Form Three Physics Handbook

amosobiero7@gmail.
com
PHYSCIS FORM 3 HANDBOOK

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PHYSCIS FORM 3 HANDBOOK

[With well-drawn diagrams, solved examples and questions for exercise]
{2020 Edition}
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By Sir Obiero Amos 0706 851 439
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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BRIEF PERSONAL PROFILE
GUIDELINES IN MY LIFE
Chapter LINEAR MOTION
1
Chapter NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
2
Chapter WORK, ENERGY, POWER AND
3 MACHINES
Chapter REFRACTION OF LIGHT
4
Chapter GAS LAWS
5
Chapter WAVES II
6
Chapter CURRENT ELECTRICITY II
7
Chapter HEATING EFFECT OF AN
8 ELECTRIC CURRENT
Chapter ELECTROSTATICS II
9
Chapter QUANTITY OF HEAT
10
Chapter One 𝑳𝑰𝑵𝑬𝑨𝑹 𝑴𝑶𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵
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Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic the leaner 1. Distance, displacement,
should be able to: speed, velocity,
a) Define distance, displacement, acceleration (experimental
speed, velocity and treatment required)
acceleration 2. Acceleration due to
b) Describe experiments to gravity
determine velocity and • free fall,
acceleration • Simple pendulum
c) Determine acceleration due to method
gravity 3. Motion- time graphs
d) Plot and explain motion- time • Displacement-time
graphs graphs
e) Apply the equation of • Velocity- time
uniformly accelerated motion graphs
f) Solve numerical questions. 4. Equations of uniformly
accelerated motion
5. Problems on uniformly
accelerated motion
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Introduction i. Speed
❖ This topic deals with study motion of This is the rate of change of distance
bodies in a straight line. covered by a moving body. Speed is a
Terms Associated with Linear Motion scalar quantity. 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
i. Distance 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
❖ Distance is the actual length covered by a
For a body moving with a
moving body. It has no specific direction
and it is therefore a scalar quantity. The non-uniform speed,
SI unit of distance is the metre (m) 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅
=
ii.Displacement, s 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
❖ Instantaneous speed refers to the
❖ This is the distance covered by a moving
rate of change of distance of a
body in a specified direction.
moving body at a point (an instant).
Displacement is therefore a vector
The SI unit of speed is the metre per
quantity. The SI unit of displacement is
second (ms-1)
the metre (m)
Illustrating distance and displacement
ii. Velocity
Consider the diagram below showing ❖ This is the change of displacement
motion of a body starting from point A per unit time. It can also be defined
and moving in the direction shown. as the speed in a specified direction.
Velocity is therefore a vector
quantity.
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
=
For a body moving with a
a) At point B, distance covered is AB varying velocity,
while the displacement of the body is 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
AB in the direction AB 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
.
b) At point C, distance covered is AB + BC 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
while the displacement is AC in the ❖ The SI unit of velocity is the metre
direction AC per second (ms-1).
c) When back at starting point A,
distance covered is AB + BC + CA while iii. Acceleration
❖ This is the change of velocity per
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the displacement is zero. unit time. It is a vector quantity.

𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
=
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 − 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
=
Solution
𝒂=
𝒗−𝒖
, where, 𝒗 is the final velocity, 𝒖 𝑢 = 2.0 × 105 𝑘𝑚ℎ −1
𝒕
= 5.55556
is the initial velocity and 𝒕 is the time
× 104 𝑚𝑠 −1, 𝑣
taken.
= 0 𝑚𝑠 −1
Instantaneous acceleration is the 𝑣−𝑢
acceleration of a body at a point. 𝑎= ;𝑎
𝑡
Deceleration or retardation is the (0 − 5.55556 × 104 ) 𝑚𝑠 −1
negative acceleration in which a body =
2.0 × 10−2 𝑠
moves with a decreasing velocity with = −2.777778 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −2
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time. The SI unit of acceleration is the 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠

metre per square second (ms-2). − (−2.777778 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −2)
= 2.777778 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −2
Exercise
1) A van on a straight road moves with
Examples a speed of 180 kmh-1 f0r 45 minutes,
1. A body moves 30 m due east in 4 and then climbs an escarpment with
seconds, then 40 m due north in 8 a speed of 72 kmh-1 for 30 minutes.
seconds. Determine: Calculate:
a) The total distance moved by the I. The average speed of the
body. van
b) The displacement of the body. II. The average acceleration
c) The average speed of the body. produced
d) The average velocity of the body. 2) A girl runs 40 m due south in 40
Solution seconds and then 20 m due north in
10 seconds. Calculate:
I. her average speed
II. her average velocity
III. her change in velocity for
the whole journey
IV. The acceleration produced
a) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = by the girl.
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𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑

30 𝑚 + 40 𝑚 = 70 𝑚 Measuring Speed, Velocity and
Acceleration Using Ticker Timer
b) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 (√302 + 402 ) 𝑚❖ A ticker timer has an arm which
√2500 𝑚 vibrates regularly due to changing
= 50 𝑚 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 36.87𝑜 current in the mains supply
c) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = (alternating current). As the arm
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 vibrates, it makes dots on the paper
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 tape which is moving under the arm.
70 −1
= = 5.833 𝑚𝑠 Successive dots are marked at the
12 same interval of time
d) 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ❖ Most ticker timer operates at a
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 frequency of 50 hertz (50Hz) i.e. 50
50 cycles per second i.e. they make 50
=
12 dots per second. The time interval
= 4.167 𝑚𝑠 −1𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 36.87𝑜 1
between two consecutive dots is: =
50
2. The speed of a of body rolling on an 0.02𝑠for a 50Hz ticker timer. This time
inclined plane is 10 ms-1 when time is interval is called a tick.
0 s at time t = 10 s the speed of the
body is found to be 25 ms-1. If the Sample sections of tapes are as shown
body is moving in the same direction below. The arrow shows the direction in
throughout, calculate the average which the tape is pulled.
acceleration of the body
Solution
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
(25 − 10)𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑎=
(10 − 0) 𝑠
15 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑎= = 1.5 𝑚𝑠 −2
10 𝑠
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3. A particle moving with a velocity of

2.0 X 105 kmh-1 is brought to rest in
2.0 X 10-2 s. calculate the acceleration
of the body, hence the retardation.
Examples I. Calculate the average velocity for
1. A tape is pulled through a ticker timer the motion
which makes one dot every second. If II. What does the area under the
it makes three dots and the distance straight line represent?
between the first and the third dot is III. What is the difference between
16cm, find the velocity of the tape. successive sections of tape?
Solution IV. Calculate the acceleration of the
trolley in ms-1
𝑓 = 1 𝐻𝑧 Motion Graphs
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠 ❖ Graphs can be used to represent
= 1 𝑠, variation of distance, speed, velocity
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 1 𝑠 𝑋 2 or acceleration of a moving body with
= 2𝑠 time. When used this way they are
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 1𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠 = called motion graphs
16𝑐𝑚 = 0.16 𝑚
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 Displacement – Time Graphs
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 1. Stationary body
0.16 𝑚 ❖ Displacement does not change with
= = 0.08 𝑚𝑠 −1
2𝑠
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3. The tape in the figure below was time, since displacement is a vector
produced by a ticker timer with a quantity the position of the body may
frequency of 100Hz. Find the be negative or positive relative to be
acceleration of the trolley that was observer.
pulling the tape. Solution
Solution
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠
1
= = 0.01𝑠
100
0.005 𝑚
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 =
0.01 𝑠
= 0.5 𝑚𝑠 −1 2. A body moving with uniform velocity
0.025 𝑚 ❖ For a body moving with uniform
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = velocity, displacement changes
0.01 𝑠
= 2.5 𝑚𝑠 −1 uniformly over equal time intervals.
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 4 × 0.01 = 0.04𝑠 The graph of displacement against
𝑣−𝑢 time is a straight line whose slope or
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡 gradient represents the velocity of the
(2.5 − 0.5)𝑚𝑠 −1 200
= = body which is constant.
0.04 𝑠 0.04
−2
= 50 𝑚𝑠
Exercise
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1. The figure below shows a piece of

tape pulled through a ticker timer by
a trolley down an inclined plane. The
frequency of the ticker timer is 50Hz
I. What type of electric current is
used to operate the ticker timer?
II. Calculate the average velocity for
the trolley between A and B
2. The figure below shows a tape chart
from the paper tape obtained
(frequency of ticker timer 50 Hz)
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3. A body moving with variable velocity

❖ a. For a body moving with a velocity
increasing uniformly with time, the
displacement-time graph is a curve of
increasing slope since the distance the
body covers increases for equal time
intervals. The slope of the graph at any
given point gives instantaneous
velocity of the body i.e. 2. A body moving with its velocity
∆𝑠 changing uniformly
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
∆𝑡
❖ The gradient of this graph is a straight
line; meaning that velocity changes
uniformly over equal time intervals.
This gradient graph gives constant
∆𝑽
acceleration i.e. 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
∆𝒕
❖ b. For a body moving with a velocity

decreasing uniformly with time, the
displacement-time graph is curve of
decreasing slope since the distance the 3. A body moving with its velocity
body covers decreases for equal time changing non- uniformly
intervals as shown below. ❖ a) For a body moving with an
increasing acceleration, meaning that
its velocity is increasing at an
increasing rate, the velocity-time
graph is curve of increasing slope as
shown alongside. The slope of the
graph at any point gives the
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instantaneous acceleration of the

body at that point.
Velocity – Time Graphs

1. Body moving with uniform velocity
❖ The slope/gradient of the graph is zero
and therefore acceleration of the body
moving with uniform velocity is zero.
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❖ b. For a body moving with a

decreasing acceleration, meaning that Solution
its velocity is increasing at a decreasing • ab- the velocity of the car increases
rate, the velocity-time graph is curve uniformly from rest ( i.e. it
of decreasing slope as shown below. accelerates uniformly)
• bc- the velocity of the car
decreases uniformly to rest ( i.e. it
decelerates uniformly)
• cd- velocity of the car increases
uniformly but in opposite direction
(accelerates uniformly in opposite
direction)
• de- velocity of the car decreases
uniformly but still in same opposite
direction (decelerates uniformly in
Area under velocity – time graph opposite direction)
❖ Consider a body starting from rest 2, A car starting from rest accelerates
moving with constant acceleration for uniformly for 5 minutes to reach 30 ms -1.
time, t. The velocity-time graph for the It continues at this speed for the next 20
body is as shown alongside. minutes and then decelerates uniformly
to come to stop in 10 minutes. On the
axes provided, sketch the graph of
velocity against time for the motion of
the car and hence, find the total
distance covered by the car. Solution
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
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𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

= 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 1
= (35 + 20)60
× 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 2
𝑶+𝑽 𝟏 × 30 (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚)
=( ) × 𝒕 = 𝒗𝒕 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 49500 𝑚
𝟐 𝟐
❖ Therefore, area A under the velocity –
time graph represents the distance
covered by the body after time t
seconds.
Exercise
1. The figure below shows the
displacement time graph of motion
Examples
of a particle.
1. Interpret the graph below
representing motion of a car from
point a to e.
State the nature of the motion between:

(i) A and B (ii) B and C (iii) C and D
2. The figure below shows a velocity

time graph for the motion of a
certain body. Describe the motion of
the body in the region: (i) OA (ii) AB
(iii) BC.
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3. The figure below shows the

acceleration time graph for a certain
motion. On the axes provided, sketch
the displacement-time graph for the
same motion.
Therefore, for a body moving with uniform

acceleration, any of these three equations
may be used.
𝟏. 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟏
𝟐. 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟑. 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
Examples
1. A car starts from rest with uniform
acceleration of 5ms-2. How long does it
take to cover a distance of 400m?
Solution
𝒂 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔 − 𝟐
𝑺 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎
Equations of Uniformly Accelerated 𝒕 =?
Motion 𝑼 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔 − 𝟏
❖ Consider a body moving in a 𝟏
𝑩𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒔; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
straight line with uniform 𝟐
𝟏
acceleration𝒂, so that its velocity 𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎 × 𝒕 + × 𝟓 × 𝒕𝟐
increases from an initial value 𝒖 𝟐
𝟓 𝟐
to a final value 𝒗 in time𝒕 and it 𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 𝒕
is displaced by 𝒔; 𝟐
𝟒𝟎𝟎 × 𝟐
st 𝒕 = √
Derivation of the 1 equation 𝟓
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𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒂
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 ∆𝒗
= =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 ∆𝒕
𝒗−𝒖
𝒂=
𝒕
𝒂𝒕 = 𝒗 − 𝒖 2. A body is uniformly accelerated from rest
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 to a final velocity of 100ms-1 in 10seconds.
Calculate the distance covered.
Derivation of 2nd equation Solution
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝒔 𝑢=0
= 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑣 = 100𝑚𝑠 −1
𝒖+𝒗 𝑡 = 10𝑠
𝒔=( )×𝒕
𝟐 𝑠 =?
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏, 𝒗 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
= 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 1002 = 02 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝒖 + 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝑣−𝑢
𝒔=( )𝒕 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑎 =
𝟐 𝑡
𝟏 100 − 0
(𝟐𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 ) = 10 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝟐 10
𝟏 10000𝑚2𝑠 −2
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝑠= = 500 𝑚
𝟐 2 × 10
3. A body whose initial velocity is 30ms-1
Derivation of 3rd equation moves with a constant retardation of 3ms-
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 2.Calculate the time taken for the body to
= 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 come to rest.
×𝒕 Solution
𝒖+𝒗
𝒔=( )×𝒕 𝑢 = 30 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝟐 𝑎 = −3 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏, 𝒗
= 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝑡 =?
𝒗−𝒖 𝑣 = 0𝑚𝑠 −1
𝒕= 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝒂
𝒗+𝒖 𝒗−𝒖 0 = 30 − 3𝑡
𝒔=( )×( ) −30 = −3𝑡
𝟐 𝒂
𝑡 = 10𝑠
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𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝒗 + 𝒖𝒗 − 𝒖𝟐 4. A body moving with a uniform acceleration

𝒔= of 10ms-2 covers a distance of 320m. If its
𝟐𝒂
𝟐𝒂𝒔 = 𝒗 − 𝒖𝟐
𝟐 initial velocity was 60ms-1, calculate its
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 final velocity.
𝑎 = 10𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑠 = 320𝑚
𝑢 = 60𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑣 =?
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 (𝒃) 𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔

𝑣 2 = 602 + 2 × 10 × 320 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠
𝑣 = √3600 + 6400 202 = 02 + 2 × 10 × 𝑠
= √10000 400
𝑠= = 20𝑚
= 100𝑚𝑠 −1 20
Motion under Gravity 2. A bullet shot vertically upwards rises to a

Acceleration (In Free Fall) and maximum height of 1000m. Determine:
Deceleration (In Vertical a) The initial velocity of the bullet
Projection) Due To Gravity b) The time of flight of the bullet
❖ When a body is projected Solution
vertically upwards, it (a) 𝐴𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
decelerates uniformly (negative 𝑣 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −1
acceleration) due gravitational 𝑢 =? 𝑚𝑠 −1
pull. When this body falls from 𝑔 = −10𝑚𝑠 −1
maximum height, it accelerates 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠
uniformly downwards and this is 𝑠 = 1000𝑚
called free fall. 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠
❖ Consider a ball thrown vertically 0 = 𝑢2 + 2 × (−10) × 1000
upwards from the ground. The 0 = 𝑢2 − 20000
graph below shows how the 𝑢 = √20000 = 141.42 𝑚𝑠 −1
velocity of the ball changes with
time from when it leaves the (b) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
ground until it hits the ground 1
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2 ,
2
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again. Air resistance is assumed 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 0 𝑚

to be negligible. Downward 1
0 = 141.42 × 𝑡 + (−10)𝑡 2
velocity is taken to be positive. 2
The gradient of this graph is a 141.42 = 5𝑡
constant whose value is 141.42
𝑡= = 28.28 𝑠
gravitational acceleration, g. 5
❖ Equations of uniformly
accelerated bodies also apply in Exercise
motion under gravity. 1. A stone is released from a cliff of 180m
𝟏. 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕 high calculate
𝟏 a) The time it takes to hit the ground
𝟐. 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐 b) The velocity with which it hits the water
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟑. 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒈𝒔 (𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
2. A body is projected vertically upward with
an initial velocity u. it returns to the same
Examples point of projection after 8s. Plot:
1. A stone is released vertically a) The speed time graph
downwards from a high cliff. b) The velocity time graph for the body
Determine 3. A body is thrown vertically upwards with
a) its velocity after two seconds an initial velocity of u. show that:
b) How far it has travelled after I. Time taken to reach maximum height
𝒖
two seconds. is 𝒕 =
𝒈
Solution
II. Time flight (time taken for the
(𝑎) 𝑢 = 0
body(projectile) to fall back to point
𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
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𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠 −1 of projection) is 𝒕 =
𝟐𝒖
𝒈
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡 III. Maximum height reached is 𝑯𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒖𝟐
𝑣 = 0 + 10 × 2
𝟐𝒈
𝑣 = 20𝑚𝑠 −1 IV. Velocity of return is equal in
magnitude to velocity of projection
4. A stone is projected vertically upward with
a velocity of 30ms-1 from the ground.
Calculate:
I. The time it takes to reach maximum
height.
II. The time of flight.
III. The maximum height reached.
IV. The velocity with reach it lands the
ground.
Horizontal projection Example

Some examples of horizontal projection 1. An arrow is shot horizontally from
include: the top of the building and it lands
1. A jet from a water pipe held 200 m from the foot of the building
horizontally after 10s. Assuming that the air
2. A bullet from a gun held resistance is negligible, calculate:
horizontally a. The initial velocity of the arrow.
3. A tennis ball when it rolls from the b. the height of the building
tennis table. Solution
4. A stone thrown horizontally. 𝒂. 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑢 =?
5. An arrow released horizontally 𝑅 = 200𝑚
from bow. 𝑡 = 10𝑠
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑡;
200𝑚 = 𝑢 × 10
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❖ Consider a body projected 200

𝑢= = 20𝑚𝑠 −1
horizontally with an initial horizontal 10
velocity 𝒖. The body maintains that 1
𝑏. 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛; ℎ = 𝑔𝑡 2
initial horizontal velocity but since it 2
1
also experiences free fall due to ℎ = × 10 × 102
gravity, it describes a curved path as 2
= 5 × 100 = 500𝑚
shown below.
Exercise
1. A ball is thrown from the top of a
cliff 20m high with a horizontal
❖ The path followed the body projected
velocity of 10ms-1 , calculate:
horizontally (projectile) is called
a. The time taken by the ball to
trajectory. The maximum horizontal
strike the ground
distance covered by the body
b. The distance from the foot of the
projected horizontally is called the
cliff to where the ball lands.
range. The vertical acceleration is
c. The vertical velocity at the time it
due to gravity while the horizontal
strikes the ground.
acceleration is zero since the body
2. A stone is thrown horizontally from
maintains its initial horizontal
the building that is 45m, high above
velocity throughout the motion.
a horizontal ground. It hits the
❖ The displacement of the projectile at
ground at a point which is 60m from
any given time t is given by𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 +
𝟏 the foot of the building. Calculate
𝒂𝒕𝟐 the initial velocity of the stone.
𝟐
3. A ball is thrown from the top of a
Horizontal displacement, R cliff 20m high with a horizontal
❖ Since horizontal acceleration, a, is velocity of 10ms-1 , calculate:
zero, 𝑹 = 𝒖𝒕 I. The time taken by the ball to
strike the ground
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The vertical displacement, h II. The distance from the foot of the
❖ Initial velocity for vertical cliff to where the ball lands.
displacement is zero. This means that III. The vertical velocity at the time it
vertical displacement is; strikes the ground.
𝟏 4. A stone is thrown horizontally for
𝒔 = 𝟎 × + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐 the building that is 45m, high above
𝟏 𝟐 a horizontal ground. It hits the
𝒔 = 𝒈𝒕
𝟐 ground at a point which is 60m from
𝟏
𝒉 = 𝒈𝒕𝟐 the foot of the building. Calculate
𝟐 the initial velocity of the building.
Note: The time for horizontal
displacement is equal to time for
vertical displacement at any given point.
Revision Exercise
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1. A body moving at an initial velocity u i. State the direction in which the

(ms-1) accelerates at a (ms-2) for t parcel moved immediately it
seconds and attains a final velocity v was released.
(ms-1). Represent this motion on the ii. Calculate the time taken by the
velocity against time axes shown parcel to reach the ground from
below. the maximum height.
iii. Calculate the velocity of the
2. The data in the table below represents parcel when it strikes the
the motion over a period of 7 seconds ground.
iv. Calculate the maximum height
Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 above the ground the parcel
i reached.
n v. What was the height of the
s helicopter at the instant the
D in 0 20 40 60 80 95 105 110 parcel was dropped.
m
5. A stone is thrown horizontally from
a) Plot on graph paper a graph of a building that is 50 m high above a
displacement (y-axis) against time. horizontal ground. The stone hits
b) Describe the motion of the vehicle the ground at a point, which is 65m
for the first 4 seconds. from the foot of the building.
c) Determine the velocities at 4.5s and Calculate the initial of the stone.
6.5 s. Hence or otherwise
determine the average acceleration 6. The figure represents dots made by
of the vehicle over this time a ticker-timer. The dots were made
interval. at a frequency of 50 dots per
second. (Diagram not drawn to
3. A ball-bearing X is dropped vertically scale)
downwards, from the edge of a table
and it takes 0.5s to hit the floor below.
Another bearing Y leaves the edge of
the table horizontally with a velocity of i. What is time interval between
5m/s. find: two consecutive dots?
i. The time taken for bearing Y to ii. The first dot from the left was
made at time t = 0. Copy the
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reach the floor. diagram and indicate using

ii. The horizontal distance traveled by arrows pointing downwards the
Y before hitting the floor. dots made at t= 0.1s, 0.2s, 0.3s.
iii. The height of the table-top above iii. Determine the average velocities
the floor level. of the tape over time intervals -
0.02s to 0.02s, 0.08s to 0.12s,
4. A helicopter, which was ascending 0.18s to 0.22s and 0.28s to 0.32s
vertically at a steady velocity of 20m/s, iv. Draw a suitable graph and from
released a parcel that took 20second it determine the acceleration of
to reach the ground. the tape.
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Chapter Two 𝑵𝑬𝑾𝑻𝑶𝑵’𝑺 𝑳𝑨𝑾𝑺 𝑶𝑭 𝑴𝑶𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵
Specific Objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the 1. Newton’s laws of motion
leaner should be able to: (experimental treatment of
a) State Newton’s laws of motion inertia required)
b) Describe simple experiments to 2. Conservational of linear
illustrate inertia momentum: elastic collision,
c) State the law of conservation inelastic collisions, recoil
of linear momentum velocity, impulse (oblique
d) Define elastic collision, collisions not required)
inelastic collision and impulse 3. F=ma
e) Derive the equation F=ma 4. Frictional force
f) Describe the application of • Advantages and
fractional force disadvantages
g) Define viscosity • Viscosity
h) Explain terminal velocity • Terminal velocity
i) Solve numerical problems (qualitative treatment)
involving Newton’s laws and 5. Problem on Newton’s law of
the law of conservation of conservation of linear
linear momentum. momentum (exclude
problems on elastic collisions)
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Introduction 2. The bottom wooden block can easily

❖ Effects of force on motion of a body are be pulled out of the stack without
based on Newton’s three laws motion. disturbing others placed on it. The
In this topic, these laws are looked into. other blocks remain in a pile
undisturbed except that their position
Newton’s First Law (The Law of Inertia) is lowered because of downward pull
❖ It states that “a body remains in its of the gravitational force.
state of rest or uniform motion in a
straight line unless acted upon by an
external force”. This law is also called
the law of inertia
Definition of Inertia 3. When a moving train or a car stops

❖ Inertia refers to the tendency of a body suddenly, passengers are thrown
to resist change in its state of motion. forward. The passenger in a moving
Therefore, a body in motion will be vehicle is also in a state of motion.
reluctant to rest and similarly, a body at Hence, when the vehicle stops
rest will be reluctant to motion. suddenly, the upper part of his body
continues to move. This is why it is
Examples of Inertia (i.e. Examples of necessary to wear seat belt.
Newton’s First Law in Practice) 4. A cyclist on a level ground continues
1. When a card supporting a coin on a glass to move for some time without
tumbler is suddenly flicked, it is observed pedaling.
that the card flies off but the coin falls in
the tumbler. This is because the coin Definition of Force as per Newton’s First
tends to maintain its state of rest (it falls Law of Motion
in glass because another force acts on it. ❖ Force is defined as that which
Which is that other force?) produces motion in body at rest or
which alters its existing state of
motion.
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Momentum Relationship between Force, Mass and

❖ Momentum of a body is defined as the Acceleration
product of its mass and velocity. For a Consider a force F acting on a body of
body of mass m in kg and velocity v in mass m for a time t. if its velocity
ms-1, changes from u to v, then;
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
= 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔(𝒌𝒈) = 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
× 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ) − 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
𝑷 = 𝒎𝒗 ∆𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖
❖ SI unit of momentum is the kilogram 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
metre per second (kgms-1). Momentum 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
= ;
is a vector quantity since it has both 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
magnitude and direction. The direction ∆𝒑 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖
=
of momentum is same as that of the 𝒕 𝒕
velocity of the body. 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏’𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒂𝒘,
𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖
Examples 𝑭∝
𝒕
1. What is the momentum of a racing car 𝒗−𝒖 𝒗−𝒖
of mass 500kg driven at 270km/h? 𝑭 ∝ 𝒎( ) ; 𝒃𝒖𝒕 =𝒂
𝒕 𝒕
Solution 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑭 ∝ 𝒎𝒂
𝑣 = 270 𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 = 75 𝑚𝑠 −1; 𝑚 𝒔𝒐, 𝑭
= 500 𝑘𝑔 = 𝒌𝒎𝒂. 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑭 = 𝑰𝑵, 𝒂 = 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟐 ,
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑘𝑔) 𝒎 = 𝟏𝒌𝒈 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏. 𝒌 = 𝟏
× 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 ) 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 ,
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 500 𝑘𝑔 × 75 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏′ 𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
= 37500 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
2. Find the momentum of : Definition of a newton as per Newton’s
a. An object of a mass 100g moving 2nd law of motion
at 20ms-1 ❖ A newton is that force which produces
Solution an acceleration of 1ms-2 when it acts
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 on a body of mass 1kg.
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑘𝑔)
× 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚𝑠 −1 ) Examples
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1. What force is needed to stop a 500kg

−1
= 0.100 𝑘𝑔 × 20 𝑚𝑠 car moving at 180kmh-1 in 12.5m?
= 2 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
b. An object of mass 2.0kg which Solution
falls from rest for 10s (Momentum 𝑚 = 500 𝑘𝑔, 𝑣 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −1,
after 10s). 𝑢 = 180 𝑘𝑚ℎ −1 = 50 𝑚𝑠 −1 ,
Solution 𝑠 = 12.5 𝑚, 𝐹 =?
−1 2 2
𝑢 = 0 𝑚𝑠 , 𝑡 = 10 𝑠, 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠, 𝑎
𝑔 = 10 𝑚𝑠 , −2
𝑣 =? 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡, =
2𝑠
𝑣 = 0 + 10 × 10 02 − 502
= 𝑎= ,
2 × 12.5
100 𝑚𝑠 −1 mom=o.1x100=100 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑎 = −100 𝑚𝑠 −2
Exercise 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 2𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑤,
1. What is the momentum of a racing car 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝐹 = 500 × −100
of mass 500kg driven at 270km/h? 𝐹 = −50 000 𝑁.
2. An apple of mass 100g falls a distance 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛?
of 2.5m to the ground from a branch of 2. An external force applied to a ball of
a tree. mass 160g increases its velocity from
a) Calculate the speed at which it hits 2.5cms -1 to 275cms-1 in 10 seconds.
the ground and the time taken for it Calculate the force applied.
to fall.(Ignore air resistance).
b) Calculate the momentum of the Solution
apple just before hitting the ground 𝑚 = 160 𝑔 = 0.160𝑘𝑔,
𝑢 = 2.5 𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1
= 0.025 𝑚𝑠 −1,
Newton’s Second Law of Motion 𝑣 = 275 𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1 = 2.75 𝑚𝑠 −1, 𝐹 =? 𝑁
𝑣−𝑢
❖ It states that “the rate of change of 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝐹 = 𝑚( )
momentum of a body is directly 𝑡
2.75 − 0.025
proportional to the resultant external 𝐹 = 0.160 ( ) = 0.0436 𝑁
10
force producing the change and takes
place in the direction of the force”.
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
∝ 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
Exercise
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1. What is the mass of an object which is ❖ Note: Impulse occurs when bodies
accelerated at 5 ms-1 by a force of 200 collide and the impulsive force is the
N? one which causes destruction during
2. A gun fires a bullet of mass 10.0g collision. The time for which this
-1
horizontal at 50 ms at a fixed target of impulsive force acts determines the
soft wood. The bullet penetrates 50 cm extent of damage caused. If time of
into a target. Calculate impact is long, damage is less than
a) Time taken by the bullet to when time of impact is short. The
come to rest in the wood following are some examples of
b) The average retarding force designs made to prolong time of
exerted by the wood on the impact and therefore reduce damage
bullet. by impulsive force.
3. A trolley of mass 1.5kg is pulled along 1. Eggs are packed in spongy crates
by an elastic cord given an acceleration 2. Smart phones are put in soft
-2
of 2ms . Find the frictional force acting holders
on the trolley if the tension in the cord 3. vehicles are fitted with safety
is 5N. airbags
4. State Newton’s second law of motion. 4. some vehicles have collapsible
Hence, show that F = ma. bumpers and steering
5. Define the newton (unit of force) 5. High jumpers usually land on soft
6. A car of mass 1500kg is brought to rest ground etc.
from a velocity of 25ms-1 by a constant
force of 3000N. Determine the change
in momentum produced by the force
and the time that it takes to come to
rest.
7. A hammer of mass 800 g produces a
force of 400 N when it strikes the head
of a nail. Describe how it is possible for
the hammer to drives the nail into a
piece of wood, yet a weight of 400 N
resting on the head of the nail would
not
8. A resultant force F acts on a body of
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mass m causing an acceleration a1 on

the body. When the same force acts on
a body of mass 2m, it causes an
acceleration a2. Express a2 in terms of
a1.
Impulse
❖ Impulse is defined as the product of
Examples
force acting on a body and the time in
1. Determine the change in momentum
which the force acts. Impulsive force
produced when a force of 4000 N acts
refers to the force which acts on a body
on a body which is at rest for 0.003
for a very short time during a collision.
minutes
❖ If a force 𝑭 acts on a body of mass 𝒎 for
time, 𝒕, then the impulse of the force is
Solution
given by:
𝐹 = 4000 𝑁, 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡
= 0.003 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
= 0.18 𝑠
𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝑭𝒕
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
(𝑺𝑰 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 (𝑵𝒔))
= 𝐹𝑡
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 4000 × 0.18
= 720 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1𝑜𝑟 720 𝑁𝑠
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𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏’𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒂𝒘 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 2. A car𝑭 of mass 400 kg starts from rest
𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖 on a horizontal track. Find the speed
=
𝒕 4 s after starting if the tractive force
𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖, 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑭𝒕 by the engine is 500 N.
= 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒗
− 𝒎𝒖
Solution
𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚,
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
❖ This implies that the impulse of force
500 × 4 = 400(𝑣 − 0)
acting on a body during some time 500×4
𝑣= = 5 𝑚𝑠 −1
interval is equal to the change in 400
momentum produced in that body in Exercise
that time. 1. An apple of mass 100g falls a distance
❖ The area under the plot of force F of 2.5m to the ground from a branch
against time (t) represents impulse or of a tree.
change in momentum during a collision. I.Calculate the speed at which it hits the
ground and the time taken for it to
fall. (Ignore air resistance).
II. Assuming the apple takes 100 C. Lift moving downwards with
milliseconds to come to rest Calculate acceleration
the average force experienced by the ❖ The downward acceleration is
apple. negative and this is why the one feels
2. The table below shows the values of the lighter when lift is accelerating
resultant force, F, and the time t for a downwards. Therefore reading on the
bullet traveling inside the gun barrel machine (apparent weight of the body
after the trigger is pulled. in lift) is:
Force, F 3 3 30 24 1 11 𝑷’
(N) 6 4 0 0 7 0 = 𝒎𝒈
0 0 0 − 𝒎𝒂
Time, (t) 3 4 8 1 1 22
Notes:
(millisec 2 7
I. If the lift moves with constant
onds)
velocity, the machine will read weight
I. Plot a graph of Force, F, against time
of the body since acceleration will be
t.
zero.
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II. Determine from the graph: II. If a = g, the body will experience
a) The time required for the bullet to weightlessness since the reaction
travel the length of the barrel from the lift on the body will be zero.
assuming that the force becomes
zero just at the end of the barrel.
b) The impulse of the force.
c) Given that the bullet emerges
from the muzzle of the gun with a
velocity of 200 m/s, calculate the
mass of the bullet.
3. A body of mass 5 kg is ejected vertically Exercise
from the ground when a force of 600N 1. A lady of mass 80 kg stands on
acts on it for 0.1s. Calculate the weighing machine in a lift. Determine
velocity with which the body leaves the the reading on the weighing machine
ground. when the lift moves:
4. A high jumper usually lands on a thick
soft mattress. Explain how the a) downwards at a constant velocity
mattress helps in reducing the force of of 2.0 ms-1
impact. b) downwards with an acceleration
of 3 ms-2
Newton’s Third Law of Motion c) upwards with an acceleration of 3
It states that “for every action, there is an ms-2
equal but opposite reaction force”. This 2. A man of mass 80 kg stands on a lift
means that if a body P exerts a force on which is accelerating upwards at 0.5
another body Q, Q exerts an equal and ms-2. if 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝑵/𝒌𝒈 determine the
opposite force on P. It is clear that it is due reaction on the man by the floor of
the lift.
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to action (force exerted by foot on ground)

and reaction (force exerted by earth on The Law of Conservation of Linear
foot) that we are able to walk forward. Momentum
❖ This law states that, “for a system of
colliding bodies, the total linear
momentum is a constant, provided
no external forces act”.
❖ If a body A of mass mA initially moving
Weight in a lift with a velocity of uA collides lineally
a. Lift at rest with a body B of mass mB initially
moving with a velocity uB and their
❖ Lift machine reads the weight of the velocities after collision are vA and vB
body in lift since action and reaction are respectively, then:
equal and opposite i.e. R = mg. 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒕
b. Lift moving upwards with acceleration a
= 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
The resultant upward force F produces 𝒎𝑨 𝒖𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒖𝑩 = 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩𝒗𝑩
the acceleration (F 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒖𝒔
=ma)𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭 = 𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑷 −
𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕) 𝑾 Types of Collisions
𝑭 = 𝑷 − 𝑾 ⇒ 𝑷 = 𝑭 + 𝒘 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∴ I. Elastic Collision
𝑷 ❖ This is a collision in which both kinetic
= 𝒎𝒈 + 𝒎𝒂 energy and momentum are
conserved. If the bodies A and B
❖ This is what the lift machine will read
above collide elastically;
(the reaction of the lift on the body).
𝒎𝑨 𝒖𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩𝒖𝑩 = 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝑩
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝑨 𝒖𝑨 𝟐 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒖𝑩 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒎 𝑨 𝒗𝑨 𝟐 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝑩 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
❖ Note: In this collision, bodies separate
and move in same or different
directions after collision.
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II. Inelastic Collision I. 𝑚𝑏 𝑢𝑏 + 𝑚𝑤 𝑢𝑤 = (𝑚𝑏 +

❖ This is a collision in which momentum is 𝑚𝑤 )𝑣
conserved but kinetic energy is not. In 0. 020 × 50 + 1.980 × 0
this collision, colliding bodies fuse and = (0.020 + 1.980)𝑣
move together in one direction with a 1
𝑣 = = 0.5 𝑚𝑠 −1
common velocity. 2
❖ If the collision of bodies A and B above II. 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒
1
collide inelastic, then; 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝒎𝑨 𝒖𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒖𝑩 = 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩𝒗𝑩 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ, 𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡
1
𝟏 𝟏 × 0.52 = 10 × ℎ
𝒎𝑨 𝒖𝑨 𝟐 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒖𝑩 𝟐 2
𝟐 𝟐 0.125
𝟏 𝟏 ℎ= = 0.0125 𝑚
≠ 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝑨 𝟐 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝑩 𝟐 10
𝟐 𝟐
❖ Note: the total kinetic energy after the Exercise
impact is always less than the total
1. A lorry of mass 3000 kg travelling at
kinetic energy before the impact and the
a constant velocity of 72 kmh-1
loss is due to:
collides with a stationary car of mass
I. Energy used in deformation of
600 kg. The impact takes 1.5 seconds
bodies
before the two move together at a
II. Energy transformed to heat, sound
constant velocity for 15 seconds.
and even light
Calculate:
Examples
i. The common velocity
1. Two trolleys of masses 2 kg and 1.5 kg
ii. The distance moved after the
are traveling towards each other at
impact
0.25m/s and 0.40 m/s respectively. The
iii. The impulsive force
trolleys combine on collision.
iv. The change in kinetic energy
I. Calculate the velocity of the
2. A bullet of mass 15 g is short from a
combined trolleys.
gun 15 kg with a muzzle velocity of
II. In what direction do the trolleys
200 ms-1. If the bullet is 20 cm long,
move after collision?
calculate:
I. the acceleration of the bullet
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Solution II. the recoil velocity of the gun

3. Explain how:
i. Rocket propulsion takes place
ii. Garden sprinkler works
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡

= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝐴 𝑢𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵 = (𝑚𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 )𝑣. Frictional Force
⇒ 2.5 × 0.25 + 1.5 × (−0.40)
= (2.5 + 1.5)𝑣 ❖ Frictional force refers to the force that
0.25 opposes or tends to oppose relative
𝑣= = 0.00625 𝑚𝑠 −1
4.0 motion between two surfaces in
contact. Frictional force acts in the
III. They move in the direction to which direction opposite to that of the
trolley of mass 2.5 kg was moving to pulling force.
before collision
2. A bullet 0f mass 20 g travelling Types of Frictional Force
horizontally at a speed of 50 ms -1 I. Static/ Limiting Frictional Force
embeds itself in a block of wood of ❖ This is the force required to just start
mass 1980 g suspended from a light the body sliding. The force is directly
inextensible string. Find: proportional to the reaction force on
I. The velocity of the bullet and the body by the surface.𝑭𝑺 = µ𝒔 𝑹 ,
block immediately after collision 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 µ 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊
𝒔
II. The height through which the 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
block rises
Solution II. Kinetic/ Sliding Frictional Force
❖ This is the force required to keep the
body sliding or moving at a constant
speed. It opposes motion between
two surfaces that are in relative
motion. Sliding friction is directly
proportional reaction force.
𝑭𝑲 = µ 𝒌 𝑹 ,
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 µ𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒓
𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
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Note: Consider a block of wood being Exercise

pulled using a rubber band on a horizontal
surface as shown below. 1. A bullet of mass 10g traveling
horizontally with a velocity of
300m/s strikes a block of wood of
mass 290gwhich rests on rough
horizontal floor. After impact they
move together and come to rest after
traveling a distance of 15m.
I. Calculate the common velocity of
the bullet and the block.
II. Calculate the acceleration of the
bullet and the block.
III. Calculate the coefficient of sliding
friction between the block and the
floor.
2. Under a driving force of 4000N, a car
❖ The rubber band stretches for some time of mass 1250 kg has an acceleration
before the block starts moving (stretch is of 2.5 m/s2. Find the frictional force
due to limiting frictional). The stretching acting on the car.
increases to a point when the block 3. A bullet of mass 22g travelling -1
with a
starts sliding steadily (sliding frictional horizontal velocity of 300ms strikes
force limits motion at this point).µ𝒔 > µ𝒌 a block of wood of mass 378g which
❖ Frictional force is useful/ advantageous rests on a rough horizontal surface.
in walking, moving vehicles, braking, After the impact, the bullet and the
writing, lighting a match stick etc. block move together and come to
❖ Frictional force can be disadvantageous rest when the block has travelled a
as it causes wear and tear in moving distance of 5m. Calculate the
parts of machine and leads to coefficient of sliding friction between
generation of unnecessary noise. the block and the floor.
4. A block of a metal A having a mass of
Example 40kg requires a horizontal force of
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A smooth wooden block is placed on a 100N drag it with uniform velocity a

smooth wooden table. A force of 14N long horizontal surface.
should be exerted on the4kg wooden I. Calculate the coefficient of
block to keep the block moving with a friction
constant velocity. II. Determine the force required to
drag a similar block having a
a) What is the coefficient of kinetic mass of 30kg along the same
friction,µ𝒌
horizontal surface, calculate.
III. If the two blocks A and B are
Solution
connected with a two bar and a
𝐹𝐾 = µ𝑘 𝑅, 𝐹𝐾 = µ𝑘 𝑚𝑔 force of 200N is applied to pull
14 = µ𝑘 × 4 × 10
14 the two long the same surface,
µ𝑘 = = 0.35 calculate.
40
a) The tension in the tow bar
b) If a 20N brick is placed on the block, b) The acceleration
what force will be required to keep IV. If the tow bar is removed and the
the block and brick moving with 40kg blocks of metal moves
required constant speed? around a smooth path of radius
10m at a constant speed of
Solution 24ms-1 calculate the centripetal
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, µ𝑘 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 force.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
µ𝑘 𝑅 ⇒ 𝐹𝐾 = 0.35 × (40 + 20) V. At the end of the circular path,
= 20 𝑁 the 40kg mass drops vertically in
a trench 10m high and falls freely
determine the time it takes to
land at the bottom of the trench.`
Factors Affecting Frictional Force
between Two Surfaces in Contact
I. Normal reaction– frictional force is
directly proportional to normal
reaction.
II. Nature of the surfaces- the more
rough a surface is, the larger the
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frictional force.
Methods of minimizing friction
a) Using rollers- The rollers are laid
down on the surface and the object
pushed over them
b) Lubrication -Application of oil or
grease to the moving parts
c) Use of ball bearing -This is applied on Factors Affecting Viscosity In Fluids

rotating axles. The bearing allows the
movement of the surface over the other. I. Density - The higher the density of
the fluid, the greater the viscous
d) Air cushioning - This is done by blowing
drag and therefore the lower the
air into the space between surfaces. This
terminal velocity.
prevents surfaces from coming into
contact since air is matter and occupies
space.
Viscosity
❖ This is the force that opposes relative
motion between layers of the fluid.
❖ Consider a small ball bearing introduced II. Temperature - In liquids, viscous
gently into glycerine in a long cylindrical drug decreases (terminal velocity
jar. The forces acting on the ball are as increases) with temperature, while
shown below. in gases viscous drug increases
(terminal velocity decreases) with
temperature.
Exercise
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1. The diagram shows a tall measuring

cylinder containing a viscous liquid.
A very small steel ball is released
from rest at the surface of the liquid
as shown. Sketch the velocity- time
graph for the motion of the ball from
the time it is released to the time just
❖ The resultant downward force (𝒎𝒈 − before it reaches the bottom of the
(𝒖 + 𝑭𝒓 )) accelerates the ball cylinder.
downwards.
❖ The viscous drag increases with velocity
until the sum of upward forces equal the
downward forces,
2. Two small spherical identical stones
𝒖 + 𝑭𝒓 = 𝒎𝒈
A and B are released from the same
❖ At this point the resultant force is zero height above the ground. B falls
and the ball attains a constant velocity through air while A falls through
called terminal velocity. water. Sketch the graphs of velocity
against time (t) for each stone. Label
the graph appropriately.
❖ Terminal velocity is defined as the

constant velocity attained by a body
falling in a fluid when the sum of upward
forces is equal to the weight of the body.
Graphically:
Chapter Three 𝑬𝑵𝑬𝑹𝑮𝒀, 𝑾𝑶𝑹𝑲 , 𝑷𝑶𝑾𝑬𝑹 𝑨𝑵𝑫 𝑴𝑨𝑪𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑬𝑺
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By the end of this topic, the 1. Forms of energy and energy

leaner should be able to: transformations
2. Sources of energy
a) Describe energy
• Renewable
transformations
• Non- renewable
b) State the law of
3. Law conservation of energy
conservation of energy
4. Work ,energy and power
c) Define work, energy, power
(work done by resolved force
and state their SI units
not required)
d) Define mechanical
5. Kinetic and potential energy
advantage velocity ratio
6. Simple machines
and efficiency of machines
7. Problems on work, energy,
e) Solve numerical problems
power and machines
involving work, energy,
power and machines.
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Energy • Note: potential energy is the energy

possessed by a body due to its relative
• Energy is the capacity to do work. The SI
position or state while kinetic energy
unit of energy is the joule (J) after the
is the one possessed by a body due to
physicist James Prescott Joule who was
its motion.
also a brewer.
Conservation and Transformation of
Sources of Energy
Energy
• They are classified into renewable and The Law of Conservation of Energy
nonrenewable sources.
i. Renewable sources • This law states that “Energy can
• These are sources whose supply can be neither be created nor destroyed but
renewed again and again for use. can only be transformed from one
Examples are; water, solar, wind, form to another.”
geothermal etc.
Energy Transformation
ii. Non-renewable sources
• These are sources of energy whose • Any device that facilitates the
supply cannot be renewed again and transformation of energy from one
again for use. Examples are; fossils, form to another is called a
firewood, nuclear source etc. transducer. The following are some
examples:
Forms of Energy
Initial Final Transducer
• The various forms of energy include:
form of form of
o Mechanical (potential and kinetic)
energy energy
o Chemical – stored in batteries and
Solar Heat Solar panel
foods
Electrical Kinetic Motor
o Electrical
o Light Kinetic Electrical Dynamo
o Nuclear Solar Electrical Solar cell
o Wave Heat Electrical Thermocouple
electrical Sound Loudspeaker
chemical Electrical Battery
• Note: Energy transformations are
represented by charts.
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Examples Examples
Describe the energy transformation that 1. Calculate the amount of work done
takes place in each of the following: by:
a) A car battery is used to light a bulb a) A machine lifting a load of mass
50 kg through a vertical distance
of 2.4m
b) Coal is used to generate electricity
Solution
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑊
c) A pendulum bob swing to and fro = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹
× 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
d) Water at the top of a waterfall falls 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
and its temperature rises on = (50 × 10)𝑁 × 2.4 𝑚 = 1200 𝐽
reaching the bottom
b) A laborer who carries a load of
mass 42kg to a height of 4.0m
Solution
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑊
= 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹
× 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= (42 × 10)𝑁 × 4.0 𝑚 = 1680 𝐽
2. A man of mass 70 kg walks up a track
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Work and Energy inclined at an angle of 300 to the

• Work is defined as the product of force horizontal. If he walks 20 m, how
and distance moved in the direction of much work does he do?
application of the force.
Solution
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝑾
= 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭
× 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝒅 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑊
𝑾=𝑭×𝒅 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹
• Work is therefore said to be done when × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
an applied force makes the point of 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔
application of the force move in the × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, ℎ
direction of the force. No work is done = (70 × 10)𝑁 × (20 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30)𝑚
when a person pushes a wall until he = 7000 𝐽
sweats or carrying a bag of cement on Exercise
his head for hours while standing. 1. A girl of mass 40 kg walks up a flight
• The SI unit of work is the joule (J). 10 steps. If each step is 40 cm high,
𝟏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 (𝑱) = calculate the work done by the girl.
𝟏 𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 (𝑵𝒎) 2. A body is acted upon by a varying
force F over a distance of 35 m as
Notes: shown in the figure below.
I. Work done is equivalent to energy

converted while doing work.
II. The area under force-distance graph

represents work done by the force or
energy converted. Calculate the total work done by
force
3. Sometimes work is not done even if
there is an applied force. Describe
some situations when this can
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happen.
Variation of K.E and P.E for A Body

Gravitational Potential Energy Projected Upwards
• This is the energy possessed by a body • Consider a body of mass m projected
due to its height above some surface. vertically upwards. Gravitational force
Consider a block of mass m raised is the only force acting on it, assuming
through the height 𝒉the ground. At that negligible air resistance. As it raises
height the block has gravitational kinetic energy decreases since the
potential energy. velocity decreases (the body
decelerates upwards). At the same
time, the potential energy of the body
increases and becomes maximum at
the highest point, where K.E is zero.
As the body falls from the highest
𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚, 𝑷. 𝑬 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 point, P.E decreases while K.E
= 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝑷. 𝑬 increases. The curves for variation of
= K.E and P.E of the body with time are
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌 𝑿 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 shown below.
𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉
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Elastic Potential Energy

• This is the energy stored in a stretched
or compressed spring. The energy is
equal to work done in stretching or
compressing the spring.
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
= 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 • Therefore, at any given
× 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 points;𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚, 𝑬 = 𝑷. 𝑬 +
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕.
= 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
× 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
(𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝒐+𝑭
= × 𝒆;
𝟐
𝑭
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = × 𝒆 ,
𝟐
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑭
= 𝒌𝒆, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
∴
𝟏 Examples
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = ( 𝒌𝒆) 𝒆,
𝟐 A stone of mass 2.5 kg is released from a
𝟏 𝟐
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒌𝒆 height of 5.0 m above the ground:
𝟐
Kinetic Energy, K.E
a) Calculate the velocity of the stone
• Consider a body of mass m being acted
just before it strikes the ground.
upon by a steady force F. the body
accelerates uniformly from rest to final
b) At what velocity will the stone hit the
velocity v in time t seconds. If it covers a
ground if a constant air resistance
distance s;
force of 1.0 N acts on it as it falls?
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
= 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑲. 𝑬 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
= 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒔 Solution
𝟏
Method 1 𝒂) 𝒎𝒈𝒉 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝑭 × 𝒔 ;
𝟏
𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟓. 𝟎 = × 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝒗𝟐
𝟐
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𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒂 × (𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
× 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆) 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒗−𝒖 𝒖+𝒗 𝒗=√ = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎 ( ) × ( × 𝒕) 𝟏
𝒕 𝟐 𝟏
𝒃) 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒉 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 ;
𝒗−𝟎 𝟎+𝒗 𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎 ( )×( × 𝒕) = 𝟏
(𝒎𝒈 − 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆)𝒉 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝒕 𝟐
𝒎𝒗 𝒗𝒕 𝟐
×
𝒕 𝟐
𝟏 (𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏. 𝟎) × 𝟓 =
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐 𝟏
Method2 × 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝒗𝟐
𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝑭 × 𝒔 ; 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒂 × (𝒖𝒕 + 𝒗=√
𝟐𝟒𝟎
= 𝟗. 𝟕𝟗𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟏 𝟐.𝟓
𝒂𝒕𝟐 )
𝟐
𝒗−𝒖 𝟏 𝒗−𝒖 Exercise
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎 ( ) × (𝟎 × 𝒕 + ( )𝒕𝟐 )
𝒕 𝟐 𝒕
1. A stone of mass 5 kg moves through
𝒗−𝟎 a horizontal distance 10 m from rest.
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎 ( ) × ((𝟎 × 𝒕 + If the force acting on the stone is 8 N,
𝒕
𝟏 𝒗−𝟎 𝒎𝒗 𝒗𝒕 𝟏
( )𝒕𝟐 )) = × 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 calculate:
𝟐 𝒕 𝒕 𝟐 𝟐
a) the work done by the force
b) the kinetic energy gained by the

stone
c) the velocity of the stone
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2. Calculate the amount of energy needed Power

by a catapult to throw a stone of mass • Power is defined as the rate of doing
500g with a velocity of 10ms-1 work (i.e. work done per unit time).
3. A tennis ball is dropped from a height of Since work done is equivalent to
1.8m. it rebounds to a height of 1.25m. energy used, and energy cannot be
a) Describe the energy changes which destroyed or created but converted
take place from one form to another,
b) With what velocity does the ball hit • Power can also be defined as the rate
the ground? of energy conversion.
c) With what velocity does the ball 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
leave the ground? 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
4. A ball rolls on a table in a straight line. 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅
=
A part from the transitional kinetic 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
energy, state the other form of kinetic • The SI unit of power is the watt;
energy possessed by the ball. named after the physicist James
5. A body has 16 Joules of kinetic energy. Watt. 𝟏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕(𝑾) =
What would be its kinetic energy if its 𝟏𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 (𝑱𝒔−𝟏 )
velocity was double? Relationship between power and
6. A force of 8N stretches a spring by velocity
10cm. How much work is done in 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = ;
stretching this spring by 13cm? 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
7. A simple pendulum is released from rest 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
and it swings towards its lowest =
position. If the speed at the lowest 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
position is 1.0m/s, calculate the vertical
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
height of the bob when it is released. = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ×
8. A metal ball suspended vertically with a 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
wire is displaced through an angle 𝜽 as
shown in the diagram below. The ball is Examples
released from A and swing back to B. 1. An electric motor raises a 50 kg mass
at a constant velocity. Calculate the
power of the motor if it takes 30
seconds to raise the mass through a
height of 15 m
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Given that the maximum velocity at the Solution

lowest point B is 2.5ms-1. Find the 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦; 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
height h from which the ball is released 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝑚𝑔 ×
9. A 30g bullet strikes a tree trunk of 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
diameter 40cm at 200ms-1 and leaves it 15 𝑚
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 50 𝑁 × = 25 𝑊
from the opposite side at 100ms-1. Find: 30 𝑠
I. The kinetic energy of the bullet just 2.A soldier climbs to the top of the
before it strikes the tree. watch tower in 15 minutes. If the work
II. The kinetic energy of the bullet just done by the soldier against gravity is 60
before it leavees from the tree. kJ, what is his average power in
III. The average force acting on the climbing?
bullet as it passes through the tree. Solution
10.The initial velocity of a body of mass 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
20kg is 4ms-1. How long would a 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
60 × 1000
constant force of 5.0N act on the body 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = 66.67 𝑊
in order to double its kinetic energy? 15 × 60
Exercise
11.A compressed spring with a load
1. A crane lifts a load of 200 kg through
attached to one end and fixed at the
a vertical distance of 3.0m in 6
other and is released as shown below.
seconds. Determine the;
I. Work done
Sketch on the same axis the variation of II. Power developed by the crane
potential energy, kinetic 2. A load of 100N is raised 20m in 50s.
energy and total energy with time Calculate;
12.The figure below shows how the I. The gain in potential energy
potential energy (P.E) of a ball thrown II. The power developed
vertically upwards varies with height 3. Water falls through a height of 60m
at a rate of flow of 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 litres
per minute. Assuming that there are
no energy losses, calculate the
amount of power generated at the
base of the water fall. (the mass of 1
On the same axes plot a graph of the liter of water is 1 kg)
kinetic energy of the ba ll 4. If 50 litres of water is pumped
through a height of 15m in 30
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seconds, what is its power rating of

the pump is 80% efficient? (the mass
of 1 liter of water is 1 kg)
5. A small wind pump develops an
average power of 50N. It raises water
from a borehole to a point 12N above
the water level. Determine the mass
of water delivered in one hour.
Simple Machines • N/B Efficiency, just like M.A of a

• A machine is a device that makes work machine depends on friction between
easier. moving parts of a machine and
weight of the parts that have to be
Terms Associated with Machines lifted. These reasons explain why the
1. Effort, E efficiency of a machine is always less
• This is the force applied to the machine. than 100%.
The SI unit of effort is the newton (N). Examples
2. Load, L 1. A certain machine uses an effort of
• This is the force exerted by the machine. 400N to raise a load of 600N. If the
The SI unit of load is the newton (N). efficiency of the machine is 75%,
3. Mechanical advantage, M.A determine its velocity ration.
• This is the ratio of the load to the effort. Solution
It has no units since it is a ratio of two 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀. 𝐴 =
forces. 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑴. 𝑨 600
𝑀. 𝐴 = = 1.5
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 400
= 𝑀. 𝐴
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝜂= × 100% ⇒ 75
𝑉. 𝑅
• For most machines, M.A is greater than 1.5
= × 100%
one since load is greater than effort. 𝑉. 𝑅
Factors Affecting M.A of a Machine 1.5
𝑉. 𝑅 = × 100% = 2
75
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I. Friction between moving parts of the 2. A crane lifts a load of 200 kg through
machine-The greater the friction, the a vertical distance of 3.0m in 6
less the mechanical advantage seconds. Determine the;
II. Parts of the machine that have to be I. Work done
lifted – The heavier the weight, the less II. Power developed by the
the mechanical advantage. crane
4. Velocity Ratio, V.R III. Efficiency of the crane
• It is the ratio of the distance moved by given that it is operated
the effort 𝑫𝑬 to the distance moved by by an electric motor
the load 𝑫𝑳 rated 1.25 kW.
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐, 𝑽. 𝑹 Solution
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕, 𝑫𝑬 𝑰. 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
= 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 200 × 10 × 3.0
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅, 𝑫𝑳
𝑫𝑬 = 6000 𝐽
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑫𝑳 𝐼𝐼. 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
• Note: If two machines A and B with 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
6000
= 1000 𝑊 𝑜𝑟1𝑘𝑊
velocity ratios V.𝑅𝐴 and 𝑉. 𝑅𝐵 6
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
respectively are combined, the resultant 𝐼𝐼𝐼. 𝜂 = × 100%
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
velocity ratio V.R will be given by:
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑽𝑹𝑨 × 𝑽𝑹𝑩 1000
𝜂= × 100% = 80%
5. Efficiency, 𝜼 1250
Exercise
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• It is the ratio of work done on the load 1. When an electric pump whose
(work output) to the work done by effort efficiency is 70% raises water to a
(work input) expressed as a percentage. height of 15m, water is delivered at
𝜼 the rate of 350 litres per minute.
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕) I. What is the power rating of the
=
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 (𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕) pump?
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% II. What is the energy lost by the
Relationship between Mechanical pump per second?
Advantage, Velocity Ratio and Efficiency 2. An electric pump can raise water
𝜼 from a lower-level reservoir to the
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕) high level reservoir to the high level
=
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 (𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕) reservoir at the rate of 3.0 x 105 kg
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% per hour. The vertical height of the
𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳 water is raised 360m. If the rate of
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬 energy loss in form of heat is 200 kW,
𝑳 𝑫𝑳 determine the efficiency of the pump.
𝜼= × × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬 𝑫𝑬 3. Define the efficiency of a machine
𝑳 𝑫𝑳 𝟏 and give a reason why it can never be
𝒃𝒖𝒕 = 𝑴. 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 =
𝑬 𝑫𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹 100%
𝟏 4. A pump uses 1g of a mixture of petrol
𝜼 = 𝑴. 𝑨 × × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 and alcohol in the ratio 4:1 by mass
𝑴. 𝑨 to raise 1000 kg of water from a well
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹 200m deep.
I. How much energy is given by 1g
of mixture?
II. If the pump is 40% efficient, what
mass of this mixture is needed to
raise the water? (1g
of alcohol = 7000J, of petrol=
48000J)
5. In a machine, this load moves 2m
when the effort moves 8m, if an
effort of 20N is used to raise a load of
60N, what is the efficiency of the
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machine?
Types of Simple Machines Exercise

1. Levers The figure below shows a lever
• A lever is a simple machine whose I. Determine the force 𝑭𝑨 in each
operation relies on the principle of case
moments. It consists of the effort arm, II. Determine the 𝑴. 𝑨 and 𝑽. 𝑹 in
load arm and pivot furculum. The effort each case
arm𝑬𝑨 is the perpendicular distance of III. Calculate efficiency in each case
the line of action of the effort from the
pivot. The load can, 𝑳𝑨 is the
perpendicular distance of the line of
action of the load from pivot.
• Consider the figure of simple levers
shown below
Classes of Levers
A. Levers with pivot between load and
effort e.g. pliers, hammer etc.
B. Levers with the load between pivot
and effort e.g. wheel barrow, bottle
openers etc.
C. Levers with the effort between the
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𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓 load and the pivot e.g. sweeping

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕, 𝑫𝑬 brooms, a fishing rod and hammer
=
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅, 𝑫𝑳 arm.
𝑫𝑬
𝑼𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒔;
𝑫2.𝑳 Wheel and axle
𝑬𝑨 • Consists of large wheel of radius R
=
𝑳𝑨 attached to axle of radius r, the effort
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓, 𝑽. 𝑹 is applied on the wheel while the load
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒎, 𝑬𝑨 is attached to the axle. An example of
=
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒓𝒎, 𝑳𝑨 the wheel and axle is the winch used
to draw water from well
Example
The figure below shows a lever
• In one complete revolution the wheel

moves through a distance 2πR while
a) Determine the force𝑭𝑨
the load moves through 2πr.
b) Determine the 𝑴. 𝑨 and 𝑽. 𝑹 𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝑹
c) Calculate efficiency 𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒙𝒍𝒆 = = ,
𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝒓
Solution 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍
𝑎) 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒙𝒍𝒆
= 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Example
𝐹 𝐴 × 5 = 75 × 2 A wheel and axle is used to raise a load
150 of 300N by a force of 50N applied to the
⇒ 𝐹𝐴 = = 30 𝑁
5 rim of the wheel. If the radii of the
wheel and axle are 85cm and 10cm
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑏) 𝑀. 𝐴 = ; respectively, calculate the 𝑴. 𝑨, 𝑽. 𝑹
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 and efficiency.
75
𝑀. 𝐴 = Solution
30 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
= 2.5 𝑀. 𝐴 = ;
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚, 𝐸𝐴 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑉. 𝑅 = ; 300
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑚, 𝐿𝐴 𝑀. 𝐴 = =6
50
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5 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑉. 𝑅 = = 2.5 𝑉. 𝑅 = ; 𝑉. 𝑅
2 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒
𝑀. 𝐴 0.85 𝑚
𝑐) 𝜂 = × 100%; = = 8.5
𝑉. 𝑅 0.10 𝑚
2.5 𝑀. 𝐴 6
𝜂= × 100% = 100% 𝜂= × 100%; 𝜂 = × 100%
2.5 𝑉. 𝑅 8.5
= 70.59 %
3. The Inclined Plane 𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘

• Consider the plane below inclined at an 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅
=
angle 𝜃 to the horizontal. 𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝟐𝝅𝑹
=
𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
Where R is the radius of the screw head.

A screw combined with a lever is used as
𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 a jack for lifting heavy loads such as cars.
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑳
= =
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒉 Example
𝒉 The figure below shows a car- jack with
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = ⇒ 𝒉 = 𝑳𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝑳 a lever arm of 40 cm and a pitch of 0.5
𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 cm. If the efficiency is 60 %, what effort
𝑳 𝟏
= ; 𝑽. 𝑹 = would be required to lift a load of 300
𝑳 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 kg.
Example
A man uses the inclined plane to lift 100kg
load through a vertical height of 8.0m. The
inclined plane makes an angle of 400 with
Solution
the vertical. If the efficiency of the inclined
plane is 85%, calculate
I. The effort needed to move the load up
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the inclined plane at a constant 𝑀. 𝐴

𝜂= × 100% ⇒ 𝜂
velocity. 𝑉. 𝑅
II. The work done against friction in 𝑀. 𝐴
=
raising the load through the height of 2𝜋𝑅⁄
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
8.0m × 100%
𝑀. 𝐴
Solution 60 = × 100%
2𝜋 × 0.4⁄
𝑀. 𝐴 0.005
𝑰. 𝜂 = × 100%; 85 (2𝜋 × 0.4)⁄
𝑉. 𝑅 60 × 0.005
𝑀. 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑀. 𝐴 =
= × 100%; 100
1⁄ = 301.63
𝑠𝑖𝑛 50
1
85 × ⁄𝑠𝑖𝑛 50 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑚𝑔)
𝑀. 𝐴 = ⇒ 301.63
𝑀. 𝐴 = = 1.110 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
100
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑚𝑔) 300 × 10
𝑀. 𝐴 = ; 1.110 =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
300×10
1000 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 = = 9.46 𝑁
= ; 301.63
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 Exercise
1000 A car weighing 200kg is lifted with a
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 = = 900.9 𝑁
1.110 jack of 15mm pitch. If the handle is 32cm
from the screw, find the applied force.
𝐼𝐼. 15 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑖. 𝑒. 15 % 𝑜𝑓 (𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 5. Gears
× 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡)
• A gear is a wheel which can rotate
15 8
× (900.9 × ) about its centre and has equally
100 𝑠𝑖𝑛 50 spaced teeth or cogs around it. Two or
= 1411.26 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
more gears are arranged to make a
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4. The Screw machine which can be used to

transmit motion from one wheel to
another.
• The distance between two successive

threads of a screw is called the pitch of
the screw. • If the driver wheel has 𝑷 teeth and
• In one complete revolution, the screw the driven wheel 𝑄 teeth, then, when
moves forward or backward through a the driver wheel makes one
𝑃
distance equal to one pitch. revolution, the driven wheel makes
𝑄
revolution
𝑽. 𝑹
𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍
= ;
𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍
𝑸
=
𝑷
𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍
=
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍
Exercise
A certain gear has 30 teeth and drives
another with 75 teeth. How many
revolutions will the driver gear when the
driving gear makes 100 revolutions?
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6. Pulleys
• A pulley is a wheel with a groove for
accommodating a string or rope. V.R for
a pulley system is the number of ropes
supporting load. There is the three
common pulley systems.
A) Single Fixed Pulley
NB For a block and tackle with an odd

number of pulleys it is convenient to have
more pulleys fixed than movable.
Example
A block and tackle system is used to lift
a mass of 400 kg. If this machine has a
The velocity ratio of single fixed pulley is 1. velocity ratio of 5 and an efficiency of 75
%
B) Single Movable Pulley a) Sketch a possible arrangement of
the pulleys showing how the rope
is wound
• Solution
The upper pulley in (b) makes it possible for

effort to be applied downward. The velocity b) Calculate the effort applied.
ratio of each of the pulleys (a) and (b) is 2 • Solution
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since two ropes are supporting the load. 𝑀. 𝐴

𝜂= × 100% ⇒ 75
𝑉. 𝑅
C) Block and tackle 𝑀. 𝐴
= × 100%
This system consists of two or more sets of 5
pulley blocks. Below are examples. 75 × 5
𝑀. 𝐴 = = 3.75
100
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 400 × 10
𝑀. 𝐴 = ; 3.75 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
4000
⇒ 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 =
3.75
= 1066.7 𝑁
Exercise
1. An effort of 125N is used to lift a load
of 500N through a height of 2.5m
using a pulley system. If the distance
moved by the effort is 15m, calculate
a) The work done on the load
b) The work done by the effort
c) The efficiency of the pulley
system.
2. Draw a lock and tackle pulley system
of V.R 6 to show how the pulley can
be used to raise a load L by applying
an effort E
7. Pulley Belts Example
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The radius of the effort piston of a

hydraulic lift is 2.1cm while that of the
load piston is 8.4cm. This machine is
used to raise a load of 180kg at a
constant velocity through a height of
5m. Given that the machine is 75%
efficient, calculate:
• They are found in posh mills, sewing a) The effort needed
machines, motor engines etc. If the b) The energy wasted in using this
radius of the driver pulley is R and that machine.
of the driven pulley is r, the belt turns a Solution
distance of 2𝜋𝑅 when the driving wheel 𝑀. 𝐴
(𝑎) 𝜂 = × 100% 𝑏𝑢𝑡,
makes the revolution. The load wheel 𝑉. 𝑅
(driven wheel) is 𝑉. 𝑅
𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝑹 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
= 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 =
𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝒓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑽. 𝑹 𝜋𝑅𝐿 2
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 =
= 𝜋𝑅𝐸 2
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝜋 × 0.0842
𝟏 𝒓 𝑉. 𝑅 = = 16
= 𝑹 = 𝜋 × 0.0212
𝑹 75 =
𝑀.𝐴
× 100% ⇒ 𝑀. 𝐴 =
75×16
=
𝒓 16 100
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 12
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝐿 180 × 10
𝐸= ⇒𝐸= = 150 𝑁
𝑀. 𝐴 12
8. Hydraulic machines
(b)25 % of work input is equivalent to
energy wasted, i.e. 15 % of ((work
output)/Efficiency ×100)
25 1800 × 5
×( × 100) = 3000 𝑁
100 75
Exercise
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1. The diagram below shows hydraulic

brake system.
a) State three properties of the

hydraulic brake oil.
b) A force of 20N is applied on a foot
pedal to a piston of areas 50cm 2
and this causes stopping force of
• When the effort piston moves
5000N.
downwards the load piston is pushed
I. Pressure in the master cylinder
upwards.
II. Area of the slave piston
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓
III. Velocity ratio of the system
= 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒔
2. Study the figure below of a hydraulic
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
lift and answer the question below.
× 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔
− 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏
= 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
× 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔
− 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 The areas of cross- sections of the
=
𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏pistons and the length of the arm are as
𝑽. 𝑹 indicated. Find 𝑭𝒐, M.A and efficiency of
𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
the 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏
machine.
=
𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏
Revision Exercise
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1. The figure below shows a system of

gears for transmitting power. Gear A
has 200 teeth and act as the driving
gear. Gears Band C with 40 teeth and
100 teeth respectively are mounted on
the same axle and they transmit motion
to the last gear D which has 50 teeth.
I. In what direction(s) would gear C

and D rotate? If gear A is rotated in
clockwise direction.
II. Find the velocity ratio of the gear
system
2. The figure below shows the rear wheel
of a bicycle and the crank wheel A,
connected to the sprocket B by a chain.
If wheel A has 40 teeth while B has 25
teeth and the radius of the rear wheel is
42 cm, calculate:
a) the velocity ratio of the machine,
b) the distance travelled by the bicycle

in one revolution of the crank wheel.
3. The pulley system above has a MA OF 3

calculate: i) the total work done when
a load of 60N is raised through a height
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of 9m.ii) the efficiency of the machine.
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Chapter Four 𝑹𝑬𝑭𝑹𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵 𝑶𝑭 𝑳𝑰𝑮𝑯𝑻

Specific Objectives Content
By the end of this topic the 1. Refraction of light – laws of
leaner should be able to: refraction (experimental
a) Describe simple experiments treatment required)
to illustrate refraction of 2. Determination of refractive
light index
b) State the laws of refraction ▪ Snell’s law
of light ▪ Real/ apparent depth
c) Verify Snell’s law ▪ Critical angle
d) Define refractive index 3. Dispersion of white light
e) Determine experimentally (Experimental treatment is
the refractive index required)
f) Describe experiment to 4. Total internal reflection and its
illustrate dispersion of white effects: critical angle
light 5. Applications of total internal
g) Explain total internal reflection
reflection and its effects ▪ Prism periscope
h) State the applications of ▪ Optical fibre
total internal reflection 6. Problems on refractive index
i) Solve numerical problems and critical angle
involving refractive index
and critical angle.
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Definition of Refraction of Light • Refraction of light is the reason as to

• Refraction of light refers to the why;
change in direction of light at the a) a stick appears bent when part of it is
interface as it travels from one in water
medium to another at an angle, for
example, a ray of light from air to
water. The cause of refraction of light
is the change in velocity of light as it
travels from one medium to another.
The change in velocity is due to
variation of optical density of media.
b) a coin in a beaker of water appears
near the surface than it actually is,
c) a pool of water appears more shallow
when viewed more obliquely etc.
(Students to perform this practically)
Optical density (transmission density) and

• A ray that travels perpendicular to
refraction of light
interface proceeds across the
• A ray of light travelling from an optically
interface not deviated since the angle
less dense medium to an optically denser
of incidence to the normal is zero.
medium bends towards the normal after
refraction e.g. a ray from air to glass
block as in (a) below. The angle of
incidence in this case is greater than
angle of refraction.
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• A ray of light travelling from an 𝒔𝒊 𝒏 𝒊

= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕.
optically dense medium to an 𝒔𝒊 𝒏 𝒓
optically less dense medium bends 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙.
away from the normal after • A graph of 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 against 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓 is a
refraction e.g. a ray from glass to air straight line passing through the origin
as in (b) below. The angle of and slope of the graph gives the
incidence in this case is less than refractive index of a material.
angle of refraction.
• NB: some media are physically denser

but optically less dense than others Refractive Index, n
e.g. kerosene is physically less dense • Refractive index is defined as the ratio of
but optically denser than water. the sine of the angle of incidence (i) to
Exercise the sine of the angle of refraction (r) for a
1. Define the term refraction given pair of media.
2. Draw a diagram to show refraction Consider a ray of light travelling from
for a ray of light across the following medium 1 to medium 2.
boundaries in the order they appear • For the two media,
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
a) air- water = 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙, 1n2
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓
b) water- glass (read as the refractive index of medium 2
c) glass- air with respect to medium 1)
d) glass- air- water • By the principle of reversibility of light, a
3. The figure below shows how ray travelling from medium 2 to medium
refraction occurs. 1 along the same path is refracted
making the same angles.
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𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
=2n1. r is the angle of incidence in this
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
Which of the two media is case.
optically denser? Explain. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝟏
𝒃𝒖𝒕, =1n2= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒓
4. Explain with the help of a diagram 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊
why pencil placed partly in water 𝟏
1n2=
appears bent. .𝟐 𝒏𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
=2n1. r is the angle of incidence in this
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
case.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝟏
Laws of Refraction 𝒃𝒖𝒕, =1n2= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒓
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊
Law 1 𝟏
• The incident ray, the refracted ray 1n2=
.𝟐 𝒏𝟏
and the normal all lie in the same
plane at the point of incidence.
Law 2 (Snell’s law)
• It states that; “the ratio of the sine of
the angle of incidence (i) to the sine
of the angle of refraction (r) is a
constant for a given pair of media”.
Note: 3. Use the information given in the figures

Absolute refractive index is the (a) and (b) below to calculate the refractive
refractive index of a material with index anw and the angle 𝜽
respect to vacuum. A vacuum has a
refractive index of 1.000.
Examples
1. A ray of light passes through air into
a certain transparent material. If the
angles of incidence and refraction are
600 and 350 respectively, calculate the
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refractive index of the material 4. State the principle of reversibility of

Solution light.
Refractive Index in Terms of Velocity

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 • Light travels faster in an optically less
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 = dense medium than in an optically
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟔𝟎 denser medium. Consider a ray of light
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 = crossing the boundary from 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟓
= 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏𝟎 with 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝟏 to 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝟐 with
speed 𝒗𝟐 , where 𝑣1 is greater than 𝑣2 as
shown below.
2. Given that refractive index of glass is
1.5, calculate the angle of incidence for
a ray of light travelling from air to glass
if the angle of refraction is 100.
• Refractive index, 1n2 of medium 2 with
Solution
respect to medium 1 is given as:
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 𝒗𝟏
1n2= =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓 𝒗𝟐
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎𝟏
1n2=
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎𝟐
𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 = • Absolute refractive index𝒏is the
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 refractive index of the medium when
𝟏. 𝟓 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝒐 light is travelling from the vacuum to the
𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒊 medium.
= 𝑺𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝒐 ) 𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙,
= 𝟏𝟓. 𝟎𝟗𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎
𝒏=
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎
• Consider the diagram below;
3. Calculate the refractive index for light
travelling from glass to air given that
ang = 1.572.
Solution • If 𝒗𝟏 is the velocity of light in medium 1 of
refractive index 𝒏𝟏 and 𝒗𝟐 the velocity of
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𝟏 light in medium 2 of refractive index 𝒏𝟐

= = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝟏
𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝟐 then;
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 𝒏 𝒗
1n2= = 𝟐 = 𝟏;
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒗𝟐
⇒ 𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟏 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝟐 ;
⇒ 𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
• Therefore, the product of the refractive
index of a medium and the angle a ray
makes with the normal in the medium is
a constant.
Exercise
1. A ray of light striking a transparent
material is refracted as shown below.
Calculate the refractive indices:

a) 1n2
b) 2n1
2. Calculate the angle of refraction for a

ray of light striking an air glass
interface making an angle of 500 with
the interface (ang=1.526)
Examples 5. The figure below shows a glass prism of
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1. Given that the refractive index of refractive index 1.5 with equilateral
diamond is 2.51 and the velocity of light triangle cross section. Find the angle of
in air is 3.0x108 ms-1, calculate the deviation D.
velocity of light in diamond.
Solution
𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒅
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓
= 6. The speed of light in medium 𝒎𝟏 is
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒅 2.0x108ms-1 and the medium 𝒎𝟐 1.5x
𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 108 ms-1. Calculate the refractive index
𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 of medium 𝒎𝟐 with respect to 𝒎𝟏
= ;
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒅 7. Calculate angle 𝜽 below, given that
⇒ 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒅 refractive indices of glass and water are
𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
and respectively. Ray is from water
= 𝟐 𝟑
𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 to glass
= 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
2. Given that the velocity of light in

water is 2.27x108 ms-1 and in glass is
2.1x108 ms-1, calculate angle 𝜽 below. 8. A ray of light is incident on a paraffin
glass interface as shown in the figure
below. Calculate r.
Solution
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒗𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
=
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒗𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔
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𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 Refraction through successive media

= ; • Consider a ray of light travelling through
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝟐 𝟐. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖
−𝟏
𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 multiple layers of transparent media
⇒ 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( × 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝟐) whose boundaries are parallel to each
𝟐. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖
other as shown below.
= 𝟐𝟑. 𝟖𝟗 𝒐
3. A ray of light is incident on a water-

glass interface as shown below.
Calculate r. (take refractive indices of
𝟑 𝟒
glass and water and respectively)
𝟐 𝟑
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟏
1n2= ; 2n3=
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟏
1n2 x 2n3 = × =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟐
Solution 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
… … . . (𝟏)
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟐
𝒏𝒘 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒘 = 𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟐
𝟒 𝟑 3n1 = ; ⇒ 1n3=
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝟎 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓
𝟑 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
𝟒 … … … … (𝟐)
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝟐
𝒓 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟑 )
𝟑 • Therefore, from equations (1) and (2); 1n3
= 𝟑𝟒. 𝟖𝟓 𝒐 = 1n2 x 2n3
For k successive media arranged with
Exercise boundaries parallel; 1nk = 1n2 x 2n3
9. If the refractive index of glass is
𝟑 …………….k – 1nk
, calculate the refractive index of
𝟐
the medium in the figure below
10.Explain why the light bends when it

travels from one medium to another.
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Examples. Exercise
𝟒 1. A ray of light travels from air into
1. The refractive index of water is
𝟑
𝟑 medium 1 and 2 as shown.
and that of glass . Calculate the
𝟐
refractive index of glass with respect
to water.
Solution
wng = wna x ang
1 3
wng= 4 × ; Calculate;
⁄3 2
3 3 I. The refractive index of medium 1
n
w g = × = 1.125 II. Critical angle of medium 1
4 2
III. The refractive index of medium 2
2. A ray of light travels from air relative to medium (1n2)
through multiple layers of 2. A ray of light from air travels successively
transparent media 1, 2 and 3 whose through parallel layers of water, oil, glass
boundaries are parallel as shown in and then into air again. The refractive
the figure below. 𝟒 𝟔 𝟑
indices of water, oil, and glass are , and
𝟑 𝟓 𝟐
respectively the angle of incidence in air is
60%
a) Draw a diagram to show how the ray
passes through the multiple layers
b) Calculate:
I. The angle of refraction in
water
Calculate :
II. The angle of incidence at the
a) Angle θ
oil glass interface
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b) The refractive index of 𝒎𝟐 Refractive Index in Terms of Real and

c) Speed of light in 𝒎𝟏 ( speed of apparent depth
light in air= 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ) • An object under water or glass block
d) The refractive index of 𝒎𝟑 with appears to be nearer the surface than it
respect to 𝒎𝟏 actually is when viewed normally or
almost normally. This is due to refraction
Solutions of light.
𝑎) 𝑛𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 • Real depth is the actual depth of the
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 35 = 1.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 object in the medium while apparent
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 35 depth is the virtual depth of the object in
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 ( ) = 22.48𝑜
1.5 the medium. The difference between
real depth and apparent depth is called
𝑏) 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 vertical displacement.
1.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 22.48 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 27
1.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 22.48
𝑛2 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 27
= 1.263
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑎 𝑣𝑎
𝑐) =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝑣1 • Refractive indices of materials can be
𝑠𝑖𝑛 35 expressed in terms of real and apparent
𝑠𝑖𝑛 22.48 depths.
3.0 × 108
=
𝑣1 𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙, 𝒏
𝑠𝑖𝑛 22.48 × 3.0 × 108 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
𝑣1 = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 35 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
= 2.0 × 108
Condition for Use of the Formula: This
𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 formula applies only when the object is
𝑑) 𝑛3 = ;
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃3 viewed normally.
1.263 𝑠𝑖𝑛 27
⇒ 𝑛3 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 25
= 1.357
1n3 = 1n2 x 2n3
𝑠𝑖𝑛 22.48 𝑠𝑖𝑛 27
1n3= × = 0.9040
𝑠𝑖𝑛 27 𝑠𝑖𝑛 25
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Examples. below
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1. A coin in a glass jar filled with water

appears to be 24.0cm from the
surface of water. Calculate:
I. The height of the water in the jar, If the speed of light in the material is
given that refractive index of 1.25x108 ms-1 calculate:
𝟒
water is . a) The apparent depth of the
𝟑
II. Vertical displacement mark
Solution b) The vertical displacement of
𝐼. 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑛 the mark ( speed of light in air
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = 3.0x108 ms-1
= 5) A pin is placed at the bottom of a tall
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
4 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ parallel sided glass jar containing a
= transparent liquid when viewed
3 24
4 normally from the top, the pin appears
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = × 24 nearer the surface than it actually is:
3
= 32 𝑐𝑚. With the aid of diagram, explain this
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑗𝑎𝑟. observation
𝐼𝐼. 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 6) The table below shows the results
= 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ obtained when such an experiment was
− 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ carried out using various depths of the
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 liquid
= (32 − 24)𝑐𝑚 = 8 𝑐𝑚 Real 4. 6. 8. 10. 12.8 1
depth 0 0 0 2 4.
2. Calculate the displacement and (cm) 0
apparent depth of the object shown 2. 3. 4. 6.1 7.32 8.
in the figure below assuming that Apparen 44 66 88 0 5
the object is viewed normally and t depth 4
boundaries of the media are parallel. (cm)
a) Plot a graph of apparent depth
against real depth
b) Using the graph, determine the
refractive index of the liquid
Solution c) What is the vertical displacement
of the pin when the apparent depth
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𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ is 1.22cm?

𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 7) How long does it take a pulse of light to
=
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑛 pass through a glass block 15cm in
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ length?(Refractive index of glass is 1.5
12 8 9 and velocity of light in air is 3.0x108 ms-
= 4 + 8+ 3
1)
3 5 2
= 20 𝑐𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
− 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= (12 + 8 + 20)𝑐𝑚
− 20 𝑐𝑚 = 20 𝑐𝑚
Total Internal Reflection

• Total internal reflection refers to the
complete bouncing off of light at the
boundary between two media in the
Exercise
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1) A tank full of water appears to be optically denser medium. The laws of

0.5m deep. If the height of water in reflection are obeyed in total internal
the tank is 1.0m, calculate the reflection.
refractive index of water.
2) A glass block of thicken 12cm is
placed on a mark drawn on a plain
paper. The mark is viewed normally
through the glass. Calculate the
Conditions for Total Internal Reflection
apparent depth of the mark hence the
• For internal reflection to occur:
vertical displacement (refractive index
𝟑 a) Light must be travelling from
of glass = optically denser to optically less
𝟐
3) A beaker placed over a coin dense medium.
contains a block of glass of thickeners b) The angle of incidence in the optically
12cm. over this block is water of depth denser medium must be greater than
20cm. calculate the vertical the critical angle
displacement of the coin and hence, its Critical Angle
apparent depth if it is viewed Critical angle is the angle of incidence in
normally. Assume the boundaries of optically denser medium for which the angle
the media are parallel and take of refraction in the optically less dense
refractive indices of water and glass to medium is 900
𝟒 𝟑
be and respectively
𝟑 𝟐
4) A mark on a paper is viewed
normally through a rectangular block
of a transparent material as shown
Solution
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
2.4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 = 1.467 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90
1.467 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 ( ) = 37.66𝑜
2.4
Exercise
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Relationship between Critical Angle and 1. What do you understand by the term
Refractive Index total internal reflection?
• Consider a ray of light striking a glass- 2. State the conditions necessary for total
air interface as shown below understand refraction
3. Define critical angle. Derive an
expression for the relationship between
critical angle and refractive index
4. The figure below shows a plane mirror
at 300 to face of a right angled isosceles
From Snell’s law, prism of refractive index 1.50. Complete
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒄 the path of light ray after reflection.
• gna= 𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟗𝟎
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟗𝟎𝟎
• But ang= 1/ gna=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑪
• 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟗𝟎 = 𝟏
𝟎
𝟏
• ang= 5. Calculate critical angle for diamond-
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑪
water interface (anw = 1.33,
and = 2.46)
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𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔, 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙, 𝒏 Effects of Total Internal Refraction

𝟏 1. Mirage
= ▪ Mirage refers to optical illusion of an
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄
inverted pool of water that is caused by
total internal reflection light.
Examples ▪ During a hot day air near the ground is
1. The figure below shows the path of a warmer and therefore physically less
ray of light passing through a dense than air away from the ground.
rectangular block of Perspex placed in Therefore on a hot day the refractive
air index increases gradually from the
ground upwards.
▪ A ray of light travelling in air from sky to
ground undergoes continuous refraction
Calculate the refractive index of Perspex
and finally reflected internally.
Solution
𝟏
𝒏=
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄
𝟏
𝒏= = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔𝟕
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝟑
2. A ray of light travels from a ▪ Mirages are also witnessed in very cold
transparent medium into Perspex as regions in which the refractive index
shown in the figure increases gradually from the ground
upwards. Images appear inverted in the
sky.
i. Which of the two media is

optically denser?
Transparent material
ii. Calculate the critical angle C
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2. Atmospheric Refraction IV. Inversion without deviation

▪ This is a phenomenon in which light
rays from the sun are refracted and
then reflected internally towards the
earth. As a result, the sun is seen
even after it has set or before it rises.
Applications of Total Internal Reflection

1. Periscope
▪ Light is deviated through 900 by first
prism before the second prisms deviates
it further through 900 in the opposite
direction. An upright virtual image is
formed
Total Internal Reflection Prisms

• Right-angled isosceles glass or
Perspex prisms are used.
I. To turn a ray of light through 900
Note: Prisms are preferred to plane mirrors

for use in periscopes and other optical
instrument because:
a) Mirrors absorb some of the incident light
II. To turn a ray through 1800 b) The silvering on mirrors can become
tarnished and peel off
c) Thick mirrors produce multiple images
2. Optical Fibre
• An optical fibre is a thin flexible glass rod
of small diameter in the order of 10-6m.
III. Inversion with deviation The central case of the glass is coated
with glass of lower refractive index
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(cladding)
• A ray of light entering the fibre

undergoes total internal reflections on
the boundary of the high and low
refractive index glass. The light therefore
travels through the entire length of the
fibre without any getting lost.
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Uses of Optical Fibre Revision Exercise
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I. Used in medicine to view internal 1. The diagram below show two prisms
organs of the body.
II. Used in telecommunication where
they have higher advantage than
ordinary cables since they have
higher carrying capacity, they are
thinner and lighter. Given that the critical angle of the
glass in both prisms is 420 sketch the
Dispersion of White Light paths of the two beams of
▪ Dispersion of light is the splitting of monochromatic light until they leave
white light into its component colors. the flasks.
.White light is a mixture of seven 2. The figure below show how white light
colors. behaves when it is incident on a glass
▪ The components of white light travel prism.
with same velocity in vacuum but
their velocities are not the same in
other media.
I.
Determine the critical angle of
the glass material
II. Determine the refractive index
of the glass material
3. The diagram below shows a transparent
water tank containing water. An electric
damp covered with a shield which has a
narrow slit fixed at one near of the tank.
• Cause of Dispersion of White Light: A light ray from the slit reaches the
The separation of white light into water surface at an angle of 420 as
constituent colours is due to their shown below.
different velocities in a given
transparent medium.
• The velocity of red is highest while
that of violet is the least. Red colour
has longest wavelength while violet I. Determine the angle of
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the least wavelength (𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇) refraction for the ray shown in

the diagram
The Rainbow II. Determine the angle of
• Rainbow is a bow-shaped colour band incidence for which the angle
of the visible spectrum seen in the of refraction is 900 (refractive
sky. It is formed when white light index of water =1.33)
from the sun is refracted, dispersed 4. The diagram below shows a ray of light
and totally internally reflected by incident on the glass – air interface from
rain drops. the inside of the glass. The angle of
incidence I, is slightly smaller than the
critical angle of glass.
State and explain what would be

observed on the ray if a drop of
water was placed at the point of
incidence, o
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Chapter Five 𝑮𝑨𝑺 𝑳𝑨𝑾𝑺

By the end of this topic, the 1. Boyle’s law, Charles’ law,
leaner should be able to: pressure law, absolute zero
a) state the gas laws for an 2. Kelvin scale of temperature
ideal gas 3. Gas laws and kinetic theory
b) verify experimentally the of gases
gas laws 4. Problems of gas laws
𝑝𝑣
c) explain how the absolute (including =constant)
𝑇
zero temperature may be
obtained from the
pressure – temperature
and volume-temperature
graphs
d) convert Celsius scale to
kelvin scale of
temperature
e) state the basic assumption
of the kinetic theory of
gases
f) explain the gas laws using
the kinetic theory of gases
g) solve numerical problems
involving gas laws
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Introduction Characteristics of ideal gas

• To study the behaviour of gases, I. Ideal gas contains identical particles of
pressure, volume and temperature of negligible volume
the gas are considered. A change in II. There is no intermolecular forces of
one of these variables causes the attraction between particles
others to change. The gas laws deals III. Molecules undergo perfectly elastic
with relationship between this collision with other molecules and with
parameters. the walls of the container.
• NB Gas laws apply for ideal gases
only. An ideal gas is one that obeys
the gas laws. The Gas Laws
Charles’ law
Relationship between Kelvin (Absolute) • It states that,“the volume of a fixed
and Celsius Scales of Temperature mass of a gas is directly proportional to
• Absolute zero temperature refers to the absolute (kelvin) temperature at
the lowest temperature a gas can fall constant pressure”.
to. It is -2730celcius (0 Kelvin).The • Mathematically, Charles’ law can be
kelvin scale of temperature starts at - expressed as:
0
273 c (0 K). 𝑽 ∝ 𝑻(𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆) ;
• The Kelvin (K) scale is related to the ⇒ 𝑽
Celsius (oC) by: = 𝒌𝑻 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏, 𝑻𝑲 (𝑲) 𝑽
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
= 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒄𝒊𝒖𝒔, 𝑻𝑪 ( 𝒐.𝒄) 𝑻
+ 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑽 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒌𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎
Note: All temperatures must be 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, =
expressed in kelvin any calculation. 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
Exercise Where 𝑽𝟏 , 𝑽𝟐 and 𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟐 are the
1. Convert the following temperature to initial and final values of volume and
kelvin temperature respectively.
I. -400C
II. 550C
2. Convert the following values of
temperature to degrees values
I. 45K
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II. 300K
Graphically, Charles’ law can be III. Describe how the set up can be used
expressed as shown below; to verify Charles’ law.
▪ The initial length of the air column is
taken and recorded as well as the initial
thermometer reading.
▪ The water bath is heated and new
height (column) of air is taken and
recorded with its corresponding
temperature reading
▪ This is repeated several times at suitable
temperature intervals to get several
pairs of results
▪ A graph of volume (height, h (cm))
against absolute temperature is plotted.
▪ It is a straight line with positive gradient.
▪ This shows that the volume is directly
proportional to absolute temperature.
3. The volume of a gas enclosed with a
Sample questions on Charles’ law movable piston is 300 cm3 when the
temperature is 2o o C. Determine the
1. State Charles’ law for an ideal gas. temperature at which the volume of the
The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is gas increases to 355 cm3. (Assume pressure
directly proportional to the absolute does not change)
(kelvin) temperature at constant Solution
pressure. 𝑉1 = 300 𝑐𝑚3, 𝑉2 = 355 𝑐𝑚3 , 𝑇1
2. The set-up below shows an = 20 𝑜.𝐶 = (20 + 273)𝐾
= 293 𝐾, 𝑇2 =?
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arrangement that can be used to 𝑉1 𝑉2

=
determine the relationship between 𝑇1 𝑇2
temperature and volume of a gas at 300 𝑐𝑚3 355 𝑐𝑚3
constant pressure. =
293 𝐾 𝑇2
3
355 𝑐𝑚 × 293 𝐾
𝑇2 = = 346.72 𝐾
300 𝑐𝑚3
𝐼𝑛 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒,
𝑇2 = 346.72 − 293
= 53.72 𝑜.𝐶
I. State any two uses of sulphuric Exercise
acid. 1. In an experiment to find the relationship
▪ Used as a pointer to volume of the between the volume and temperature of a
gas on the scale mass of air at constant pressure, the
▪ Used as a drying agent for the air following results were obtained:
▪ Used to trap air Volume 3 3 3 3 4 43
II. What is the use of the stirrer? (cm) 1 3 5 8 0
To stir the water bath for uniform Temper 0 2 4 6 8 100
distribution of heat ature 0c 0 0 0 0
III. State the measurement that used Draw a graph to show the relationship
to be taken in this experiment. between volume and temperature and use
▪ Temperature the graph to calculate the increase in
▪ Air column height which corresponds volume of the gas per unit rise in
to volume temperature
2. Some results of an experiment to study
the effect of temperature on volume of a
fixed mass of a gas at a constant pressure
are displayed in the table below.
Volume 2 2 4
(cm) 3 0 5 0
Temper 0 - 2
ature 13 0
0
( c) 6 5
Fill the missing results
3. The volume of a gas enclosed with a
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movable piston is 0.02 m3 when the

temperature is 42 0c. Determine the
temperature at which the volume of the
gas increases to 0.4 cm3 (assume pressure
does not change)
4. A tube contains a gas enclosed with a
thread of mercury. The tube was placed
horizontally in a water bath. The initial
temperature of the water was 200c and the
length of the gas column was 25cm.
Determine the temperature at which the
length of air column would be 20cm
(Assume the pressure does not change)
Pressure law II. Describe how the set- up can be used to

• Pressure law states that, “the verify pressure law
pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is ▪ The initial temperature and pressure
directly proportional to the absolute reading are taken and recorded
(kelvin) temperature at a constant ▪ The water bath is heated gently and
volume”. some more pairs of pressure and
• Mathematically, pressure law can be temperature readings are taken and
expressed as: recorded at suitable temperature
𝑷 ∝ 𝑻(𝑲), intervals
𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 ▪ A graph of pressure against
𝑷 temperature is plotted.
𝑻(𝒌) ▪ It is a straight line with positive
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 ( 𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆) gradient.
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐 ▪ This shows that the pressure is directly
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 proportional to absolute temperature.
Where P1, P2 and T1, T2 are initial 3. A gas in container has pressure of
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and final pressure and 3.0x105 Pa when the temperature is 20 0c.

temperature values respectively Determine the pressure of the gas when
• Graphically, pressure law can be the temperature lowered to -5 0c (assume
expressed as: there is no change in volume)
𝑇1 = 20 𝑜.𝐶 = 293 𝐾, 𝑇2 = −5 𝑜.𝐶
= 268 𝐾,
𝑃1 = 3.0 × 105 𝑃𝑎, 𝑃2
=?
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
3.0 × 105 𝑃𝑎 𝑃2
=
293 𝐾 268 𝐾
5
3.0 × 10 𝑃𝑎 × 268 𝐾
𝑃2 =
293
= 2.744 × 105 𝑃𝑎
Exercise
1. 80 cm3 of hydrogen gas was collected at
a temperature of 15 o C and normal
atmospheric pressure. Determine the
pressure of a gas when the temperature is
lowered to 0o C at constant volume.
2. In an experiment to determine the
Sample questions on Pressure law absolute zero temperature (0 K), the
pressure of a gas at constant volume was
1. State pressure law. measured as the temperature was varied
The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is gradually. The table below shows the
directly proportional to the absolute results obtained.
(kelvin) temperature at a constant Pressure 7 7 8 8 8 8 9
volume. (mmHg) 5 7 0 2 5 8 0
2. The set up below shows an 0 6 2 8 4 0 6
arrangement used to determine the Tempera 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
relationship between temperature and ture0C 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
pressure of a gas at constant volume. I. Plot a graph of pressure against
temperature
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II. Determine the value of absolute zero

from the graph
III. Give a reason why the temperature
in II above could not be practically
obtained
I. State the measurement that need to
be taken in this experiment Boyle’s Law
a) Temperature • Boyle’s law states that, “the pressure of
b) Pressure a fixed mass of a gas is inversely
proportional to its volume at a constant
temperature”.
• Mathematically, Boyle’s law can be
expressed as:
𝑷
𝟏
∝ (𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆)
𝑽
𝑷𝑽
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆)
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏= 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑷𝟏 , 𝑷𝟐 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑽𝟏, 𝑽𝟐 are initial and
final values of pressure and volume
respectively.
• Graphically, Boyle’s law can be Sample questions on Pressure law
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expressed as: 1. State Boyle’s law.

The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to its volume at a
constant temperature.
2. The set- up below shows an arrangement
used to determine the relationship
between pressure and volume of a gas at
constant temperature.
Describe how the set up can be used to

verify Boyle’s law.
• With the tap open, air is pumped until
the oil raises a small but measurable
height. The tap is then closed.
• The value of pressure and its
• If the experiment on Boyle’s law is
corresponding height is read and
repeated at different fixed
recorded.
temperatures and the results plotted,
isothermal curves are obtained. • This is repeated to obtain more pairs of
values of pressure and corresponding
heights.
• A graph of pressure versus volume is
plotted using the result.
• It is a smooth curve with negative
instantaneous gradient
• This shows that the pressure is inversely
proportional to volume.
3. A bubble of air of volume 1.2cm3 is
released at the bottom of a water dam 15m
deep. The temperature of the water is 20
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0c. Determine the volume of the bubble as

it emerges on the water surface where the
pressure is the normal atmospheric
pressure (take 𝝆 of water =1000kgm-3 and
normal atmospheric pressure 1.0x105pa)
Solution
𝑃1 𝑉1= 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
1.0 × 105 𝑝𝑎
+ 1000 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
× 10𝑁 𝑘𝑔−1 × 15𝑚
= 2.5 × 105 𝑝𝑎
𝑃2 = 1.0 × 105 𝑝𝑎
𝑉1 = 1.2𝑐𝑚3
𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑉2 =?, 𝑉2 =
𝑃2
2.5 × 10 𝑝𝑎 × 1.2𝑐𝑚3
5
= 5
= 3.0𝑐𝑚3
1.0 × 10 𝑝𝑎
3. A narrow uniform glass tube contains air

enclosed by a 10cm thread of mercury.
When the tube is held vertical, the air
column is 600 mm long. When titled
slightly, the air column is 679 mm long. The
temperature is the same in both cases (i.e.
temperature is constant)
I. Give the reason for the differences in
length of the air column for the two
positions.
When vertical, the mercury exerts pressure
on the air, reducing the volume.
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II. Determine the atmospheric 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2

=
pressure at the place (ρ of mercury 𝑇1(𝐾) 𝑇2(𝐾)
=13.6gcm-3) 1.0 × 105 𝑃𝑎 × 1 𝑚3 𝑃2 × 0.06 𝑚3
Solution =
100 𝐾 293 𝐾
1.0 × 105 𝑃𝑎 × 1 𝑚3 × 293 𝐾
𝑃2 =
100 𝐾 × 0.06 𝑚3
= 4.883 × 106 𝑃𝑎
Exercise
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 1. A container carries 3000cm3 of oxygen
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ; 𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 at a pressure of 1.0x106pa a
+ 13600𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 temperature of 200c in a cylinder. What
−1
× 10𝑁𝑘𝑔 × 0.1𝑚 is the volume of the gas in the cylinder
= 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 at the top of the mountain where
4
+ 1.36 × 10 𝑝𝑎 pressure is 0.8x106pa and temperature
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 is -170c?
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 – 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑏𝑒 𝐴
𝑉1 = 60𝐴 𝑐𝑚3, 𝑉2 = 67.9𝐴 𝑐𝑚3 Kinetic Theory of Gases
(𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 1.36 × 104 𝑝𝑎) × • The kinetic theory of gases proposes that
60𝐴 𝑐𝑚3 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 × 67.9 𝐴 𝑐𝑚3 the molecules of a gas are in a
8.16 × 105 𝑝𝑎
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = = 1.03 × 105 𝑝𝑎. continuous random motion.
7.9 Basic Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of
Exercise Gases
1. A column of air 26 cm long is I. Attraction between the molecules of a
trapped by mercury thread 5 cm long gas is negligible.
when vertical. When it is placed II. The volume of the molecule of the gas
horizontally, the air column is 28 cm. is zero.
Find the atmospheric pressure in III. Collisions between the molecules and
mmHg. with the walls of the container and
2. The table below shows the results perfectly elastic.
obtained in an experiment to study the
variation of the volume of a fixed mass Kinetic Theory of Gases and Gas Laws
with pressure at constant Boyle’s Law and Kinetic Theory
temperature.
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Pressure (cm 60 - 9 - • When temperature is constant, a change

Hg) 0 in volume of gas results in a change in
Volume 36 8 - 4 number of collisions per unit time
3 between molecules and between
(cm ) 0 0
Fill in the missing results. molecules and walls of container. As a
3. Explain why a bubble increases in result, pressure changes.
size and finally burst when it reaches Charles’ Law and Kinetic Theory
the surface. • When pressure is constant and
temperature is raised, the speed of
General Gas Equation (Equation of molecules rises causing them to occupy a
State) for Ideal Gases larger volume of the container.
• It is obtained by combining any two Pressure Law and Kinetic Theory
of the three gas law. • A change in temperature changes the
𝑷𝑽 kinetic energy and hence the speed of
𝑻(𝑲) molecules of a gas and therefore if
𝑷𝟏 𝑽 𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽 𝟐 volume of gas is constant, pressure
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, =
𝑻𝟏 (𝑲) 𝑻𝟐 (𝑲) changes as a result change in
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑷𝟏 , 𝑷𝟐 ; 𝑽𝟏, 𝑽𝟐 and 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 are temperature. Pressure is caused by
the initial and final values of collisions between molecules of the gas
pressure, volume and temperature and with the walls of the container.
respectively. Limitation of Gas Laws
• Gas laws do not apply in real gases. Real
Example gases liquefy before the volume of the
In the manufacture of oxygen 1m of 3 gas reduces to zero.
the gas produced at -1730c and normal
atmospheric pressure is compressed
into a cylinder of volume 0.06 m3 and
stored at a temperature of 20 0c. What
is the pressure of the gas in the
cylinder? (Normal atmospheric
pressure, Patm = 1.0x105 pa)
Solution
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𝑃1 = 1.0 × 105 𝑃𝑎, 𝑃2 =? , 𝑉1

= 1 𝑚 , 𝑉2 = 0.06 𝑚3,
3
𝑇1
= −173 𝑜.𝐶 = 100 𝐾, , 𝑇2 = 20 𝑜.𝐶 = 293 𝐾,
Revision Exercise
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1. A balloon filled with organ gas a

volume of 200 cm3 at the earth’s
surface where the temperature is
200C, and the pressure 760mm of
mercury. If it is allowed to ascend to
a height where the temperature is
00C and the pressure 100mm of
mercury, calculate the volume of the
balloon.
2. A fixed mass of Oxygen occupies a
volume of 0.01m3 at a pressure of 1 x
105 Pa and a temperature 00C. If the
pressure is increased to 5 x 106 pa
and the temperature is increased to
250C. What volume will the gas
occupy?
3. An empty barometer tube of length
90cm is lowered vertically with its
mouth downwards into a tank of
water. What will be the depth at the
top of the tube when the water has
risen 15cm inside the tube, given
that the atmospheric pressure is 10
m of water?
4. A hand pump suitable for inflating a
football has a cylinder which is
0.24m in length and an internal
cross-sectional area of 5.0 x 10-4 m2.
To inflate the football the pump
handle is pushed in and air is
pumped through a one-way valve.
The valve opens to let air in to the
ball when the air pressure in the
pump has reached 150 000 pa.
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(Assume the air temperature

remains constant}
I. If the pressure in the pump is
initially 100 000 pa, calculate how
far the piston must be pushed
inwards before the one way
valves opens.
II. When the one-way valve opens
the total pressure in the cylinder
will be 150 000 pa. What force
will be exerted on the piston by
the air in the cylinder?
5. The graph in figure below shows the
relationship between the pressure
and temperature for an ideal gas.
Use this information in the figure to
answer questions that follow.
I. State the unit of the

horizontal axis quantity.
II. Write a statement of the

gas law represented by the
relationship.
6. Draw axes and sketch a graph of

pressure (p) against reciprocal of
volume (1/v) for a fixed mass of an
ideal gas at a constant temperature.
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7. A balloon is filled with air to a

volume of 200ml at a temperature of
293 k. Determine the volume when
the temperature rises to 353 k at the
same pressure
8. Show that the density of a fixed
mass of gas is directly proportional
to the pressure at constant
temperature.
9. The pressure of helium gas of
volume 10cm3 decreases to one third
of its original value at a constant
temperature. Determine the final
volume of the gas.
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Chapter Six 𝑾𝑨𝑽𝑬𝑺 𝑰𝑰

By the end of this topic the 1. Properties of waves
learners should be able to: including sound waves:
a) Describe experiments to Refraction, diffraction,
illustrate properties of interference (experimental
waves treatment required)
b) Explain constructive and 2. Constructive interference
destructive interference and destructive interference
c) Describe experiments to (Qualitative treatment only)
illustrate stationary 3. Stationary waves
waves (qualitative and
experimental treatment
required)
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The Ripple Tank

• A ripple tank is used to demonstrate
properties of waves in the laboratory.
It consists of a tray containing water,
a point source of light above the tray,
a white screen placed underneath
and a small electric motor (vibrator).
• The waves are generated by an
electric vibrator as ripples and they
travel across the surface of the
shallow water in the tray. Crests
appear bright while troughs appear
dark when the wave is illuminated.
Note that crests act as plano-convex
lens and therefore converge rays on
them while troughs act as plano-
concave and therefore diverge ray
incident on them. 2. Reflection of Waves
• Reflection is the bouncing off of a wave
from an obstacle. When reflection takes
place, only the direction of the wave
changes; Wavelength, frequency and
speed of the wave do not change.
Reflection of waves obeys the laws of
reflection which are applicable to the
• A bar attached to vibrator produces reflection of light.
plane waves while circular waves are
produced by fixing a small ball to the
bar.
Properties of Waves
1. Rectilinear Propagation
• Rectilinear propagation is the property
of the waves to travel in a straight line and
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perpendicular to the wave fronts.
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a) Plane waves on a straight reflector at After reflection, the waves appear to be

an angle diverging from a point behind the mirror
convex reflector has a virtual focus.
e) Circular waves on a straight reflector
b)Plane waves on a straight reflector at

an angle of 90o
f) Circular waves on a concave reflector
c) Plane waves on a concave reflector
3. Refraction of Waves
• Refraction of a wave refers to change in
direction of the wave. When a wave is
refracted, it changes its speed, direction
After reflection, the waves converge to a and wavelength but not its frequency.
point in front of the reflecting surface. • When water waves cross into shallow
Hence, the concave reflector has a real region from a deep region, the
focus separation between wave fronts becomes
d) Plane waves on a convex reflector smaller i.e. the wavelength decreases
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a) Wave fronts parallel to boundary
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• During the night air close to ground is

b) Wave fronts meeting the boundary cooler than that higher above. Sound
at an angle waves produced close to ground are
refracted downwards because the wave
fronts near the ground move slower than
those on the upper parts. This is why
sound waves travel far from source
during the night.
c) Refraction of straight water waves

on shallow convex surface
Exercise
The figure below shows plane waves
travelling in a shallow region of a ripple
tank. The shallow region is incident on a
deeper region at an angle of 450 as shown.
d) Refraction of straight water waves

on shallow concave surface
a) Describe how the waves are generated

in a ripple tank
b) Complete the diagram to show the
appearance of the wave fronts in the
deep region
c) What property of waves is illustrated in
the diagram you have drawn?
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Refraction of Sound Waves 4. Diffraction of Waves

• During the day air close to ground is • Diffraction is the spreading of a wave as
much warmer than the air higher it goes around an obstacle or through a
above. Sound waves produced close small aperture. When diffraction occurs
to the ground are refracted upwards there is a change indirection but not in
because wave fronts near the ground velocity, frequency or wavelength.
move faster than those on the upper
parts. This is why sound waves are
not heard far from source during the
day.
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• When aperture is wider than the 5. Interference of Waves

wavelength of the plane wave, the • Interference is the interaction of two or
wave passes through as plane waves more waves of the same frequency
but when the width of the aperture is emitted from coherent sources. The
nearly equal or less than the result of interference can be a much
wavelength of the plane wave, the longer wave, a smaller wave or no wave
wave fronts emerge circular at all.
• Interference is an import of the principle
of superposition which states that:“the
resultant effect of two waves travelling
at a given point in the same medium is
the vector sum of their respective
displacement”
Condition for interference

The wave sources must be coherent i.e.
I. Have same frequency or wavelength
II. Have equal or comparable amplitudes
III. Have constant phase difference
Types of interference
• Diffraction of sound waves is the a) Constructive interference
reason as to why sound from a loud • It occurs when the wave amplitudes
speaker in a room is heard round a reinforce each other building a wave of
corner without the source being seen. even greater amplitude
Exercise
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1. Explain why diffraction of light waves

is not a common phenomenon.
2. Give the definition of the following
terms as connected with waves
a) Wavelength
b) Frequency b) Destructive interference
c) Wave front It occurs when the wave amplitude oppose
3. Five successive wave fronts in a ripple each other resulting in waves of reduced
tank are observed to spread over a amplitude.
distance of 6.4cm. If the vibrator has a
frequency of 8Hz, determine the speed
of the waves
4.
a) What is diffraction?
b) What factors determine the
extent of diffraction that occurs? • For this case, the waves undergo
c) Describe an experiment that can complete destructive resulting in a pulse
be set to illustrate this (a wave) of zero amplitude
phenomenon
5. Diffraction, refraction and reflection
are all properties of waves which one of
these affects:
a) Direction but not speed?
Speed and direction of travel of the
waves?
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Interference in water (using a ripple Interference in light (Young’s double slit

tank) experience)
• Coherent water waves are generated • Interference in light is evidence that light
by attaching two similar balls on the is a wave. It can be demonstrated by
bar in contact with vibrator. young’s double slit experiment whose
pioneer is the Physicist Thomas Young.
• Observation: Alternate dark lines (in

regions of destructive interference) • A monochromatic light source is used in
and bright lines (in regions of the double slit experiment. The slit S 1
constructive interference) are seen diffracts light falling on it illuminating
on the white screen. both slit S2 and 𝑆3 in front of it.
• A series of alternate bright (in regions of
Interference in sound constructive interference) and dark (in
• Coherent sources of sound can be regions of destructive interference)
obtained by connecting two identical vertical bands/fringes are formed on the
loud speakers in parallel to an audio- screen.
frequency generator as show below. • The central fringe is the brightest (region
of constructive interference).
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𝑺𝟐 𝑶
= 𝑺𝟑 𝑶 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐
𝑺𝟑 𝑷 − 𝑺𝟐 𝑷
= 𝟏𝝀 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆.
𝑺𝟑 𝑹 − 𝑺𝟏 𝑹
𝟏
= 𝝀 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝟐
𝟏
= 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆
𝟐
• Alternate loud (in regions of
constructive interference) and soft
sound (in regions of destructive
interference) is heard along XY.
• Along CO only loud sound is heard
• If waves from one speaker are exactly
out of phase with those from the
other soft sound will be heard along
CO i.e. destructive interference
• Connecting the speakers to same
audio frequency generator makes
they satisfy the condition of being
coherent sources.
• If the frequency of the signal is
increased, the points of constructive
interference (loud sounds) along XY
will become more closely spaced and
same way to those of destructive
interference
Example
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1. I. Distinguish between diffraction and

refraction of waves
II. The figures below shows plane
waves approaching slits
Complete the diagrams to show the • A node is a point of zero displacement of

pattern across the slits. a stationary wave while an antinode is a
point of maximum displacement of a
III. The figure below shows two rays of stationary wave.
monochromatic light incident on two
adjacent slits S2 and 𝑺𝟑 . 2. Stationary longitudinal wave
• An example is a slinky spring with one
end fixed and the other end moved to
and fro rapidly in a horizontal direction.
Give an expression for the wave length

of the light in terms of d, x, and y • Another example is when two speakers
IV. In the space below, sketch the connected to same audio- frequency
interference pattern observed if white generator are arranged to face each
light was used instead of other.
monochromatic light
V. Explain the variation of frequency
across the pattern displayed in (IV)
above
VI. Give that the wavelength of the
monochromatic light used in (III) above
is 1.0x107 m, calculate its frequency
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(speed of light is 3.0x108ms-1)

2. Two observers P and Q are stationed
2.5km a part, each equipped with a
starter gun. Q fires the gun and
observes P record the sound 7.75 • Alternate loud (at antinode) and soft (at
seconds after seeing the smoke from node) is heard along AB.
the gun. Later P fires the gun and • Diagram b) shows the wave form formed
observes Q record sound 7.25 seconds on the screen of a CRO when a
after seeing the smoke from the gun. microphone connected to the CRO is
Determine; moved along AB.
a) The speed of sound in air
b) The component of the speed of the
wind along the straight
line joining P and Q
Stationary(Standing) Waves
Exercise
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• It is defined as a wave formed when The diagram below shows an arrangement

two equal progressive waves that can be used to determine the speed of
travelling in opposite directions are sound in air.
superposed on each other.
Types of stationary waves

1. Stationary transverse wave A microphone connected to a CRO with its
• An example this case is a wave time base on is moved along an imaginary
produced when jerking a string fixed line AB between the wall and the loud
at one end. A transverse wave travels speaker.
along the string to the fixed end and I. Use a diagram to explain what is
then reflected back. The two waves observed as the microphone is moved
travelling in opposite directions along from A to B
the string then combine/ superpose II. If the frequency of the sound emitted
to form a stationary transverse wave. by the loud speaker is 1650 Hz and the
distance between a minimum and the
next maximum is 0.05m, calculate the
velocity of sound air.
III. If the frequency of the vibrating loud
speaker is decreased what happens to
the distance between two adjacent
maximum?
Conditions Necessary for Formation of 5. The sketch graph shows the results of
Stationary Waves an experiment to study diffraction
• The two progressive waves travelling patterns using double slit.
in opposite directive to form a
stationary wave must be:
I. Same speed
II. Same frequency i. Sketch an experimental set up that
III. Same or nearly equal amplitudes may be used to obtain such a pattern.
ii. Name an instrument for measuring
Properties of a Stationary Wave intensity
i. A stationary wave is produced by iii. Explain how the peaks labelled A and B
superposition of two progressive and troughs labeled C are formed.
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waves travelling in opposite 6. What measurable quantity is

directions. associated with colours of light?
ii. The wave has nodes at points of 7. Circular water waves generated by a
zero displacement and antinodes at point source at the centre O of the pond
points of maximum displacement. are observed to have the pattern
iii. In the wave, vibration of particles shown in the Fig. Explain the pattern.
at points between successive nodes
is in phase.
iv. Between successive nodes particles
have different amplitudes of
vibration. 8. In an experiment to observe
v. The distance between successive interference of light waves, a double
𝜆 slit is placed close to the source.
nodes or antinodes is .
2
Differences between stationary and i. State the function of the double silt.
progressive waves ii. Describe what is observed on the
screen.
Stationary waves Progressive waves
iii. State what is observed on the screen
They do not They transfer energy
when
transfer energy from one point to
a) The slit separation S1S2 is reduced.
from one point to another since the
b) White light is used instead of
another since the wave forms more
monochromatic source.
wave forms do through the medium
13. The Fig. shows an experimental
not move through
arrangement. S1 and S2 are narrow slits.
the medium
The distance Distance between
between two successive troughs or
successive nodes crests is λ
𝜆
or antinodes is
2
Vibrations of Phase of particles
particles at points near each other are
between different State what is observed on the screen when
successive nodes the source is:-
are in phase i) Monochromatic (ii) White light
The amplitudes of The amplitude of any 14. The fig shows the displacement of a
practice in progressive wave incident on a
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particles between two particles which boundary between deep and shallow
successive nodes are in phase are the regions.
is different same
Revision Exercise
1. Name a property of light that I. Complete the diagram to show what

shows it is a transverse wave. is observed after boundary. (Assume
2. In an experiment using a ripple tank no loss of energy).
the frequency, f of the electric pulse II. Explain the observation in (i) above.
generator was reduced to one third
of its original value. How does the
new wave length compare with the
initial wavelength? Explain your
answer.
3. Distinguish between stationary
and progressive waves.
4. State the condition for a minimum
to occur in an interference pattern.
Chapter Seven 𝑪𝑼𝑹𝑹𝑬𝑵𝑻 𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑹𝑰𝑪𝑰𝑻𝒀 𝑰𝑰
Objectives Content
By the end of this topic the 1. Scale reading ammeter,
leaner, should be able to: voltmeter
a) Define potential difference 2. Electric circuits: current,
and state its units potential difference
b) Measure potential difference 3. Ohm’s law (experimental
and current in a circuit treatment required
c) Verify Ohm’s law 4. Resistance types of resistors,
d) Define resistance and state measurements of resistance
its unit units
e) Determine experimentally 5. Electromotive force(emf) and
the voltage-current internal resistance of a cell(𝐸 =
𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟)
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relationships for various 6. Resistors in series and in

conductors parallel
f) Define emf and explain 7. Problems on ohm’s law,
internal resistance of the cell resistors in series and in
g) Derive the formulae for parallel.
effective resistance of
resistors in series and in
parallel
h) Solve numerical problems
involving ohm’s law resistor
in the series and in parallel
Electric Current 𝒏𝒆 𝑰𝒕
𝑰= 𝒏=
• Electric current refers to the rate of 𝒕 𝒆
flow of charge. 𝑵𝑩 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏, 𝒆
• The movement of charged particles = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
called electrons constitutes an
electric charge and the conducting Example
path through which electrons move is Calculate the amount of charge that passes
called an electric circuit. through a point in a circuit in 3seconds, if
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆, 𝑸 the current in the circuit is 0.5A.
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝑰 = Solution
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆, 𝒕
𝑰 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑸 𝑄 = 0.5 𝐴 × 3𝑠 = 1.5 𝐶
=
𝒕
Exercise
• SI unit of electric current is the 1. A current of 0.08A passes in a circuit for
ampere (A)after the famous physicist
2.5 minutes.
Marie Ampere. I.How much charge passes through a
• Sub-multiples of the ampere are point in the circuit?
milli-ampere(mA) and micro- II.Calculate the number of electrons
amperes (𝝁𝑨) passing through the point per second
2. A current of 0.5A flows in a circuit.
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𝑰 𝒎 𝑨 = 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑨, 𝑰 𝝁 𝑨 Determine the quantity of charge that

= 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑨 crosses a point in 4 minutes.
Definition of the ampere

• An ampere refers to an electric
current that flows in a conductor Measurement of Electric Current
when a charge of 1 coulomb flows • Electric current is measured using an
per unit time ammeter.
Total charge passing through a point in
a circuit
• If𝒏 electrons pass through a point
and that each electron carries a
charge 𝒆 then the total charge 𝑸
passing through the point is equal to
𝒏𝒆 coulombs i.e. 𝑸 = 𝒏𝒆; 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑸 =
𝑰𝒕, ⇒ 𝒏𝒆 = 𝑰𝒕
Example
In moving a charge of 30 coulombs from
point B to A 150 joules of work done what
is the decimal place between A and B?
Solution
𝑊
𝑝. 𝑑 =
𝑄
150
• Zero error, if any, should be rectified 𝑝. 𝑑 = =5𝑉
30
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using the adjustment screw before

using the ammeter. Definition of the volt
• The ammeter is connected in series • A volt is defined as the energy needed to
with other components in the circuit move one coulomb of charge from one
since it is an instrument of low point to another
resistance.
Measurement of Potential Difference
• Potential difference is measured using a
• An appropriate scale should be
chosen to safe guard the coil of the
ammeter from blowing up
• Accuracy of each scale of the
ammeter must be observed when
recording readings. voltmeter.
Exercise • Zero error, if any, should be rectified
using the adjustment screw before using
Give the readings shown by both scales the voltmeter.
of the ammeter below. • The voltmeter is connected in across (in
parallel) the components in the circuit
since it is an instrument of high
resistance.
• An appropriate scale should be chosen

to safe guard the coil of the voltmeter
from blowing up.
• Accuracy of each scale of the voltmeter
must be observed when recording
readings.
Exercise
Give the readings shown by both scales of
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Potential Difference (Voltage) the voltmeter below.

• Electric potential difference between
two points refers to work done (in
joules) in moving one coulomb of
charge from one point to the other.
• The SI unit of potential difference is
the volt (v).
• The battery is the source of power
for moving charge through the
circuit.
𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝑾(𝒊𝒏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔)
=
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅, 𝑸 (𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔)
𝑾
𝒑. 𝒅 =
𝑸
Current and voltage in series arrangement
I. Current in series arrangement

• Consider the set-up below:
Note: For both the ammeter and

voltmeter, the negative terminal is
connected to negative terminal of the
battery and positive terminal to positive • When the switch is closed, it is observed
terminal of battery. that;
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Current and Voltage in Parallel Circuit 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟏 = 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟐

Arrangement = 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟑
= 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟑
I. Current in Parallel • Therefore, when components are
• Consider the circuit shown below: connected in series, same current flows
through each of the components even if
the components are not identical
II. Voltage in Series Arrangement

• Consider the set-up below
• When the switch is closed, it is

observed that:
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟏
+ 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟐
+ 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟑
= 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝟒
• Therefore, the sum of the currents in
parallel circuits is equal to the total • When the switch is closed, it is
current. The total current flowing into observed that:
junction is equal to total current 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟐
+ 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟑
flowing out.
= 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟒
• Therefore, when components are
II. Voltage in Parallel
connected in series, the sum of the
• Consider the diagram below:
voltage drop across the components is
equal to the voltage supply.
Exercise
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1. Using the diagram below, find:

I. The current passing through 𝑳𝟏 in the
figure below given that ammeter A
reads 1.2A and currents through 𝑳𝟐
and 𝑳𝟑 are 0.34A and 0.52A
respectively.
II. 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝟑 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔, 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑽𝟒 𝒓𝒆𝒂
• When the switch is closed, it is is 3.0V
observed that:
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟐
= 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟑
= 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝟒
• Therefore, for components in parallel
arrangement, the same voltage drops
across each of them (since their
terminals are at the same electric
potential.
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2. In the circuit shown below, what is

the p.d across the bulb, and the
switch when:
I. The switch is open?
II. The switch is closed?
• From the graph, voltage is directly
proportional to the current and this is
graphical representation of Ohm’s law.
3. Define a volt
• The slope of the graph gives resistance.SI
4. Two cells, A and B connected with
unit of resistance is the ohm(Ω)
parallel are in series with a bulb as
∆𝑽
shown below. =𝑹
∆𝑰
• Multiples of an ohm are:
1 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜ℎ𝑚 (1 𝑘Ω) = 1000Ω (103 Ω)
1 𝑚𝑒𝑔𝑜ℎ𝑚 (1𝑀Ω)
I. Copy the diagram to show where = 1000000Ω(106 Ω)
the ammeter should be connected
in order to measure the current Definition of an ohm
through cell A • An ohm refers to the resistance of a
II. Voltmeter should be connected to conductor when a current of 1 A flowing
measure the potential difference a through it causes a voltage drop of 1 V
cross both bulb and cell B across its ends.
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Ohm’s Law • The reciprocal of resistance is a quantity

• Ohm’s law relates the voltage a cross 𝟏
called conductance, ( ) whose SI units is
𝑹
the conductor and the current −𝟏
Ω or Siemens (S)
flowing through it. It is after the
physicist George Simon Ohm. It
Example
states that, “the current flowing
through a conductor is directly
A current of 6mA flows through a
proportional to the potential
conductor of resistance 4kΩ. Calculate
difference a cross its ends provided
the voltage a cross the conductor.
that temperature and other physical
Solution
properties are kept constant”.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉 = 6 × 10−3 × 4 × 103 = 24 𝑉
Exercise
• Mathematically, Ohm’s law can be 1. Calculate the current in mill-amperes
expressed as: flowing through a conductor of
𝑽∝𝑰 conductance 0.2 mΩ−𝟏 when a 15v
𝑽 = 𝑹𝑰
source is connected to it
• ∴ 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹,Where 𝑉 is the potential
2. In order to start a certain law a current
difference, I is the current and R a of 36A must flow through the starter
constant of proportionality called motor. Calculate the resistances of the
resistance.
motor given that the battery provides a
• If several values of current and their voltage of 12V ignore the internal
corresponding values of voltage for resistance of the battery.
nichrome wire are obtained and a
graph of voltage against current
plotted, a straight line through the
origin is obtained.
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3. In an experiment to investigate the Factors Affecting the Resistance of a

V-I relationship for a conductor, the Metallic Conductor
following results were obtained 1. Temperature
P.d (V) 2. 3. 4. 6.0 • Resistance of a metallic conductor
0 0 0 increases with temperature. This is
Current, I 1. 1. 2. 3.0 because heating increases the vibration
(A) 0 5 0 of atoms thereby increasing the collisions
Resistanc per cross- section area. The opposition to
e, R(Ω) the flow of electrons thus increases as
I. Copy and complete the table temperatures.
II. Plot a graph of I against the 2. Length of the conductor
voltage • The resistance of a uniform conductor of
III. Determine the resistance of the a given material is directly proportional
conductor to its length i.e.
IV. Comment on the nature of the 𝑹 ∝ 𝒍 … … . . (𝟏)
conductor 𝑹 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 × 𝒍
4. Two cells, each of 1.5 V are used to 𝑹
drive a current through a wire AB of 𝒍
resistance90Ω 3. Cross- section area of the conductor
I. Calculate the current in the circuit • The resistance of a metallic conductor is
II. What would be the difference, if inversely proportional to its cross-
any to the current, if the two cells sectional area, A. A conductor with
are connected in parallel? larger cross-sectional area has many free
electrons to conductor hence better
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Ohmic and non-ohmic conductors conductivity.

Ohmic conductors 𝟏
𝑹 ∝ … … … … . (𝟐)
• These are conductors which obey 𝑨
Ohm’s law and therefore voltage 𝟏
𝑹 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 ×
drop across them is directly 𝑨
proportional to current through them 𝑹𝑨 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
e.g. metal conductors like nichrome
and electrolytes like copper sulphate. Resistivity of a metallic conductor
• Resistivity is the resistance of sample of
• For ohmic conductors a graph of
voltage against current is a straight material of unit length and unit cross
line through the origin. sectional area at a certain temperature.
Non- ohmic conductors • Combining equations (1) and (2) above;
𝒍
• These are conductors which do not 𝑹∝
obey Ohm’s law and therefore their 𝑨
𝑷𝒍
resistance changes with current flow 𝑹=
𝑨
e.g. thermistor, thermionic diode, 𝝆
filament bulb, semiconductor diode 𝑹𝑨
etc. = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝝆 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐
𝒍
• A graph of voltage against current • The SI unit of resistivity is the ohm meter
for non- ohmic conductors is not a (Ω𝒎)
straight.
Example
Two meters of a resistance wire, area of
cross sectional 0.50mm2, has a resistance of
220Ω. Calculate:
I. The resistivity of the metal
II. The length of the wire which,
connected in parallel with the 2
meter length, will give a resistance of
2.00Ω.
Electrical Resistance Solution
𝑙 = 2 𝑚, 𝐴 = 0.50 𝑚𝑚2
• Electrical resistance is the opposition
= 5.0 × 10−5 𝑚2 ,
offered by a conductor to the flow of
𝑅 = 220 Ω
electric current.
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• A material with high conductance has 𝑅𝐴

𝜌=
very low electrical resistance e.g. 𝑙
copper. Electrical resistance is 220 Ω × 5.0 × 10−5𝑚2
𝜌=
measured using an ohmmeter. 2𝑚
= 5.50 × 10−3 Ω𝑚
Exercise b) Light dependent resistor (LDR)

1. Given that the resistivity of • Its resistance decreases with increases in
nichrome is 1.1 x 10-6 m, what length of light intensity.
nichrome wire of a diameter 0.42m is
needed to make a resistor of 20Ω?
2. Two wires X and B are such that
the radius of Y is twice that of Y and
the length of Y is twice that of X. if the Methods of Measuring Resistance
two are of same material, determine 1. Voltmeter-ammeter method
𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑿
the ratio
𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒀
Resistors
• These are conductors specially • In this method, current𝑰 through the
designed to offer particular resistor R and corresponding voltage𝑽
resistance to the flow of electric across it are obtained and resistance of
current. The symbol of resistor is the resistor is determined using the
𝑽
expression𝑹 = .
𝑰
Disadvantages of voltmeter ammeter
Types of resistors method
• It is not accurate since voltmeter takes
1. Fixed resistors some current and therefore not all
• These are resistors designed to give current passes through the resistor
fixed resistance e.g. wire wound 2. The meter-bridge method
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resistors, carbon (colour code) • In this method a resistor of known

resistors etc. resistance is used in the determination of
resistance of another resistor whose
resistance is not known.
• The figure below shows a set-up of
Meter Bridge.
2.Variable resistors
• These are resistors whose resistance
can be varied. They include:
a) Rheostat
• This is two a terminal variable resistor
represented by any of the symbols • The bridge is balanced by adjusting the
below in electrical circuits. variable resistor L until there is no
galvanometer deflection i.e. pointer at
zero mark. At balanced state:
𝑿 𝑳𝟏
=
b)Potentiometer 𝑹 𝑳𝟐
• This is a three terminal variable •
resistor represented by the symbol
below.
3. Nonlinear resistors
• These are resistors in which current
flowing through them does not
change linearly with the voltage
applied. They include:
a) Thermistor
• This is a temperature dependent
resistor whose resistance decreases
with increase in temperature. Its
electrical symbol is as below.
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Resistors Networks a) Calculate the effective resistance

1. Resistors connected in parallel Solution
• Consider three resistors 1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 connected in parallel 𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4
as shown below: 1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝑅𝑇 4 3 10 4
= 0.9333
1
𝑅𝑇 = = 1.074 Ω
0.9333
b) The current through the 10Ω resistor
Solution
Since the resistors are in parallel, the
𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝟑 voltage drop across each of them is
𝑽 𝑻 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑 the same i.e. 4.5 V.
= + +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑉
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 𝐼 =
𝑅
(𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍) 10
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐼 = = 2.222 𝐴
4.5
= + + 2. The figure below shows 3 resistors in
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒏𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 series connected to power source. A current
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 of 1.5A flow through the circuit.
= + +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
• If two resistors 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅2 are
connected in parallel then the
equivalent resistance 𝑅𝐸 is given by Calculate:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐 a) The total resistance
= + =
𝑹𝑬 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 b) The voltage across the source
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 c) The voltage drop across each resistor
𝑹𝑬 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 Solution
𝑎) 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
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2. Resistors connected in series 𝑅𝑇 = 4 + 6 + 3 = 13 Ω

𝑏) 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉 = 1.5 × 13 = 19.5 𝑉
𝑐) 𝑉4Ω = 1.5 × 4 = 6 𝑉
𝑉6Ω = 1.5 × 6 = 9 𝑉
𝑉3Ω = 1.5 × 3 = 4.5 𝑉
𝑽 𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑
𝑰𝑻 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟑
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
Exercise
1. The figure below shows five resistors and
a source of voltage of 6V.
a) Find the effective resistance of the

Examples
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1. The circuit diagram in the figure circuit

below shows 4 resistors connected a b) Calculate the current through
cross a 4.5 v supply 3. Six resistors are connected in a circuit as
shown in the figure below.
a) Calculate the total resistance of the

circuit
b) The total current in the circuit
c) The current through the 3Ω resistor
d) The current through the 8Ω resistor
3. Two resistors connected in parallel as Experimental Determination of Internal
shown below Resistance and Emf
Method 1
• Consider the set up below:
a) Calculate:
I. the current that passes through
𝑹𝟏
II. Terminal p.d across the battery
If several values of current and their
corresponding values of voltage are
Electromotive Force (Emf) and Internal collected and graph of voltage V against
Resistance r current I is plotted. It is a straight line of
• Electromotive force (E) of the cell negative slope cutting through the voltage
refers to the potential difference axis when extrapolated.
across its terminals when no charge is
flowing out of it i.e. when the circuit
is open.
• Terminal voltage (V) is the voltage
drop across the terminals of the cell
or battery when charge is flowing out
of it and it is due to external
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resistance R. • Using the equation 𝑬 = 𝑽 + 𝑰𝒓 and

therefore 𝑽 = 𝑬 − 𝑰𝒓, the slope of the
graph gives the internal resistance of the
cell while the voltage-intercept gives the
emf (E) of the cell.
• If several values of current and their

• Internal resistance (r) refers to the corresponding values of voltage are
opposition offered by the source of collected and graph of reciprocal of
𝟏
electromotive force to the flow of the current against R is plotted, a straight
𝑰
current that it generates. line with positive gradient which passes
• Lost voltage is the difference 𝟏
through axis is obtained.
between electromotive force and 𝑰
terminal voltage and it is due to

internal resistance.
Relationship between Emf (E), Terminal
Voltage (V) and Internal Resistance (r)
• Consider a resistor 𝑹 connected in
series with a cell of internal
resistance 𝒓
• The internal resistance of the cell r is
considered to connected in series
with the external resistor, R
• The current flowing through the
circuit is given by:
𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑬
𝑰=
𝑹+𝒓
𝑬 = 𝑰(𝑹 + 𝒓)
𝑬 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒓 ⇒ 𝑬 = 𝑽 + 𝑰𝒓
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• Where 𝑰𝑹 =
𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑰𝒓 =
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝟏 Exercise
• The gradient of the graph gives and
𝑬
1. The table below shows reading obtained
therefore the electromotive force of
the cell can be obtained while the R- in an experiment to determine the e.m.f, E
intercept gives internal resistance of and internal resistance R of a accumulator
the cell r. External 0. 0. 2.
resistance, R 35 3 7
(Ω) 5
Examples
1. Two dry cells each of the internal Current, I(A) 2. 1. 0.
resistance 0.05Ω and connected in 5 0 5
series are used to operate an electric Reciprocal of
𝟏
bell of resistance 10Ω. The wiring of the current,
𝑰
circuit has a resistance of 0.2Ω. If the a) Draw a suitable circuit used to get
bell requires a current of 0.2A to ring, to the above results
what value can the combined emf fall 𝟏
b) Plot the graph of against R
𝑰
before the bell comes to ring?
c) Determine the values of internal
Solution
resistance r and electromotive force
2. The circuit in the figure below shows the
current at junction P. Find the amount and
direction of the current that passes through
𝐸 = 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑟) the wire W.
𝐸 = 0.2 ((10 + 0.2) + 0.05 × 2)
= 2.06 𝑉
2. You are provide with resistors of 3. Three resistors are connected as shown
values 4Ω and 8Ω below
a) Draw a circuit diagram showing the
resistors in series with each other
and with battery.
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Calculate:
a) The total resistance in the circuit when:
i. 𝑺𝟏 is open
b) Calculate total resistance of the ii. 𝑺𝟐 is closed
circuit (assume negligible internal b) The current through each of the resistors
resistance) when:
Solution i. 𝑺𝟏 is open
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ii. 𝑺𝟏 is closed
𝑅𝑇 = 4 + 8 = 12 Ω c) The potential difference across each
resistor when 𝑺𝟏 is closed
c) Given that the battery has an emf of 4. A battery of emf 12V and internal
6V and internal resistance of 1.33Ω, resistance of 0.6Ω is connected as shown
calculate the current through below
i. 8Ω when the two are in series.
Solution
𝐸 a) Calculate the current through the 3Ω
𝐼8Ω = 𝐼4Ω =
𝑅+𝑟 resistor when switch is:
6 i. Open
= = 0.4501 𝐴
12 + 1.33 ii. Closed
ii. 4Ωresistor when the two are in b) Find the total potential different across
parallel. the 7Ω resistors when S is open
Solution 5. A cell of emf of 6.0V and drives current of
2.0A through 𝑹𝟏 when switch S is open
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇 = +𝑟
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
4×8 Calculate:
𝑅𝑇 = + 1.33 = 4Ω a) The current through the 2Ω resistor
4+8
𝑉4Ω 𝐸 − 𝑉𝑟 b) The internal resistance of the cell
𝐼4Ω = = c) The current through each of the
𝑅4Ω 𝑅4Ω
6
6 − ⁄4 × 1.33 resistors when the switch S is closed
𝐼4Ω = = 1.001 𝐴
4
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The circuit below can be used as a light 8. a) In the circuit diagram shown,
calculate the effective resistance
between Y and Z.
sensor.
a) Explain how it works as
conditions change from pitch
darkness to bright light
b) If the resistance of LDR in dim b) Determine the current through the
4
light is 1x10 Ω calculate the p.d a 3 resistor.
cross 1kΩ resistor c) One of the 6 resistors has a length of 1m
and cross-sectional area of 5.0 x 10-5m2.
Further Exercise Calculate the resistivity of the material.
1. A student learnt that a battery of 9. In the circuit diagram five resistors are
eight dry cells each 1.5v has a total emf connected to a battery of emf. 4V, and
of 12V the same as a car battery. He negligible internal resistance.
connected in series eight new dry Determine:
batteries to his car but found that they
could not start the engine. Give a
reason for this observation
2.a)You are required to determine the
resistance per unit length of a nichrome i. The total resistance of the
wire x, you are provided with d.c power circuit.
supply, an ammeter and voltmeter. ii. The current flowing through
I. Draw a circuit diagram to show the 5.5 resistor.
how you would connect the iii. The potentials at points Y
circuit. and O.
II. Describe how you would use the iv. The potential difference
circuit in (a) (i) above to between Y and O.
determine the resistance per unit 11.A student wishes to investigate the
length of x. relationship between current and
c) 2. Four 5 resistors are connected to a voltage for a certain device X. In the
10V d. c. supply as shown in the space provide, draw a circuit diagram
diagram below. including two cells, rheostat, ammeter,
voltmeter and the device X that would
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be suitable in obtaining the desired

results.
12.In the circuit diagram shown in figure 7,
Calculate;- the ammeter has negligible resistance.
a. The effective resistance in the When the switch S is closed, the
circuit. ammeter reads 0.13A.
b. The current I following in the
circuit (through the source)
3. Study the circuit diagram below and
determine the potential drop across
the 3 resistor.
4. State two conditions that are

necessary for a conductor to obey
Ohm’s law.
5. a) Two resistors R1 and R2 are
connected in series to a 10V battery.
The current flowing then is 0.5A.
When R1 only is connected to the
battery the current flowing is 0.8A.
Calculate the
i. Value of R2
ii. Current flowing when R1 and R2
are connected in parallel with the
same batter.
6. A current of 0.08A passes in circuit
for 2.5 minutes. How much charge
passes through a point in the circuit?
7. An ammeter, a voltmeter and a bulb
are connected in a circuit so as to
measure the current flowing and the
potential difference across both.
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Sketch a suitable circuit diagram for

the arrangement.
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Chapter Eight 𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑵𝑮 𝑬𝑭𝑭𝑬𝑪𝑻 𝑶𝑭 𝑨𝑵 𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑹𝑰𝑪 𝑪𝑼𝑹𝑹𝑬𝑵𝑻

By the end of this topic the 1. Simple experiments on
leaner should be able to: heating effect
a) Perform and describe 2. Factors affecting electrical
experiments to illustrate energy, 𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
heating effect of an electric 3. Heating devices: electrical
current kettle, electrical iron box,
b) State the factors affecting bulb filament, electric heater
heating by electric current 4. Problems on electrical
c) Derive the equations for energy and electrical power
electrical energy and
electrical power
d) Identify devices in which
heating effect of an electric
current is applied
e) Solve numerical problems
involving electrical energy
and electrical power
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Introduction Factors Affecting Heating by Electric

➢ When an electric current passes Current
through a conductor, it generates The heat produced by a conductor carrying
heat energy. This is called the heating current depends on:
effect of an electric current and it is
a) Amount current passing through the
due to the resistance offered by the conductor
conductor to the current. Heating ➢ The heat produced is directly
effect of an electric current was first proportional to the square of current
investigated by James Joule, a through the conductor provided that
Manchester brewer in UK. same conductor is used for the same
time. 𝑖. 𝑒
Demonstrating Heating Effect of an 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 ∝ 𝑰𝟐 .
Electric Current Using a Coil of Wire
➢ The set-up below can be used to
experimentally demonstrate heating
effect of an electric current in the
laboratory.
b) Resistance of the conductor

➢ Heat produced in a conductor carrying
current is directly proportional to
➢ Precaution: the coil should be fully resistance of the conductor provided
immersed in water but should not current and time are
touch the bottom or walls of the constant.𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 ∝ 𝑹.
beaker.
➢ Observation: It is observed that the
temperature of water increases with
resistance, current and time.
➢ Explanation: Electrical energy is
converted to heat energy resulting in
a rise in temperature. The heat
energy increases with resistance,
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current and time.
c) Time for which current flows Examples
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through conductor 1. An electric bulb rated 40W is operating

➢ Keeping current and resistance on 240V mains. Determine the resistance
constant heat produced in a of its filament.
conductor is directly proportional to Solution
the time for which current flows. 𝑉2
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 ∝ 𝒕. 𝑃=
𝑅
2402
40 = ; ⇒ 𝑅 = 1440 Ω
𝑅
2. When a current of 2A flows in a resistor
for 10 minutes, 15KJ of electrical energy
is dissipated. Determine the voltage
across the resistor.
Solution
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
15 × 1000 = 𝑉 × 2 × 10 × 60
V vdA` 15000
Q 𝑉= = 12.5 𝑉
1200
Electrical Energy, E 3. How many 100W electric irons could be
➢ Consider a current 𝑰 flowing through safely connected to a 240V moving
a conductor of resistance𝑹 for a circuit fitted with a 13A fuse?
time𝒕. If a potential difference 𝑽 Solution
drops across the ends of the 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
conductor, then; (𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠) 𝑥 1000 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑾 13 𝑥 240
𝑽= 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 =
𝑸 1000
(𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆) = 3.12 = 3 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑬 = 𝑾 = 𝑽𝑸
(𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑾 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 Exercise
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𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑸) 1. A heater of resistance R1 is rated P

𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
watts, V volts while another of
𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚, 𝑬 resistance R2 is rated 2P watts, v/2 volts.
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝑰 Determine R1/R2
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑸 2. State THREE factors which affect
= ;
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆, 𝒕 heating by an electric current.
⇒ 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕 3. What is power as it relates to electrical
𝑬 = 𝑽(𝑰𝒕); ⇒ 𝑬 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕 energy?
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑽 4. An electrical appliance is rated as 240V,
= 𝑰𝑹 (𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒘); 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦200W. What does this information
𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠; mean?
𝑬 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕 = (𝑰𝑹)𝑰𝒕; ⇒𝑬 5. An electrical heater is labelled 120W,
= 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝑻 240V.
Calculate;
Electrical Power, PE
a. The current through the
➢ Power is the rate of doing well
heating element when the
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = heater is on.
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 b. The resistance of the element
𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
= used in the heater.
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑽𝑰𝒕 6. An electric toy is rated 100W, 240V.
= ; Calculate the resistance of the toy when
𝒕
⇒ 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓, 𝑷𝑬 operating normally.
= 𝑽𝑰 7. An electric bulb with a filament of
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑽 resistance 480 is connected to a 240V
= 𝑰𝑹, 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔;
mains supply. Determine the energy
𝑷𝑬 = (𝑰𝑹)𝑰 dissipated in 2 minutes.
𝟐
𝑷𝑬 = 𝑰 𝑹
𝑽 𝑽
𝑶𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑰 = ; 𝑷 = 𝑽( )
𝑹 𝑹
𝑽𝟐
𝑷𝑬 =
𝑹
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Electrical Devices for Lighting 3. A current of 3.3A is passed through a

a) Filament lamps resistor of 25Ω for 2 hours calculate the
electrical energy converted to heat
energy in 20 minutes.
4. An electric current iron consumes 2.9MJ
➢ When current flows through the of energy in 1 hour 10 minutes when
filament, it glows white hot and converted to the mains power supply of
therefore produces light. 240v. Calculate the amount throu
➢ The filament is made of tungsten 5.
metal due to its very high melting 6. gh the filament in the electric iron
point (3400oC). 7. In the circuit shown in the figure below
➢ The bulb is filled with inert gas like each bulb is rated 6v, 3w,
argon and nitrogen to prevent
oxidation of the filament.
b) Fluorescent lamps
a) Calculate the current through
each bulb, when the bulbs are
working normally.
➢ They are efficient than filament b) How many coulombs of charge
lamps because they last much longer pass in 6 seconds through each
and have low running cost. bulb?
➢ It consists of the mercury vapor c) What would the ammeter read
which produces ultraviolet radiation when all the bulbs are working
when the lamp is switched on. The normally.
radiation makes the powder on the d) Calculate the electrical power
inside of the tube produce visible delivered by the battery.
light (fluoresce). 8. Starting from electrical power, P,
generated in a conductor show that 𝑷 =
Electrical Devices for Heating 𝑽𝟐
, where the symbols their usual
𝑹
A) Fuse meanings.
➢ A fuse is a short length of wire

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of material with low melting

point (tinned copper), which
melts and breaks the circuit
when current through it
exceeds a certain value. This
protects electrical appliances
and prevents fire outbreaks.
Other electrical heating devices include:

a) Radiant electric heater
b) Electrical iron box
c) Electric kettle
d) Hot wire ammeter
a)
Revision Exercise
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1. A touch bulb is called 2.5v, 0.4A.

What is the power rating of the
bulb?
2. An electric bulb is labeled 50w,
240v, calculate
b) The resistance of the filament
used in the lamp
c) The current through the
filament when the bulb works
normally
Chapter Nine 𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑹𝑶𝑺𝑻𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑪𝑺 𝑰𝑰
By the end of this topic the 1. Electric field patterns.
leaner, should be able to: 2. Charge distribution on
a) Sketch electric field patterns conductors.
around charged bodies. 3. Spherical and pear shaped
b) Describe charge distribution conductors.
on conductors of various 4. Action at points; lighting
shapes. arrestors.
c) Define capacitance and 5. Capacitance, unit of
state its SI unit. capacitance (farad,
d) Describe charging and microfarad), factors
discharging of a capacitor affecting capacitance.
(calculation involving 6. Applications of capacitors.
curves not required). 7. Problems on capacitors
e) State the factors affecting (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉, 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝐼 + 𝐶2 ,
1
=
𝐶𝑇
the capacitance of a parallel 1 1
+ )
plate capacitor 𝐶1 𝐶2
f) State the applications of

capacitors.
g) Solve numerical problems
involving capacitors.
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Electric Field
❖ An electric field refers to the region
where a charged body experiences a
force of attraction or repulsion.
2. Isolated negative point charge
The field lines are radially inwards towards
Direction of an Electric Field
the negative charge
❖ The direction of an electric field at a
particular point is defined as the
direction in which a unit positive
charge is free to move when placed
at that point.
3. Two equal positive point charge
Electric Line of Force (Electric Field Line)

This is the path along which a unit 4. Two equal unlike point charge
positive charge would tend to move in
the electric field.
Properties of Electric Field Lines

1. Electric field lines start at 900 from
the positive charge and end on the
negative charge at 900.
2. They do not cross each other.
3. They tend to contract or expand so
that they never interest each other
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Electric Field Patterns

1. Isolated positive point charge
The field lines are radially outwards from
the positive charge
5. Two unequal positive point charge
❖ No charge is found on the outside of a

hollow conductor. For a hollow
conductor, the charge resides on the
6. Positive point charge and a straight
outside.
metal plate having negative charge
Point Action
❖ Point action refers to the fast loss or gain
of charge at sharp points due to high
charge concentration at the points.
Demonstration of Point Action
❖ A highly charged sharp point is placed
7. Positive point charge and uncharged close to a Bunsen burner flame.
ring placed in the electric field
❖ It is observed that the flame is blown
away.
8. Two parallel metal plates having

opposite charge and placed close
Explanation
together.
❖ Burning flame contains positive and
The electric field between them is
negative ions. When the sharp [point is
uniform i.e. field lines equally placed.
brought close to the flame, negative ions
are attracted to the sharp point, while
positive ions are repelled away from the
sharp point. As the positive ions are
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Charge Distribution on Conductors repelled, they create an “electric wind”

❖ Distribution of charge on the surface which blows.
of a conductor depends on the shape ❖ If the conductor is brought very close to
of the conductor. the flame, the flame splits.
❖ For spherical conductor, charge is
uniformly distributed on the surface.
❖ For pear shaped conductor, charge is
concentrated at the sharp point.
❖ For Cuboid and diamond conductors
high charge density is at the vertices.
Example
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1. A candle flame is placed near a sharp

pointed pin connected to the cap of a
negatively charged electroscope as shown
below.
State and explain what is observed on the

leaf of the electroscope.
Solution
It is observed that the leaf collapses. This
is because the sharp point ionizes the air
around it. The negative ions (electrons)
move to the sharp end to ionize the
positive charged air ions which are 1. Is electrical field strength a scalar or
attracted to the cap (or positive air ions vector quantity? Explain
neutralize the negative charge on the 2. Explain how negatively charged pointed
sharp point). edge gets discharged by itself.
3. It is not advisable to take shelter under
2. It is dangerous to carry a pointed a tree when it is raining. Explain.
umbrella when it is raining. Explain. 4. What is the purpose of the spikes on the
Solution lightning arrestor?
The sharp point of the umbrella attracts
charge readily to neutralize the charge in Capacitors
the cloud which may electrocute the ❖ A capacitor is a device used for storing
person holding the umbrella. charge.
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Application of Point Action ❖ Capacitor symbol is

Point action is applied in the working of
the lighting arrestor. Types of Capacitors
1. Paper capacitors
2. Electrolytic capacitors
3. Variable air capacitor
4. Parallel plate capacitor
Parallel Plate Capacitor

❖ A parallel plate capacitor consists of two
metal plates separated by an insulating
material called dielectric.
Working Mechanism of the Lightening

Arrestor
❖ When a negatively charged cloud Charging a Capacitor
passes over the arrestor it induces ❖ The circuit diagram below shows a set-up
positive charge on the spikes and for charging a capacitor.
negative charge on the plate.
❖ The negative charge on the plate is
immediately discharged to the
surrounding ground.
❖ Negative ions are attracted to the
❖ Observation: When the switch is closed
spikes and are discharged by giving
it is observed that milli-ammeter reading
up their electrons.
decreases while voltmeter reading
❖ At the same time, positive ions are
increases.
repelled upwards from the spikes and
❖ Explanation: Negative charge flow from
they neutralize the negative charge
the negative terminal of the battery to
on the clouds.
plate B of the capacitor. At the same rate
negative charge flow from the plate A of
Exercise
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capacitor to positive terminal of battery.

1. The fig. shows a hollow negatively Therefore, equal positive and negative
charged sphere with metal disk charges appear on the plates and oppose
attached to an insulator placed the flow of electrons which causes.
inside. State what would happen to
the leaf of an uncharged
electroscope if the metal disk were
brought near the cap of
electroscope. Give a reason for your
answer.
❖ The charging current drops to zero

when the capacitor is fully charged.
❖ Potential difference a cross the
capacitor also develops during
charging.
Capacitance
❖ Capacitance is defined as the charge
stored in a capacitor per unit voltage.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆, 𝑸
𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒄 =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆, 𝑽
𝑸
𝑪=
𝑽
❖ The SI unit of capacitance is the farad
(F)
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Definition of the farad

❖ A farad is the capacitance of a body if
a charge of 1 coulomb raises its
potential by 1 volt
Submultiples of the farad
1 microfarad (1µF) =10-6 F
1 Nano farad (1µf) = 10-9 F
1 Pico farad (1pF) =10-12F
Discharging a Charged Capacitor Factors Affecting the Capacitance of a
❖ The circuit for discharging is as below. Parallel- Plate Capacitor
1. Area of Overlap of the Plates, A
❖ Capacitance is directly proportional to
the area of overlap of the plates (C ∝
𝐴)
❖ Observation: It is observed that ❖ If the positive plate is connected to
milliammeter reading decreases from the cap of a positively charged
maximum value to minimum. The electroscope, the divergence of the
pointer deflects in opposite direction leaf increases as the area of overlap
to that during charging. increases
❖ Explanation: During discharging 2. Distance of Separation of the Plates, d
charge flow in the opposite direction ❖ Capacitance is inversely proportional
i.e. from plate to A until the charge to distance of separation of the plates
1
on the plates is zero. (C ∝ )
𝑑
❖ Potential difference a cross the ❖ If the positive plate is connected to
capacitor practically diminishes to the cap of a positively charged
zero. electroscope, the divergence of the
leaf decreases as the distance of the
separation increases.
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3. Nature of the Dielectric Capacitor Networks

❖ Dielectric refers to the insulating a) Capacitors in Series
material between the plates of a ❖ Consider the capacitors arrangement
parallel plate capacitor. below.
❖ Permittivity 𝜺 of the insulating
material is a constant dependent
on the medium between the
plates.
❖ If the plates are in a vacuum, the 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝑪𝟏 = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝑪𝟐
constant is denoted by𝜀𝑜 (epsilon = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝑪𝟐 = 𝑸
naught) and its value is 8.85×10-12 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑽
Fm-1 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐
Expression for capacitance + 𝑽𝟑 (𝑰. 𝒆. 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔)
𝑨 𝑸
𝑪 ∝ 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝑽 =
𝒅 𝑪
ɛ𝑨 𝑸 𝑻 𝑸 𝟏 𝑸 𝟐 𝑸 𝟑
𝑪= , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 ɛ = + +
𝒅 𝑪𝑻 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
= 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑪𝑻 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
Examples 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑪𝑻 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
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1. Two plates of a parallel plate ❖ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠, 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
capacitor are 1mm apart and each 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐
= + =
has an area of 6cm2..Given that the 𝑪𝑻 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
potential difference between the 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝑪𝑻 =
plates is 90V, calculate the charge 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐
stored in the capacitor. (Take ɛ𝟎 = B) Capacitors in Parallel
𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑭𝒎−𝟏 ) ❖ Consider the arrangement below.
Solution
ɛ𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
8.85 × 10−12 𝐹𝑚 −1 × 6 × 10−4𝑚2
𝐶=
1 × 10−3
= 5.31 × 10−12𝐹 ❖ The p.d a cross each of the capacitors is
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 the same as the p.d a cross the source
𝑄 = 5.31 × 10−12 × 90 since they are connected in parallel.
= 4.779 × 10−10𝐶 𝑸𝑻 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 + 𝑸𝟑
2. Find the separation distance 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽
between two plate if the capacitance 𝑪𝑻 𝑽 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑 𝑽𝟑
between then is 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑭 and the 𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑
enclosed area is 3.0cm2 (take ɛ𝟎 =
𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑭𝒎−𝟏 ) ❖ 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠
Solution 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒.
ɛ𝐴
𝐶= Examples
𝑑
6 × 10−12𝐹 1. Three capacitors of capacitance 3µF,
8.85 × 10−12𝐹𝑚 −1 × 3 × 10−4𝑚2 4µF and 6µF are connected to a
= potential difference of 24V as shown
𝑑
8.85 × 10−12 𝐹𝑚 −1 × 3 × 10−4𝑚2 below.
𝑑=
6 × 10−12𝐹
= 4.425 × 10−4𝑚2
Exercise
1. A charge of 4 x 10 4 c was stored in a
parallel plate capacitor when a
potential difference of 5 V was
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applied across the capacitor. Work

out the capacitance of the capacitor.
2. The figure below represents two
parallel plates of a capacitor
separated by a distance d. Each
plate has an area of A square units.
Suggest two adjustments that can be
made so as to reduce the effective
capacitance.
Find: 𝑄3µ𝐹 = 𝐶3µ𝐹 𝑉3µ𝐹 ;

a) The combined capacitance 𝑄3µ𝐹 = 3µ𝐹 × 9.0048 𝑉
Solution = 27.0144 µ𝐶
1 1 1 1 𝑄4µ𝐹 = 𝐶4µ𝐹 𝑉4µ𝐹 ;
= + +
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝑄4µ𝐹 = 4µ𝐹 × 9.0048 𝑉
1 1 1 1 = 36.0192 µ𝐶
= + +
𝐶𝑇 3 4 6 𝑄2µ𝐹 = 𝐶2µ𝐹 𝑉2µ𝐹 ;
1 4+3+2 𝑄2µ𝐹 = 2µ𝐹 × 9.0048 𝑉
= = 0.75
𝐶𝑇 12 = 18.0096 µ𝐶
1 𝑄5 µ𝐹 = 𝐶5 µ𝐹 𝑉5 µ𝐹 ;
𝐶𝑇 = = 1.333µ𝐹
0.75 𝑄5 µ𝐹 = 5 µ𝐹 × 14.9952 𝑉
b) The total charge
= 74.976 µ𝐶
Solution
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
Exercise
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𝑄 = 1.333µ𝐹 × 24 𝑉 1. In the circuit below 𝑪𝟏 = 𝟒µ𝑭, = 𝑪𝟐 =

= 32 µ𝐶 𝟑µ𝑭 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝟑 = 𝟏µ𝑭. Given that 𝑽 =
c) The charge on each capacitor 𝟏𝟐𝑽, calculate:
Solution
Since the capacitors are in
series, charge on each of them
is the same and is equal to
total charge i.e. 32 µ𝐶 I. The charge on each capacitor
d) The voltage across the 4µF II. The voltage across each
capacitor capacitor
Solution 2. In the circuit shown below calculate the
𝑄 charge on the capacitor
𝑉=
𝐶
32 µ𝐶
𝑉= =8𝑉
4 µ𝐹
2. Four capacitors of capacitance 3µF,
4µF, 2µF, and 5µF are arranged as 3. The figure below Shows part of a circuit
shown below. containing three capacitors. Write an
Find: expression for CT. (The effective
capacitance between A and B.)
a) The combined capacitance

4. State the law of electrostatic charge.
Solution
5. The capacitors in the circuit in Figure
Capacitors3µF, 4µF and 2µF
below are identical and initially
are in parallel and their total
uncharged.
capacitance is in series with
the 5 µF capacitor.
1 1 1
= +
𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 𝐶4
1 1 1 14
= + =
𝐶𝑇 2 + 4 + 3 5 45
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45 6. Switch S1 is opened and switch S2 closed.

𝐶𝑇 = = 3.214 µ𝐹
14 Determine the final reading of the
b) The total charge voltmeter, V.
Solution 7. In the circuit diagram shown in figure
𝑄𝑇 = 𝐶𝑇 𝑉𝑇 below each cell has an emf of 1.5 and
𝑄𝑇 = 3.214 µ𝐹 × 24 𝑉 internal resistance of 0.5. The
= 74.976 µ𝐶 𝑜𝑟 74.976 capacitance of each capacitor is 1.4F.
× 10−6 𝑪
c) The charge on each capacitor
Solution
Voltage across 3µF, 4µF and
2µF is the same since they are
in parallel;
𝑄𝑇
𝑉𝑇 − 𝑉5 µ𝐹 = 𝑉𝑇 −
𝐶5µ𝐹
74.976 µ𝐶
24 − = 9.0048 𝑉
5µ𝐹
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2. A 10µF capacitor is charged to a p.d

of 200V and isolated. It is then
connected in parallel to a 20µF
capacitor. Find:
8. When the switch s is closed I. The resultant potential
determine the: difference.
a. Ammeter reading Solution
b. Charge on each capacitor
9. Three capacitors of 1.5F, 2.0 F and
3.0 F are connected in series to p.d.
of 12V. Find;-
I. The combined capacitance. 𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄10µ𝐹 + 𝑄20µ𝐹
II. The total charge stored in 10 × 10−6 𝐹 × 200 𝑉
the arrangement. = ( 10 × 10−6)𝑉
III. The charge in each + (20 × 10−6)𝑉
capacitor. 10 × 10−6 𝐹 × 200 𝑉
𝑉=
10.In the circuit of the figure 3 C1=2 F, ( 10 × 10−6)𝐹 + (20 × 10−6)𝐹
C2 =C3 = 0.5 F and E is a 6V battery. = 10 𝑉
Calculate the total charge and p.d
across C1 II. The energy stored before
Energy Stored in a Capacitor connection.
❖ Charging a capacitor involves doing Solution
work against repulsion of the 1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝐶𝑉 2
negative plate to more electrons 2
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
flowing in and attraction of the
1
positive plate on electrons flowing = × 10 × 10−6 𝐹
out. 2
× (200 𝑉)2 = 0.2 𝐽
❖ This work is stored in form of
potential energy. The energy may be III. The energy in the two
converted to heat, light or other capacitors after connection.
forms. Solution
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𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 (𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒐𝒓) 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑

= 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 1
= 𝐶𝑉 2 ; 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
× 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 2
𝟏 1
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 = 𝑸𝑽 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2)𝑉 2
𝟐 2
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝟏 1
= 𝑪𝑽𝟐 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑸 = (10 × 10−6
𝟐 2
= 𝑪𝑽) + 20 × 10−6 )102
𝑸𝟐 = 1.5 × 10−3 𝐽
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒅 = (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑽
𝟐𝑪
𝑸 IV. The energy difference between
= ) II and III above and comment
𝑪
❖ A graph of charge, 𝑸 against voltage, on your answer.
𝑽 is a straight line through the origin. Solution
(0.2 − 0.0015) 𝐽 = 0.1985 𝐽
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Examples
1. A 4µF capacitor is charged to a
potential difference of 80V. Find
the energy stored in it
Exercise
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Solution 1. A 10µF capacitor is charged by an 80V

1 supply and then connected across an
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝐶𝑉 2
2 uncharged 20µF capacitor. Calculate:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 I. The final p.d across each
1 capacitor.
= (4 × 10−6𝐹)
2 II. The final charge on each.
× 80𝑉 The initial and final energy stored
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 1.6 × 10−4 𝐽 by the capacitors.
2. A 2F capacitor is charged to a potential
of 200V, the supply is disconnected. The
capacitor is then connected to another
uncharged capacitor. The p.d. across
the parallel arrangement is 80V. Find
the capacitance of the second capacitor.
3. A 5F capacitor is charged to a p.d of
200v and isolated. It is then connected
to another uncharged capacitor of 10F.
Calculate:
I. The resultant p.d
II. The charge in each capacitor.
4. In an experiment to study the
variation of charge stored on
capacitor and the potential
difference across it, the following
results were obtained.
Charge 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.5
Q (C) 08 16 24 32 40 6
p.d (v) 2. 4. 6. 8. 10 14.
0 0 0 0 .0 0
5. Plot a graph of charge Q. against p.d
6. Use your graph to determine:-
a. Capacitance of the capacitor.
Energy stored in the capacitor
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when the p.d across its plate is

10V.
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Applications of Capacitors
1. Used in smoothening circuits to
smoothen the d.c output in
rectification process
2. Used in reduction of sparking in
induction coil contact. Variable
capacitor is used in turning circuit of a
radio receiver in which it is connected
in parallel to indicator
3. Capacitors are used in delay circuits
designed to give intermittent flow of
current in car indicators.
4. A capacitor is included in flash circuit
of a camera in which it discharges
instantly to flash.
Chapter Ten 𝑸𝑼𝑨𝑵𝑻𝑰𝑻𝒀 𝑶𝑭 𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑻
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By the end of this topic, the 1. Heat capacity, specific heat
leaner should be able to: capacity units (experimental
a) Define heat capacity and treatment required)
specific heat capacity 2. Latent heat of fusion, latent
b) Determine heat of vaporization, units
experimentally specific (experimental treatment
heat capacity of solids necessary)
and liquids 3. Boiling and melting
c) Define specific latent heat 4. Pressure cooker, refrigerator
of fusion and specific 5. Problems on quantity of heat
latent heat of (𝑸 = 𝑴𝑪∆𝜽, 𝑸 = 𝑴𝓵)
vaporization
d) Determine
experimentally the
specific latent heat of
fusion of ice and the
specific latent heat of
vaporization of steam.
e) State the factors affecting
melting point and boiling
point
f) Explain the functioning of
a pressure cooker and a
refrigerator
g) Solve problems involving
quality of heat.
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Definition of Heat Solution

❖ Heat is form of energy that flows 𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝜃
from one body to another due to 𝑄 = 600𝐽𝐾 −1 × (600 − 200 )
temperature difference between = 24000 𝐽
them.
Differences between Heat and Exercise
Temperature An electrical heater rated 240 V, 3 A raises
Heat Temperature the temperature of liquid X from 25 oC to 55
Heat is a form of Temperature is the oC in 10 minutes. Calculate the heat
energy that flows degree of hotness capacity of liquid X.

from one body to or coldness of a Specific Heat Capacity, c
another due to body measured on ❖ Specific heat capacity is the quantity of
temperature same scale heat required to raise the temperature
difference of a unit mass of a substance by one
Measured in joules Measured in kelvin kelvin (K).
Heat Capacity, C 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒄
❖ Heat capacity refers to the quantity of 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅, 𝑸
=
heat energy required to raise the 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔, 𝒎 × 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆, ∆𝜽
temperature of a given mass of a 𝑸
𝒄=
substance by one kelvin. 𝒎∆𝜽
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝑪 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝜽
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅, 𝑸 ❖ The SI unit of specific heat capacity is
= the joule per kilogram per kelvin(Jkg -1k-
𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆, ∆𝜽
1)
𝑸
𝑪= 𝒐𝒓 𝑸 = 𝑪∆𝜽 ❖ Specific heat capacity can also be
∆𝜽
❖ The SI unit of heat is the joule per expressed as:
kelvin (𝑱𝑲−𝟏 )
❖ Note: Different materials have 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒄
different rates of heat absorption and 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝑪
=
therefore different heat capacities. 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Examples 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝑪
Calculate the quantity of heat required = 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒄
× 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔, 𝒎
to raise the temperature of a metal
block with a heat capacity of 600JK-1
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from 200C to 600C.
❖ Note: If two substances of the same i. State the precautions that need to be
mass are subjected to the same taken to minimize heat losses to the
amount of heat, they acquire surroundings
different temperature changes Solution
because they have different specific i. The calorimeter should be
heat capacities e.g. the specific heat highly polished.
capacity of iron is 460Jkg-1k-1. This ii. The calorimeter should be
means that 1kg of iron would take in heavily lagged.
or give out 460Jof heat when its iii. The calorimeter should be
temperature changes by 1k. closed using an insulating lid
(lid made of a poor conductor).
Example
A block of copper of mass 10.0 kg and
specific heat capacity 460 Jkg-1k-1 cools
from 800C to 400C. Find the quantity of
heat given out.
Solution
𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝜽
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝒈 × 𝟒𝟔𝟎 𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 (𝟖𝟎 Determining specific heat capacity of
− 𝟒𝟎) 𝟎 𝑪 liquids using method of mixtures
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑱 = 𝟏𝟖𝟒 𝒌𝑱
Example
Exercise A block of metal of mass 0.15kg at 1000c
1. A block of metal of mass 1.5kg which was transferred to a copper calorimeter of
is suitably insulated is heated from 300C mass 0.4kg containing a liquid of mass
to 500C in 8 minutes and 20 seconds by 0.8kg at 200c. The block and the
an electric heater coil rated 54watts. calorimeter with its contents eventually
Find: reached a common temperature of 400c.
a) The quantity of heat Given the specific heat capacity of
supplied by the heater aluminium 900Jkg-1k-1, and that of copper
b) The heat capacity of the 400Jkg-1k-1, calculate the specific heat
block
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c) The specific heat capacity capacity of the liquid.

2 Find the final temperature of water if Solution
a heater source rated 50W heats 100g 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘
water from 250C in 5 minutes (specific = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
heat capacity of water is 4200Jkg-1k-1) + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑚𝐵 𝑐𝐵 ∆𝜃𝐵 = 𝑚𝐿 𝑐𝐿 ∆𝜃𝐿 + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 ∆𝜃𝑐
0.15 × 900 × (100 − 40)
Methods of Determining Specific Heat = 0.8 × 𝑐𝐿 × (40 − 20)
Capacities + 0.4 × 400
1. Method of Mixtures × (40 − 20)
❖ In this method, a relatively hot 8100 − 3200
𝑐𝐿 = = 306.25 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1𝐾 −1
substance is mixed with a relatively 16
cold substance. Heat energy is
2. Electrical method
transferred from hot body to cold
❖ In this method, electric heating coil
body until thermal equilibrium is
supplies the heat energy which is
established
absorbed by other substances.
Determining Specific Heat Capacity of a
Determining Specific Heat Capacity of a
Metal Block Using Electrical Method
Solid Using Method of Mixtures
❖ The set-up that can be used in this case
is as shown below.
Example
A lagged copper calorimeter of mass
0.50kg contains 0.4kg of water at 250C.
A metallic solid of mass 1.2kg is
transferred from an oven at 3500C to
the calorimeter and a steady
temperature of 500C is reached by the
water after stirring.
ii. Calculate the specific heat
capacity of the material of the
solid (Specific heat capacity of
copper is 400Jkg-1k-1and that of
water 4200Jkg-1k-1)
Solution
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𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑

= ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
+ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 ∆𝜃𝑠 = 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 ∆𝜃𝑤 + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 ∆𝜃𝑐
1.2 × 𝑐𝑠 × (350 − 50)
= 0.4 × 4200
× (50 − 25)
+ 0.5 × 400
× (50 − 25)
42000 + 5000
𝑐𝑠 =
360
= 130.56 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1𝐾 −1
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Precautions Change of State

I. The metal block must be highly ❖ Change of a substance from solid to
polished and heavily lagged. liquid, from liquid to gas or the reverse
II. The two holes should be filled with involves change of state.
a high oil to improve thermal Latent Heat
contact with the heater and ❖ Latent heat refers to amount of heat
thermometer. required to change state of a substance
Example without change in temperature
A metal block of mass 0.5 kg is heated ❖ It is the heat energy absorbed or given
electrically. If the voltmeter reads 20 V, out during change of state.
the ammeter 4A and the temperature of Latent Heat of Fusion
the block rises from 25 0C to 95 0C in 8 ❖ Latent heat of fusion refers to the
minutes, calculate the specific heat amount heat required to change the
capacity of the metal block. state of a substance from solid to liquid
Solution without temperature change.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ❖ Note: When a liquid changes to solid
= ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 state, latent heat of fusion is given out.
𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 𝑚𝑏 𝑐𝑏 ∆𝜃 Specific Latent Heat of Fusion, 𝓵𝒇
20 × 4 × (8 × 60) 𝐽 ❖ Specific latent heat fusion refers to the
= 0.5 𝑘𝑔 × 𝑐𝑏 quantity of heat required to change a
× (95 − 25)𝐾 −1 unit mass of the substance from solid to
38400 liquid without change in temperature.
𝑐𝑏 = = 1097.14 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1𝐾 −1
35 𝑸
𝓵𝒇 = , ⇒ 𝑸 = 𝒎𝓵𝒇
𝒎
Determining Specific Heat Capacity of
Liquid Using Electrical Method ❖ The SI unit of specific latent heat of
Example fusion is the joule per kilogram (Jkg-1).
In an experiment to determine the Latent Heat of Vaporization
specific heat capacity of water an ❖ Latent heat of vaporization refers to the
electrical heater was used. If the heat required to change the state of a
voltmeter reading was 24 V and that of substance from liquid to gas without
ammeter 2.0 A, calculate the specific change in temperature.
heat capacity of water if the Specific latent heat of vaporization,
temperature of a mass of 1.5kg of ❖ Specific latent heat of vaporization is the
water in a 0.4kg copper calorimeter quantity of heat required to change a
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rose by 60c after 13.5minutes. unit mass of a substance from liquid to

vapor without change in temperature.
𝑸
𝓵𝑽 = , ⇒ 𝑸
𝒎
= 𝒎𝓵𝑽
The SI unit of specific latent heat of
vaporization is the joule per kilogram
Solution (Jkg-1).
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
+ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 𝑚𝑊 𝑐𝑊 ∆𝜃𝑊 + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 ∆𝜃𝑐
24 × 2 × (13.5 × 60)
= 1.5 × 𝑐𝑊 × 6
+ 0.4 × 400 × 6
38880 − 960
𝑐𝑊 =
9
= 4213.33 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1𝐾 −1
Exercise
A man wanted to have a warm bath at
350c. He had 4.0kg of water in a basin
at 900c .what mass of cold water at 230c
must he have added to the hot water to
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obtain his choice of bath. Neglect heat

losses and take specific heat capacity of
water as 4200Jkg-1k-1
Examples
1. Calculate the amount of heat
required to convert 4kg of ice at -100c to
liquid at 50c (specific heat capacity of
water is 4200Jkg-1k-1 ,specific heat
capacity of ice =2100Jkg-1k-1, specific
latent heat of fusion of ice =340,000Jkg -
1k-1)
Solution
𝑄
= 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑐𝑒 ∆𝜃𝑖𝑐𝑒 + 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 ℓ𝑓 𝑖𝑐𝑒
+ 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∆𝜃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑄 = 4 × 2100 × (10 − 0)
+ 4 × 340000
+ 4 × 4200
× (5 − 0) a. From the graph, determine the boiling
𝑄 = 84000 + 1360000 + 84000 point of the liquid.
𝑄 = 1528000 𝐽 𝑜𝑟 1.528 𝑀𝐽
b. I) Determine the heat given out by the
heater between the times t=0.5 minutes
2. A kettle rated at 4.0kW containing
and t=5.0 minutes. II)
2.0kg of water is left switched on. How
From the graph determine the
long will it take the water to boil dry in
temperature change between the times
the kettle if the initial temperature of
t=0.5 minutes and t=5.0 minutes.
water is 200c (specific heat capacity of
III) Hence determine the specific heat
water is 4200Jkg-1k-1 specific latent
capacity of the liquid
heat of vaporization of water is
c. 1.8g of vapor was collected from the
2.26x106Jkg-1.
liquid between the times t=6.8 minutes
Solution
and t=7.3 minutes. Determine the
𝑄 = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∆𝜃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
specific latent heat of vaporization of
+ 𝑚ℓ𝑉 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
the liquid.
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4000 × 𝑡 = 2 × 4200 Factors affecting melting and boiling points

× (100 − 20) They are two:
+ 2 × 2.26 × 106 I. Pressure
672000 + 4520000 II. Impurities
𝑡= = 1298𝑠
4000 Effect of pressure on melting point
❖ Increase in pressure lowers the melting
Exercise point of a substance.
1. Calculate the amount of thermal ❖ Consider the set-up below.
energy required to change 5g of ice
at -100c to steam at 1000c (specific
heat capacity of ice 2.10Jg-1k-1,
specific latent heat of fusion of ice
336Jg-1, specific latent heat of
vaporization of steam 2260Jg-1,
specific heat capacity of water 4.2Jg-
1 -1
k )
2. A copper calorimeter of mass 60g
contains 100g of oil at 200c. a piece ❖ It is observed that the wire cuts its way
of ice of mass 28g at 100c is added to through the ice block, but leaves it as one
the oil. What mass of ice will be left piece.
when the temperature of the
calorimeter and its contents will be
100C ? Specific heat capacity of
copper =0.4Jg-1k-1, specific heat
capacity of oil 2.4Jg-1k-1, specific
latent heat of fusion of ice 336Jg -1)
3. Dry steam is passed into a well
lagged aluminium calorimeter of
mass 400 g containing 1.2 kg of ice
at 0oC . The mixture is well stirred
and steam supply cut off when the
temperature of the calorimeter and
its contents reaches53oC. Neglecting
heat losses, determine the specific
latent heat of vaporization of water
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if 400 g of steam is found to have

condensed to water. (specific latent
heat of fusion of ice 336Jg-1, specific
heat capacity of water 4.2Jg-1k-1,
specific heat capacity of aluminium
is 900 Jkg-1K-.1
4. a) State two factors that affect
the boiling point of a liquid. b)
100g of a liquid at a temperature
of 10C is poured into a well
lagged calorimeter. An electric
heater rated 50W is used to heat
the liquid. The graph in the figure
below shows the variation of the
temperature of the liquid with
time.
Explanation Evaporation
❖ The wire exerts pressure on the ice ❖ Evaporation is the process by which a
beneath it and therefore makes it liquid changes to a gas. It occurs at all
melt at a temperature lower than its temperatures (i.e. has no fixed
melting point. temperature)
❖ The water formed by melted ice flows Factors affecting rate of evaporation
over the wire and immediately 1. Temperature
solidifies and gives out latent heat of Rate of evaporation increases with
fusion to copper wire which it uses to temperature since increase in temperature
melt ice below it. increases kinetic energy of molecules and
❖ Note: Copper wire is used in the therefore surface molecules easily escape.
experiment because: 2. Surface area
I. It is a good conductor of heat. ❖ Rate of evaporation increases with
II. It has higher thermal conductivity surface area because many molecules are
than other metals. exposed when surface area is large.
Applications of effects of pressure on Water in basin (a) evaporates faster than
melting point of ice the one in (b) in the figure below.
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I. It is applied on ice skating in which

weight of the skater acts on ice
3. Draught
through thin blades of skates. This
❖ Draught increases rate of evaporation
melts the ice to form a film of water
since it sweeps away evaporating
on which the skater slides.
molecules clearing a way for more
II. It can be used in joining two ice
molecules to escape. This is why clothes
cubes under pressure.
dry faster on a windy day.
Effect of impurities on melting point
4. Humidity
❖ Impurities lower the melting points of
❖ Increase in humidity lowers rate of
substances.
evaporation. This is why clothes take long
❖ This is applied in humid areas during
to dry on a humid day.
winter in which salt is spread on
Effects of Evaporation
roads and paths to prevent freezing.
I. One feels cold when methylated spirit
Effect of impurities on boiling point
is applied on his head after shaving.
❖ Impurities raise the boiling points of
This is because the evaporating spirit
substances. This is why salted food
gets latent heat of vaporization from
cooks faster than unsalted one.
his body.
❖ Consider the set-up below.
II. Thin layer of frost forms around the
outside of a test tube walls when air is
blown through methylated spirit. in
the tube. This is because the
evaporating spirit obtains latent heat
❖ When the liquids are heated to of vaporization from walls of the tube
boiling, the boiling point of salt creating a cooling effect.
solution is observed to be higher than Difference between Evaporation and
that of distilled water. This is because Boiling
impurities raise the boiling point of a Evaporation Boiling
liquid. It takes place at It takes place at
Effect of Pressure on Boiling Point all temperatures. fixed temperature.
❖ Decrease in pressure lowers the It takes place on It takes place
boiling point of a liquid while increase the liquid surface throughout the
in pressure raises the boiling point. only. liquid.
❖ This is why food takes longer to cook Decreasing Decreasing
at high altitudes than at low altitudes atmospheric atmospheric
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because pressure at high altitude is pressure pressure lowers the

higher. increases the rate boiling point.
❖ It is also the reason as to why water of evaporation.
in a sufuria closed with a lid boils
faster than the closed one. The steam Applications of Cooling by Evaporation
pressure in a closed sufuria is higher 1. Sweating
and this raises the boiling point of ❖ Evaporating sweat absorbs latent heat of
water making it to boil faster. vaporization from body and therefore
❖ creating a cooling effect.
2. Cooling of Water in a Porous Pot
❖ Water seeping out of the pot through
pores evaporates from surface of pot,
creating a cooling effect.
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1. The Refrigerator 3 . 4. State two factors that would raise

the boiling point of water to above 1000C
5. a) State what is meant by the term
specific latent heat of vaporization
b) In an experiment to determine the
specific latent heat of vaporization of
water, steam at 1000cwas passed into
water contained in a well-lagged copper
calorimeter. The following measurements
were made:
• Mass of calorimeter = 50g
• Initial mass of water = 70g
• Final mass of calorimeter + water +
condensed steam = 123g
• Final temperature of mixture = 300C
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg
❖ It consists of a highly volatile liquid -1K and specific heat capacity for copper
(Freon) which takes latent heat of = 390 J kg -1 K-1) Determine the:
vaporization from contents (food) in I. Mass of condensed steam
refrigerator and evaporates. II. Heat gained by the calorimeter and
❖ The pump removes the vapor into water
lower coil outside the cabinet where it III. Given that L is the specific latent heat
is compressed and changed to liquid of evaporation of steam
form. i. Write an expression for the
❖ The evaporator and condenser pipes heat given out by steam
are highly coiled to increase surface ii. Determine the value of L.
area for absorption and loss of heat 6. A heating element rated 2.5 KW is used
respectively. to raise the temperature of 3.0 kg of water
❖ The pipes are made of good through 500C. Calculate the time required
conductor of heat (copper) to to affect this. (Specific heat capacity of
increase heat conductivity. water is 4200 J/kg/K)
❖ The copper fins enhance heat loss to 7. State two factors that affect the
the surrounding at the condenser melting point of ice.
pipe.
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Revision Exercise 8. Steam of mass 3.0g at 1000c is passes

1. An electric heater rated 6000W is into water of mass 400g at 100c. The final
used to heat 1kg of ice initially at -100c temperature of the mixture is T. The
until all the mass turns to steam. Given container absorbs negligible heat. (Specific
that latent heat of fusion of ice latent heat of vaporization of steam= 2260
=334kJkg-1, specific heat capacity of ice= kJ/kg, specific heat capacity of water=
2,260J kg -1 K -1, specific heat capacity of 4200Jk-1)
water = 4, 200J kg-1 K-1 and latent heat I. Derive an expression for the heat lost
of vaporization of water = 2, 260KJ kg -1 by the steam as it condenses to
K -1, calculate the minimum time water at temperature T.
required for this activity. II. Derive an expression for the heat
2 a) Explain why a burn from the steam gained by the water.
of boiling water is more severe than III. Determine the value of T.
that of water itself?
b) An energy saving stove when 9. A can together with stirrer of total heat
burning steadily has an efficiency of capacity 60j/k contains 200g of water at
60%. The stove melts 0.03kg of ice at 100 c. dry steam at 1000c is passed in while
00c in 180 seconds. Calculate; - the water is stirred until the whole reaches
I. The power rating of the stove. a temperature of 300c Calculate the mass of
II. The heat energy wasted by the steam condensed.
stove. 10. An immersion heater which takes a
current of 3A from 240V mains raised
3 An immersion heater rated 90W is the temperature of 10kg of water 300c
placed in a liquid of mass 2kg. When to 500c. How long did it take?
the heater is switched on for 15 11. 100g of boiling water are poured into a
minutes, the temperature of the liquid metal vessel weighing 800g at a
rises from 200C to 300C. Determine the temperature of 200c if the final
specific heat capacity of the liquid. temperature is 500c. What is the specific
heat capacity of the metal? (Specific
Heat capacity of water 4.2 x 103J/kg/k)
12. 0.02kg of ice and 0.01kg of water 00c
are in a container. Steam at 1000c is
passed in until all the ice is just melted.
How much water is now in the
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container?
13. In a domestic oil-fired boiler, 0.5kg of
water flows through the boiler every
second. The water enters the boiler at a
temperature of 300c and leaves at a
temperature of 700c, re-entering the
boilers after flowing around the
radiators at 300c. 3.0x 107J of heat is
given to the water by each kilogram of
oil burnt. The specific heat capacity of
water is 4200Jkg -1K-.1
I. Use the information above to

calculate the energy absorbed by
the water every second as it
passes through the boiler.
II. Use the same information above
to calculate the mass of oil which
would need to be burnt in order
to provide this energy.
14.You are provided with two beakers.
The first beaker contains hot water
at 700c. The second beaker contains
cold water at 200c. The mass of hot
water is thrice that of cold water.
The contents of both beakers are
mixed. What is the temperature of
the mixture?
15.Calculate the heat evolved when
100g of copper are cooled from 900c
to 100c. (Specific Heat Capacity of
Copper = 390J/Kg/k).
16. An-immersion heater rated 150w is
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placed in a liquid of mass 5 kg. When

the heater is switched on for 25
minutes, the temperature of the liquid
rises from 20 - 2700c. Determine the
specific heat capacity of the liquid.
(Assume no heat losses)
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PHYSCIS FORM 3 HANDBOOK

PHYSCIS FORM 3 HANDBOOK

By Sir Obiero Amos 0706 851 439

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Chapter One 𝑳𝑰𝑵𝑬𝑨𝑹 𝑴𝑶𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵

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Specific objectives Content

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the displacement is zero. unit time. It is a vector quantity.

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time. The SI unit of acceleration is the 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠

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𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑

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3. A particle moving with a velocity of

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1. The figure below shows a piece of

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3. A body moving with variable velocity

❖ b. For a body moving with a velocity

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instantaneous acceleration of the

Velocity – Time Graphs

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❖ b. For a body moving with a

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𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

State the nature of the motion between:

2. The figure below shows a velocity

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3. The figure below shows the

Therefore, for a body moving with uniform

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𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝒗 + 𝒖𝒗 − 𝒖𝟐 4. A body moving with a uniform acceleration

𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 (𝒃) 𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔

Motion under Gravity 2. A bullet shot vertically upwards rises to a

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again. Air resistance is assumed 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 0 𝑚

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Horizontal projection Example

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❖ Consider a body projected 200

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1. A body moving at an initial velocity u i. State the direction in which the

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reach the floor. diagram and indicate using

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Chapter Two 𝑵𝑬𝑾𝑻𝑶𝑵’𝑺 𝑳𝑨𝑾𝑺 𝑶𝑭 𝑴𝑶𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵

Specific Objectives Content

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Introduction 2. The bottom wooden block can easily

Definition of Inertia 3. When a moving train or a car stops

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Momentum Relationship between Force, Mass and

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