34

Measures to Minimise Impacts
In General
Land Use Planning

• carry out careful land use plannings based on vulnerability to hazards
• designate evacuation & shelter centres (e.g. schools & indoor sport centres)
• establish well-designed evacuation routes & adequate road signs
• suspend & restrict the development of high risk facilities in hazard-prone
regions (e.g. nuclear plants & oil depots)
Merits:
• establish buffer zones → potential damage & casualties ↓
• minimise losses from secondary hazards
• regulate & limit constructions in hazard-prone areas
• provide incentives & subsidies to encourage development in / relocation to
safe locations
• strict control in building height & density
Limitations:
• technical infeasibility
• difficulty in enforcement of land use regulations (e.g. control of land use is
difficult in LDCs with high rural-urban migration rates )
• less effective when hazards are sudden & strong
• effectiveness depends on the accuracy of identifying high risk areas
• effectiveness depends on level of economic development / high costs of
planning & relocation
35
Monitoring & Warning Systems

For Earthquakes
• install instruments & equipments to detect seismic activities
- e.g. measure seismic waves with seismographs
• analyse historical records of earthquakes
• study signs of earthquakes
- change in groundwater level
- occurrence of foreshock
- unusual behaviour of animals (e.g. fish jumping out of water)
For Volcanic Eruptions

• install instruments & equipments to detect
- seismic activities (e.g. seismic waves with seismographs)
- changes in T°C & pressure levels of the volcano
- composition of gases emitted (e.g. SO2)
- groundwater level
• analyse historical records of eruptions
• study the geological structure of volcanoes
For Tsunamis
• monitor the sea level with ocean-bottom tsunami gauges, satellites & buoys
• set up local warning systems
- e.g. Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, Chile, Peru, etc
• set up regional & international warning systems
- e.g. Pacific Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System (PTWS) ; Indian
Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System (ICG/IOTWMS)
Merits:
• ↓ number of deaths / casualties
• time for people to respond & evacuate
36
Limitations:
• high costs / LDCs lack the capital to afford
• effectiveness depends on the level of capital & technology inputs
• effectiveness depends on accuracy of data
• ineffective when communication systems are destroyed by strong hazards
• in LDCs, people might not have access to radio / TV / internet → do not
notice when hazards are expected
Well-trained & Well-equipped Rescue Teams

• equipments for rescue teams include life detectors, helicopters, medicines,
wireless communication networks, etc.
Merits:
• ↑ victims’ & survivors’ chance of being rescued
• ↓ casualties caused by disease, lack of clean potable water, starvation, etc.
Limitations:
• interruption to transport & infrastructure → time for rescue team to arrive ↑
• in LDCs, rescue work is often delayed by blocked or buried roads /
collapsed communication systems / corrupt management / political barriers
Education & Drills

• ↑ awareness of public on hazards → minimise potential losses
- educate the public on what to do before, during & after a hazard
- e.g. Japan: “Disaster Prevention Day” on 1st September every year
• regular large-scale earthquake drills for the public
- activities like evacuation; fire fighting; emergency hospital &
helicopter services; restoring communication
37
Hazard-resistant Structures
Earthquake-proof Design
• use stronger building materials (e.g. reinforced concrete)
• prevent buildings & structures from collapsing
- wide base with sharp top → more resistant to shaking
- reinforced steel foundation & foundation deep into the bedrock
- shock-proof technology (e.g. concrete counterweight in Taipei 101)
• prevent the spread of fire hazard
- fire-resistant building materials
- automatic cutoff for gas pipes / electricity cables
Tsunami-proof Structures
• hard-engineering structures to protect coastal areas
- build sea walls & breakwaters to reflect & dissipate wave energy
• careful designs for structures in coastal areas
- elevated platforms for evacuation (also as a scenic spot for tourists)
- open structures on ground level for seawater to pass through
Structures for volcanic eruptions

• roofs with strong structures & steep-sloping sides
- shed heavy volcanic ash (esp. wet)
- prevent roofs from collapsing → damage to properties ↓
• lava barriers & lava diversion channels
- to stop & divert lava flows away from densely populated areas
- protect settlement & farmland
Limitations:
• effectiveness depends on the level of capital & technology inputs
• hazards may be too strong for reinforced structures to withstand
• structures with inferior materials / lack of maintenance → protection ↓
• corruption & not strictly enforced building laws → effectiveness ↓
• limited coverage of hazard-resistant structures / limited protection areas
38
Reasons for People Living / Remaining in Hazard-prone

Areas
Economic Factors
• lack of / insufficient capital → unable to afford relocation costs
• better economic development / job opportunities
• higher living standard
Social Factors
• unwilling to leave ones’ homeland / birthplace
• strong social & family ties / strong feelings for & connections with friends &
relatives / ties to ancestors
• collective memory / emotionally attached
• re-establishing / establishing new social links & networks requires
significant amount of time & efforts
• time needed to adapt in a new setting (physical environment & cultures)
• low risk awareness / inertia
Barriers to Migrations
Political barriers
• strict population & migration (emigration & immigration) policies
• barriers to internal / international migrations
Physical constraints
• the physical environments of many regions free from tectonic hazards are
too hostile to inhabit:
- too cold in polar & alpine regions
- too hot & dry in deserts
- too wet in rainforests
• high costs of development
• very low standard of living
39
Geothermal Power
• generate electricity with hot water & steam in volcanic areas
• renewable & clean energy resource
• e.g. Japan, New Zealand & Iceland
Fertile Soil
• volcanic ash is rich in minerals
• weathering of solidified lava → fertile soil
• fertile soil near volcanoes → crop yield ↑ → attract farmers (risk worthwhile)
• e.g. population density & agricultural activities often higher near volcanoes
Metals & Minerals

• cooling & solidifying of magma → rocks with metals & minerals
• metals & minerals of high economic value
• e.g. metal ores like iron & copper → raw materials for heavy industries
• e.g. precious metals & gemstones found along plate boundaries: gold,
silver, copper, mercury & diamond
Tourism
• provide the locals with job opportunities & income
• local people can be tour guides; run businesses that target tourists
• stimulate local & national economies
40
Volcanoes
• volcanoes are popular scenic spots for the breathtaking volcanic landscape
• tours on volcanoes & visits to craters to attract tourists
• volcanic areas with folds & faults are tourist attractions
Mount Vesuvius (active volcano) — Naples, Italy a fold — Taiwan
Hot Springs
• geothermally heated groundwater in volcanic areas
• rich in minerals that are claimed to be good for health
• geothermal spas & hot springs resorts as tourist destinations
Blue Lagoon — Iceland
< Blue Lagoon, Iceland >
41

Fold Mountains
• sublime peaks of fold mountains are popular scenic spots
• e.g. the Alps: ski-resorts are popular destinations for vacation in
Switzerland, France, Italy, etc.
the Matterhorn — the Alps, Switzerland
Geysers
• hot water & steam ejecting from underground to Earth’s surface intermittently
• geysers as attractive scenic spots
• e.g. Yellowstone National Park, USA & Golden Circle in Iceland
geysers — Bl sk gabyggð, Iceland
< geyser, Bl sk gabyggð, Iceland >
42

á
ó

á
ó

BLANK PAGE FOR NOTES
43
 
PART II.
RIVER PROCESS & LANDFORM
Water Cycle
Input
Condensation
• water vapour cools down & condenses to form water droplets
Precipitation
• water droplets falling to the Earth’s surface
Transfer
Overland Flow
• water flowing on the ground surface
Channel Flow
• water flowing in river channels
Surface Run-off
• overland flow + channel flow
44
Interception
• water droplets fall on vegetation & do not reach the ground
Drip Flow
• rain water falls down from leaves
Stem Flow
• after intercepted by vegetation, rain water flows down trunks of vegetation,
directing water [to tree roots] & reducing raindrop impact
Absorption
• water absorbed by vegetation
Infiltration
• water seeps into the unsaturated soil from ground surface
Percolation
• water flows further down from unsaturated soil to saturated soil / reaches
the water table
Through Flow
• subsurface water flows sideway in a layer of unsaturated rock & soil
Base flow / Groundwater flow
• water flowing down the slope of water table, above a layer of saturated rock
Subsurface run-off
• through flow + base flow
Output
Evaporation
• water is heated up by solar radiation & changes into water vapour which
rises to the atmosphere
Transpiration
• vegetation releases water vapour
Evapotranspiration
• evaporation + transpiration
• controlling factors — types of vegetation (i.e. grass vs forest); wind speed;
humidity
45
Drainage Basin & River Discharge
Drainage Basin
• an area of land drained by a main stream & its tributaries
• within which water supplied by precipitation is transferred to the ocean / a
larger stream
Catchment (UK) / Watershed (US)

• the boundary of a drainage basin
• high grounds dividing adjacent drainage basins
Source of river
• the beginning point where water from rain / snow & ice / spring is collected
Confluence point
• a place where tributaries join together / join the main stream
confluence points — Kurobe, Japan
46
Distributaries
• the main stream is split into smaller branching streams when the flow of
water is blocked
distributaries — Tung Chung River, HK
Discharge
• cross-sectional area = average depth x channel width
• discharge = cross-sectional area x mean river velocity
47
Major Fluvial Processes
• river energy affects different processes in a river

• fluvial processes vary with the rate of erosion, transportation & deposition
Factors Affecting River Energy

• amount of channel discharge — ↑ channel discharge → river energy ↑
• speed of water flow — ↑ speed of water flow → river energy ↑
Factors Affecting the Amount of Channel Discharge
Factor Change Amount of Channel discharge
Precipitation
(i.e. amount / ↑ ↑
intensity)
↓
Infiltration Rate ↑ (higher / lower) (overland flow↓ channel flow↓)
↓
↑ (denser / less
Vegetation Cover (interception↑ drip flow & stem flow↑
dense) infiltration↑ overland flow↓ channel flow↓)
↑ (steeper / more ↑
Slope Gradient gentle) (infiltration↓ overland flow↑ channel
flow↑)
Permeability of
↓
Ground Surface ↑ (permeable /
(infiltration↑ overland flow↓ channel
(i.e. soil / rock/ impermeable)
flow↓)
concrete)
forestry / arable /
Land Use forestry > pastoral > arable
pastoral
↑
Urbanisation Rate ↑ (higher/lower) (impermeable surface↑ overland flow↑
channel flow↑)
*Notes: Urban drainage & sewage systems connecting to river streams also
play a part in increasing channel discharge.
48
Factors Affecting the Velocity of a River

Channel gradient
• steeper channel gradient → velocity ↑
Channel shape
• channel shape determines wetted perimeter
• wetted perimeter
- the total length of surface of the river bed & river bank that is in contact
with water in the channel (inc. the surface of bed loads)
• winding river channel has lower velocity than a straight channel (e.g. human
straightening)
Channel roughness
• energy is consumed to overcome friction of the rough river bed
• more large & angular loads → wetted perimeter ↑ → friction ↑ → velocity ↓
• ↑ loads on the river bed → channel roughness ↑ → velocity ↓
Discharge
• ↑ discharge → velocity ↑
*Notes: The average velocity of the upper course is lower than that of the
lower course (∵ higher discharge & smoother river bed)
49
Fluvial Erosion
• mainly occurs in 3 different directions (i.e. vertical, lateral & backward)

• eroded materials are called loads (e.g. particles, sand, pebbles, rock debris,
etc.)
Vertical Erosion /
Headward Erosion Lateral Erosion
Downcutting
river bed at upper river bank at

Place river source course & middle middle & lower
course course
loose rock debris:

- collapses & is
removed loose rock debris loose rock debris
Process - removed by water removed from the removed along
running down the river bed river banks
slope behind the
source
lengthened
Change on widened
(extended deepened
River Channel (more winding)
backward)
upper course: middle course:

interlocking spurs, bluff, meanders
Landform —
waterfalls, gorges lower course:
middle course: bluff oxbow lakes,
50
Abrasion / Corrasion
• wearing away of the river bed & banks by loads
• loads carried by river flow grind against the river bed & banks → wear down less resista
• large & angular loads → erosive power ↑
Attrition
• collision of rock fragments in river → wear down of loads
• loads knock against each other → break down into smaller pieces → smaller & rounder l
Hydraulic action
• removal of loose materials along cracks on river bed & banks
• running water exerts pressure on cracks as air parcel inside is compressed → cracks enl
• repeated deepening & widening of cracks → loosened rock debris → removed by river w
• more active in waterfalls & outer banks of winding river with high velocity
Solution / Corrosion
• removal of soluble minerals (e.g. calcium) from rocks by water
• soluble minerals are dissolved in water → sediments weakened
• more active when rock contains many soluble minerals (e.g. limestone); or under a wet &
51
Rate of erosion is affected in active & passive ways

Active: erosive power of water
I. quality of loads
• large & angular loads favour erosion
II. velocity & discharge
• fast water flow & large volume of water flow → more energy for
erosion
III. slope gradient
• steeper gradient → velocity ↑ → energy ↑
IV. acidity of water
• ↓ pH value (i.e. acidic water) → solution ↑
Passive: resistance of rock

I. geology
• rocks with cracks / weak & soluble minerals (e.g. calcium) → erosion
↑
• soft & unconsolidated rocks (e.g. sand & gravel) → erosion ↑
Human activities
I. deforestation
• loosened sediments washed away by water → enters the river
channel → abrasion & attrition ↑
II. concrete surface
• impermeable surface → infiltration ↓ & overland flow ↑ → discharge↑
III. slope cutting
• gradient on cut slope ↑
IV. industrial pollution
• industrial wastes dumped into the river → acidity ↑
*Notes: Tree roots bind soil tightly → soil erosion by wind & water ↓
Without trees (deforestation), soil is loosen & easily eroded by wind & water
→ sediments in the river channel ↑
52
Fluvial Transportation
• a downstream movement of eroded materials (loads)
Type of Weight
Process
loads of loads
dissolved soluble minerals dissolved &

Solution lightest
loads carried downstream
fine particles small & suspended particles

Suspension (suspended light carried in the water without
loads) touching the river bed
large loads less hops & bounces of larger

Saltation
(bed loads) heavy particles along the river bed
very large &

very large particles roll / slide
Traction coarse loads heavy
on the river bed
(bed loads)
53
 
3 ways Affecting Amount of Loads
Presence of lakes
• lakes trap loads (deposition) → loads transported downstream ↓
• e.g. the Yangtze River (higher discharge, more lakes) carries less loads
than the Yellow River (lower discharge, less lakes)
Lake St. Moritz — St. Moritz, Switzerland Lake Zurich — Zurich, Switzerland
Rate of erosion
• control the supply of load — ↑ loads eroded → ↑ loads to be transported
• e.g. dense tropical rainforests in the Amazon basin hold the soil & limit
fluvial erosion
• e.g. the Yellow River flows past the Loess Plateau with sparse vegetation &
loose loess → serious soil erosion by water & wind → water can easily
carry loose sand away
the Yellow River — China
Energy of river
• ↑ river velocity → ↑ river energy → more & heavier loads carried
54
Fluvial Deposition
• when river energy is insufficient to move the loads → loads deposited on

the river bed as sediments
• ↓ river energy → deposition ↑
Rate of deposition is affected by the decrease in discharge & velocity

Decrease in velocity
I. entering a large water body
• e.g. lake & sea
II. ↓ channel gradient
• river flow from a steep slope to a gentle plain
III. ↑ channel friction
• river enters a wider & shallower channel and/or more loads on the
river bed → wetted perimeter ↑
IV. ↑ amount of loads
• more energy need to transport the loads
• ↑ loads → wetter perimeter ↑ → channel friction ↑ → energy used to
overcome friction ↑ → river velocity & energy ↓
Decrease in discharge
I. ↓ water supply
• ↓ precipitation in dry seasons / during droughts
II. ↑ water leaving the drainage basin
• e.g. ↑ evaporation; ↑ human extraction of groundwater & river water
sorting process of deposition
55

Characteristics of Different River Courses
Upper Course Middle Course Lower Course
Gradient steep less steep gentle
wider,
Cross Section of deep, narrow V- flat, very wide V-
asymmetrical V-
River Profile shaped shaped
shaped
relatively straight,
winding with big
Channel Path with bends winding
bends
around obstacles
narrow, shallow & wider, deeper & wide, deep &

Channel Shape
rough less rough smooth
Number of
small moderate large
Tributary Joined
Velocity &
Discharge low medium high
(average)
low
moderate high
(insufficient to
River energy (able to remove (except in large
remove
boulders) bodies of water)
obstacles)
Size & Shape of
large & angular mixed small & rounded
Load
Roughness of River
rough moderate smooth
Bed
Channel Friction high moderate low

mainly erosion
Major Fluvial lateral erosion & deposition &
(esp. headward &
Process transportation lateral erosion
vertical)
meanders, ox-
interlocking bow lakes,
meanders, bluffs,
spurs, gorges, floodplain,
Fluvial Landform slip-off slopes,
rapids,waterfalls, levees, braided
river cliffs
plunge pools streams, deferred
tributaries, deltas
56
57
Interlocking Spur
Interlocking Spurs
• alternate spurs on both sides of the river valley
• a winding river course around spurs
interlocking spurs — Gravina di Matera, Italy
58

Formation processes:
• limited discharge & energy → river water unable to remove obstacles
• river flows round obstacles & projecting spurs → a winding river channel
• downcutting (vertical erosion) deepens the river channel & valley → spurs
more marked
59
 
Rapid
Rapids
• turbulent currents flowing past a rough river bed
• presence of large & angular loads on the river bed
rapid — Switzerland rapid — Kurobe River
rapids — Thingvellir National Park, Iceland
< rapid in Thingvellir National Park, Iceland >
60

• alternate more resistant & less resistant rocks on the river bed
• less resistant rocks are eroded quickly by water (e.g. abrasion, hydraulic
action & solution)
• layers of more resistant rocks remain
• a step-like head of water develops
• water flows through the rugged river channel with hard rocks
• turbulent currents called rapids are formed
*Notes: More resistant rocks (hard rocks) vs less resistant rocks (soft rocks)
61

Waterfall & Plunge Pool
Waterfalls
• river flows fall vertically down a cliff
• a more resistant rock layer may lie vertically / horizontally / dipping
upstream
Gullfoss — Iceland Skogafoss — Iceland
< Gullfoss > < Skogafoss side view >
< Skogafoss front view >
*Notes: Endogentic forces (i.e. faulting), rejuvenation & human activities could
also form waterfalls.
Plunge pools
• an erosional (vertical erosion) landform at the upper course
• a round hollow with a pool of water at the base of a waterfall
62

Formation processes: [Waterfall]

• alternate more resistant & less resistant rocks are present at the river valley
• with continuous fluvial erosion
• less resistant rocks are eroded more quickly & easily → undercut the river
channel
• the overhanging more resistant rocks are left to form a waterfall
Formation processes: [Plunge Pool]

• strong hydraulic action from falling water hits & erodes the base of the
waterfall
• abrasion from large & angular boulders wear away the base of the waterfall
• continuous erosion → a hollow is formed & deepened & widened → a
plunge pool
63
Bluff
Bluffs
• an erosional (lateral erosion) landform at the middle course
• steep slopes on both sides of a river valley
bluffs — Yellow River, China
64
• meanders migrate downstream → river water removes & erodes the tips of
interlocking spurs
• lateral erosion at outer banks → river cliffs
• continuous lateral erosion → interlocking spurs retreat
• river cliffs are pushed back to join in lines at both sides of the valley
• bluffs are formed
65

Meander
Meanders
• a depositional & erosional landform at the middle & lower course
• presence of slip off slopes & river cliffs
• each bend is called a meander
River L gen — Oslo, Norway meanders — Rang rþing eystra, Iceland
Slip off slope / Point-bar

• a depositional landform at the middle & lower course
• gentle slopes at the inner / convex banks of a bending river
• water flows slowest at the inner banks
River Cliff
• an erosional landform at the middle & lower course
• steep slopes at the outer / concave banks of a bending river
• water flows fastest at the outer banks
a river cliff & a slip-off slope — Brisbane, Australia a river cliff & slip-off slopes — Taiwan
66
å

á

• gentle slope gradient → river starts to bend
• active lateral erosion at outer / concave banks of a river → river cliffs
• deposition at inner/convex banks → sediments build up → slip off slopes
• continuous lateral erosion at outer banks & deposition at inner banks
• river becomes more winding
• meanders are formed
67

Oxbow Lake
Oxbow Lakes
• a depositional & erosional landform at the lower course
• a crescent-shaped & detached meander
• oxbow lake as the cut-off (old channel) / abandoned loop
Brisbane, Australia
68
• active lateral erosion pushes 2 outer / concave banks of meanders towards
each other
• deposition occurs at the inner / convex banks
• continuous lateral erosion or floodwater cuts across the narrow neck of land
between 2 outer banks
• the river takes a new & straighter channel → little water enters the cut-off
(old channel)
• silting & deposition seal the ends of the cut-off
• an oxbow lake is formed
69
Braided Stream
Braided Streams
• a depositional landform at the lower course
• a main stream that is split into several separated shallow channels before
re-joining again
• presence of vegetated islands & unvegetated ephemeral sand bars
• vegetation growth stabilises some of the bars
• usually found in rivers with large amount of loads
braided streams — Thingvellir National Park, Iceland
braided streams — Thingvellir National Park, Iceland
70

• during dry seasons, discharge & water level ↓ → river energy ↓
• low sand bars / ridges are formed on the river bed due to deposition
• during wet seasons, discharge & water level ↑ → river energy ↑
• blocked by low ridges, river water is forced to flow around them before re-
joining to form the main stream again
• the split channels are called braided streams
71

Floodplain, Levee & Deferred Tributary
Floodplains
• a depositional landform adjacent to river channels
• sediments brought to both sides of the river fill depressions → a flat surface
• flatland / lowland / very wide V-shaped river valley
• deposits on floodplains are fertile alluvial soil called alluvium (high crop yield
& crop diversification)
Levees
• a depositional landform parallel to river channels.
• a low ridge-like feature at the river banks
Deferred Tributaries
• tributaries that flows parallel to the main stream for a distance on
floodplains
• levees form barriers to tributaries until they break through the levees to join
the main stream
• the junction of the main stream & a tributary is deferred
floodplain — Sussex, UK
72
 

Formation processes: [Floodplain]

• during flooding, flood water overflows & carries loads to adjacent valley
floors
• deposition occurs when flood water slows down & stops
• finer, smaller & smoother loads are deposited further away from the river
channel
• repeated flooding & deposition build up an extensive flatland called
floodplain
Formation processes: [Levee]

• during flooding, flood water overflows & carries loads to adjacent valley
floors
• heavier, larger & coarser loads are deposited on river banks → ridges
parallel to the channel
• repeated flooding & the accumulation of large & coarse sediments raise
ridges
• levees are formed
73
 
Delta
Deltas
• a depositional landform at the river mouth
• at times, marshes & lagoons are formed in a delta
Favourable conditions
• active erosion at upper course
• lack of lakes / reservoirs along the river
• serious soil erosion in the river basin
• river water with sufficient loads
• low river velocity when entering the sea
• gentle gradient along the coast & at river mouth
• rate of deposition > rate of erosion
• shallow sea water & river mouth
• presence of vegetation at river mouth
• sheltered bay — wave refraction → wave energy is weak & dispersed
• weak onshore winds
• weak tidal & offshore currents
river mouth — Japan river mouth — Tung Chung River, HK
74

• the river flow enters the sea → river velocity & energy ↓
• deposition & silting occurs at the river mouth
• fine sediments aggregates into thicker & heavier particles in saline seawater
through flocculation
• in dry seasons, sediments block the main stream channel
• in wet seasons with higher discharge & velocity, the river breaks through the
blocking deposits → splits into smaller branching channels called
distributaries
• repeated blocking & breaking through → deposits extend seaward
• a fan-shaped mudflat called delta is gradually built up
75
 
76
 
PART III.
COASTAL LANDFORM &
MANAGEMENT
Characteristics of Waves
Structure of Waves
• wave crest: the highest point of a wave
• wave trough: the lowest point of a wave
• wavelength: the horizontal distance between 2 wave crests & a wave
trough
• wave height: the vertical distance between a wave crest & a wave trough
• wave frequency: the number of waves per minute
Wind-generated waves
• waves are generated by winds blowing over the sea, through the transfer of
energy from moving air to water surface
• wave energy depends on the velocity, duration & fetch of winds
77
Types of Waves
Constructive Waves Destructive Waves
Frequency lower higher
Coastal gentle steep

Gradient
Wave Energy low high
Swash & strong swash & weak weak swash & strong
Backwash backwash backwash
deposition erosion
Coastal Process build up materials on the remove materials from the
coast coast
< constructive waves >
Wave Breakers
• in shallow seawater — wave velocity & wavelength ↓ → wave height ↑
• water particles cannot return to the original position in a circular orbit
• frictions between waves → waves to break on the shore → breakers
Spilling breakers Plunging breakers
Coastal gentle steep

Gradient
Wave Energy low high
Coastal deposition erosion

Process
78
Fetch, Swash & Backwash
Fetch
• the maximum distance of open water over which wind blows & waves travel
without any land obstruction
• more open sea → longer fetch → higher wave energy
Swash & Backwash

• swash — water pushed up the coast after waves break
• backwash — water retreat to the sea under gravity
Reynisfjara Beach, Iceland Lama Monachile Beach, Italy
(solid arrow = swash; dotted arrow = backwash)
79
Wave Refraction
Wave Refraction
• parallel wave fronts approach the shore → bend towards the shore
• at exposed headland — wave energy is strong & concentrated → erosion
• at sheltered bay — wave energy is weak & dispersed → deposition
80

Tidal range
Tidal Range
• the area between the high tide level & low tide level → the zone of attack
(wave attack by erosion)
• high (low) tide mark = highest (lowest) level of tide
• narrow tidal range → wave energy is strong & concentrated → erosion
• wide tidal range → wave energy is weak & dispersed → deposition
Torre Guaceto Beach, Italy Cheung Sha Beach, HK
(Circle = high tide mark; Arrow = swash; Dotted arrow = backwash)
81
Wave Erosion
4 Types of Erosion
Abrasion / Corrasion
• wearing away of the sea bed & cliff face by sediments
• sediments carried by waves grind against the sea bed & cliff face → a sandblasting effec
resistant rocks
• large & angular loads / during storm conditions → erosive power ↑
Attrition
• collision of rock fragments in seawater → wear down of sediments
• rocks knock against each other → break down into smaller pieces
Hydraulic action
• removal of loose small rock fragments along cracks on cliff face
• waves exerts pressure on cracks as air parcel inside is compressed → cracks enlarged
• repeated deepening & widening of cracks → loosened rock debris → removed by seawa
Solution / Corrosion
• removal of soluble minerals (e.g. calcium) from sediments by seawater
• soluble minerals are dissolved in seawater → sediments weakened
• more active when sediments contains many soluble minerals (e.g. limestone); or under a
acidic water
82
Wave Transportation
4 Types of Transportation
Solution
• soluble minerals dissolved & carried by waves
Suspension
• small & suspended particles are carried by waves without touching the sea bed
Saltation
• larger particles moving in a series of hops & bounces along the sea bed
Traction
• very large particles, which cannot be lifted above the sea bed, roll / slide on the sea bed
83
Longshore Drift
Longshore Drift
• eroded materials are transported from headlands & deposited along a
beach
• the zigzag movement of sediments along the shore by waves
• swash moves sediments up the shore at oblique angle (following the
direction of onshore winds)
• backwash moves sediments down at right angle (∵ force of gravity)
• repeated swash & backwash → sediments move across the bay
a beach formed by longshore drift — Seven Sisters Cliffs, UK
84
Coastal Deposition
Deposition
• when wave energy is insufficient to move the loads → deposit as sediments
sand deposits — Pattaya, Thailand
pebble deposits — J kuls l n, Iceland pebble deposits — Lama Monachile Beach, Italy
< Lama Monachile Beach, Italy >
85

ö
á
ó

Coastal Erosional Landform
Favourable Conditions
• strong prevailing winds
• long fetch → stronger winds → stronger waves
• destructive waves with plunging breakers
• steep offshore gradient & deep offshore sea water (removing eroded
materials)
• weak swash & strong backwash
• wave refraction occurs in the exposed headland
• narrow tidal range → wave energy is strong & concentrated
• presence of well-jointed rocks that are eroded easily (e.g. tuff & rhyolite)
1 4
2 5
3 6
< Reynisfjara Coastal Landforms >
86

Coastal Depositional Landform
Favourable Conditions
• weak prevailing winds
• short fetch → low wind speed → weak wave energy
• constructive waves with spilling breakers
• gentle offshore gradient & shallow offshore sea water (favours sediments
accumulation)
• strong swash & weak backwash
• wave refraction occurs in the sheltered bay (wave attack ↓)
• wide tidal range → wave energy is weak & dispersed
• presence of river mouth & delta → large amount of loads & sediments
• presence of obstacles / marram grass on the coast to stabilise sediments
sandy beach — Pattaya, Thailand
87
Sea Cliff & Wave-cut Platform
Sea Cliff
• a steep / vertical rock face along the coastline
sea cliff — Seven Sisters Cliffs, UK wave-cut notch — Polignano a Mare, Italy
Wave-cut Platform
• a flat & bare rock surface in front of a sea cliff
sea cliff & wave-cut platform — Sussex, UK sea cliff & wave-cut platforms — Lama Monachile Beach, Italy
88
• destructive waves cut out a wave-cut notch at the base of cliff through wave
erosion (e.g. hydraulic action, abrasion & solution)
• continuous destructive waves → the notch to be deepened & widened →
the notch retreats
• the overhanging part of the notch collapses to form a sea cliff
• continuous undercutting → sea cliff to retreat inland

• a wave-cut platform is formed

Sea Cave & Geo
Sea Cave
• a tunnel-like hollow formed at the base of a sea cliff
• formed between the high tide & low tide level where wave energy is
concentrated
sea cave — Reynisfjara Beach, Iceland sea caves — Lama Monachile Beach, Italy
Geo
• a long & narrow fissure on the cliff face
geos on an offshore island — Shek O, HK geo on a headland — Cape D’ Aguilar, HK
< inside a geo, Cape D’ Aguilar >
90

 
• with weathered & less resistant rocks (e.g. tuff)
• wave erosion (e.g. hydraulic action & abrasion) occurs in the zone of wave
attack between high tide & low tide level
• continuous erosion deepens & widens the lines of weakness at the base of
sea cliffs
• a sea cave is formed
• waves splash against the roof of the narrow cave

• the roof is too heavy & collapses (without mechanical support)
• an elongated crack called a geo is formed
91
 
Sea Arch & Stack
Sea Arch
• a natural bridge formed when a sea cave cuts through the headland
sea arch — Jeju-do, South Korea
Stack
• a mass of rock with steep sides
stacks — Reynisfjara Beach, Iceland
sea arch, stacks & stump — Reynisfjara Beach, Iceland
92
• weathered & less resistant rocks such as tuff are present
• wave erosion (e.g. hydraulic action) occurs in the zone between high tide
level & low tide level
• continuous erosion deepens & widens the lines of weakness on the sea cliff
• sea caves are formed
• the sea cave is eroded overtime

• waves cut through the cave to form a sea arch
• the overhanging part of the arch is too heavy & collapses (without
mechanical support)
• a stack is formed standing offshore
93

Beach
Beach
• formed by the deposition of eroded materials
• 3 types of beach — sandy beach, pebble beach & boulder beach
sandy beach — Melbourne, Australia sandy beach— Big Wave Bay, Hong Kong
pebble beach — Lama Monachile Beach, Italy pebble beach — J kuls l n, Iceland
boulder beach — Shek O, Hong Kong boulder beach — Jeju-do, South Korea
94
ö
á
ó

• longshore drift brings sediments to the coast in a zig-zag pattern
• swash moves materials in oblique angle
• backwash at right angle (∵ force of gravity)
• materials move in zig-zag pattern
• sediments build up & accumulate on the shore
• continuous constructive waves & deposition
• sediments expand to form a beach
*Notes: Beach can be a ‘shock absorber’ to dissipate wave energy & protect cliff lines.
95

Spit & Bar
Spit
• a narrow ridge of sediments (e.g. sand / shingle)
• one end of a spit is attached to a headland while the other end extends into
the sea
• the end of a spit is curved / hooked (∵ ocean currents)
• sediments accumulates behind the spit, forming mudflats & salt marshes
Bar
• a narrow ridge of sediments (e.g. sand / shingle)
• a spit that extends across sea & connects another point of the headland
• a freshwater lake or lagoon is often found behind a bar
96
• longshore drift occurs (+ wind direction)
• swash moves materials in oblique angle
• backwash at right angle (∵ force of gravity)
• materials move in a zig-zag pattern
• sediments build up & extend seaward
• a spit is formed where the coastline changes at the bay
• the spit gradually extends further across the bay → joining 2 headlands
• a bar is formed
97

 
Tombolo
Tombolo
• a narrow ridge of sand where 2 islands join / an island joins the mainland
• formed either:
- a spit connects a headland / mainland & an offshore island
- 2 spits join together
• < formation of spit >
• continuous longshore drifts → spit(s) grows from a headland / mainland or
an island to an island
• when the spit joins the headland & the island // 2 spits join → tombolo
Ap Lei Pai, Hong Kong Sharp Island & Kiu Tau, Hong Kong
98
Sand Dune
Sand Dunes
• coastal sand dunes are ridges of sand found at the top of a beach
• generally formed by air movement of sediments (onshore prevailing winds)
Favourable conditions:
• abundant sediment supply
• strong onshore prevailing winds
• presence of vegetation cover to trap the sand (e.g. marram grass)
• large tidal range (deposition ↑)
• flat & wide beach face
vegetated sand dunes — Torre Guaceto Beach, Italy vegetated sand dunes — Bribie Island
Australia
• prevalent onshore winds transport sand from the beach area
• sand is deposited around objects & vegetation
• continuous onshore winds → further accumulation of sand
• dunes develop further inland through a succession — youngest yellow
dunes → more vegetated & stable grey older dunes
• continuous sediment supply → the height of dunes increases until the
supply diminishes inland
• a series of ridges separated by slacks is formed parallel to the coastline
99
Coastal Protection — Structural / Hard Engineering
• with the use of structural engineering methods & man-made structures

• to block, reflect, absorb & dissipate incoming waves & wave energy →
protect the coastline & human activities
Sea Walls
• concrete / stone walls built on the inland part of the coast & parallel to the
coastline to reflect wave energy
Merits:
• protect coastal areas (e.g. settlements / human activities)
• reflect / block waves & wave energy
• ↓ wave erosion
• ↓ economic loss / loss of lives
Limitations:
• high construction & maintenance costs
• make the coast more difficult to access
• waves are deflected (∵ wave refraction) → wave erosion elsewhere
• wave reflection → turbulence → scour away sediments → undercut the
wall
• destroy natural scenery
sea wall — Trani, Italy sea wall — Giovinazzo, Italy
100

Breakwaters
• long piers built offshore to reflect, absorb & dissipate wave energy\
• wave erosion is concentrated at breakwaters instead of attacking the
coastline
• commonly found in typhoon shelters
Merits:
• protect coastal areas (e.g. mud-flat / settlements / human activities)
• reflect / absorb / disperse / refract / block waves & wave energy
• ↓ the economic loss/ loss of lives
• to build typhoon shelters → protect enclosed areas & vessel anchorage
from wave attack
Limitations:
• high construction & maintenance costs
• difficult to repair offshore breakwaters
• waves are deflected (∵ wave refraction) → wave erosion elsewhere
• low wave velocity & energy behind breakwaters → silting problems
• shallower water behind breakwaters & offshore structures affect navigation
& shipping routes
• interfere with natural marine ecosystems
breakwaters & a typhoon shelter — Causeway Bay, HK breakwaters — Bari, Italy
101
Rock Armour
• large, heavy & irregular rocks or concrete placed parallel to the coastline
• spaces between rock armour soak up the wave energy & drain away sea
water
Merits:
• reflect / absorb / dissipate / block waves & wave energy
Limitations:
• rocks need to be large enough to remain stable (3 tonnes in weight)
• very costly if rocks are imported
• potential danger to children
• make the coast more difficult to access
rock armour — Monopoli, Italy rock armour — East Dam, High Island Reservoir, HK
rock armour — Giovinazzo, Italy rock armour — Naples, Italy
102
Groynes
• rock / wood barriers built at right angles to the coastline
• trap sediments moving across the beach → limit the effect of longshore drift
Merits:
• low maintenance cost
• stabilise beach deposits
Limitations:
• block longshore drift
• ↓ supply of sediments further along the coast
• starved of deposits → coast further away more vulnerable to wave erosion
• trap sand on one side → erosion on the other side
groynes — Cheung Sha Beach, HK
groynes — Sussex, UK
103
Revetments
• wood structures with open spaces to absorb wave energy
Merits:
• absorb / dissipate waves & wave energy
• easily constructed
• less costly than other hard engineering structures (e.g. sea walls)
Limitations:
• limited lifespan
• cannot withstand strong waves (esp. storm conditions)
Gabions
• cages of rocks placed parallel to the coastline
• spaces between rocks soak up the wave energy
Merits:
• absorb / dissipate waves & wave energy
• easily constructed
• less costly than other hard engineering structures (e.g. rock armour & sea
walls)
Limitations:
• small scale protection
• cannot withstand strong waves (esp. storm conditions)
104
Coastal Protection — Non-structural / Soft Engineering
• aim to minimise human obstruction while maximising natural processes

• often result in the creation of a natural environment
Beach Nourishment
• placement of large volumes of good quality sand / shingle to widen &
stabilise the beach & shoreline
Merits:
• absorb more wave energy
• provide additional beach areas for recreational activities
• maintain the beach landscape
• more effective in conserving coastal resources (e.g. ecology, scenery,
recreational resources, etc)
Limitations:
• less effective in areas with strong waves
• replenished sand is washed away by continuous longshore drift
• sand needs to be added periodically / not long-lasting
• require constant maintenance (esp. after typhoons / storm surges)
• high maintenance cost (esp. when sand is imported)
*Notes: Sand dunes may be constructed at the back of a nourished beach.
105
Vegetation Planting
• planting vegetation on sea cliffs → slope stability ↑ → coastline less
vulnerable to wave erosion
Merits:
• roots of vegetation can bind loose soil tightly
• ↑ slope stability → stabilise the shore
• less costly to implement
Limitations:
• difficult to plant vegetation on steep cliffs
• appropriate tree species needed
• extreme weather may interrupt the growth of vegetation
• heavy vegetation cover → shear stress on slope ↑ → risk of slope failure ↑
• vegetation cover → biological weathering → shear strength of slope ↓
• trees take time to grow
Coral Reef Planting

• coral reef acts as barriers to protect the shore from wave erosion
Merits:
• ↓ velocity of incoming waves
• dissipate / absorb / disperse / block waves & wave energy
• provide a habitat for marine lives
Limitations:
• coral reef can only grow in marine habitats with good water quality
• water pollution → infeasible
• need to replant after a period of time as coral dies
106
Mangrove Planting
• roots of mangroves bind the loose soil tightly
• protect the coast from erosion by strong waves & winds
Merits:
• ↓ wave/ wind erosion
• favour the formation of mudflat at the river mouth
• sand trapped by roots of mangrove favours deposition
• expansion of shallow water area
• less damage to existing coastal environment / ecosystem
Limitations:
• cannot reduce strong wave erosion during adverse weather conditions /
typhoons / storm surges
• fragile plants → easily destroyed (esp. young mangroves)
• careful protection needed
• take a long time to achieve coastal protection
mangrove trees — Australia
107
108
PART IV.
WEATHER & CLIMATE
Weather vs Climate
Weather
• the state of the atmosphere / atmospheric conditions at a given time & place
- constantly changing, from hour to hour / day to day
- weather is what you get
Climate
• the average of daily weather conditions over many years (typically >30yrs)
- characterises seasons & geography
- climate is what you expect
*Notes: One chooses what clothes to buy based on the climate, and what
clothes to wear based on the weather.
weather instruments — Hong Kong Observatory
109
Factors Affecting Temperature Pattern
Angle of Sun / Angle of Incidence

• the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth’s surface
• the Earth’s curved surface → uneven distribution & intensity of insolation
(incoming solar radiation) in different latitudes
• in general,
- ↑ latitude → annual range of T°C ↑
- ↑ latitude → annual mean T°C ↓
Low Latitude High Latitude
Angle of Sun higher lower
Intensity of Insolation higher lower
Distribution of strong & concentrated weak & dispersed over

Insolation over a smaller area a larger area
Distance of
shorter longer
Atmosphere Travelled
Insolation Absorbed
less more
by Atmosphere
Insolation Absorbed
more less
by Land
T°C higher lower
110
 
Seasons
• the Earth is currently tilted 23.5° from perpendicular to towards Polaris
• tilt of the Earth on its axis & revolution → orientation of the Earth to the
Sun’s ray is constantly changing
111
Atmosphere
• at around 23.5°N & 23.5°S, the Earth’s surface receives the maximum
amount of insolation due to atmosphere conditions:
- at the equatorial regions, strong uprising convection currents → large
amount of cloud cover reflects much of insolation
- at around 23.5°N/S, drier climate → little cloud cover to reflect
insolation → more insolation reaches the ground surface directly
Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere

1. conduction — the transfer of heat through the vibration of molecules in a
substance (↑ heat =↑ vibration)
2. convection — the transfer of heat by circulation or mass movement within
a substance (i.e. gases, liquids, etc.)
3. radiation — the transfer of heat in the form of waves / particles (i.e. light,
sound, etc.)
112
Air Pressure
• pressure anywhere in the atmosphere is the weight of air above
• Sea Level Pressure (SLP) = weight of the air at sea level
• air T°C ↑ → pressure ↓
• altitude ↑ → pressure ↓
- pressure decreases faster near ground surface; less so aloft (∵
higher density near surface)
• high pressure → often clear sky & fine weather
• low pressure → often cloudy & rainy
• influence of airflow on air pressure
- no vertical air motion: convergence → high pressure; divergence →
low pressure
- with vertical air motion: convergence → low pressure; divergence →
high pressure
no vertical air motion
with vertical air motion
113
Land & Sea

• affect T°C distribution pattern at the same latitudes
• ↑ distance from sea → annual range of T°C ↑
• due to the difference in specific heating capacity between land mass
(land) & water body (sea)
Specific heat capacity

• the amount of heat required to change the T°C of a substance by a given
amount (e.g. 1°C)
• land has a smaller heating capacity than water → land absorbs & releases
heat more rapidly than water
• convection distributes heat through a large mass of water → water absorbs
& loses heat more slowly
Seasons Inland areas Coastal areas
sea absorbs heat slower

land absorbs heat quicker
Summer (convection) → lower T°C
(conduction) → higher T°C
(Cooling effect)
sea releases heat slower

land releases heat quicker
Winter → higher T°C (Warming
→ lower T°C
effect)
Range of T°C larger smaller
Example Moscow St Petersburg
Climate continental climate maritime climate
114
Wind Pattern
Example: Hong Kong
Onshore Wind Offshore Wind

(sea breeze) (land breeze)
wind blows from sea to wind blows from land to

Origin
land sea
Season summer winter
Wind Direction S / SW N /NE

Relative
Higher Lower
Humidity
Wind cool & moist wind cold & dry wind
*Notes: Onshore & offshore winds can also be found near the shores of large
lakes (e.g. the Great Lakes).
115
 
Day-time
• land absorbs heat more quickly
• air T°C over land is higher
• air particles are heated up (→ molecules more energetic → bounce around
more) & expand
• air particles become less dense & lighter
• air particles rise
• low air pressure on the ground level
• high air pressure in the atmosphere above the land
• sea absorbs heat more slowly

• air T°C over the sea is lower
• air particles are cools & contract
• air particles become denser & heavier
• air particles sink
• high pressure near the sea surface
• low pressure in the atmosphere above the sea
• air moves along pressure gradient, from high pressure areas to low
pressure areas
• movement of air forms winds
• winds blowing from land to sea is called the sea breeze / onshore winds
116
 
Night-time
• land releases heat more quickly
• air T°C over the land is colder
• air particles are colder (→ molecules less energetic → bounce around less)
& contract
• air particles become denser & heavier
• air particles sink
• high pressure near the ground level
• low pressure in the atmosphere above the land
• sea releases heat more slowly

• air T°C over the sea is higher
• air particles are warmer & rise
• low pressure near the sea surface
• high air pressure in the atmosphere above the sea
• air moves along pressure gradient, from high pressure areas to low
pressure areas
• movement of air forms winds
• wind blowing from land to sea is called the land breeze / offshore wind
117
 
Ocean Currents
• seawater circulating along fixed routes
Warm Ocean Currents

• from areas with warm seawater to areas with lower sea T°C
- i.e. equatorial regions → polar regions
• bring warmth & moisture to coastal regions (warming effect)
- air T°C are higher in coastal regions proximate to warm ocean
currents → stronger rising air → condensation & precipitation ↑
Cold Ocean Currents
• from areas with cold seawater to areas with higher sea T°C
- i.e. polar regions → equatorial regions
• bring cold & dry air to coastal regions (cooling effect)
*Notes: Ocean currents here refer to surface currents.
Warm Currents Cold Currents
Air humid & warm cool & dry
Effect warming effect cooling effect
Coastal Climate wet dry
Example east coast of South west coast of South

America America
118

Altitude / Environmental Lapse Rate
• ↑ altitude → air T°C ↓

• environmental lapse rate — elevation / altitude increases by 1000m → air
T°C decreases by 6 / 6.5°C
• lower air density at higher sea levels & little obstacles / friction → wind
speed ↑ → more heat dispersed → air T°C ↓
• thinner & purer air at higher sea levels → less water vapour, CO2 & dust to
absorb heat → air T°C ↓
Cloud cover
• insolation is reflected, scattered & absorbed by clouds

• ↑ thickness of cloud cover → reflection, scattering & absorption ↑
119
Equatorial Regions (e.g. tropical rainforests)

• thicker cloud cover (∵ strong rising air currents) → more radiation loss /
insolation reflected back to space
• smaller variation in daytime & night-time T°C (smaller diurnal range of T°C)
Regions in 30°N/S (e.g. tropical deserts)

• less / thinner cloud cover (∵ sinking air currents) → less radiation loss /
insolation reflected back to space
• larger variation in daytime & night-time T°C (larger diurnal range of T°C)
120

Pressure Belt & Planetary Wind System
• the amount of insolation received is the major factor affecting air T°C
• T°C affects air pressure
• air pressure affects wind direction & wind speed
• air T°C, air pressure & wind direction affect precipitation & relative humidity
Major Pressure Belts

Equatorial Low
• at the equatorial regions (10°N -10°S)
• low latitude → high angle of sun → insolation is strong & concentrated →
high air T°C
• air heats up & expands → air becomes less dense & lighter → a low
pressure belt
121
Polar Highs
• near the poles (90°N / 90°S)
• high latitude → low angle of sun → insolation is weak & dispersed → very
low air T°C
• air cools & sinks → air becomes denser & heavier → high pressure belts
Subtropical Highs
• at around 30°N & 30°S
• rising air from Equator moves towards the poles → air T°C decreases with
increasing latitude
• air cools & sinks → air becomes denser & heavier → high pressure belts
Subpolar Lows
• at around 60°N & 60°S
• a warmer air mass from subtropical highs meet a cooler air mass from polar
highs
• 2 air masses converge → warmer air mass rises → low pressure belts
*Notes: As the overhead sun move between the tropics, major pressure belts
& subsequently wind belts also shift northwards & southwards.
Planetary Wind System
Coriolis Force
• caused by the rotation of Earth from west to east
• ↑ latitude → strength of Coriolis force ↑
- zero / weakest near Equator (0°); strongest near the poles (90°N/S)
• air currents are deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
• air currents are deflected to the left in the Southern Hemisphere
122
Polar easterlies
• from 90°N to 60°N & from 90°S to 60°S
• winds blowing from polar highs to subpolar lows
Westerlies
• from 30°N to 60°N & from 30°S to 60°S
• winds blowing from subtropical highs to subpolar lows
Trade Winds
• from 30°N & 30°S to 0°(excluding doldrums)
• winds blowing from subtropical highs to the equatorial low
• converging winds at the Equator
Doldrums
• along the equatorial low (between NE & SE trade winds)
• little pressure variation → light winds
Horse Latitudes
• along subtropical highs (between the Hadley cell & Ferrel cell)
• slow sinking air → calm / light winds
Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

• low pressure areas where trade winds converge
• trade winds pick up heat by latent heat exchange from warm tropical
oceans → converge & rise in equatorial regions → convection currents
• the unstable, warm, moist air is cooled adiabatically → towering clouds /
cumulonimbus → convective rainfall
• location of ITCZ varies throughout the year (shifts along with overhead sun)
• at the equator:
- ITCZ over land drifts farther north / south than ITCZ over oceans
• in tropical latitudes:
- ITCZ → shifts in low pressure & tropical humid climates (seasonal
rains)
123
 

Relative Humidity, Dew Point & Condensation
Relative Humidity (R.H.)

• ratio an air parcel’s actual amount of water vapour v.s. maximum capacity
• ratio of air's actual water vapour content v.s. amount of water vapour
required for saturation at that T°C
• about whether the air is saturated (NOT about the actual moisture content
in the air)
• 2 ways to change relative humidity:
I. ↑ / ↓ water vapour in the air
II. ↑ / ↓ the air T°C
Dew Point Temperature

• dew point T°C is the T°C when saturation occurs
- air T°C reaches dew point T°C → saturation occurs
• below dew point T°C → humid air condenses into water droplets
T°C 30°C 20°C 10°C
R.H. 10% 40% 100%
Dew Point T°C 10°C 10°C 10°C
Saturation no no yes
*Notes: Saturation occurs when:

• air T°C = dew point T°C
• R.H. = 100%
124
Condensation
• excess water vapour gathers on suspended particles in the air → water
droplets
• condensation level — altitude / elevation level where condensation occurs
• condensation nuclei — particles acting as surfaces for water vapour to
condense
Conditions for Cloud Formation

• air must be saturated
• there must be a surface where water vapour can condense
- i.e. Cloud Condensation Nuclei (for low clouds) or Ice Nuclei (for high
clouds)
low clouds & high clouds
125
Precipitation
Precipitation
• as the falling of water from clouds
- in liquid form — rain
- in solid form — hail
Formation of rain:
• the Earth’s surface is heated up by intense insolation
• air in contact with the ground is heated up (∵ conduction) & expands
• air becomes less dense & lighter → rises
• air cools & contracts
• ↓ maximum capacity to hold water vapour → R.H. ↑
• when R.H. reaches 100% & air T°C reaches the dew point
• saturation occur
• at the condensation level, excess water vapour gathers around
condensation nuclei to form water droplets through condensation
• water droplets grow bigger & gather to form clouds
• water droplets become too heavy for rising air currents to support
• water droplets fall to the ground as rain
rainfall — Geneva, Switzerland
126
Convection Rain — Convective lifting
• the Earth’s surface is heated up by intense insolation

• air in contact with the ground is heated up due to conduction and expands
• air becomes less dense & lighter → strong vertical rising currents
• saturation occurs
• strong rising currents help water droplets develop into thick clouds
• water droplets become too heavy for rising currents to support
• heavy rain occurs [convection rain]
127
 

Relief Rain — Orographic Lifting
• moist onshore winds from the sea meet a mountain slope

• air mass is forced to rise along the windward slope
• warm air rises
• water droplets grow bigger & gather to form clouds
• rain along the windward slope of the mountain [relief rain]
• dehydrated air moves across the mountain → sinks on the leeward slope →
becomes warm & dry
• areas receiving little rain along the leeward slope is known as rain shadow
128
 
Frontal Rain — Frontal Wedging
• warm air mass meets cold air mass

• warm air mass is forced to rise along the front separating both air masses,
as cold air is denser & heavier
• warm air rises
• water droplets grow bigger & gather to form towering clouds
• rain occurring along the front [frontal rain]
129
 
Monsoon System
• monsoon winds are a system characterised by seasonal reversals of winds

& precipitation (summer rains, winter dryness)
Asian—Australian (East Asia Monsoon & Indian Monsoon)

Summer Monsoon — July
• in July, the overhead sun is located at 23.5°N
• in N.H. (summer), with high angle of sun → insolation is strong &
concentrated over a small area
• the continental interior of Asian landmass is intensely heated up
• air in contact with the land is heated up through conduction & expands →
becomes less dense & lighter → rises
• air pressure is low → an intense low pressure cell
• in S.H. (winter), with low angle of sun → insolation is weak & dispersed over
a large area
• the northern & central Australian landmass is cold
• air in contact with the land cools through conduction & contracts →
becomes denser & heavier → sinks
• air pressure is high → a high pressure cell
• the Pacific Ocean & Indian Ocean are cooler than the Asian landmass due
to the higher specific heat capacity of water (absorbs heat less quickly)
• air pressure is relatively higher over the ocean
• winds blow from high pressure to low pressure (Australian landmass →
Pacific Ocean & Indian Ocean → Asian landmass)
• with Coriolis force, winds are deflected to the left in S.H. → crossing the
equator → deflected to the right in N.H.
• southeast onshore winds from Pacific Ocean & Southwest onshore winds
from Indian Ocean
130
Winter Monsoon — January

• in January, the overhead sun is located at 23.5°S
• in S.H. (summer), with high angle of sun → insolation is strong &
concentrated over a small area
• the northern & central Australian landmass is intensely heated up
• air in contact with the land is heated up through conduction & expands →
becomes less dense & lighter → rises
• air pressure is low → a low pressure cell
• in N.H. (winter), with low angle of sun → insolation is weak & dispersed
over a large area
• the continental interior of Asian landmass is extremely cold
• air in contact with the land cools through conduction & contracts →
becomes denser & heavier → sinks
• air pressure is high → an intense high pressure cell
• the Pacific Ocean & Indian Ocean are warmer than the Asian landmass due
to the higher heating capacity of water (releases heat less quickly)
• air pressure is relatively lower over the ocean
• winds blow from high pressure to low pressure (Asian landmass → Pacific
Ocean & Indian Ocean → Australian landmass)
• with Coriolis force, winds are deflected to the left in N.H. → crossing the
equator → deflected to the right in S.H.
• northwest onshore winds to Pacific Ocean & Northeast onshore winds to
Indian Ocean
*Notes: Winds from the high pressure cell are drawn by the low pressure cell
& cross the equator.
131
Tropical Cyclone
• cyclone — the air circulation around any low-pressure centre (however

large / intense)
• a tropical cyclone — a cyclone originating over tropical / subtropical oceans
Structures of Tropical Cyclones

• Eye — the centre of air circulation
- lowest atmospheric pressure
- descending air & relatively calm
- cloud-free (no precipitation)
• Eye wall — an area of cumulonimbus towers
- strongest thunderstorms & heaviest precipitation
- strongest winds circulating around the eye
• Vortex — an area with rapid rising air
- towering clouds
Characteristics
• usually a steep pressure gradient force
- steeper pressure gradient force = closer isobars = ↑ wind speed
• in the N.H. under the Coriolis force
- air moves into the low pressure centre in an anticlockwise direction
- air circulates → develops into surface convergence
• over the equator (5ºS - 5ºN), the Coriolis force is too weak to deflect winds
& to create a circulation → few tropical cyclones formed
HKO’s tropical cyclone warning signals

132

 
Formation & Diminishment
• in summer months (June, July & August) of the N.H.
• the overhead sun is located above the N.H.
• in low latitude tropical oceans, with high angle of sun → insolation is strong
& concentrated
• ocean T°C is high (> 26.5°C)
• great latent heat from the ocean surface — a huge amount of water
evaporates into water vapour that rises & condenses
• great sensible heat from the warm ocean water due to conduction, as heat
& moisture rise
• high humidity over the tropical oceans
• air is heated up & expands → less dense & lighter

• humid rising air → towering clouds of the tropical storm (i.e. eye-wall)
• strong convection → strong rising air through the eye → a low pressure cell
• wind flows outwards above the storm → dense cirrus overcasts
• cooled air subsides → a vortex
• tropical cyclone moves over the ocean while picking up more energy (heat)
& moisture
• tropical cyclone grows under continuous rising air → towering clouds
• light winds steer the tropical cyclone
• when the tropical cyclone moves over colder water → loses its heat source
& energy
or
• when the cyclone reaches the continent → loses its moisture supply
• friction on land (e.g. highland & mountain) → wind speed ↓
• the tropical cyclone quickly weakens & dissipates
133

134
 
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look back at, then Francis would go back and explain it again. Also, I think his
notes would teach the person who has it really good at Geography, because
he teaches really good and he knows a lot about Geography, and I think it’s
better if you can have the notes because you can memorise things better.
Sometimes, if it’s really serious, he will be serious about the work, but not
be like so strict. If he feels like I'm very tired, he will make the class really fun
and I can learn still learn at the same time instead of being so strict and
boring.”
— MICHELLE POON, Kingston International School Hong Kong
“As a tutor, Francis teaches very well. As a person, he is nice and friendly, and
sometimes funny and humorous, so it’s not boring to have his lessons.
Especially when you are tired, he will talk about some interesting things so
you won't feel like it's very hard to keep going.”
— JOWAN NG, Harrow International School Hong Kong
136

“Personally, I appreciated the teaching of Francis, as he provided a variety of

practices and resources, such as mock papers from publisher, by-topic MC-
questions, and news-extract, which were related to what I learned to enhance
my Geography knowledge and the exam skills.
Although I didn’t attend any large-scale tutorial classes for Geography, I
believe that lessons taught by Francis are absolutely the best choice — the
knowledge I need to consolidate in and matters that I can improve on were all
based on my learning progress, unlike other large-scale tutorial centres.
As a tutor, Francis is patient, passionate and warm. He explains the
content in detail and has taught whatever he knows in Geography and
encouraged me during my study. After having months of lessons with Francis,
I can feel that he is a nice, gentle person with a little humour sometimes.
Rather than a tutor, most of the time I feel Francis as a nice fellow.”
— NELSON CHAN, St. Francis Xavier's College

HKDSE
“Francis is a very good teacher. He helps you in many ways and he's not like
other teachers who are very strict on their works. He teaches you in a way
where it's strict but you don't feel that it's strict and you get your work done.
He's also very smart, like my grades have improved very much once I've
had his classes. Rather than giving you the whole part of the thing, like a
certain topic, he tells you what you need to remember, give you the
papers and the works and the notes on it and once you know that, then you're
ready for all your tests.”
— ATIF JAVED, Island School

Cambridge IGCSE
137

“Overall, Francis is very knowledgeable in the subject of Geography and good

at pulling out key points of each chapter. Before the lessons, I was confused
with what was going on with the first chapter of Freshwater. After our lessons,
I was able to gain a further understanding of this subject and how it really
works, therefore, letting me understand things more clearly.”
— MATTHEW KOO, Institut Le Rosey

IBDP (HL)
“Francis is the tutor that I’m looking for. He has good and organised
resources, like his notes. They are also helpful in getting sections of
homework that I don’t know how to do done, so I'm usually pretty prepared for
school and able to get my homework done with his materials.”
— YANNIS FONG, West Island School

Edexcel IGCSE
“Francis’ materials are really useful, especially before exams. The keywords in
his materials are easy to remember, like I can recall all the concepts once I
remember those keywords. These helped me a lot.”
— CAMEROON KHOO, Abingdon School

Edexcel IGCSE
“Francis uses a lot of real-life examples to relate to different geographical

concepts in rivers, like the example of teppanyaki and hotpot; and to imagine
running on sand, which are very easy to remember. Also, the notes are very
clear and there are many practice papers like multiple-choice exercise that are
very useful.”
— CHASE WONG, South Island School
Caterham Entrance Exam
138
“In lessons, I really enjoyed having class, they also helped me cover
knowledge gaps and things I don't really know. In addition, those notes are
really useful! As a person, Francis is really thoughtful, kind, and I really
appreciate everything. At first, of course, I could tell he was nervous, but
gradually he opened up. With all the drama, I want to thank Francis for helping
me, and for everything that has happened to me. Wouldn't know what I'd do
without his advice!”
— AIDAN FONG, King William’s College

IBDP (HL)
“Francis is a very nice and good teacher. He is also cool and organised. I
learnt a lot more about the geography terms and vocabulary about population
and migration and different types of landforms after the lessons with him.”
— ACHILLES WONG, Junior King’s School, Canterbury

13+ Prep
“I think of Francis as a very nice tutor, and I don't feel pressured in his
lessons. Apart from topics in Geography, I’ve also learned more about general
knowledge because he can talk about different things with you, not just about
academic knowledge.”
— FAYNA CHAN, St. Paul's Co-educational College

Benenden Lower School Scholarship
“Francis has rich teaching experience and his lessons help me understand the
main points in each topic easily.”
— YANICE CHU, Pocklington School

AQA IGCSE
139
If you’ve read this far, you’re surely a committed student.
Now you may think, “so what do I do next?”
In the preface, the author said that this book is not those books that confuse
you with paragraphs of words. This book is written to help you, to save you
time, effort and stress, so you can enjoy doing more of what you like.
And you may also be thinking, “this book only covers 4 topics in Physical
Geography. What about other topics? What about Human Geography?”
You might think that you’re back to studying on your own…
But, as you probably know, doing that is very painful and time-consuming, and
that’s for students who are strong in studying, or students who pay full
attention to what the school teacher says and ask questions.
To be honest, even you do all that plus Googling for answers, sometimes you
still don't understand… Then what should you do?
Well, you might also think you have to give up on your dream and can never
realise those proud and happy moments you imagined when you finally
achieve your goals.
And you continue to do what you’ve done so many times in the past, and
watch your friends and classmates get a better grade, thinking: “next time it’ll
be me” or “if only I work even harder.”
But let’s be honest, you shouldn’t have read up to this point if you wanted that,
or if you truly believe next time it will be different.
140

You’re here because you believe you deserve a better grade than the one you
have now. So what could you do?
In the end, it’s about understanding what you need most and what to improve
on. If you know what it is, you can either work on it yourself, or you can get it
from others.
If you tried improving it yourself and struggled, you would know perhaps it’s
time to try something new and get the support from others.
Maybe what you need is someone who can point out what you’re missing,
maybe someone who can answer all your questions, or maybe organised
resources that are easy to understand and remember, just like this book.
And if that’s the case, if you like what you’ve read so far and would like to
have the same for all the topics you need in Physical and Human Geography,
you may consider the support from the author.
With the author, you’d be getting 1-to-1 tutoring that focuses only on your
learning progress and needs, making sure you’re ready for your homework,
test and exam.
It’ll be online, in the comfort of your home, so you don't need to travel around,
saving time to do what you like.
But it doesn't have to be the author, and the way the author teaches is not for
every students. It might be a good fit for you, or it might not. Just like you
prefer some school teachers, some not so much.
141
But if you really want to improve in Geography, and would like to see how the
author can support you on the way to your dream, please send an email to
[email protected] to see how to get started, or for more
information.
< Hand-drawn Diagrams >
142
 
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Francis Au has been a private Geography tutor since 2015.

Graduated from the University of Hong Kong, Francis has a degree in
the Bachelor of Arts, with double majors in Geography and History.
Over the past 7 years, Francis has taught a range of students for
various Geography syllabuses, including school curriculums (e.g. F1-
F3, Year 7-Year 9), public examinations (e.g. HKDSE, Cambridge,
Edexcel, AQA, IB), and entrance/scholarship examinations for UK
schools (e.g. 13+, 14+).
Francis has been the co-author of 2 books, New Secondary School

Learning Handbook: Geography and Newest Geography For HKDSE –
Mock Paper Collection (Second Edition), and written 2 scientific
research papers on the effects and implications of climate change on
the Tibetan Plateau.

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GEO

All rights reserved © 2020 by Francis Au

First edition November 2020

Second edition February 2021

Third edition May 2022

Photograph Credits © Francis Au

Illustration Credits © Francis Au

Cover design by Ashley Chung

Part I. Tectonic Process & Hazard 10

Part II. River Process & Landform 44

Part III. Coastal Landform & Management 77

Part IV. Weather & Climate 109

What Others Like You Say About The Author 135

The Secret of This Book

How to Use This Book

To get the most out of this book:

Francis Au, 2020

Types of Plate Boundary

Conservative / Transform Plate Boundaries

Convergent / Destructive plate boundaries

Divergent / Constructive Plate Boundaries

Extrusive volcanism / Vulcanicity

volcanic ash from a composite volcano — Sakurajima Volcano, Kyushu, Japan

Secondary Cone / Conelet

active strato volcano — Mount Vesuvius, Naples, Italy

an active strato volcano — Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland

Based on Eruption Frequency

active volcanoes frequent eruptions in any moment

dormant volcanoes inactive / no eruptions for a long time

extinct volcanoes without magma supply & unlikely to erupt

Based on Materials Erupted

• mainly lava (acid lava)

• mainly lava (basaltic lava)

• built up of volcanic ash & rock fragments

• formed by the alternating deposition of lava &

Tectonic Processes at Destructive Plate Boundary

Tectonic landforms formed along convergent / destructive plate boundaries

Continent – continent Collision

• sediments on the plates are compressed into sedimentary rocks

Tectonic landforms formed along divergent/constructive plate boundaries

Mid-oceanic Ridges & Sea-floor Spreading

Faulting & Rift Valley

rift valley — Thingvellir, Iceland

• at conservative / transform plate boundaries

*Notes: Earthquakes are a common tectonic hazard found along conservative

• great heat & pressure accumulate in the asthenosphere

How earthquakes are measured

*Notes: Earthquakes induced by human activities:

• at the conservative plate boundary (e.g. 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake,

• plate movement → large friction → great pressure exerted on rocks

an active strato volcano — Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland

Causes for the Vertical Movement of Sea Floor

*Notes: Tsunamis induced by human activities:

• at the constructive / divergent plate boundary

• plate movement → large friction → great pressure exerted on rocks

Destructions Caused by Tectonic Hazards

• aftershocks → greater destruction

Measures to Minimise Impacts

Land Use Planning

Monitoring & Warning Systems