Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers & Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu

Effects of interactivity in E-textbooks on 7th graders science

T
learning and cognitive load
Cathy Wenga, Sarah Otangaa,∗, Apollo Wengb, Joanne Coxa
a
Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, No.43, Keelung Rd, Sec. 4, Da'an
District, Taipei City 10607, Taiwan, ROC
b
Department of Digital Multimedia Design, China University of Technology, No. 56, Sec.3, Hsing-Lung Rd, Taipei, Taiwan/ No. 530, Sec.3, Jhong-
Shan Rd, Hukou, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC

AR TI CLE I NF O AB S T R A CT

Keywords: This study investigated the effects of interactive e-textbooks on 7th grade students' learning and
E-Textbook cognitive load. The specific objective was to investigate how multimedia interactivity of an e-
Cognitive load textbook affects students’ perceived learning, grades, and cognitive load compared to a static PDF
Interactivity e-textbook. The study involved two groups of students trialing an interactive e-textbook and a
Perceived learning
static PDF e-textbook within the environmental unit of science class. Both quantitative and
qualitative approaches were employed to analyze the data. Data was collected from student
surveys, unit final test and teacher interviews. Results indicated that students using the static PDF
e-textbook performed better on the unit final test. Significant differences were obtained in per-
ceived learning between the two groups with students using the interactive e-textbook having
higher perceived cognitive and affective learning scores than those using the static PDF e-text-
book. There were no significant differences between the groups regarding their cognitive load
levels. We hope that the findings of this study would assist in future design and implementation
of interactivity in classroom e-textbooks for K-12.

1. Introduction

Textbooks are a common feature in every classroom and have an integral role in instructional settings and teaching (Väljataga &
Fiedler, 2014). Traditionally textbooks have been used as a guideline for the teacher to help structure the learning and provide extra
resources for the student in the classroom and at home. With the increased availability of educational resources online, more teachers
are moving away from the traditional textbook. They are still available but are no longer used as a one-stop-shop for all information
to be delivered and retrieved from. However, e-textbooks with multimedia and interactivity embedded into them, have the chance to
create a more personalized learning approach for the students (Gu, Wu, & Xu, 2015). A study conducted using ‘CourseSmart’ as the e-
textbook platform deduced that the more students were able to engage with their digital textbook, the better their final grade (Junco
& Clem, 2015).
E-textbooks are still faced with many difficulties in both the higher education and K-12 education settings. Publishers started with
a direct scanned copy of the printed version of a textbook, with no interactivity. It was clunky to use, and there was no effort in using
technology to enhance learning (Dennis, McNamara, Morrone, & Plaskoff, 2015). In recent years, there have been new developments
to actively engage the students’ using the e-textbook by creating active learning opportunities, personalizing the experience, and
offering immediate feedback (Martin, 2012). Examples of these include interactive simulations, social interactions, quizzes with

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C. Weng), [email protected] (S. Otanga), [email protected] (A. Weng), [email protected] (J. Cox).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.02.008
Received 9 June 2017; Received in revised form 5 February 2018; Accepted 6 February 2018
Available online 07 February 2018
0360-1315/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

immediate feedback, and other widget activities (Fouh et al., 2014). For the sake of clarity, we use the term e-textbook to refer to
digital textbook, electronic textbook or online textbook, formerly defined by Jung and Lim (2009) as a student-centered textbook that
is designed to promote various types of interactions by providing multimedia learning environment such as videos, animations text,
virtual reality among others, and allows students to work at their pace. An e-textbook has the advantage of being able to be used in
personal desktop computers, laptop, or tablet device making it portable for the students.
Cognitive theory of multimedia learning proposed by Clark and Mayer (2008) suggests that meaningful learning can occur when a
learner is presented with words and pictures as they can start to build a mental representation. This way the learner gets engaged in
active learning through multimedia such as pictures, maps, charts, figures, graphs, or dynamic media such as videos and simulations.
This has significant impact when designing instructional e-textbooks for students. Huang, Chen, and Ho (2014) suggests that learners
when using e-textbooks will benefit from reduced cognitive load, and may improve their learning. Evans and Gibbons (2007) suggest
that interactivity has the ability to promote effective learning since learners actively participate in the learning activity. However,
there is need to establish the effects of interactivity in e-textbooks on learners' high cognitive load focusing on the learning domains:
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor as identified by Bloom (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom, 1956). Using these three di-
mensions to evaluate students' learning, we envision that we are able to establish a more accurate measure of long term learning since
a cognitive only approach focuses on a test result that examines students’ memory recall of a subject only and not their under-
standing.
Different from most studies (Shepperd, Grace, & Koch, 2008; Woody, Daniel, & Baker, 2010) that use either subjective or objective
results in analysing student learning and perceptions on e-textbook, this study leverages advantages of both subjective and objective
results. This way, we are able to supress biases, for instance, of using objective measures such as final unit test grades that measure
only a particular skill or cognitive ability and capture a small range of skills or knowledge (Bowman, 2010). Moreover, Rovai,
Wighting, Baker, and Grooms (2009) argues that a student's grade may be contributed not only by what the student learned but also
by other factors such as participation in class among others. Grades could also vary depending on teachers hence grades may not be a
reliable measure of learning (Rovai et al., 2009). Thus, there has been an interest in examining self-reporting measures as a more
beneficial and accurate measure for student learning (Rockinson-Szapkiw, Courduff, Carter, & Bennett, 2013), and Bloom's cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor learning domains have been widely applied in evaluating students' learning (Huang et al., 2014). This
study employs a similar approach by including both types of measures in view that this would portray a comprehensive picture.
Not much research has focussed on effectiveness of e-textbooks for junior high school students whose preferences may be different
from those of adults that have been extensively studied (Porter, 2010; Woody et al., 2010). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to
create an interactive e-textbook for junior high school science class and to examine the effectiveness of the interactivity of the e-
textbook. The specific objective is to investigate how multimedia interactivity in an e-textbook affects students’ perceived learning,
grades, and cognitive load in comparison to a static PDF e-textbook. An interactive e-textbook will include videos, hyperlinks,
simulations, quizzes, bookmarking, and social collaboration tools. A static PDF e-textbook will include written content, images, and
bookmarking ability.
Post-test interviews and a survey on students’ perceptions and usefulness of the e-textbook were done by the teachers and students
respectively to generate supportive data for the quantitative results. The interviews were conducted face-to-face with the two pro-
fessional science teachers to ascertain their feedback on using the e-textbooks in the classrooms and how the students responded to
using the e-textbook in class. The interviews were conducted in a semi-structured format, with flexibility allowed to follow up on any
answers provided by the professional science teachers.

2. Related work

2.1. From print textbook to e-textbooks

E-textbooks are beginning to be utilized in classrooms all around the world in both higher education and K-12. Initially they were
seen as a supplement to a printed textbook, but recently institutions are replacing the printed textbook with an interactive and
engaging e-textbook. McFall (2005) argues that in order for e-textbooks to become viable they need to be redesigned in a way that
encourages learning and motivates students to read. A direct transformation of a printed copy into a digital format is not sufficient
and does not utilize all of the functions currently available. In the past, the student has been a “passive learner” when using the
textbook and just a “depository” of information (Knight, 2015) which is not the case with the current “digital age” generation. In
using e-textbooks in the classroom, Embong, Noor, Hashim, Ali, and Shaari (2012) suggests that a framework should be used to help
assist the teachers introduce the technology. An e-textbook should offer information and activities, ability to evaluate students' work
and give some automated feedback, provide scaffolds and supports for students’ learning process (Embong et al., 2012).
Majority of research in higher education and the implementation of e-textbooks compared to printed textbooks, has found little or
no difference in grades or student learning (Shepperd et al., 2008; Woody et al., 2010). However, there has been little research that
has focused on the interactivity in the e-textbooks and what effect this can have on student learning if implemented correctly. Huang
et al. (2014) advocates the use of instructional design research in developing e-textbooks to ensure the students learning needs are
met, which is the basis for the design of the interactive e-textbook in this study.

2.2. Cognitive load

Cognitive load theory aims to provide an understanding of human cognition in order to improve multimedia and instructional

173
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

design (Sweller, Ayres, & Kalyuga, 2011, p. 71) as it provides a structure for individuals to process secondary information. Notably,
learners have a limited working memory in terms of space and hence instructional designers need to consider this constraint so as to
transfer information to long-term memory (Sweller et al., 2011, p. 71).
Through understanding how people learn and how knowledge is integrated into memory, Mayer and Santa (2014, pp. 1–6)
developed the “cognitive theory of multimedia learning” that attempts to explain how the brain processes information from two
sources using dual channel assumption through words and pictures together. Mayer (2003) identifies three assumptions. The first is
that the working memory consists of dual channel input, consisting of words and audio. The second is that there is limited capacity in
working memory, and the third is that the learner is actively processing the information (Pastore, 2012). For the learner to integrate
the material into their long-term memory, it depends on how well the multimedia interactivity is presented and processed through
the individual's sensory memory and into the working memory, after which, the learner can integrate their prior knowledge and
undertake cognitive processing of the material.
When designing an e-textbook, cognitive theory of multimedia learning and cognitive load theory are important concepts as they
reinforce that activities should remain focused on the knowledge being transferred to the learner and not get distracted by the
entertainment portion (Sorden, 2005). Cognitive load theory advocates that the learner should not be overwhelmed with too much
information and that activities must be at an appropriate level in order to engage with the learner. The design of the interactive e-
textbook in this study was based on the previous research of multimedia theory and cognitive load in order to maximize student
learning and test whether interactivity serves as a distraction or enhancement to learning.

2.3. Effects of multimedia features on learning with e-books

Electronic books usually contain multimedia features such as animated pictures, background sounds and music that play along
with the text that enable students to learn more deeply compared to plain or static non-multimedia enriched text (Mayer, 2003). In
the meta-analysis by Takacs, Swart, and Bus (2015), multimedia additions that directly connect to the verbal information are shown
to contribute to learning, e.g. in story and language comprehension as listening to multimedia enhanced stories improves compre-
hension compared to listening to stories with non-multimedia add-ons. A similar finding is reported by Bus, Takacs, and Kegel (2015)
that iterates that reading text accompanied by their corresponding multimedia features enhances comprehension of the information,
and boosts learning of words in children, than reading text only. This is because it is easier to infer meanings of new words using
animated illustrations than using static illustrations since animated illustrations visualize the information making it easy to connect
the words and images therefore aids the interpretation of the verbal information (Smeets, Van Dijken, & Bus, 2014; Takacs et al.,
2015). Hence word learning and comprehension can easily be facilitated using multimedia add-ons as less effort is required to match
the verbal and non-verbal information (Schnotz & Rasch, 2005). Takacs et al. (2015) observes that sound effects and background
music that match the text in fact aid understanding and word learning through depiction of emotions and mood of the character.
However, Smeets and Bus (2015) cautions that multimedia features may enhance learning if they are congruent to the text in the e-
book.
Essentially, multimedia provides an environment with enjoyable activities that increase learners' engagement and motivation in
the learning (Shamir & Korat, 2015). The multimedia additions are especially fascinating to young children whose attention improves
as they listen to the story thereby improving their motivation to reread the stories (Verhallen & Bus, 2009). This illustrates why and
how multimedia environments promote active learning. While multimedia e-books encourage learners to explore and relate to
learning materials (i.e., stories and their educational features) in ways different from print books, they provoke the learners' desire to
dig into the subject and search for related information (Shamir & Korat, 2015). This is because multimedia e-books leverages ani-
mated pictures, sounds, and music to present information thus encouraging learning. As Takacs et al. (2015) concluded, in designing
e-books, it is important to include effective multimedia and interactive elements that can provide scaffolding to the readers. The
studies conducted in K-12 schools have focused on early learners’ ability to read and comprehension, and if interactivity can assist
them to learn and remember the concepts read. However, much attention has not been focused on how interactive e-textbooks can
help learners to engage in science learning towards promoting long-term learning, not just initial verbatim of concepts. Therefore,
this study aims to bridge this gap. We are motivated that this study could provide some insights for K-12 schools in developing e-
textbooks that assist in improving student learning.

3. Methodology

3.1. Participants

Participants were 44 students aged between 11 and 12, from an international junior high school in Taipei, Taiwan. They were
divided into two groups, group 1 (static PDF e-textbook) and group 2 (interactive e-textbook). Group 1 had 11 males, 10 females;
group 2 had 12 males, 11 females. However, one participant in group 2 withdrew due to being absent from most of the classes and not
completing the final unit test or survey. The participants were from two separate science classes, conducted at the same time, same
curriculum and teaching procedures but with two different teachers. Convenience sampling was used as the participants were already
assigned to their science classes at the beginning of the year. Before undertaking the study, all participants and parents received an
information statement outlining the details of the study as well as a consent form. Participants were advised that participation in the
study was voluntary and they gave their consent to participate in the study.

174
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

E-textbook Interactivity

Perceived Learning
(Cognitive, Affective)
Multimedia Interactive
E-textbook
Unit Final Test Results
Static PDF E-textbook
Cognitive Load

Fig. 1. Research framework.

3.2. Research design

A mixed method design was used. The students were given an e-textbook to use within the environment unit of science class. The
participants were divided into two groups: multimedia interactive and static PDF e-textbook. Student perceived learning (cognitive
and affective), cognitive load (negative), and unit final test results were analyzed as the dependent variables of the study. An average
of the students’ previous year 7 grades was used as a control variable for the cognitive load and unit final test results. Fig. 1 displays
the research framework used in this study in order to examine the effects of multimedia interactivity of e-textbooks.

3.3. Instruments

3.3.1. E-textbook
Interactive and static PDF e-textbooks were created using Adobe InDesign with content provided by the professional science
teachers as well as the current textbook utilized by the students and other free material sourced online. The e-textbook was used for
the environmental unit of the year 7 science class for two to three weeks. The interactive e-textbook was transferred into an online
textbook creator, Active Textbook. Its interactive elements and activities were created using Book Widget. Active Textbook was
chosen as the e-textbook creator and reader due its features including ease of use, interactivity elements, and the ability to access the
e-textbook for free by the participants.
The interactive e-textbook had social collaboration and annotations, bookmarking, search and navigation tools, videos, images,
and interactive simulations as interactive features. Fig. 2 displays the main information page with learning objectives, and an em-
bedded video that opens up in a small screen for the student from the interactive e-textbook.
Fig. 3 displays an activity page within the interactive e-textbook. On this page, the student can access an activity created through
Book widgets, view an image, complete a feedback questionnaire or complete the review quiz. The student would click on the
relevant activity and it will display on the screen, as shown in Fig. 4 which is an image of the interactive quiz. In the quiz, the student
has the ability to answer the question and push submit, receiving immediate feedback on their answer.
The students were able to read the static PDF e-textbook using any pdf reader. It had limited interactivity, including images, text,
table of contents, and the ability for students to write notes or highlight on the e-textbook. It was similar to a printed textbook but in
pdf format that students could read on a tablet, phone, or computer. Chromebooks was used in both classes to access the interactive

Fig. 2. Interactive e-textbook unit page.

175
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

Fig. 3. Interactive e-textbook example of interactivity.

Fig. 4. Interactive e-textbook quiz example.

and static PDF e-textbooks. All participants have used and were familiar with Chromebooks. Fig. 5 displays an example of page with
content and images in the static PDF e-textbook. Color was used to highlight key features or definitions that the students needed to be
aware of.
Fig. 6 displays the activity page for the static PDF e-textbook, the student is given an instruction about an activity. The activity is
handed out by the teacher via a paper document as seen in Fig. 7 for the student to complete.

176
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

Fig. 5. Static PDF e-textbook text and image page.

Fig. 6. Static PDF e-textbook example of activity page.

3.3.2. Survey
The survey utilized was split into two parts: perceived learning and cognitive load. Perceived learning was assessed by Bloom's
model and included only cognitive and affective learning domains with nine questions on a seven point Likert scale. The original
questions were slightly adapted for the year seven students from a survey created by Rovai et al. (2009). The original survey was
tested on higher education students so the language was modified slightly on some questions in order to be suitable. For instance, one
of the initial statements was ‘I feel that I am a more sophisticated thinker as a result of this course’ (Rovai et al., 2009). This was

177
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

Fig. 7. Static PDF e-textbook exercise handout.

altered to ‘I feel that I am a more intelligent thinker as a result of this course’. The overall reliability of the survey was .745 and factor
analysis was conducted on each of the questions, results are displayed in Table 1. Factor loadings for perceived cognitive and affective
learning were all above 0.50 indicating a valid scale. In this study, psychomotor learning was not considered as it could not be
measured in the environmental unit.
Cognitive load was assessed through 10 questions on a seven point Likert scale. The survey was slightly modified from another
survey developed by Leppink, Paas, Van der Vleuten, Van Gog, and Van Merriënboer (2013). The language and number of questions
was slightly modified in order to be appropriate for the participants. For instance, considering question 8, the original statement was
“the activity really enhanced my understanding of the formulas covered” and it was modified to “the e-textbook really helped my
understanding of the topic.” Factor analysis was conducted on each of the questions yielding two categories of cognitive load:
negative and positive effects on learning. In this study, only the negative effects of cognitive load were considered and they include
both the intrinsic and extrinsic cognitive load with a Cronbach alpha of .766, refer to Table 2.

3.3.3. Unit final test

The unit final test was created, distributed and assessed by the professional science teachers based on British key stage 3 cur-
riculum standards. It was consistent with previous final unit tests given to the participants and consisted of 8 short-answer questions
with sub-questions, consisting of questions worth 1 or 2 marks. In total there were 21 questions and a total of 25 marks allocated. A
marking scheme was used to score the tests. For this study, final scores from the participants were collected in order to compare any

Table 1
Factor loadings for perceived learning scores.

Item Cognitive learning Affective learning

CG1 .900
CG2 .794
CG3 .675
AF1 .839
AF2 .781
AF3 .583

Cronbach alpha .704 .612

178
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

Table 2
Factor loadings for cognitive load.

Item Cognitive load (Negative effect)

CL1 .881
CL2 .798
CL3 .805
CL4 .509
CL5 .573

Cronbach alpha .766

cognitive knowledge difference between the interactive and static PDF e-textbook groups. Sample questions include:
‘Different plants and animals are adapted to live in different areas.
a) Explain what ‘adapted’ means,
b) Why does a polar bear have thick fur?
c) A cactus has spines on its stem. Why is this?’

3.3.4. Student average year 7 grade

Since the participants were already randomly distributed into two groups, their student average year 7 grade was used as a control
covariate. The student average year 7 grade consisted of an average of the participant's previous four unit tests and an average
percentage was calculated. An independent-sample t-test was conducted in order to determine if the two groups were similar. Results
indicated that there was no significant difference between the two groups. The average year 7 grade mean for the static PDF e-
textbook group was 61.11% and the mean for the interactive e-textbook group was 63.36%.

4. Results

4.1. Multimedia interactivity compared with perceived learning

Group 2 (interactive e-textbook) had a higher perceived cognitive and affective learning score (M = 4.59; M = 4.66) compared
with group 1 (static PDF e-textbook) (M = 3.79; M = 3.68). An independent samples t-test was conducted to examine if there were
differences in perceived learning between the interactive and static PDF e-textbook groups. Significant differences were found be-
tween the two groups for both perceived cognitive (t = −2.28, p = .022) and affective learning scores (t = −2.45, p = .024)
(Table 3).

4.2. Multimedia interactivity compared with cognitive load

Group 1 (static PDF e-textbook) (M = 3.45) had a higher negative cognitive load score compared with Group 2 (interactive e-
textbook) (M = 3.07). An ANCOVA was conducted to examine if there were differences in the cognitive load between the two groups.
There was no significant difference found in negative cognitive load between the two groups, F (1,32) = 1.113, p = .299 (Table 4).

4.3. Multimedia interactivity compared with unit final test

Group 1 (static PDF e-textbook) had a high mean of 64.76% compared with group 2 (interactive e-textbook) mean of 54.63%. An
ANCOVA was used to examine if there were differences in the final unit tests results. A significant difference was found between the
two groups, F (1,40) = 8.05, p = .007 (Table 5).

Table 3
Independent samples t-test results for perceived learning.

N Group 1 Group 2 Total df t p

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

Cognitive learning 35 3.79 .87 4.59 1.15 4.22 1.09 33 −2.28 .022*
Affective learning 35 3.68 1.40 4.66 .82 4.21 1.21 33 −2.45 .024*

Note:*p < .05.

179
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

Table 4
ANCOVA results comparing the effects of negative cognitive load.

N Group 1 Group 2 Total F p

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

Negative cognitive load 3.45 0.95 3.07 1.19 3.24 1.09 1.113 .299

Table 5
ANCOVA results comparing the final unit results.

N Group 1 Group 2 Total F p

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

Unit final test score 43 64.76 18.28 54.63 15.66 59.58 17.55 8.05 .007*

Note. *p < .05.

5. Discussion

5.1. Multimedia interactivity compared with student perceived learning

Significant differences were obtained in perceived learning between the students using the interactive e-textbook and those using
the static PDF e-textbook. Some of the reasons as to the differences in students' perceived learning could be due to if the e-textbook
was seen as motivating or distracting for the students. This was addressed in the interviews conducted with the teachers. The
interactive e-textbook group teacher indicated that technical issues could have prevented students from wanting to access the e-
textbook and therefore meant it was not fully utilized. In regards to positive motivation, the interactive e-textbook group teacher
indicated that the novelty factor meant high motivation for students in the beginning but perhaps this was not maintained. It could
also be distracting for the students when the e-textbook drops out and loses internet connection. The static PDF e-textbook group
teacher indicated that the age and learning styles of the individual could play a role on if the e-textbook is motivating or distracting,
that is, some students prefer interactive activities and some prefer to read texts from the book and re-word the information in their
own words so that they can have better understanding. According to the static PDF e-textbook group teacher, the age group to
provide the e-textbook with needs to be considered as some students might be distracted and do irrelevant things, like searching the
internet, while studying using the e-textbook. This was also confirmed by the interactive teacher comments, with students often
getting distracted with email or searching the internet while using the Chromebooks. The novelty factor, technical disruptions,
distractions, and individual learning styles could all have impacted on the students’ perceptions of learning.

5.2. Multimedia interactivity compared with unit final test results

The static PDF e-textbook group performed significantly higher on the unit final test compared with the interactive e-textbook
group. Based on the interviews conducted with the teachers, the interactive group teacher suggested that this could have been due to
the fact interactivity can give students the illusion that they know more and understand the concepts. The teacher indicated that the
students might have had more general knowledge on the subject but perhaps these questions were not asked on the unit final test. The
static PDF e-textbook group teacher had a different opinion and indicated that it could be because the students took down notes on
paper in order to aid their revision for the test. The teacher also indicated that use of Chromebooks meant less student and teacher
interactions. This could have meant that there were more student and teacher interactions in the static PDF e-textbook group
compared with the interactive group.

5.3. Perceived learning compared with unit final test results

According to the results, the interactive e-textbook group had a higher result on the subjective survey analyzing their perceived
cognitive and affective learning, but performed significantly lower than the static PDF e-textbook group on the unit final test.
Previous studies that compared interactive e-textbooks and print based textbooks have indicated little difference in student final
grades. In Rockinson-Szapkiw et al.’s (2013) study, no significant difference was found in perceived cognitive learning or final unit
test results when comparing print based to e-textbook students however the e-textbook students had higher levels of perceived
affective and psychomotor learning. Although no specific reason was provided for this, it is consistent with other interactivity web-
based research that has found that higher interactivity strongly correlates with better perceived learning (Sun & Hsu, 2013).
In Dennis et al.’s (2015) study of higher education students using an e-textbook or paper textbook, contradictory results were
reported. Students using the e-textbook received higher quiz test score results but reported that the e-textbook did not meet their
learning needs compared with the paper based textbook. A possible reason highlighted for this was the students were not fully aware
of capabilities of the software and tools available to them. It also takes time for students to effectively utilize a new technology

180
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

resource and adapt it to their own learning requirements (Dennis et al., 2015). Although in the current study, the opposite occurred
with the interactive group having lower final test scores and higher perceived learning compared with the static PDF e-textbook
group, the reason of students needing time to adapt to the new technology and change their study habits, could also apply. The
students had limited exposure to the e-textbook and were not able to fully utilize or understand all of its interactivity functions. This
could explain the lower final test results. The students only used the e-textbook over a couple of classes.
There was also a significant difference found between the interactive and static PDF e-textbook groups in regards to perceived
affective learning with the interactive group reporting higher levels. This is consistent with the findings of Rockinson-Szapkiw et al.
(2013) which reported that perceived affective levels are higher when students are using an interactive e-textbook. One of the reasons
given to support this finding was that the interactive activities could help change students’ negative attitudes (Rockinson-Szapkiw
et al., 2013).
The results indicated that the static PDF e-textbook group performed significantly better on the unit final test results. Although
studies on students' grades when using e-textbooks have varied, more recent studies have indicated no difference in grades when
comparing print versus e-textbook (Murray & Pérez, 2011; Rockinson-Szapkiw et al., 2013). In Murray and Pérez's (2011) study, it
was found that user acceptance for the e-textbook was low despite the no difference in final grades. In Rockinson-Szapkiw et al.
(2013) it was found that the e-textbook users were able to engage with the interactive features such as note taking and highlighting to
a greater extent than paper-based textbook users. Their study also found high perceived affective and psychomotor learning scores for
the e-textbook group leading them to believe that if students can become even more familiar with the interactive features of e-
textbooks, then their motivation for reading could be improved. This could potentially result in higher perceived cognitive and
affective learning in the future, if the balance of interactivity and student use is met in e-textbooks.
From the results of the interview conducted with the teachers, the static PDF e-textbook group were more inclined to take notes on
paper, rather than to flip between screens and take notes online, as indicated by their teacher. As they adopted the more traditional
method of note-taking as you would in a paper-based textbook, this could have aided their final test results. In the study by Dennis
et al. (2015), the group using the e-textbook with annotations performed better on the quiz at the end of the session but perceived
that the e-textbook did not meet their learning needs compared to the print-based textbook group. In this study, the e-textbook had
annotations provided by the lecturer to enhance student learning. One of these annotations was a link to a YouTube video as well as
providing the students the opportunity to add their own notes or highlight relevant sections. It was found that no students used this
feature compared to a third of students from the static PDF e-textbook group who made notes on the paper-based textbook. Dennis
et al. (2015) suggests that students need to adjust their studying process in order to adapt and become more familiar with the new
technology and that more instruction is required for the students.
Different results have been obtained in different studies that have used both subjective and objective results in analyzing student
learning and perceptions of e-textbooks. In Rockinson-Szapkiw et al.’s study (2013) the subjective and objective measures of student
learning indicated a high acceptance for e-textbooks. No difference was reported for objective cognitive measures but there was a
difference reported in favor of e-textbooks with subjective measures. In contrast, Dennis et al.’s study (2015) had higher results for
the e-textbook on objective tests compared to participant subjective analysis of their learning. This finding is consistent with our
study, although in our study, participants have higher subjective results and lower objective test results.

5.4. Multimedia interactivity compared with cognitive load

This study found no significant differences in cognitive load between the interactive and static PDF e-textbook groups. For the
static PDF e-textbook group, students indicated that there was too much material to read and this could have contributed to their
cognitive load levels. In regard to the interactive e-textbook group, although they had lower cognitive load levels, the difference was
not significant and possible reasons could be due to the reading materials not meeting their needs. In Chu’s (2014) study of mobile
learning and cognitive load, it was found that low student achievements could be attributed to higher levels of cognitive load caused
by improper learning design of the mobile activities. In this study, the cognitive load levels of both groups were not high enough to
indicate improper design, but that the reading material was difficult for them to understand. For instance, responses of some of the
students from the survey on their perceptions of the e-textbook included:
“There was too much information at one time, big chunks of text.”
“Some part is hard to understand.”
“Yes, I didn't really understand.”
In their answers to the interview questions, the teachers indicated that the students did not fully understand the cognitive load
survey. There were also technical issues like problems logging onto the system and slight internet connection problems. This could
have impacted on the student results, as problems with the system can easily frustrate students as they expect that the resource will
work immediately and quickly. Other research has supported the idea that if these technological issues are addressed and fixed, there
will be a smoother transition and promote better collaborative learning among the students (Lee & Yau, 2015).
In analyzing reading behavior in the digital environment, Liu (2005) suggests that a student's ability to recall information from
print textbooks does not occur in the same way as when they are reading off a digital screen. When reading off a digital screen, the
reader is more inclined to skim and pay more attention selectively, which could limit the levels of cognitive load experienced by both
the interactive and static PDF e-textbook groups in the current study and indicate why no difference was found between the two
groups.

181
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

Sorden (2005) suggests that a learner may be motivated and engaged by using multimedia, but this might not translate into higher
cognitive learning results. It is possible that both groups experienced similar levels of cognitive load due to the design of the in-
structional material.

5.5. Student interaction with multimedia interactive and static PDF e-textbooks

Based on the post-test interviews conducted with the teachers and the survey on students’ perceptions and usefulness of the e-
textbook, qualitative analysis was done to assess how students interacted with the e-textbook. The teachers indicated that students
enjoyed the interactivity but did not fully utilize all of the features available such as annotations and bookmarking. The majority of
responses for the static PDF e-textbook group indicated they found the e-textbook easy to use but found it boring and too content
heavy. Some comments from students when asked about their perception of the e-textbook include; “Yes, I think that it was a lot
simpler and easier to access and use.” The interactive e-textbook group indicated that the most favorite features were the games and
interactivity in the e-textbook. When asked about the most favorite feature in the e-textbook, some students commented; “The games
cause it makes easier to understand”
“The interactive features, as it gives you detail and lets you know what things are actually like, rather than having plain text.”
Although note-taking and annotations were available in the interactive e-textbook group, they were not widely utilized. One of
the reasons for this indicated in Kouis and Konstantinou's study (2014) is that the students need to be properly taught how to annotate
when using an e-textbook. It is not a skill that comes naturally but must be taught and reinforced to the students.
Negative features indicated by the interactive e-textbook group included technical issues such as internet dropping out and issues
logging into the system. Both groups found the e-textbook too content heavy. The use of quizzes in the e-textbook was not found as an
effective learning tool as in Choi and Kim (2015) where it was found that the use of quizzes and immediate feedback was an
important resource for the college students and the e-textbook group scored higher on the final exam. Some responses of students
when asked about quizzes include:
“I think it is not a wide option, there isn't a lot of quizzes.”
“Fun but not useful.”
The teachers indicated that although students liked the interactivity, they would have liked more interactive activities. Since the
students are in a digital world, their expectations and demands are higher. If they are going to use an e-textbook, then they expect
more interactive activities to suit their learning requirements and for the technology to work fast and efficiently.

5.6. Pedagogical implications

The following outlines the pedagogical implications for students, teachers, and instructional designers when using and designing
e-textbooks for the future. Although further research still needs to be conducted, there are a number of recommendations that can be
used to help guide this research and further support e-textbooks in classrooms.
Overall, the students in the interactive e-textbook group enjoyed the interactivity provided in the e-textbook but it did not
enhance their test scores. The use of the Chromebook in class could have led to students getting distracted via email or internet
programs. The interactivity did enhance the students’ perception of learning, so it could be used as a motivating strategy. However, it
was identified that the students did not know how to learn from the e-textbook effectively through using the annotation and other
interactive features. The students will need to adapt their reading and studying strategies to support more self-reflected and per-
sonalized learning approaches (Korbey, 2014). Further research will need to be conducted to determine the best method of im-
plementing an interactive e-textbook in the classroom and over a longer period. Any material or interactivity such as games and
simulations will need to enhance the students learning and ensure that it is not distracting the student from inputting the required
knowledge.
The key pedagogical implications for teachers is to redesign their way of teaching with an e-textbook, not to replace the teacher
but to enhance their teaching (Embong et al., 2012). The e-textbook has many benefits of including videos, interactivity, simulations,
quizzes, and content that can be used by the students. However, if the e-textbook is to be utilized effectively, teachers need to
approach it differently than to a regular textbook. It can provide options for the students to engage collaboratively and learn from
each other as well as the teacher. If the e-textbook is simply used as a normal textbook would be in the classroom, it will lose its
effectiveness. It is important for teachers to receive support to ensure the smooth integration of the e-textbook into the classroom
(Schugar, Smith, & Schugar, 2013). As with any new technology in the classroom, it is how it is implemented and used that is the
most important aspect.
The key implication for instructional designers of e-textbooks is to ensure that it is not a copy of a traditional textbook like the
static PDF e-textbook was in this study. It needs to develop new ways of integrating the interactivity into the e-textbook to motivate
and engage students in the learning process. As the students in the interactive e-textbook group did not perform as well on the unit
final test, new assessment methods should be encouraged to ensure that the knowledge is being learnt and not just memorized for a
test. The e-textbook should help to support the goal of self-directed and personalized learning for the student (Kim & Park, 2014, pp.
417–422). The e-textbook should have the ability to change according to the student's requirements and adapt with the student as
well as provide feedback to the teacher on the student's learning progress. It is also important to understand that just by including

182
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

multimedia into an e-textbook will not always be beneficial. An excess of content, images, pictures, animations, or audio-visual
effects can burden the students and effect their cognitive load. As mentioned earlier, the students' expectations and demands are
higher.
Besides, designers need to give students meaningful feedback as they interact with the e-textbooks. For instance, learners should
be afforded a personalized conversation among themselves and with their teacher on various parts of the lesson that they appear to
have difficulty in comprehending. It would be important to have the e-textbooks automatically bookmark these sections for the
learners’ review. That is, e-textbooks should be designed to assist identify parts of the book where learners struggle so the teacher can
easily know the difficulties they experience. In addition, designers may want to consider incorporating text to speech functions in
these e-textbooks so as to enhance students reading experience as they can activate the auto-reading function when they feel strained.
This way, the intensiveness of the reading material is reduced and at the same time increases comprehension as reading is made more
appealing.

5.7. Limitations

Although this study provided some valuable insight into the e-textbook use, there are some limitations which must be addressed.
The study only focused on two year seven student classes, located in an international school in Taipei, therefore it can be difficult to
generalize the results. Future studies may consider more schools and different levels of students so as to make the findings gen-
eralizable. In addition, this study was conducted over one unit of study. Future studies would benefit from having the students use the
e-textbook for a longer period of time over a semester or year in learning different units of study. This would allow the students
enough time to get over the novelty factor and also understand and use the functions of the e-textbook effectively.
Another limitation is the cognitive load survey was difficult for the students to understand, so in the future it should be combined
with another method of analyzing the students' cognitive load levels. Future studies may consider combining more methods of
evaluating students’ cognitive load levels. The use of student annotations and how the students use them in e-textbooks is another
potential area that could be further explored in order to help understand the benefits associated with student learning. This study
highlighted that students can benefit from learning new skills in order to annotate effectively with the e-textbook and to develop
better self-regulation skills. Arguably, these new advances will be able to enhance student learning.

6. Conclusion

This study focused on the interactivity in e-textbooks and the effect they have on students' perceived learning, final grades, and
cognitive load. The interactive e-textbook group had higher perceived cognitive and affective learning and also indicated a higher
preference towards using an e-textbook compared to a print-based textbook. The static PDF e-textbook group had significantly better
results on the final test result. No significant difference was found between the groups in comparing the cognitive load. The majority
of research in higher education and the implementation of e-textbooks compared to printed textbooks, has found little or no dif-
ference in grades or student learning. By focusing on the interactivity of the e-textbook, the results of this study demonstrate the
effects of interactivity on student learning. The results indicate that through including multimedia and interactivity in e-textbooks,
students’ perceived cognitive and affective learning can be increased. Focusing on only grades may not give the real effects of e-
textbooks on students and the benefits of interactivity may not be captured.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan (ROC), under contract No. MOST 105-2511-S-011-
005-MYZ.

References

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals.
Bowman, N. A. (2010). Can 1st-year college students accurately report their learning and development? American Educational Research Journal, 47(2), 466–496.
Bus, A. G., Takacs, Z. K., & Kegel, C. A. (2015). Affordances and limitations of electronic storybooks for young children's emergent literacy. Developmental Review, 35,
79–97.
Choi, J., & Kim, I. (2015). E-Textbook with lecturer-created quiz capabilities. International Journal of Multimedia and Ubiquitous Engineering, 10(5), 297–302. http://dx.
doi.org/10.14257/ijmue.2015.10.5.27.
Chu, H.-C. (2014). Potential negative effects of mobile learning on students' learning achievement and cognitive load-a format assessment perspective. Educational
Technology & Society, 17(1), 332–344.
Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2008). E-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning. John Wiley & Sons.
Dennis, A. R., McNamara, K. O., Morrone, A. S., & Plaskoff, J. (2015). Improving Learning with e-textbooks. Paper presented at the proceedings of the 2015 48th Hawaii
international conference on system sciences.
Embong, A. M., Noor, A. M., Hashim, H. M., Ali, R. M., & Shaari, Z. H. (2012). E-Books as textbooks in the classroom. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 47,
1802–1809. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.903.
Evans, C., & Gibbons, N. J. (2007). The interactivity effect in multimedia learning. Computers & Education, 49(4), 1147–1160.
Fouh, E., Karavirta, V., Breakiron, D. A., Hamouda, S., Hall, S., Naps, T. L., et al. (2014). Design and architecture of an interactive e-textbook–The OpenDSA system.
Science of Computer Programming, 88, 22–40.
Gu, X., Wu, B., & Xu, X. (2015). Design, development, and learning in e-Textbooks: What we learned and where we are going. Journal of Computers in Education, 2(1),
25–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40692-014-0023-9.

183
C. Weng et al. Computers & Education 120 (2018) 172–184

Huang, K.-L., Chen, K.-H., & Ho, C.-H. (2014). Enhancing learning outcomes through new e-textbooks: A desirable combination of presentation methods and concept
maps. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 30(5).
Junco, R., & Clem, C. (2015). Predicting course outcomes with digital textbook usage data. The Internet and Higher Education, 27, 54–63.
Jung, S.-M., & Lim, K.-B. (2009). Leading future education: Development of digital textbooks in Korea. In: Paper presented at the proc. 12th UNESCO-APEID international
conference quality innovations for teaching and learning.
Kim, J., & Park, N. (2014). The analysis of case result and satisfaction of digital textbooks for elementary school students advances in computer science and its applications.
Springerhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-41674-3_59.
Knight, B. A. (2015). Teachers' use of textbooks in the digital age. Cogent Education, 2(1), 1015812.
Korbey, H. (2014). Can students 'Go Deep' with digital reading? Retrieved from http://www.2kqed.org/mindshift/2014/09/09/can-students-go-deep-with-digital-
reading/.
Kouis, D., & Konstantinou, N. (2014). Electronic textbooks advantages and challenges for the Hellenic higher education and publishing community. Library Review,
63(6/7), 531–543. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/LR-06-2014-0074.
Lee, H. J., & Yau, K.-L. A. (2015). Addressing the major information technology challenges of electronic textbooks. Journal of Computer Information Systems, 55(2),
40–47.
Leppink, J., Paas, F., Van der Vleuten, C. P., Van Gog, T., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. (2013). Development of an instrument for measuring different types of cognitive
load. Behavior Research Methods, 45(4), 1058–1072.
Liu, Z. (2005). Reading behavior in the digital environment: Changes in reading behavior over the past ten years. Journal of Documentation, 61(6), 700–712.
Martin, R. (2012). The road ahead: eBooks, e-textbooks and publishers' electronic resources. Paper presented at the ascilite annual conference, wellington, New Zealand.
Mayer, R. E. (2003). The promise of multimedia learning: Using the same instructional design methods across different media. Learning and Instruction, 13(2), 125–139.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(02)00016-6.
Mayer, R. E., & Santa, C. (2014). A. LearnerCentered approach to multimedia Explanations: Deriving instructional design principles from cognitive theory roxana moreno: Vol.
1998.
McFall, R. (2005). Electronic textbooks that transform how textbooks are used. The Electronic Library, 23(1), 72–81.
Murray, M. C., & Pérez, J. (2011). E-textbooks are coming: Are we ready. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 8(6), 49–60.
Pastore, R. (2012). The effects of time-compressed instruction and redundancy on learning and learners' perceptions of cognitive load. Computers & Education, 58(1),
641–651. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.09.018.
Porter, P. L. (2010). Effectiveness of electronic textbooks with embedded activities on student learning: ERIC.
Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J., Courduff, J., Carter, K., & Bennett, D. (2013). Electronic versus traditional print textbooks: A comparison study on the influence of university
students' learning. Computers & Education, 63, 259–266.
Rovai, A. P., Wighting, M. J., Baker, J. D., & Grooms, L. D. (2009). Development of an instrument to measure perceived cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning
in traditional and virtual classroom higher education settings. The Internet and Higher Education, 12(1), 7–13.
Schnotz, W., & Rasch, T. (2005). Enabling, facilitating, and inhibiting effects of animations in multimedia learning: Why reduction of cognitive load can have negative
results on learning. Educational Technology Research & Development, 53(3), 47.
Schugar, H. R., Smith, C. A., & Schugar, J. T. (2013). Teaching with interactive picture e-books in grades K–6. The Reading Teacher, 66(8), 615–624. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1002/TRTR.1168.
Shamir, A., & Korat, O. (2015). Educational electronic books for supporting emergent literacy of kindergarteners at-risk for reading difficulties—what do we know so
far? Computers in the Schools, 32(2), 105–121.
Shepperd, J. A., Grace, J. L., & Koch, E. J. (2008). Evaluating the electronic textbook: Is it time to dispense with the paper text? Teaching of Psychology, 35(1), 2–5.
Smeets, D. J., & Bus, A. G. (2015). The interactive animated e-book as a word learning device for kindergartners. Applied PsychoLinguistics, 36(4), 899–920.
Smeets, D. J., V Dijken, M. J., & Bus, A. G. (2014). Using electronic storybooks to support word learning in children with severe language impairments. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 47(5), 435–449.
Sorden, S. D. (2005). A cognitive approach to instructional design for multimedia learning. Informing Science: International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline, 8,
263–279.
Sun, J.-N., & Hsu, Y.-C. (2013). Effect of interactivity on learner perceptions in Web-based instruction. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(1), 171–184.
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011). Measuring cognitive load Cognitive load theory. Springer 85.
Takacs, Z. K., Swart, E. K., & Bus, A. G. (2015). Benefits and pitfalls of multimedia and interactive features in technology-enhanced storybooks: A meta-analysis. Review
of Educational Research, 85(4), 698–739.
Väljataga, T., & Fiedler, S. (2014). Going digital: Literature review on E-textbooks. Learning and collaboration technologies. Designing and developing novel learning
experiences (pp. 138–148). Springer International Publishing.
Verhallen, M. J., & Bus, A. G. (2009). Video storybook reading as a remedy for vocabulary deficits: Outcomes and processes. Journal for Educational Research Online,
1(1), 117–141.
Woody, W. D., Daniel, D. B., & Baker, C. A. (2010). E-books or textbooks: Students prefer textbooks. Computers & Education, 55(3), 945–948. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.compedu.2010.04.005.

184