Research Paper

Geosphere, published online on 2 October 2015 as doi:10.1130/GES01144.1

GEOSPHERE Australia going down under: Quantifying continental subduction

during arc-continent accretion in Timor-Leste
GEOSPHERE; v. 11, no. 6 Garrett W. Tate1, Nadine McQuarrie2, Douwe J.J. van Hinsbergen3, Richard R. Bakker 4, Ron Harris5, and Haishui Jiang6
1
Chevron Corporation, 1500 Louisiana Street, Houston, Texas 77002, USA
2
Department of Geology and Planetary Science, University of Pittsburgh, 4107 O’Hara St, SRCC Room 200, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
doi:10.1130/GES01144.1 3
Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Budapestlaan 4, 3584 CD Utrecht, Netherlands
4
Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zurich, NO D 51.3, Sonneggstrasse 5, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
12 figures; 1 table
5
Department of Geological Sciences, Brigham Young University, S389 ESC, Provo, Utah, 84602, USA
6
Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, 388 Lumo Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, 430074 China

CORRESPONDENCE: [email protected]

ABSTRACT formed at subduction zones have shown, for example, that microconti­
CITATION:  Tate, G.W., McQuarrie, N., van Hinsber-
nental blocks may subduct partly without leading to slab breakoff (van
gen, D.J.J., Bakker, R.R., Harris, R., and Jiang, H.,
2015, Australia going down under: Quantifying con- Models of arc-continent accretion often assume that the period of subduc- Hinsbergen et al., 2005; Capitanio et al., 2010). Also, passive margins of
tinental subduction during arc-continent accretion tion of continental lithosphere before plate boundary reorganization is fairly major continents may partly subduct upon arrival in a subduction zone
in Timor-Leste: Geosphere, v. 11, no. 6, p. 1–24,
short lived, yet the timescale of this period is poorly constrained by observa- during continent-continent collision, for example, in Arabia (Agard et al.,
doi:10.1130/GES01144.1.
tions in the geologic record. The island of Timor is the uplifted accretionary 2011; Mouthereau et al., 2012; McQuarrie and van Hinsbergen, 2013) and
complex resulting from the active collision of the Banda volcanic arc with the India (Long et al., 2011). Quantifying the rate and amount of continental
Received 25 October 2014
Revision received 11 June 2015 Australian continental margin. The exposure of underplated and exhumed subduction is a key factor toward unraveling the dynamics of continental
Accepted 18 August 2015 Australian strata on Timor allows for the characterization of the structural his- subduction and to the understanding of the terminal phases of a subduc­
tory of accretion of uppermost Australian crust and the quantification of sub- tion zone.
duction of its original continental lithospheric underpinnings. New structural Arc-continent collision is a key step in the tectonic cycle, marking the
mapping in East Timor (Timor-Leste) reveals that duplexing of a 2-km-thick arrival of continental lithosphere at a volcanic arc that formed above an
package of Australian continental strata has built the majority of the structural intra-oceanic subduction zone (Wilson, 1966; Dewey and Bird, 1970). This
elevation of the Timor orogen. Coupling new structural observations with pre- process is ubiquitous in the geologic record and has played a key role in
vious thermochronology results reveals the sequence of deformation within forming the continental masses that are seen today (Şengör et al., 1993).
the orogen, the presence of subsurface duplexing below the hinterland slate Arc-continent accretion has been accommodated by a number of different
belt, and motion along a foreland subsurface thrust ramp. Construction of bal- deformation styles and tectonic plate geometries (e.g., Dickinson and Law­
anced cross sections allows for the quantification of the amount of shortening ton, 2001). However, this paper will focus on the following canonical se­
in the orogen, and from that, the length of the subducted Australian continen- quence of deformation from Dewey and Bird (1970): (1) Oceanic lithosphere
tal lithosphere. Two balanced cross sections in East Timor reveal 326–362 km is consumed in a subduction zone below an intra-oceanic volcanic arc. (2) A
of shortening and that 215–229 km of Australian continental lithosphere have continental passive margin located updip of the subducting oceanic slab is
been subducted below the Banda forearc. These results highlight the fact that brought into contact with the island arc and forearc through continued sub­
considerable amounts of continental lithosphere can be subducted while ac- duction. (3) Thrust slices of the island arc are emplaced on deformed rocks of
creting only a thin section of uppermost crust. Continental subduction may the continental margin. (4) Continental subduction ceases and convergence
have been favorable at Timor because of fast subduction rates, old oceanic becomes accommodated elsewhere, such as in a new subduction zone on
crust at the consumed Australian margin, and subduction of some length of the opposite side of the island arc. After this process, a piece of overriding
transitional crust. These results provide quantitative constraints for future nu- oceanic plate (an ophiolite) and associated rocks are located structurally
merical modeling of the geodynamics of continental subduction and arc-con- above the continental crust.
tinent collision. When continental crust is brought into a subduction zone as a part of
the downgoing plate, the combined effects of lower density and greater
thickness of continental crust produce buoyant forces that eventually in­
INTRODUCTION hibit continental subduction (McKenzie, 1969). McKenzie (1969) proposed
that it is this attempted subduction of continental material that ends the
For permission to copy, contact Copyright The canonical view in plate tectonics has long been that oceanic litho­ process of arc accretion and causes reorganization of the plate boundar­
Permissions, GSA, or [email protected]. sphere subducts and that continental lithosphere cannot (McKenzie, ies through a switch in subduction polarity, changes in overall plate mo­
1969). However, geological and geophysical studies of orogenic belts that tions, or both.
© 2015 Geological Society of America

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 1

 Research Paper
Geosphere, published online on 2 October 2015 as doi:10.1130/GES01144.1

It is unclear, however, exactly how much continental crust can be subducted GEOLOGIC SETTING
before plate boundary reorganization or plate motion changes are observed.
Early models of arc-continent accretion assumed subduction migration behind Timor is located at the collisional margin between the oceanic Banda
the island arc was a nearly instantaneous response to continental subduction volcanic arc and the Australian continental margin (Fig. 1). Early mapping
(McKenzie, 1969; Dewey and Bird, 1970). However, the presence of coesite documented structural deformation of Australian-affinity strata below
and diamond within gneisses of ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) terranes requires a alloch­thonous material with affinity to the Banda arc (Audley-Charles, 1968).
mechanism for subduction of continental material to pressures of 2.7–4 GPa Using the early mapping of Audley-Charles (1968) as a base, subsequent
and to depths greater than 100–120 km prior to exhumation (Chopin, 1984; interpretations of mapped relationships suggest duplexing of Permian–­
Smith, 1984; Sobolev and Shatsky, 1990; Hermann and Rubatto, 2014). In the Jurassic Australian sedimentary strata below an overthrust oceanic Banda
Mediterranean, subduction of microcontinental blocks proceeded for hundreds forearc klippe, with Cretaceous and younger Australian strata deformed at
of kilometers, accreting upper crust and subducting continental lower crust the front of the Banda klippe (Carter et al., 1976; Harris, 1991, 2006; Zobell,
and mantle lithosphere without slab breakoff (van Hinsbergen et al., 2005; van 2007). However, the locations of duplex faults and the stratigraphy involved
Hinsbergen et al., 2010). Cloos (1993) calculated that granitic continental crust in duplexing have not been documented in detail. This is a key element of
25 km thick is able to be subducted if it is mechanically linked to a lithospheric our study, since it is essential information to determine the amount of short­
mantle that extends to a depth of 200 km, although an effective mechanical ening and continental subduction.
link was questioned. Other models have shown that subduction of continental To place the amount of continental subduction in its plate kinematic con­
lower crust and mantle lithosphere can be favorable if upper crust is removed text, it is imperative to know the age of collision, which is debated. Strati­
and accreted to the overriding plate (Capitanio et al., 2010). Numerical mod­ graphic constraints require orogenesis at Timor after 9.8 Ma, the ages of
els of slab breakoff during continental collision have suggested subduction of youngest Australian passive margin strata within the thrust belt on Timor-
continental crust to depths of ~120 km before slab breakoff (Baumann et al., Leste (Keep and Haig, 2010), and before 5.6–5.2 Ma, the oldest synorogenic
2010), with some suggesting possibly greater depths of continental subduction sediments deposited on a tectonic mélange that formed during orogenesis
for subduction rates faster than 1 cm/yr (Davies and von Blanckenburg, 1995). (Harris et al., 1998; Haig and McCartain, 2007). 40Ar/ 39Ar thermochronology
More recent numerical models of slab breakoff during continental collision in­ suggests earliest exhumation of underplated Australian continental material
dicate that slab breakoff is expected at the continent-ocean transition at depths at 7.13 ± 0.25 Ma (Tate et al., 2014) or ca. 7.5–8 Ma (Berry and McDougall,
positively correlated to the age of the oceanic crust, with breakoff at depths of 1986). Some debate remains over whether these cooling ages reflect pro­
300 km for 80 Ma oceanic crust and both upper and lower continental crust cesses within the Banda forearc or initial collision between the Banda forearc
subducted to depths of 200 km or greater (Duretz et al., 2011; van Hunen and and the distal-most Australian margin. Detrital zircon ages of ca. 290 Ma
Allen, 2011). have been used to argue that these units with 40Ar/ 39Ar ages >7 Ma belong
The island of Timor is a modern example of arc-continent collision be­ to fragments of the Sula Spur (a continental ribbon that rifted off Austra­
tween the Banda arc and the Australian margin (Carter et al., 1976). Timor lia in the Mesozoic) that were incorporated within the Banda forearc before
represents the earliest stages of arc accretion compared to other modern an­ Banda-Australia collision (Ely et al., 2014). However, because similar detrital
alogues such as Taiwan and New Guinea, because only the Banda forearc is zircon peaks of 254–358 Ma have been found within other Australian-affin­
found thrust upon Timor today and the volcanic arc remains separated from ity units of the Gondwana Sequence (Zobell, 2007), a derivation from the
Timor by a shortened forearc basin (Huang et al., 2000). Nevertheless, global Sula Spur is not required. The continuation of volcanism at Wetar until 3 Ma
positioning system (GPS) measurements indicate that much of the conver­ (­Abbott and Chamalaun, 1981) or even 2.4 Ma (Herrington et al., 2011) and at
gence between Australia and Sunda at the longitude of Timor is accommo­ Ataúro until 3.3 Ma (Ely et al., 2011) has been used as an argument against
dated north of the Banda arc, suggesting that plate boundary reorganization initial collision of the distal Australian margin with the Banda arc before 4 Ma
may now be beginning (Nugroho et al., 2009). Timor, therefore, is a prime lo­ (Audley-Charles, 2011). However, He, Pb, and Sr isotopic signals from Banda
cale for evaluating the magnitude and rates of continental subduction during arc volcanics demonstrate contamination of the magma source with conti­
arc accretion. nental material, supporting subduction of continental material to depths of
Here we present new structural mapping of central East Timor (Timor- magma generation from 5 to 2.4 Ma (Elburg et al., 2004; Herrington et al.,
Leste) and two corresponding balanced cross sections through the orogen. 2011) and therefore initial collision of the Banda forearc and Australian mar­
These balanced cross sections constrain minimum shortening amounts gin even earlier.
during arc-continent collision. Furthermore, restored lengths of stratigra­ Thermochronologic and sedimentologic observations also constrain
phy from the downgoing plate that was underplated to the island during the age of emergence and the rate of continued deformation on Timor. The
orogenesis allow us to constrain the length of subducted continental emergence of Timor-Leste above water is suggested to be shortly before
lithosphere. 4.45 Ma by Nguyen et al. (2013) as indicated by increased clastic input and

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 2

 Research Paper
Geosphere, published online on 2 October 2015 as doi:10.1130/GES01144.1

A increased mangrove and lowland rainforest pollen in synorogenic depos­

(
! (
! 5°S its. Tate et al. (2014) use low-temperature thermochronology to document

(
Banda Sea
an extremely heterogeneous history of exhumation across the map area

(
of this paper, with apatite and zircon (U-Th)/He ages ranging from 1.5 to

(
rc
WT 5.5 Ma with larger exhumation magnitudes and faster exhumation rates
Banda A
( (
FT
in the hinterland slate belt compared to the more foreland fold-thrust belt

(
(
!
( ( ( ( (
(
(
!
! ! !! !
! ! ( ( in the south and east. Continued rapid uplift on Timor and the Banda arc
(
Su ! SS ( is also evident, with Quaternary coral terraces uplifted up to 700 m on
( T ( 10°S
( (
!
( ug
h Ataúro (Ely et al., 2011) and with similar coral terraces present on the north
( ( (
!
!( Tro
( ( ( Sa
mo
r coast of Timor-Leste (Audley-Charles, 1968; Cox, 2009). Significant debate
Java Tre
nch ( ( Ti
( Timor Sea remains as to the active mode of deformation on Timor today, with various
Scale: 50 mm/yr
interpretations spanning active duplexing of Australian strata (Tate et al.,
115°E 120°E 125°E 130°E ! Australia 135°E
2014), arc-parallel extrusion along transtensional faults (Duffy et al., 2013),
and extension driven by slab breakoff and isostatic rebound (Keep and
Haig, 2010).
B 125°30′E 126°0′E Plate reconstructions and GPS measurements both indicate that Australia
is moving north relative to the Sunda arc and South Banda arc at ~7 cm/yr
8°30′S Manatuto
DILI Hera
! ! Laclo
"
!
!
! (­Nugroho et al., 2009; Spakman and Hall, 2010; Seton et al., 2012). Modern

Maubara
Liquica
" Bazartete
_
^
Dare
! Remexio
Metinaro !
Raibu
Laleia
Cairui
!
convergence is oblique, with ~53 mm/yr of convergence perpendicular to the
Timor Trough (the deformation front of the Timor orogen) (Nugroho et al.,
!
! ! ! 2009). Along the trend of Timor this convergence is partitioned between the
!
!
Fahilacor
! Timor Trough and the Wetar Thrust, with ~20 mm/yr of convergence parti­
Cribas
! Railaco ! Tuquetti tioned between Australia and Timor and ~33 mm/yr of convergence accom­
Liquidoe ! !
Aileu ! Weladada modated between Wetar and the Sunda block (Nugroho et al., 2009). It ap­
" Gleno " Laclubar
!
! pears, therefore, that plate boundary reorganization may be under way at
Atabae Ermera ! ! Lei
! Timor. Another argument to that end comes from seismological observations
! Hatolia
! Turiscai that a seismic gap exists in the downgoing slab below Wetar that may indi­
Letefoho
!
! ! !
! Barique
!
Maubisse ! ! cate ongoing or recent slab breakoff (McCaffrey et al., 1985; Sandiford, 2008;
Marco Hatobuilico !
! Soibada Ely and Sandiford, 2010). We note, however, that such a seismic gap does not
Atsabe ! ! Aitutu ! Manehat
! uniquely indicate slab breakoff, since a similar seismic gap below Taiwan is
!
!
attributed to the subduction of continental material that would lack the water
Ainaro Natarbora
Maliana Same ! content necessary for typical slab dehydration earthquakes (Chen et al., 2004).

¯
" "
9°0′S " Alas Weberek In addition, seismic tomography does not image a gap in the slab below Wetar
! !
! !Welalulun
! (Spakman and Hall, 2010).
Bobonaro
Feriksare
Cassa !
Lolotoi Zumalai !
! !Hatudo
Betano 0 10 20 30
TECTONOSTRATIGRAPHY
! ! !
!
Km
!
! Australian-Affinity Units
Map Area
Australian-affinity units are those deposited on Australian continental or
_
^ National Capital Figure 1. (A) Regional setting, with Timor-Leste in black and study area outlined in red. Global
positioning system (GPS) vectors relative to fixed Asia from Nugroho et al. (2009). T—Timor;
transitional continental crust prior to collision with the Banda Terrane. The
units deposited within intracratonic basins prior to the breakup of Gondwana
" District Capital
Su—Sumba; Sa—Savu; SS—Savu Sea; FT—Flores thrust; WT—Wetar Thrust. (B) Location refer-
! Town ence of study area, with major towns referenced in text. are collectively referred to as the Gondwana Sequence (Harris et al., 1998). The
! Village Gondwana Sequence consists primarily of the Cribas, Maubisse, Aitutu, and
major road Wailuli formations and also includes the Atahoc, Niof, and Babulu formations
minor road
(Fig. 2).

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 3

 Research Paper
Geosphere, published online on 2 October 2015 as doi:10.1130/GES01144.1

Banda Terrane Banda Orogen Australian affinity sional limestones (Figs. 2 and 3A). Ironstone and claystone nodules are com­
(Banda Arc affinity) Sequence (* = Gondwana mon in the shales. Some fossiliferous calcarenites and limestones are also
Sequence) present, containing plentiful crinoids and ammonites. Rare volcanic breccias
Coral Terraces, Alluvium (near Tuquetti; towns referenced found in Fig. 4) and basalt layers are also

Q
(Qt, Qal) observed within the Cribas Formation. The Atahoc Formation presents very
similar lithologies, with black shales and silty shales containing common iron­

Plio
Viqueque Sequence
stone and claystone nodules and occasional siltstones and sandstones. The
Manamas Fm. (MPlv)
amygdaloidal basalt used by Audley-Charles (1968) as the stratigraphic contact

Mio
(not mapped)
between the Upper Permian Cribas and Lower Permian Atahoc formations is
Bobonaro rarely exposed outside of the type location. It is likely this basalt covered lim­
Barique Fm.

Ol
Mélange
(not mapped) ited map extent in its original depositional environment in the Permian com­
(Mb)
pared to the widespread occurrence of the clastic units. We therefore use the

E
Dartollu Ls. (PaEd)
convention of referring to the Atahoc and Cribas together simply as the Cribas
Kolbano Sequence

Cretaceous Pa
Palelo Group (KPap) (K-Mk) Formation, with a mapped thickness of 1 km.

Lolotoi Complex
(Kl, KPbu) Maubisse Formation

The Maubisse Formation was described by Audley-Charles (1968) as a

Jurassic

900-m-thick unit of massive fossiliferous limestones weathering dark red, as

Wailuli Fm.* well as thick successions of mafic extrusive rocks. The Maubisse Formation
(TRJw) is mainly Permian in age (Charlton et al., 2002), with a few sections dated as
Latest Carboniferous (Davydov et al., 2013, 2014). We find the Maubisse For­
mation to consist of massive gray limestone weathering dark red, containing

Cablac Fm.*
Babulu Fm.* plentiful ammonites, crinoids, and other fossils and interbedded with thick
Triassic

(TRc)
Aitutu Fm.* basalts and mafic volcaniclastics (Fig. 3B). Portions of the Maubisse Forma­
Niof Fm.* tion contain shale and silty shale usually weathering brown to red. Although
(TRgu) originally identified as an allochthonous unit (Audley-Charles, 1965), Charlton
et al. (2002) conclude that the Maubisse Formation was deposited on shallow

Aileu Complex

Maubisse Fm.*
Cribas Fm.* horst blocks of Australia roughly contemporaneously with deposition of the

(Pahg, Pas)
Permian

Atahoc and Cribas formations in the deeper grabens. This lateral relationship

(Pm)
Atahoc Fm.* in the original depositional environment is further supported by our observa­
(Pc) tion of occasional 20-cm-thick red-weathering fossiliferous limestones within
the lower Cribas Formation near Tuquetti interbedded with shale containing
Figure 2. Tectonostratigraphy of Timor-Leste. Units belonging to the Gondwana Sequence ironstone nodules.
are indicated by an asterisk. The Bobonaro mélange formed during orogenesis in the late
Miocene, but its matrix is sourced from the Wailuli Formation, and it is most commonly found
in a tectonostratigraphic position above the Gondwana Sequence duplex. Units are colored
consistently with the map and cross sections. Map unit labels are included in parentheses. Aileu Complex

The Aileu Complex has been previously described as a wide metamorphic

Permian Cribas and Atahoc Formations belt with slates, phyllites, metavolcanics, quartzites, marbles, and amphibo­
lites (Audley-Charles, 1968; Berry and Grady, 1981; Charlton et al., 2002). A
Audley-Charles (1968) defined the Cribas and Atahoc formations as a Lower ­Permian age is attributed to the sedimentary protoliths of the unit based on
to Upper Permian succession of Australian-affinity units. Both formations have lightly metamorphosed fossil beds (Audley-Charles, 1968). Although origi­
been interpreted as deposits within Australian intracratonic rift basins (Bird nally identified as allochthonous (Audley-Charles, 1968), Prasetyadi and Harris
and Cook, 1991). We find the Cribas Formation to contain black shales and (1996) propose the para-autochthonous Cribas and Maubisse formations as
brown siltstones, with medium- to thick-bedded coarse calcarenites and occa­ protoliths of the Aileu based on similarities in lithology and fossil content. As

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 4

 Research Paper
Geosphere, published online on 2 October 2015 as doi:10.1130/GES01144.1

A B
SW NE

D
SE NW
Figure 3. Field photographs of select
stratigraphic units. (A) Cribas Formation
between Aituto and Same. (B) Boulder of

C
Maubisse Formation south of the town
of Maubisse. (C) Aitutu Formation south of
Lei. (D) Lolotoi Complex east of Fahilacor.
N S

discussed in the previous section on Geologic Setting, Aileu high-grade units the slate belt extending south of Aileu and Letefoho (Fig. 4). We find that the
contain detrital zircon ages of ca. 290 Ma, suggesting these sediments were Aileu high-grade belt exposes phyllite west of and into Dili, and amphibolite,
sourced from the Sula Spur (Ely et al., 2014), similar to 254–358 Ma detrital schist, and marble to the east of Dili. Occasional gabbros with intrusive con­
zircons in Gondwana Sequence units (Zobell, 2007). The Aileu high-grade belt tacts are found along the full length of the high-grade belt close to the north
may therefore be a separate unit that collided with the Banda forearc prior to coast. A body of peridotite is observed on the north coast of the Aileu high-
orogenesis at Timor (Ely et al., 2014), or it may have been part of the d
­ istal-most grade belt close to Hilimanu, described in more detail by Berry (1981), Harris
Australian margin during earliest orogenesis at Timor. and Long (2000), and Falloon et al. (2006). The presence of gabbro intrusions
As in Tate et al. (2014), we use the division between the Aileu slate belt and peridotite bodies within the Aileu high-grade belt supports the interpreta­
and the Aileu high-grade belt. The border between the two units is just south tion that this unit was originally located close to the ocean-continent transition.
of Bazartete and Dare, with the high-grade belt following the north coast and The Aileu slate belt consists largely of slate with occasional quartzite beds,

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 5

 Research Paper
Geosphere, published online on 2 October 2015 as doi:10.1130/GES01144.1
125°15′E 125°30′E 125°45′E 126°0′E
35

Structural Map of Central Timor-Leste

69 47

55 46
40
8°30′S 45 47 Mb 8°30′S
76 22

Tate, G. W., N. McQuarrie, D. J. J. Van Hinsbergen, 17

Manatuto
20
46
51

R. Bakker, R. Harris, and H. Jiang (2015),

77
27 33 26
Pahg 34

Australia going down under: Quantifying continental

59 12 Laleia
Metinaro 42
Hera 45 51 TRJw
43 64

subduction during arc-continent accretion in Timor-Leste 39

DILI 19
Laclo
27
52
Fig 7A
62
37 54 62
36 39 52 47 18
31 32 36 80 84 32 47 37 14
64 45
75 16 29 17 35
31 Fig 6 53
15 36 35
15 44 5539 39 23 30 46
Liquica Pahg Dare 51
39 42 45 70 47
17 31 24 8 49 4333 62
33
TRgu 37 32
53 24 31 37
22 37 46
42 26 35 12 30 Cairui
Maubara 25 24 32 52 40 32
16 53 7 Mb 77 48
46 27 10 Remexio TRgu 82 67 41
19 22 18 28 38 25 Raibu 32
18 30 9 47 27 37 68 50 18 36
26 43 42 36 31 61 33 47 38
22 30 20 55 Mb
19 29 13 15 22 59 41 71
17 23 31 17 82 32 60 46
Bazartete 37 42
Pahg 17 14 26 29 21 Pc 37 29 39
21 9 13 67 39 47
17 18 31 43 65 65
31 20 47 90 54 64 72
88 11 49 46 39
22 27 29 25 34 46
21 28 25 36 4982 35
Pas 65 Mb 35
21 16 33 29 31 39 9
11 22 37 48 56 36 33 40
30 28 23 Fahilacor 44 21
15 12 22 Pc 29
11 34 44
25 27
30 12
33
40 27 18 23 24 27 37 39
22 Railaco 25 40
51 28 16 28 31 55 14 24 35 17 33
30 37 24
36 34 17 16 16 25 37 53
34 35 23 TRgu 33 Cribas 39
50 55 25 70 TRJw 49
30 26 6 Mb 29 14 36 34 65
47 42
17 28 44 34 31 50 14
16 31 58 30 39 42 28 Tuquetti
47 53 23 47
17 48 46 39 41 39 36 30 Weladada
22 23 Pas 35 28 34 28 42
44 35 48 27 16 20 36 TRgu 35
54 32 84
34
17 52 57 19 27 39 22 55 28
20 11 27 34
16 43
7 Liquidoe 17 28
15 65 77 Kl 25 27
Pas Gleno 50 33 21 24 46 23 54
Pc 29 39 55
43 Aileu 70 52 42
34
26
30 73 66 42
31 15 26
16 46 21 TRgu 56
53
29 79 64 8
23 52 31 55 32 20
38
51 39 49
16 27 45 28 Laclubar 57
41 Pm 41 48 24 21
48 61
8°45′S 24 48 35 31 26 17 15 52 32 67 38 32 Lei 46
14
46 8°45′S
Ermera 48 55 27 18 34
42 32 TRJw 46
32 TRgu
34 45 70 65 63
22
31
29 56
49
21 PaEd Fig 7B
18 33
44 37 21
35 14 14
40 TRgu 30
22 22
Atabae 39 13 42
39 44 29 41
23 20 54
16 46 58 56
31 38 29 23 30 33 Mb
40 18
54 15
42 56 54
Cross Section Lines Unit 55 31 47 Pc 31 55
49 30 50
35 46 20 36
64 84 Pc
Hatolia 22
National Capital Qal Quat. alluvium 41
15
31 32 33 66 50 44 28
33 56 32 25 25 24
17 25 90
83 24 22 18
District Capital Qt Quat. terrace 23 38 35 46 50 Mb
35 40 Turiscai TRc 27
26 30 50 80 30
32 28 17 30
Town MPlv Viqueque 32 19 Maubisse 80 31
Letefoho 21 30 35
60 37 13 23
Village 26 TRgu 12
23 16 37 43 54 60 Barique
Mb Bobonaro 17 39
86 36 15 50 66 31
Bedding Strike/Dip 52 29 39 52
Pm 50 72
PaEd Dartollu 23
24 36
TRJw Pc Soibada 40 12
43
Foliation Strike/Dip 34 68
20 40 20
KPap 28 39
Palelo 36
Major Road 20 1226 50
40
Minor Road KPbu Banda Undiff. Marco 41 16 37 37 35
80 TRgu KPbu
Track 13
Kl Lolotoi 21 59 32 54
18 26 33
River
20 28 28 46 30
K-Mk Kolbano Hatobuilico Mb
85 Kl
Geologic Lines 71
Aituto 38 Fig 7C Mb
contact TRJw Wailuli Manehat
TRJw 27 64 Pc
14 TRgu 36
contact-uncertain 49 Pc 65
TRc Cablac 47 54
20 16
contact-questionable Atsabe 24 66 42
TRgu TR Gondwana
Undiff. 36 43 47 45
thrust fault 46
32 44
Pc Cribas Pc 34
thrust-uncertain 35
86
52 23
thrust-buried Pm 46 80 TRc 34 20 13
Maubisse 45 TRgu 42
63 84 34
40 32
66 48
normal fault Pas Aileu slate 48 40 TRgu
KPap 17
21 53
40 14
33 32 Natarbora
Pahg Aileu high-grade
normal-uncertain 15 TRgu
58 Mb
Ainaro 35 65
anticline Maliana
80 Same 22
syncline
9°0′S overturned anticline
57 9°0′S
MPlv
31
overturned syncline
40
Qal Alas
plunging anticline TRJw Weberek
Welalulun
plunging syncline K-Mk
Bobonaro 25 K-Mk
double-plunging anticline
10 62
Mb Qal
TRJw
51

MPlv 20 K-Mk
Qal

8°S
K-Mk
Mb
Feriksare
68 55

Hato-Udo

9°S Cassa 37
34
Qt 52 18
34 57
33
42 TRJw
Inset Legend Zumalai 42
Pc
Betano
Lolotoi Cross Section Lines TRgu
63
Map Area 77

10°S Topography/Bathymetry (m) Qal

High : 2986
0
Low : –5285 0 10 20 40
Fatolulik
124°E 125°E 126°E 127°E Km
Maukatar

125°15′E 125°30′E Western 125°45′E 126°0′E Eastern

Cross-Section Cross-Section

Figure 4. Structural map of central Timor-Leste. Location of Figure 6 indicated in dashed white. Bedding strike and dip data used in Figures 7A–7C indicated by dashed gray polygons.

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 6

 Research Paper
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transitioning from lowest grade metamorphism in the south to highest grade formation comprises many of the “Fatus” found across the island, which are
in the north. The southern portion of the Aileu slate belt on the road between isolated blocks of massive limestone several km in map extent with precip­
the towns of Aileu and Maubisse bears strong lithologic similarity to both the itous cliffs on every side. Originally dated as Miocene (and thus part of the
Maubisse and Cribas formations, exposing mildly metamorphosed red-weath­ Banda allochthon) (Audley-Charles, 1968), Haig et al. (2007) showed that the
ering fossiliferous limestones and interbedded metavolcanics along the road Cablac Formation is actually Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic (and thus part of
and a weakly metamorphosed sequence of black shales, ironstone nodules, the para-autochthonous Gondwana Sequence).
and volcaniclastics just west of the road.

Wailuli Formation
Aitutu Formation
The Wailuli Formation was defined by Audley-Charles (1968) as a succes­
Audley-Charles (1968) described the Aitutu Formation as being dominated sion of blue-gray marls, micaceous shales, and some calcilutites with pebble
by dense, very fine calcilutite and locally thin interbedded shales and calcare­ conglomerates at the top of the unit. Estimated thickness ranges up to 1 km
ous shales. He noted the distinctive character of the Aitutu in outcrop, with the (Audley-Charles, 1968). Dated by Audley-Charles (1968) as Jurassic in age
hard calcilutites forming prominent cliff faces and allowing little vegetation. ­using ammonites and belemnites, Haig and McCartain (2010) use foraminifera
Audley-Charles (1968) also estimated the thickness of the unit as 1 km thick and to revise the age of the unit to Late Triassic to Jurassic. We observe the Wailuli
identified it as Triassic in age, unconformably deposited on the Permian Cribas Formation as fissile dark-gray shale weathering tan with intermittent siltstones
Formation. We observe the Aitutu as containing consistently 10–15-cm-thick and fine sandstones. Hillslopes of the Wailuli Formation commonly exhibit
gray limestone beds that weather white with 5–10-cm-thick interbeds of shale popcorn weathering. The stratigraphic transition from the Aitutu Formation to
(Fig. 3C). Limestone beds are usually free of macrofossils. Mapped thicknesses the Wailuli Formation is marked by five to ten 5-cm-thick gray calcarenites with
agree with the estimated thickness of 1 km by Audley-Charles (1968). fine tan shales interbedded, as exemplified just east of the town of Laclubar
(Fig. 4).

Niof and Babulu Formations

Kolbano Sequence
Contemporaneous with the Aitutu yet more prevalent in Indonesian West
Timor are the Lower Triassic Niof and Upper Triassic Babulu Formations (Bird The Australian passive margin sequence, the Kolbano Sequence, is domi­
and Cook, 1991; Charlton et al., 2009). The lower half of the Niof Formation nated by massive calcilutites and also includes members of shales, cherts,
contains dark-gray shales with minor siltstones and sandstone, while the upper and sandstones (Rosidi et al., 1979; Sawyer et al., 1993). These units would
half contains red and green silty shales with occasional limestones (Bird and have been deposited within a proto–Banda embayment, the result of Juras­
Cook, 1991). The Babulu Formation is dominated by well-bedded glauconitic sic rifting separating the Sula Spur of western New Guinea from modern
sandstones, with some shales and subordinate limestones (Bird and Cook, northern Australia (Hall, 2002). The best exposure of the Kolbano Sequence
1991). We find the Niof and Babulu formations rarely exposed in our map area, is on the southern coast of West Timor around the town of Kolbano, where
and it appears the Triassic succession in Timor-Leste is dominated by the Aitutu it is found as repeated thrust slices (Charlton et al., 1991; Sawyer et al., 1993;
Formation. The Niof Formation is found just northwest of Cribas and also south ­Harris, 2011). The units are similarly deformed in thrust slices in the Timor
of Laclo; the Niof and Babulu formations are both exposed in a few locations Sea, as visible with seismic data (Charlton et al., 1991; Sani et al., 1995). Simi­
just south of Raibu; and the Babulu Formation is exposed north of Weberek lar exposures of the Kolbano Sequence are found on Rote Island just west of
(Fig. 4). Additionally, the area immediately surrounding the town of Maubisse West Timor (Roosmawati and Harris, 2009). While ages of the full sequence
(identified as Triassic by Haig and McCartain [2010]) could be the Upper Triassic observed in West Timor range from Late Jurassic to early Pliocene (Rosidi
part of the Wailuli Formation or may instead belong to the Niof Formation. et al., 1979; Sawyer et al., 1993), ages in East Timor are predominantly Creta­
ceous (Audley-Charles, 1968), and the youngest member is late Miocene (ca.
9.8 Ma) in age (Keep and Haig, 2010). The stratigraphic thickness of the full
Cablac Formation Kolbano Sequence in Timor-Leste is ~500 m (Haig and McCartain, 2007). In
our map area, we observe Kolbano Sequence units only in sparse outcrops
The Cablac Formation consists of massive white calcilutite that weathers southeast of Same. This region exposes the Cretaceous Wai Bua Formation of
gray (Audley-Charles, 1968). It is observed most prominently at Mount Cablac Audley-Charles (1968), consisting of chalky pink limestone weathering white
just east of Ainaro and is also found in our map area north of Soibada. This and black.

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 7

 Research Paper
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Banda Terrane Banda Orogen Sequence

Lolotoi Complex Roosmawati and Harris (2009) define the Banda Orogen Sequence as con­
sisting of units that have formed or been deposited since the start of collision
Allochthonous units on Timor derived from the Banda forearc can be of the continental margin with the Banda forearc at Timor.
divided into metamorphic forearc basement and the overlying sedimentary
and volcanic cover units (Harris, 2006). The metamorphic forearc basement,
known in East Timor as the Lolotoi Complex (Audley-Charles, 1968), was Bobonaro Mélange
described by Standley and Harris (2009) to contain greenschist- to amphibo­
lite-facies metasediments and meta-igneous units including graphitic phyl­ The Bobonaro mélange is a tectonic mélange found throughout Timor in
lite, garnet-bearing quartz-mica schist, and amphibolite gneiss. We observe structural contact above units of Australian affinity and below the Banda Terrane
the Lolotoi Complex as heavily chloritized pelites, basalts, and volcaniclas­ (Harris et al., 1998). Originally identified as an olistostrome (­Audley-Charles,
tics ranging from greenschist to amphibolite facies (Fig. 3D). Although some 1968), Harris et al. (1998) interpreted this unit as a tectonic mélange associ­
authors have suggested that the Lolotoi Complex is Australian basement ated with the obduction of the Banda forearc onto the Australian margin. The
(Charlton, 2002) or more strongly metamorphosed Aileu Complex (Kaneko Bobonaro mélange contains blocks of all of the stratigraphic units on Timor,
et al., 2007), young detrital zircons (<40 Ma) found within the Lolotoi Com­ as well as serpentinites and metaigneous rocks, surrounded by a clay matrix
plex (Harris, 2006; Standley and Harris, 2009) confirm earlier hypotheses sourced mostly from the Wailuli Formation (Harris et al., 1998). The Bobonaro
(Audley-Charles, 1968) that the Lolotoi Complex is the allochthonous forearc mélange is interpreted as the source of mud volcanoes in West Timor and is
of the Banda volcanic arc and is of Asian affinity. Previous thermochrono­ visible through seismic data as mud diapirs offshore in the Timor Sea and
logic studies suggest cooling of the Mutis Complex (the Lolotoi Complex the Savu Sea (Harris et al., 1998). Maximum documented thickness is ~2 km
equivalent in West Timor) through hornblende and mica 40Ar/ 39Ar closure (Audley-Charles, 1968). We have observed the Bobonaro mélange in several
between 31 and 38 Ma (Harris, 2006) and cooling of the Lolotoi Complex areas between the Gondwana Sequence units and the Banda Terrane, such as
at the town of Laclubar (Fig. 4) through zircon (U-Th)/He closure at 25.7 ± near the town of Barique, west of the town of Cribas, and around and south of
1.5 Ma (Tate et al., 2014). This cooling history, coupled with the presence Laleia (Fig. 4). In these areas, blocks of the Aitutu Formation, Lolotoi Complex,
of unmetamorphosed sedimentary units deposited unconformably on the and ultramafics are found on the scale of several meters to a few kilometers,
metamorphic Lolotoi Complex prior to the Miocene (Audley-Charles, 1968), surrounded by a fine-grained tan-weathering shale matrix identical in litho­
suggests significant exhumation in this portion of the Banda forearc prior to logic character to the Wailuli Formation. Occasionally 5–10-cm-long gypsum
collision at Timor. crystals are found within the shale matrix. In some locales, such as south
of M
­ aubisse and Turiscai or east of Laclubar, a thin zone of cm- to m-scale
thickness of highly deformed shale is present between the Banda Terrane and
Banda Terrane Sedimentary and Volcanic Cover Units Gondwana Sequence, without the inclusion of exotic blocks.

Also attributed to the Banda Terrane and preserved in unconformable

contact with the Lolotoi Complex are units of Banda forearc sedimentary Viqueque Sequence
and volcanic cover, including the Middle-Upper Cretaceous to Paleocene
Palelo Group, the Paleocene–Eocene Dartollu Limestone, the Eocene–Oligo­ The Viqueque Sequence consists of deepwater sedimentary rocks that
cene Barique Formation, and the Miocene–Pliocene Manamas Formation are the earliest synorogenic deposits on Timor spanning 5.6 to ca. 3 Ma
(Harris, 2006) (Fig. 2). Northeast of the town of Same, we observe the Palelo (­Audley-Charles, 1968, 1986; Haig and McCartain, 2007; Aben et al., 2014; Tate
Group, containing sections of stacked limestone beds, conglomerates, and et al., 2014). This sequence consists of a basal unit of chalky limestones and
occasional basalts. In the area around the town of Barique, the Barique marls, overlain by a coarsening-upward sequence of clays and turbidites (Haig
Formation is exposed as volcanic conglomerates and lavas. The Dartollu and McCartain, 2007; Tate et al., 2014). Basal limestones are deposited uncon­
Limestone is observed in isolated exposures as limestone klippen above the formably on the Bobonaro mélange with no intervening Banda Terrane or Kol­
Gondwana Sequence thrust stack, such as just east of Laclubar. We have bano Sequence in their normal structural position, indicating gravitational slid­
not mapped the Banda Terrane in detail. For instance, around the town of ing and submarine removal of these units prior to basal Viqueque Sequence
Barique, the contact between the Barique Formation and the Lolotoi Com­ deposition (Tate et al., 2014). Our map area contains one basin of the Viqueque
plex is not mapped, and in this location, we indicate only undifferentiated Sequence, located in the southern map area near Same and Alas. We observe
Banda Terrane in Figure 4. the Viqueque Sequence deposited unconformably on the Bobonaro mélange

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 8

 Research Paper
Geosphere, published online on 2 October 2015 as doi:10.1130/GES01144.1

in several locations in this basin. In other locations along the southern margins 2.80–2.81 g/ml gravity liquid made of bromoform and acetone was used in
of the basin, the Viqueque Sequence is observed unconformably over the Kol­ conodont separation for all the samples.
bano Sequence, and in one location east of Same, the northern margin of the Of the samples processed, those containing conodonts are listed in ­Table 1.
basin is observed to overlie units of the Banda Terrane. Other contacts of the These samples contain Middle to Upper Triassic conodonts. One sample con­
Viqueque Sequence with the Banda Terrane are inferred from aerial photogra­ tains the Anisian species Gladigondolella tethydis and Neogondolella sp.,
phy and previous mapping (Audley-Charles, 1968). one contains upper Carnian Carniepigondolella orchardi, one contains lower
­Norian Norigondolella navicular, and three others contain lower Carnian Meta-
polygnathus polygnathiformis (Orchard, 2010). In several locations, these ages
Younger Synorogenics revised our stratigraphic correlation from Permian to Triassic units.

The youngest synorogenic deposits of the Banda Orogen Sequence in­

clude coral terraces and alluvial gravels (Audley-Charles, 1968; Roosmawati STRUCTURAL MAPPING
and Harris, 2009). These units are found most extensively in the southern map
area, with wide coral terrace exposure near Hatudo and extensive Quaternary Previous Mapping
alluvium along the south coast extending farther inland in the southeast map
area than in the southwest. In the north map area, these Quaternary synoro­ Previous mapping in East Timor was largely reconnaissance in nature or
genics are much smaller in extent, with alluvial deposits constrained to river narrow in geographic extent. Mapping by Audley-Charles (1968) has remained
valleys and isolated coral terraces east of Manatuto less than 1 km in diameter. the most frequently used regional map, despite the fact that much of it was
Uranium-series dating of coral terraces by Cox (2009) yielded ages ranging completed as a reconnaissance map or using only aerial photographs. Upon
from 1.85 ± 0.05 ka to 146.7 ± 1.1 ka. Mapping of these terraces and others sug­ inspection, several problems are apparent with the Audley-Charles 1968 map,
gests surface uplift of 0.2–0.5 mm/yr near Manatuto, with faster uplift rates up most notably in relation to the Gondwana Sequence. Audley-Charles (1968)
to 1.6 mm/yr east of our map area, over the past 150–500 k.y. (Cox, 2009). Tate mapped Gondwana Sequence exposures in our eastern map area between
et al. (2014) found that apatite (U-Th)/He ages from Gondwana Sequence units Manatuto and Barique as one double-plunging anticline striking east-west.
at Manatuto suggest similar exhumation rates of 0.28–0.52 mm/yr. As mapped by Audley-Charles (1968), this anticline is cored with Cribas and
Atahoc formations and has dipping limbs exposing the Aitutu and Wailuli for­
mations to the north and south. This is problematic for two reasons: (1) the
CONODONT PALEONTOLOGY strikes of units mapped by Audley-Charles in this area are predominantly NNE,
generally 45°–90° oblique to the trend of mapped contacts; and (2) the ~40° dip
In a number of areas, lithostratigraphic identification of Gondwana Se­ of these measurements, when combined with the ~20-km-wide exposure of
quence units is very difficult. Conodont paleontology was employed where Cribas-Wailuli units, would imply a total stratigraphic Cribas-Wailuli thickness
possible to aid stratigraphic correlation. Several shale and limestone units of ~12 km. This is contrary to the observed thicknesses of 1 km each for the
within the Gondwana Sequence were sampled for conodont paleontology, Cribas, Aitutu, and Wailuli formations both on Timor (Audley-Charles, 1968)
and ages determined with these samples have provided additional constraints and in seismic sections south of the Timor Trough (Snyder et al., 1996). Zobell
for our mapping. Shale samples were broken by sodium hydrosulfite solution (2007) observed units in this region striking predominantly NNE and noted
(10%) and hydrogen peroxide (10%) successively. Limestone samples were repeating lithologies that suggested the Gondwana Sequence is structurally
crushed into 1-cm3-size fragments and dissolved with dilute acetic acid (10%); repeated as a duplex in this region instead of deformed as a single anticline.

TABLE 1. SAMPLES CONTAINING CONODONTS, SPECIES FOUND, AND CORRESPONDING AGES

Sample Latitude Longitude Species Age
TL10-92 –8.525735 126.00511 Metapolygnathus polygnathiformis (one specimen) Lower Carnian
TL10-188 –8.823945 125.707079 Metapolygnathus polygnathiformis (one specimen) Lower Carnian
TL11-02 –8.52022 126.0575 Gladigondolella tethydis, Neogondolella sp. Anisian
TL11-16 –8.614584 126.08451 Metapolygnathus polygnathiformis Lower Carnian
TL11-189 –8.937763 125.905258 Carniepigondolella orchardi Upper Carnian
TL11-379 –8.543646 125.930933 Norigondolella navicula Lower Norian
Note: Ages from Orchard (2010).

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Several other studies were used when completing our mapping. Contacts ology and metamorphic grade. The mapped position of Banda Terrane units
with the Banda Terrane of the massif centered around Laclubar, Turiscai, and relative to deformed Gondwana Sequence units requires a thrust relationship
Same were drawn using mapping by Standley and Harris (2009) and Grady of the Banda Terrane over the Gondwana Sequence, with Bobonaro mélange
and Berry (1977). Foraminiferal dating by Haig and McCartain (2010) was used mapped between them. This broad map pattern is consistent with the interpre­
to identify units in the area around Maubisse as Late Triassic in age and also tation that Timor has developed as a duplex of Australian-affinity units below
to confirm areas we independently mapped as Triassic Gondwana Sequence. an overthrust Banda forearc klippe.
Foraminiferal dating in McCartain et al. (2006) is used to refine our field map­
ping of the Cribas Formation between the towns of Aitutu and Ainaro. Aerial
photography was also used to map the edges of the Lolotoi Complex and for Eastern Map Area
dashed contacts and thrust faults throughout the map.
The eastern map area is dominated by structural repetition of the Gondwana
Sequence between the towns of Manatuto and Natarbora. Thrust faults are ob­
Mapping Methods served repeating the Permian–Triassic stratigraphy, with units striking predom­
inantly NNE and dipping WNW. This thrust repetition is exposed in a window
Field mapping was conducted using 1:50,000-scale topographic maps from through the overthrust Banda klippe, with exposures of the Banda thrust sheet
Bakosurtanal, Indonesia as base maps. Global positioning system was used for both east and west of this window. Field observations provide strong evidence
location in the World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984 reference frame. Mapping of faulting where stratigraphic order is broken (Fig. 5). Significant internal defor­
focused on exposures of the Gondwana Sequence and Aileu Complex, docu­ ma­tion is visible at the base of the Cribas Formation proximal to faults that place
menting structural contacts with units of the Banda Terrane but few charac­ Cribas over Aitutu. In these locations, shale and siltstone beds are heavily folded
teristics within the Banda units. Each region of focus was mapped as follows: and limestone beds within the Cribas Formation are commonly boudinaged.
(1) The eastern map area (the district of Manatuto) was mapped almost entirely Deformation within the Aitutu Formation near faults is also apparent, with beds
using hikes through rivers, with exposure varying from continuous to outcrops dipping opposite to the regional orientation within ~100 m of the fault location
every few hundred meters. Observations were also taken every few hundred (forming apparent footwall synclines) or extensive chevron folding of limestone
meters where road cuts were available on the road from Manatuto to Natar­ beds near Cairui and Manehat. A hot spring including oil seepage is coincident
bora and alongside roads to Laclubar, Soibada, and Barique. (2) Mapping in with the Aitutu-over-Aitutu thrust fault just north of Weberek.
the ­Ainaro-Maubisse-Turiscai area (northern Ainaro district) was primarily con­ This area was previously mapped as a double-plunging anticline striking
ducted using observations at road cuts every few hundred meters. River tra­ east-west (Audley-Charles, 1968). Our observed strikes and dips are con­
verses in the Maubisse area were used as well, with exposure varying from sistent with those indicated by Audley-Charles (1968), although as we have
continuous to outcrops every few hundred meters. (3) Mapping along the south noted above, these strikes are nearly perpendicular to mapped contacts by
coast near Same, Alas, and Hatudo (southern Ainaro and southern Manufahi dis­ Audley-Charles (1968). In the location of the previously mapped Permian-cored
tricts) was conducted almost entirely using river traverses. Low relief and dense anticline at the town of Cribas (Audley-Charles, 1968), we find an anticline of
vegetation led to limited exposure, with exposure intervals every few hundred the Cribas Formation in the hanging wall of a fault and Aitutu Formation in the
meters at best. (4) Mapping in the northern map area (Dili, Aileu, Liquiçá, and footwall that is south-dipping within 100 m of the fault. This forms an apparent
Ermera districts) was conducted almost entirely using the relatively extensive hanging-wall anticline–footwall syncline pair; while farther south, the Aitutu
road network. Observations were taken every few hundred meters. River hikes Formation returns to a northwest dip, and the Cribas Formation can be found
supplemented our observations near Dili and southwest of Aileu, with exposure repeated again stratigraphically below that same exposure of the Aitutu.
varying from continuous to outcrops every few hundred meters. Also within the eastern half of our map area but just northwest of the central
Banda klippe, thrust repetition of Australian-affinity units is documented near
the town of Fahilacor (detail in Fig. 6). Exposure of the Cribas and Aitutu forma­
New Mapping tions was previously undocumented near Fahilacor, where only undifferenti­
ated Gondwana Sequence (Grady and Berry, 1977) or a triple-junction between
Our new structural map of central East Timor is presented in Figure 4. Di­ Maubisse Formation, Aileu Complex, and Lolotoi Complex (Audley-Charles,
rectly apparent in our new mapping is the structural repetition of Gondwana 1968) was mapped previously. We map one thrust of Cribas Formation over
Sequence units. The Permian–Triassic stratigraphy of the Gondwana Sequence Aitutu Formation, with extensive chevron folding within the Aitutu Formation
is repeated by a series of thrust faults in both the eastern and western map in the footwall of this fault (Fig. 5C) and a hot spring and hydrothermal alter­
area. Additional deformation within Australian-affinity units is documented in ation of the Aitutu Formation coincident with the fault location. The Maubisse
the Aileu Complex, with several mapped thrusts placed at boundaries of lith­ Formation is thrust over both the Cribas and Aitutu formations, and the Aileu

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 10

 Research Paper
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Figure 5. Field examples of structural trends within the Gondwana Sequence duplex. (A) Thrust-
ing of Permian Cribas Formation (Pc) over Triassic Aitutu Formation (TRa) south of the town of A
Tuquetti. (B) South-vergent folds in the lower Cribas Formation southwest of the town of Cribas.
(C) Chevron folds in the Aitutu Formation within the footwall of a Maubisse-over-Aitutu thrust SE NW
fault south of Fahilacor.

Complex and Lolotoi Complex are thrust over the Cribas, Aitutu, and Maubisse Pc
formations. The structural relation between the Lolotoi and Aileu complexes is
not observed at the surface. TRa
Our mapping also indicates key systematic shifts in the regional trends of
the repeated units in the eastern window. First, we note that on the eastern
and southwestern ends of the eastern window (as well as outside the eastern
window) the dominant strike of Gondwana Sequence units is ENE (Figs. 7A
and 7C), whereas between Soibada and Cribas, this strike shifts to NNE (Fig.
7B). Second, units dip much more steeply near Soibada and Cribas (dips ~45°;
see Fig. 7B) compared to southern areas west of Manehat (scattered dips ap­ B
proximating 25°; see Fig. 7C). Third, the repeated package is folded just north
N S
of Barique, with an anticline folding one of the thrusts of Cribas Formation over
­Aitutu Formation. This folded thrust fault and change in the dip of repeated units
suggest a late stage of deformation that has refolded the repeated units, which
could be the same mechanism that controls the shift from ENE to NNE strikes.
Map patterns in the eastern map area are interpreted to represent duplexing
of the Permian and Triassic Gondwana Sequence stratigraphy below the over­
thrust Banda forearc. For example, Figure 6 shows the fault contact between
the Lolotoi Complex and Gondwana Sequence to the south, east, and northeast
of Fahilacor approximately following topographic contours. Mapped windows
through the Lolotoi Complex are separated by as little 2.5–5 km. These obser­
vations require the mapped faults on all sides of the Lolotoi Complex to be low
angle and merge at a shallow depth, suggesting a single low-angle thrust below
what we map as the Lolotoi klippe. Additionally, Figures 4 and 6 show Gond­
wana Sequence units to the east of Laclubar dipping 32°–73° west and northwest
toward Lolotoi Complex exposures, suggesting a position structurally below the
C
Lolotoi Complex with a much steeper Lolotoi over Gondwana Sequence rela­ E W
tionship. We interpret this steeply west- and northwest-dipping fault to be an
originally low-angle thrust that has been rotated to a steep angle during folding
of the Banda forearc nappe due to duplexing of the Gondwana Sequence.
The shifting trends of units and folded faults within the duplex in the east­
ern window suggest a late stage of deformation after initial duplex develop­
ment. We suggest that the southern transition from regions of the duplex dip­
ping 45° to regions dipping 25° and the fold of the duplex fault near Barique are
coincident with a ramp-flat transition where the duplex is moving over a sub­
surface ramp. The shift in duplex strike from ENE to NNE may either ­represent
(1) motion of a duplex of constant thickness over an oblique segment of this
ramp or (2) the lateral margin of an antiformal stack that has thrust over a
straight ramp. Either of these possibilities would allow for duplexed units to
strike NNE despite a constant transport direction to the SSE.

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 11

 Research Paper
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125°45′E 125°50′E 125°55′E

64 53
TR Gondwana TRJw
400 m contours TRgu
Undiff. 36 53
8°35′S 35 8°35′S
55 39 23 30
Mb Bobonaro Pc Cribas 51
39
45
Kl Lolotoi Pm Maubisse 8 49
37 TRgu
33
TRJw Wailuli Pas Aileu slate

Mb

25
27 32
20
22 82

0m
42

40
29 21
400
400m
40
00m 37 39
800
0m 64
47 90
Pas 49 54
46
34
36 49 82 35
65 Pc

0m
31 Fahilacor 56

40
Mb
48 0m
44 40

8°40′S 8°40′S
33
80
8
800
0 m
40
31 55
16
23
25 30 14 70 TRJw

0m
28 44

800
TRgu

80
34 Mb
31 42 5258 30 47
46 39 41 39
36 TRgu Kl
32
00m
40
40 m

27
57 19
11
Pm 88 28
17 47 77

0mm
Pc
21 24

00
46

20
80
800
00m
00m
00m

12
1200m
200m
00
800

0
53 66

120
15
73 46
46
55
5
0 2.5 5 31
57 TRJw TRgu
Km Laclubar 41
8°45′S 61 38 32 8°45′S
125°45′E 125°50′E 125°55′E
Figure 6. Detailed structural map of Fahilacor area. Map symbols used as in Figure 4. Elevation contours with 400 m contour interval are included.

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 Research Paper
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N N

A B

Figure 7. Equal-area stereonet plots of

poles to bedding planes for Permian,
Triassic, and Jurassic Gondwana Se-
quence units in three regions in the
eastern map area; locations marked in
Figure 4. (A) Tuquetti-Raibu area, n = 142;
N
(B)  ­Soibada-Lei area, n = 101; and (C) area
west of Manehat, n = 49. Contouring with
C Kamb method, interval = 2 sigma and sig-
nificance = 3 sigma. Stereonet 9 was used
to create these plots (Allmendinger et al.,
2013; Cardozo and Allmendinger, 2013).

The map pattern showing terminations of stratigraphic contacts and duplex Central Western and Southwestern Map Area
thrusts against Banda klippen and the Bobonaro mélange suggests significant
subduction erosion of the Gondwana duplex along the thrust boundary between The central western map area between Atsabe and Turiscai is dominated
that duplex and the Banda Terrane. This subduction erosion likely provides the by Gondwana Sequence units at the highest elevations of the island (peaking
blocks of Gondwana Sequence units present within the Bobonaro mélange. at over 2900 m). The WSW to ENE trend of exposed Gondwana Sequence
Erosion of duplex faults along the upper décollement also implies some out-of-­ rocks from the towns of Ainaro to Aituto to Turiscai was previously mapped
sequence motion along the upper décollement since duplex formation. as a single anticline exposing only the Aitutu Formation at the s­urface

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 13

 Research Paper
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(­Audley-Charles, 1968). Our map pattern near Aituto is also dominated by an Maubisse limestones and several protoliths similar to the Cribas Formation
anticline of Aitutu Formation, although folds in the southern limb of this anti­ (black shales, iron siltstones, red and green volcaniclastics, and occasional
cline expose the Cribas Formation that is stratigraphically below this Aitutu sandstones). Two other thrust faults are mapped at transitions of metamor­
Formation. Exposure of the Cribas Formation in the valley south of the town phic grade. The first is between greenschist- to amphibolite-grade Aileu high-
of Aituto is confirmed by previous dating of foraminifera (McCartain et al., grade belt units along the north coast and the lower-grade Aileu slate belt,
2006). We also map a thrust fault on the north limb of this anticline just south a fault that runs 2 km south of Dare. The second is 3 km south of Gleno,
of the town of Maubisse, which exposes a portion of the Cribas Formation in with higher-grade slates containing visible micas thrust over very lightly
its hanging wall. The broad region of high topography and exposed Gond­ metamorphosed slates to the south. Other faults have been difficult to map
wana Sequence rocks is much wider than any single structure (individual within the Aileu slate belt due to the fairly monotonous lithologies of slate
anti­clines or faults) and is associated with young (ca. 2 Ma) apatite (U-Th)/He and occasional quartzite. Instead, broad patterns of anticlines and synclines
cooling ages (Tate et al., 2014). Along the northern boundary of the Aitutu are evident.
anti­cline, a thrust fault is mapped that places the Maubisse Formation over This map pattern is suggestive of thrust stacking within the Aileu Com­
the Aitutu Formation. The thrust at the base of the Maubisse Formation is plex. The spacing between mapped thrusts suggests that either a thicker
most clearly shown to have a low angle near the town of Maubisse, where this stratigraphic package is repeated in the Aileu Complex than in the unmeta­
fault approxi­mately follows topography above units dated as Triassic around morphosed Gondwana Sequence or that some thrusts marking stratigraphic
the town of Maubisse proper (Haig and McCartain 2010). Additionally, a low-­ repetition remain unmapped. A broad pattern of folding is found in portions
angle thrust fault that dips north and has a top to the south displacement was of the Aileu Complex, for instance around the towns of Remexio and Aileu
mapped between Maubisse Formation limestones and the underlying Wailui (Fig. 4). These broad folds may have formed during thrust repetition of the
Formation just east of Atsabe. This fault is exposed in several locations on slate belt or during a later stage of subsurface deformation.
both sides of the river valley. A separate low-angle thrust is mapped along the
road between the towns of Aileu and Maubisse that places the Aileu slate belt
above the Maubisse Formation. BALANCED CROSS SECTIONS
The Cribas and Aitutu formations are also mapped near the south coast
(south of Hatudo), where they were not previously documented. Audley-Charles Methods
(1968) mapped scattered exposures of the Wailuli Formation surrounded by
Bobonaro mélange, while we find an east-west–striking anticline plunging east Two balanced cross sections (Figs. 8 and 9) were constructed through our
exposing the Cribas, Aitutu, and Wailuli formations at the surface. map area, extending from the Banda arc to the Timor Trough. The western
These areas of the western map area also support the interpretation that section was drawn along the trend of the towns of Liquiçá and Ainaro. The
Permian–Triassic Gondwana Sequence units have developed as a duplex be­ eastern section was drawn parallel to the western section, along the trend of
low the Banda Terrane. This western region appears to expose a shallower Metinaro to Fahilacor and Soibada to west of Natarbora and containing a break
level of the duplex than the eastern map area, because it is dominated by sev­ with an along-strike shift in the section west of Laclubar in the exposure of the
eral large anticlines of the Aitutu Formation, and the stratigraphically deeper Lolotoi Complex. Although oblique to the modern GPS convergence vectors
Cribas Formation is only exposed in a few isolated locations. The restriction of (Fig. 1), both of the cross sections are perpendicular to the structural trend
Maubisse Formation horses to the most northwesterly portions of the Gond­ of units they intersect on the surface as well as to the Timor Trough. Addi­
wana Sequence duplex supports the interpretation that this unit was restricted tionally, although duplexed units just east of the eastern section near Soibada
to the more northerly portions of the pre-collisional margin. are oblique to the section trend, we have noted above that this NNE strike is
likely due to a subsurface ramp, whereas motion of material likely remains
consistently SSE. Original sections were drawn by hand at a scale of 1:200,000.
Northwest Map Area: Aileu Complex Surface exposure is constrained by map patterns and measured strike and
dip data, though small-scale folding and faulting within units (such as the
Our mapping also documents and supports previous interpretations of in­ ­meter-scale deformation common near duplex faults) is not represented. Line
ternal deformation within the Aileu Complex (Berry and Grady, 1981; Praset­ length of each thrust sheet and horse was matched on the deformed and re­
yadi and Harris, 1996). However, our main goal was not to describe the pen­ stored cross sections. The restored lengths of the Cribas and Aitutu formations
etrative deformation but to document large-scale map structures that repeat are the same as the restored length of the Kolbano Sequence, whereas the
stratigraphy. A thrust fault is mapped in the southern Aileu slate belt 3 km Maubisse Formation and Aileu Complex restore as more distal units on the
south of the town of Aileu where slates with rare quartzites are thrust over Australian margin. Faulting and folding were drawn using the kink methods
lower-grade slates interbedded with lightly metamorphosed fossiliferous of Suppe (1983).

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 Research Paper
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NW Eastern (Metinaro-Soibada) Section SE

10 10

8 8

6 6

4 4

Northern Southern
TRgu
2 Shore Shore 2

Elevation (km)

Elevation (km)
Qal
0 Pc Kl 0
Pas
Pahg TRgu Qal
TRgu MPlv
Pc TRgu
–2 Mb/TRJw Pc TRgu TRgu K-Mk –2

Pc u
Kl Pc

g
Pc

TR
Pc TRJw

gu
–4 TRgu Mb/TRJw –4

TR

gu

Pc u
TRgu

Pc

g
Pc

TR

TR
TRgu TRgu

Pc
TRgu Pc
TRgu TRgu TRgu
–6
TRgu TRgu Pc TRgu Pc Pc –6
TRgu Pc
Pc
TRgu TRgu
Pc
Pc
Kl Pc Pc TRgu Pc
Pc
–8 Pc –8
Kl Pc

–10 –10

–12 –12

–14 –14

10

Elevation (km)
0

K-Mk –2

TRJw
–4
TRgu
Pc
–6

–8

–10

–12

K-Mk
–14
TRJw
TRgu
Pc

Pas
Pahg

Kl
Kl
Kl Kl

Figure 8. Eastern balanced cross section and restored section. No vertical exaggeration. Bold lines indicate faults; thin lines indicate stratigraphic contacts. Upper section: deformed section. Lower
three sections: broken restored section (lowest is northwestern part of restored section; middle is central part of restored section; upper is southeastern part of restored section). In deformed
section, section break at red cross.

Cross Section Constraints wedge of mostly sedimentary units at the highest point of the orogen is from
Shulgin et al. (2009), who use seismic refraction to model a 10–12 km package
Thicknesses for each unit correspond to those discussed above: 1 km each of sedimentary densities just to the west of the island of Savu. The surface
for the Maubisse, Cribas, and Aitutu formations, and 0.5 km for the Kolbano geol­ogy of Savu is a narrow fold-thrust belt of Gondwana Sequence units simi­
Sequence. Difficulty constraining stratigraphic repetition in the Aileu Complex lar to those mapped on Timor (Harris et al., 2009). The agreement between the
leads us to use maximum thicknesses for Aileu horses. No attempt is made to change in Moho depth and the thickness estimate for the wedge of sedimen­
preserve the thickness of the Wailuli Formation in these cross sections because tary units together (1) suggest that Australian basement rocks below Permian
it acts as the matrix of the Bobonaro mélange, which has highly variable thick­ strata are not incorporated within the orogen and (2) constrain our use of a 2°
ness and is incorporated within mud volcanoes both onshore and offshore décollement in these cross sections. Our wedge geometry also incorporates
(Harris et al., 1998). backthrusting along the northern side of Timor, supported both by seismic
Orogenic wedge geometry is constrained by the topographic and bathy­ sections just east of Timor (Snyder et al., 1996) and by wells on the northern
metric surface and the shape of the basal décollement. Topography and side of Savu just west of Timor (Harris, 2011).
bathym­etry data were obtained from Smith and Sandwell (1997). The geom­ Thermochronologic constraints for the timing of deformation on Timor
etry of deformation within ~10 km of the Timor Trough and the thickness of are incorporated into the sequence of deformation implied by these cross
sedimentary units on the Australian shelf (~3.3 km) is based on seismic and sections. On the southern slopes of the eastern window in the same loca­
well data presented in Snyder et al. (1996). Moho depth is constrained to be tion as the folded duplex thrust fault north of Barique, apatite (U-Th)/He data
35–40 km below the Australian shelf and 45–50 km below Timor based on transition from northwest to southeast from 2.0 ± 0.6 Ma to 4.9 ± 0.9 Ma
seismic reflection data (Richardson and Blundell, 1996). The thickness of the and indicate a spatial change in exhumation rate (Tate et al., 2014). A sharp

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 15

 Research Paper
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NW Western (Liquica-Ainaro) Section SE

10 10

8 8

6 6
Kl
4 Kl TRgu Southern 4
Shore
Northern Kl Mb/TRJw
Pm Mb/TRJw
2 2

Elevation (km)
Shore
Elevation (km)

TRgu Qal Qal

Pas Kl
0 Qal Pc 0
MPlv
Pas
Pahg Pas TRgu Mb/TRJw
TRgu TRgu K-Mk
–2 Pc –2

Pc u
Kl
TRgu

g
Pc Pc

TR
Pc Mb/TRJw TRJw

Pc u
–4 –4

Pc u

Pc u
TRgu

g
TRgu

TR
TR
TRgu

TR
TRgu
Pc TRgu TRgu Pc
TRgu Pc TRgu
TRgu Pc
–6 Pc TRgu Pc –6
Pc TRgu Pc
TRgu Pc
Kl Kl Pc Pc
–8 Kl Pc –8

–10 –10

–12 –12

–14 –14

10

Elevation (km)
0

K-Mk –2

TRJw
–4
TRgu
Pc
–6

–8

–10

–12

–14
K-Mk

TRJw
TRgu
Pc

Pm
Pas

Pas
Pas
Pahg

Kl Kl
Kl Kl
Kl

Figure 9. Western balanced cross section and restored section. No vertical exaggeration. Bold lines indicate faults; thin lines indicate stratigraphic contacts. Upper section: deformed section. Lower
three sections: broken restored section (lowest is northwestern part of restored section; middle is central part of restored section; upper is southeastern part of restored section).

boundary in exhumation magnitude coincides with the thrust separating the Deformation of the Kolbano Sequence is entirely in the foreland. Following
Aileu slate belt and the Maubisse Formation, with significantly more exhu­ sandbox models and cross sections in Harris (2006), a fold-thrust belt of Kol­
mation in the Aileu slate belt as demonstrated by discontinuities in apatite bano Sequence thrust sheets with total length equal to the Cribas-Aitutu du­
and zircon (U-Th)/He (Tate et al., 2014), apatite fission track (Harris et al., 2000; plex was constructed in front of the leading edge of the Banda Terrane klippe
Tate et al., 2014), and vitrinite reflectance (Harris et al., 2000). Additionally, above the Wailuli Formation–Bobonaro mélange upper décollement. In the
a mechanism for exhumation of 2.7–4.6 km of material since 1.5–1.8 Ma is eastern cross section, this Kolbano fold-thrust belt is still buried below Quater­
required in the western Aileu slate belt as indicated by zircon (U-Th)/He data nary alluvium; in between the two cross-section lines, the Kolbano Sequence
(Tate et al., 2014). is exposed and mapped at the surface; and at the western cross section, the
Kolbano Sequence has been eroded from above the Gondwana Sequence
anticline at the south coast. Not only does the map pattern suggest erosion
Cross Section Interpretations of the Kolbano Sequence in the western section south of Hatudo, but apatite
(U-Th)/He data from the Wailuli Formation at this location require removal of
The cross sections presented here (Figs. 8 and 9) follow our map pattern 1–2 km of material (Tate et al., 2014), matching the thickness of the eroded
interpretation that Timor has deformed as a duplex of pre-Jurassic Australian- Kolbano fold-thrust belt drawn in the western section.
affin­ity strata below an overthrust sheet of the Banda forearc. The majority The cross sections presented here highlight locations where Banda Ter­
of the wedge is filled with duplexed Permian–Jurassic stratigraphy, while the rane and Kolbano Sequence units were removed from above the Bobonaro
Wailuli Formation and Bobonaro mélange act as an upper décollement be­ mélange via slumping, exhuming this mélange to the sea floor long before
tween this duplex and the Banda Terrane. emergence of Timor, as suggested by Tate et al. (2014). Those authors note

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 Research Paper
Geosphere, published online on 2 October 2015 as doi:10.1130/GES01144.1

that the Viqueque deepwater synorogenics were unconformably deposited has occurred in the hinterland and less in the foreland and (2) the frontal ramp
directly on the Bobonaro mélange of the upper décollement with neither the within the Permian–Triassic section is not as close to the Timor Trough as in the
Banda Terrane nor the Kolbano Sequence intervening. Tate et al. (2014) there­ seismic section presented by Snyder et al. (1996) to the east of Timor.
fore suggested that duplexing of the Gondwana Sequence caused gravita­
tional sliding (slumping) of the Kolbano Sequence and Banda Terrane along
the Bobonaro mélange, which created the basins that preserve the Viqueque Crustal Shortening Estimates
Sequence today. We similarly incorporate slumping along the north coast of
Timor to accommodate the exhumation of Aileu high-grade units through The two balanced cross sections presented here provide minimum esti­
muscovite 40Ar/ 39Ar closure at 7.1 ± 0.3 Ma before emergence above sea level, mates for upper-crustal shortening during Banda-Australia collision. The
as suggested in Tate et al. (2014). eastern section has an original undeformed length of the Australian margin
A number of geometries have been included in these cross sections to of 374 km, and the Banda Terrane has an undeformed length of 111 km, for a
match thermochronologic constraints from Tate et al. (2014). Out-of-sequence total undeformed length of the section of 485 km. The current deformed length
motion along foreland ramps near the south coast in both the eastern and of the eastern section is 159 km. This yields a minimum shortening estimate
western cross sections move horses of the Cribas-Aitutu duplex over other of 326 km, or 67%, in the eastern section. The western section has an original
horses farther to the foreland, matching patterns of late folding of the duplex undeformed length of the Australian margin of 394 km, and the Banda Terrane
while allowing for a mechanism of cooling through apatite (U-Th)/He closure has an undeformed length of 133 km. The total undeformed length of the oro­
at ca. 2 Ma. The thrust fault between the Aileu slate belt and the Maubisse For­ gen for the western section is therefore 527 km, while the current deformed
mation in the western cross section is drawn as an out-of-sequence thrust with length is 165 km. This yields a minimum shortening estimate of 362 km, or
3.1 km of displacement to follow the observed discontinuity in exhumation 69%, in the western section.
magnitude. Lastly, backthrusting of the Aileu and Cribas-Aitutu duplex over There are several important ways that these cross sections represent mini­
the Banda forearc and subsequent duplexing of the underthrust Banda forearc mum shortening estimates. Several hanging-wall cutoffs have passed through
allows a mechanism for cooling of the Aileu Complex through zircon (U-Th)/He the erosion surface, allowing for the possibility of some undocumented slip.
closure at 1.5–4.4 Ma and for cooling of Gondwana Sequence units near Ainaro However, the ubiquitous presence of Banda Terrane rocks above eroded hang­
through apatite (U-Th)/He closure at 1.8–2.8 Ma. ing-wall cutoffs of the Gondwana Sequence duplex limits undocumented slip
Geometries of the Gondwana Sequence duplex in the southern offshore por­ to a few kilometers. A larger potential source of undocumented shortening in
tion of the section are less constrained than onshore where surface mapping our cross sections is within the Aileu slate and high-grade belts because (1) the
exists. For instance, Figure 10 shows one possible alternative geometry for the difficulty constraining stratigraphic repetition has led us to use thrust sheets
southern offshore portion of the western section. This alternative geometry has of maximum thickness, and (2) internal folding indicates significant ductile
the same shortening amount and undeformed length as the geometry in Figure shortening in the Aileu high-grade belt (Berry and Grady, 1981; Prasetyadi and
9, yet redistributes the shortening for a possible case where (1) more shortening Harris 1996).

Qal Mb/TRJw
K-Mk TRJw

Figure 10. A possible alternative geom­

Pc TRgu
etry of the offshore portion of the western
cross section. Geometry from deformed
section of Figure 9 below and alternative
geometry above. Both geometries have
the same shortening amount and restored
Qal Mb/TRJw margin length. No vertical exaggeration.
K-Mk TRJw Bold lines indicate faults; thin lines indi-
cate stratigraphic contacts.

Pc TRgu

10 km

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 Research Paper
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While these cross sections are broadly similar, a few notable differences ex­ of the Aileu high-grade belt. Ascribing Banda or Sula Spur affinity to the
ist between these two sections separated by only just over 40 km along strike. Aileu high-grade belt would remove only 8 km of continental subduction
Shortening is 36 km larger in the western section, and the original length of the from the eastern section and only 9 km of continental subduction from the
Australian paleomargin is 23 km longer in the western section. These differ­ western section.
ences may in part be due to undocumented shortening in our cross sections as
detailed above. The map pattern, however, does suggest that more shortening
has occurred along the western section than in the east because deeper struc­ Sequence of Deformation
tural levels are exposed on the south coast, and more Banda forearc has been
underthrust exposing a wider Aileu Complex. The sequence of deformation suggested by our cross sections is illus­
Some have suggested that the Aileu high-grade belt along the north coast trated in Figure 11. Muscovite 40Ar/ 39Ar closure at 7.1 ± 0.3 Ma in the Aileu
is part of the Banda forearc (Kaneko et al., 2007) or was accreted to the Banda high-grade belt (Tate et al., 2014) requires burial through generation of a
forearc prior to and separately from collision of Banda with the Australian mar­ structural high and subsequent exhumation within the Aileu high-grade
gin (Audley-Charles, 2011; Ely et al., 2014) and thus does not contribute to Aus­ belt at this time. We show this as the growth of an antiformal stack causing
tralian margin shortening estimates. If this is true, our cross sections would northward slumping. Thus overthrusting of the Banda forearc klippe must be
be drawn without the Aileu high-grade belt as part of the Australian margin, before 7.1 ± 0.3 Ma. The period between 7.1 and 4.5 Ma was dominated by
which would only remove 8 km of shortening in the eastern section and 9 km duplexing of the Aileu slate and Gondwana Sequence units. Tectonic erosion
of shortening in the western section. Our shortening estimates are therefore of Gondwana Sequence horses against the base of the Banda klippe requires
not sensitive to interpretations of the affinity of the Aileu high-grade belt. some late thrusting of the Banda klippe after partial duplex construction,
necessitating some amount of out-of-sequence deformation in the duplex.
Additional out-of-sequence deformation is necessary to thrust Triassic units
Quantifying Continental Subduction at Mount Cablac over the Lolotoi Complex. By 5.5 Ma, the steep sides of
growing duplexes cause slumping of the Kolbano thrust belt away from the
The magnitude of continental subduction can be estimated using bal­ Banda klippe, creating the Viqueque basins (Tate et al., 2014). Backthrusting
anced cross section constraints and can be defined in one of two ways: over part of the Banda forearc likely began ca. 4.5 Ma, corresponding to ear­
(1) all material that has been incorporated into the orogenic wedge can be liest zircon and apatite (U-Th)/He ages (Tate et al., 2014) and emergence of
considered part of the upper plate, and all lower-crustal material that has the island (indicated by lowland pollen within the Viqueque basins) (Nguyen
passed under the deformation front (in our case south of Timor) is defined as et al., 2013). Along the western section, out-of-sequence thrusting along
subducted below the upper plate; or (2) lower-crustal material is defined the Aileu-Maubisse thrust since the start of backthrusting over the Banda
as ­subducted not when it has passed the deformation front but only when it forearc is necessitated by the exhumation boundary observed at this thrust,
has passed beneath the undeformed backstop (in our case north of Timor). as discussed in the Cross Section Constraints section (Tate et al., 2014). We
Because our study seeks primarily to shed light on the geodynamics of sub­ propose that deformation of the Gondwana Sequence duplex shifted some
ducting buoyant continental crust below dense oceanic crust, and that buoy­ of the deformation foreland of the Viqueque basin from 4.5 to 2.0 Ma in re­
ancy inversion takes place not when crust passes the deformation front but sponse to wedge-top sedimentation in the Viqueque basin. This foreland
rather when crust passes below the island arc, we will use the second defini­ propagation of fold-thrust belt deformation in response to wedge-top sed­
tion in our discussion. imentation is consistent with geodynamic models (Fillon et al., 2013) and
The magnitude of Australian pre-Permian basement and mantle litho­ with young, 2.0 Ma to present cooling ages along the southernmost exposed
sphere that has been subducted beyond the undeformed backstop is calcu­ structure along the western section. In addition, duplexing of underthrust
lated by taking the difference between the restored length of the Australian Banda forearc below the Aileu Complex produces zircon (U-Th)/He ages
margin and the current distance from the Timor Trough to the Banda backstop younger than 2.0 Ma (Tate et al., 2014), and motion of the central Gondwana
in the Wetar Strait. For the eastern section, the restored length of the Austra­ Sequence duplex over the foreland ramp to produce young (ca. 2 Ma) apatite
lian margin is 374 km, while the current distance from the deformation front (U-Th)/He ages (Tate et al., 2014).
to the backstop is 159 km, yielding 215 km of continental subduction. For the The sequential reconstruction in Figure 11 provides constraints for vari­
western section, the restored length of the Australian margin is 394 km, while able shortening rates at Timor through time. Forty-six kilometers of shorten­
the current distance from the deformation front to the backstop is 165 km, ing asso­ciated with Banda forearc overthrusting are documented before 7.1 ±
yielding 229 km of continental subduction. 0.3 Ma, with an additional 8 km of shortening at ca. 7.1 Ma associated with
Similar to the effect on shortening magnitude, the magnitude of conti­ Aileu high-grade belt deformation. Shortening of 147 km is documented be­
nental subduction is not highly sensitive to interpretations on the affinity tween 7.1 and 4.5 Ma—a shortening rate of 57 km/m.y. Shortening of 55 km

GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 18

 Research Paper
Geosphere, published online on 2 October 2015 as doi:10.1130/GES01144.1

NW 10 SE

Elevation (km)
0

Restored eastern cross section.

–14

10

Elevation (km)
0

Before 7.1 Ma: Overthrusting of Banda forearc klippe.

–14
46 km of shortening.
10

Elevation (km)
0

7.1 Ma: Antiformal stack formed by internal deformation of high-grade Aileu.

Slumping off of steep north side causes exhumation past muscovite 40Ar/39Ar closure.
–14
8 km of shortening.

10

Elevation (km)
0

7.1 to 4.5 Ma: Duplexing of Aileu slate and much of Gondwana Sequence.
Steep flanks of duplex allow slumping of Kolbano to foreland and formation of Viqueque basin. –14
Out-of-sequence thrusting during duplexing allows erosion of horses along upper decollement and causes thrusting of Cablac over Lolotoi.
147 km shortening in 2.6 m.y., 57 km/m.y. 10

Elevation (km)
0

4.5 to ca. 2.0 Ma: Backthrusting over Banda forearc causes widespread emergence at 4.5 Ma. Earliest zircon and apatite (U-Th)/He closure, lowland pollen in Viqueque basin.
Uplift in Viqueque basin between 3.35 and 3.0 Ma driven by subsurface duplexing, with subsequent duplexing foreland of the basin. –14
55 km shortening in 2.5 m.y., 22 km/m.y.
NW SE
10
10
8

Elevation (km)
4

2.0 Ma to Present: Motion of Gondwana Sequence duplex over foreland ramp.

2

Elevation (km)
0
0
–2

Duplexing of underthrust Banda forearc below Aileu Complex. –4

–6

69 km shortening in 2.0 m.y., 35 km/m.y. –8

–10

–12

–14
–14

Figure 11. Sequential restoration of eastern cross section. No vertical exaggeration. From top: Restored eastern cross section. Before 7.1 Ma: Overthrusting of Banda forearc klippe; 46 km of
shortening. 7.1 Ma: Antiformal stack formed by internal deformation of high-grade Aileu; slumping off of steep north side causes exhumation past muscovite 40Ar/ 39Ar closure; 8 km of shortening.
7.1–4.5 Ma: Duplexing of Aileu slate and much of Gondwana Sequence; steep flanks of duplex allow slumping of Kolbano to foreland and formation of Viqueque basin; out-of-sequence thrusting
during duplexing allows erosion of horses along upper décollement and causes thrusting of Cablac over Lolotoi; 147 km shortening in 2.6 m.y., 57 km/m.y. 4.5 to ca. 2.0 Ma: Backthrusting over
Banda forearc causes widespread emergence at 4.5 Ma; earliest zircon and apatite (U-Th)/He closure, lowland pollen in Viqueque basin; uplift in Viqueque basin between 3.35 and 3.0 Ma driven
by subsurface duplexing, with subsequent duplexing foreland of the basin; 55 km shortening in 2.5 m.y., 22 km/m.y. 2.0 Ma–present: Motion of Gondwana Sequence duplex over foreland ramp;
duplexing of underthrust Banda forearc below Aileu Complex; 69 km shortening in 2.0 m.y., 35 km/m.y.

is documented between 4.5 and ca. 2.0 Ma—a shortening rate of 22 km/m.y. DISCUSSION
Sixty-nine kilometers of shortening are documented from 2.0 Ma to the pres­
ent—a shortening rate of 35 km/m.y. Although this suggests a change in short­ Timing of Initial Collision
ening rate at 2.0 Ma, such a change is not rigorously constrained, because
more foreland shortening of the Gondwana and Kolbano Sequences than is These results constrain the timing of initial collision between the Banda
drawn here may have occurred prior to 2.0 Ma when out-of-sequence mo­ forearc and the Australian margin. The maximum shortening rate is the plate
tion on the main southern ramp began. However, average shortening rates convergence rate, ~70 km/m.y. (Nugroho et al., 2009; Spakman and Hall, 2010;
are distinctly faster prior to 4.5 Ma than after 4.5 Ma. We note that this change Seton et al., 2012), which, combined with our shortening estimates, can help
in shortening rate is coincident with the timing of emergence of Timor Island constrain the timing of deformation that occurred prior to available thermo­
at 4.45 Ma (Nguyen et al., 2013). Additionally, subduction clogging and redis­ chronology dates. If the Aileu high-grade belt was part of the Australian margin
tribution of shortening to the backarc may have influenced this decrease in during orogenesis at Timor, 46 km of shortening before 7.1 Ma implies initial
shortening rate at Timor. We note also that shortening rates since 4.5 Ma are collision of the Banda forearc with the Australian margin by at least 7.8 Ma. If
close to the modern GPS convergence rate of 22 mm/yr between Timor and instead the Aileu high-grade belt collided with the Banda forearc prior to and
Australia (Nugroho et al., 2009). separately from collision at Timor, our sequential reconstruction would still

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­imply at least 193 km of shortening before 4.5 Ma, which would require initial our cross sections), McCaffrey and Nabelek (1986) use the gravity signal of the
collision by at least 7.3 Ma. We conclude, therefore, that initial collision of the small accretionary wedge to argue for less than 10 km of shortening specifi­
Banda forearc and the Australian margin could not have been any more re­ cally along the Wetar Thrust; although McCaffrey (1988) also suggests 50 km
cent than 7.3 Ma. Because our shortening estimates indicate that initial collision of total backarc shortening north of Wetar to accommodate the observed offset
must predate the 7.1 ± 0.3 Ma cooling of the Aileu high-grade belt, we also con­ in the trend of the volcanic island chain between Wetar and Alor. Much of the
clude that the 7.1 ± 0.3 Ma muscovite 40Ar/ 39Ar age (Tate et al., 2014) is associated shortening within the Wetar Strait between the Banda arc and Timor is already
with orogeny during collision of the Banda forearc and the Australian margin. accounted for in our cross sections by backthrusting on the north side of Timor,
although some additional shortening may have occurred along thrusts on the
south side of the Banda arc (Snyder et al., 1996). North of Timor, 10–60 km
Comparison of Shortening to Plate Convergence and of additional shortening increase total shortening estimates since 7.1 Ma to
Absolute Plate Motions 280–363 km, a range that overlaps the 360–392 km of convergence estimated
from plate motion. Moreover, there is a possibility that some additional Aus­
Shortening estimates presented here are in good agreement with the rates tralian margin upper-crustal strata bypassed the thrust wedge at Timor and
of plate convergence predicted from plate reconstruction models and GPS thus would not be included in our shortening estimates. Elburg et al. (2004)
observations. Australia is moving NNE relative to the oceanic Sunda-Banda interpreted the chemical signal of contamination within Banda arc volcanics
lithosphere at a rate of ~7 cm/yr, according to relative plate reconstructions as the result of mixing between lower-continental crust and sedi­mentary rocks
(Seton et al., 2012), absolute plate motion models (Spakman and Hall, 2010), derived from the Australian upper crust. If these subducted sedimentary rocks
and GPS observations (Nugroho et al., 2009). The relative plate motion vector were Permian or younger, that would indicate additional shortening not ac­
of Australia versus the Sunda-Banda lithosphere as well as versus the mantle, counted for in our section.
however, is oblique to the Timor Trough and the structural trend of the Timor
orogen. Trough-parallel motions may be accommodated through extrusion
along proposed oblique normal faults on Timor (Duffy et al., 2013) or within or Comparison to Other Arc-Continent Accretion Orogens
behind the Banda arc. The trough-perpendicular convergence rate (parallel to
the trend of our cross sections) is ~53 mm/yr according to GPS vectors from The orogen at Timor displays significantly more shortening and subduc­
Nugroho et al. (2009). This rate suggests ~360–392 km of trough-perpendic­ tion of continental material than other prominent examples of arc-continent
ular convergence since 7.1 ± 0.3 Ma, the age of Aileu high-grade belt cooling collision and continental underthrusting below oceanic crust (ophiolite em­
through muscovite 40Ar/ 39Ar closure (Tate et al., 2014). (We compare plate con­ placement). The Taiwan orogen is due to active collision between the Luzon
vergence and shortening since 7.1 ± 0.3 Ma because the duration of earlier volcanic arc and the Eurasian continental margin, with collision beginning in
shortening in our reconstruction can only be constrained by the plate rate, the late Miocene (latest arc volcanism provides a minimum age at 6 Ma)
as discussed above.) Our shortening estimates since 7.1 Ma are 270–303 km, in the north and progressing to the south along this oblique margin over time
which are the total shortening amounts minus Banda klippe overthrusting that (Huang et al., 2006). Suppe (1980) documents 160–200 km of shortening within
in our cross sections must have occurred before Aileu exhumation at 7.1 Ma. the thin-skinned foreland fold-thrust belt of northern Taiwan. Although this
If instead the Aileu high-grade belt collided with the Banda forearc separately would predict 126–202 km less shortening in Taiwan than we find in Timor,
from forearc collision with the Australian margin, our results indicate total this estimate of 160–200 km of shortening in Taiwan does not include shorten­
shortening of 318–353 km since at least 7.3 Ma, whereas there has been 387 km ing within the slate belt or shortening due to overthrusting of the volcanic arc.
of trough-perpendicular convergence since 7.3 Ma. Papua New Guinea is another example of arc-continent accretion, although
These shortening estimates from our cross sections are less than the accretion occurred from ca. 12 to 4 Ma and is no longer active (Hill and Raza,
trough-perpendicular convergence estimated from plate motions. The discrep­ 1999). Hill (1991) documents only 43–60 km of shortening within the Papua
ancy between cross-section shortening and trough-perpendicular plate con­ New Guinea orogen, which is significantly less than shortening on Timor
vergence can be accounted for by some combination of (1) missing shortening because deformation is dominated by inversion of extensional faults of the
in our minimum shortening cross sections as discussed above, (2) overriding Australian margin. The thick-skinned structural style in Papua New Guinea is
plate shortening north of Timor that is unaccounted for in our cross sections, clearly visible in the surface geology, because granitic and metamorphic base­
and (3) wholesale subduction without underplating of upper-crustal material ment is exposed at the surface in the hanging wall of inverted normal faults
or underplating beyond the backstop. Silver et al. (1983) suggest 30–60 km of (Hill, 1991). In Timor, however, the surface expression reveals the repetition of
shortening along the well-developed Flores Thrust using seismic interpreta­ units in a thin-skinned structural style (the duplexing of Gondwana Sequence
tion, sediment volumes within the accretionary wedge, and the displacement units), leading to significantly greater shortening. Ophiolite emplacement such
of the trend of the volcanic arc. North of Wetar (which is closer to the trend of as that over Arabia in Oman during the Late Cretaceous (Searle and Cox, 1999)

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is not associated with the development of major fold-thrust belts such as in It is also possible that a significant portion of the subducted Australian
Timor but still exemplifies ~180 km of underthrusting of the continental mar­ margin was composed of transitional, thinned continental crust instead of
gin below the overriding oceanic plate (McQuarrie and van Hinsbergen, 2013). continental crust of full thickness. Some portion of the Australian margin was
likely composed of thinned continental crust formed during Jurassic rifting.
Gondwana Sequence units, deposited prior to this rifting, were likely part of
Magnitude of Continental Subduction the stratigraphy of the transitional margin; thus the length of subducted Aus­
tralian continental crust likely includes some length of transitional crust. The
The balanced cross sections presented here suggest that 215–229 km of presence of occasional gabbro bodies within the Aileu high-grade belt along
Australian continental crust have subducted beneath the Banda arc at Timor the north coast supports the possibility that these units derive from close to
(Fig. 12). Continental subduction was long thought to be impossible because the ocean-continent transition. Transitional crust can greatly vary in strength
of buoyancy forces (McKenzie, 1969; Dewey and Bird, 1970). Subsequent and composition between the end members of continental and oceanic crust
models argued that continental subduction could be favored with removal (­Davies and von Blanckenburg, 1995), and a large portion of a transitional mar­
of the top 10–20 km of the subducting continental lithosphere (Cloos, 1993; gin can even be negatively buoyant (Cloos, 1993; Cloos et al., 2005).
Capitanio et al., 2010) Our data, however, show significant continental sub­ This documentation of continental subduction may allow a mechanism for
duction at Timor with only the top 3–4 km of upper stratigraphy removed and recycling continental lithosphere into the mantle. Some models suggest that
underplated to the overriding plate. Our magnitude of continental subduction subducted continental material is exhumed to the base of the overriding plate
is consistent with minimum depths of continental subduction of 100–120 km following slab breakoff (Duretz et al., 2011), but some calculations suggest the
observed in UHP terranes (Chopin, 1984; Smith, 1984; Sobolev and Shatsky, possibility that transitional continental crust or continental crust effectively
1990; Hermann and Rubatto, 2014), if those UHP terranes were subducted at coupled to mantle lithosphere could remain negatively buoyant (Cloos, 1993;
an angle of ~30°. Early models of slab breakoff during continental collision Cloos et al., 2005). Continental material fully subducted and recycled into the
suggest continental subduction to depths of 50–120 km or downdip lengths mantle may therefore have impacted the history of incompatible elements,
of 150–350 km, with subduction of continental crust to greater depths for con­ heat-producing elements, and noble gases within the mantle.
vergence rates comparable to those at Timor (Davies and von Blanckenburg,
1995). More recent models suggest continental subduction of both upper and
lower continental crust to depths of 125 km (Baumann et al., 2010), 200 km (van CONCLUSIONS
Hunen and Allen, 2011), or 300 km for oceanic crust of comparable age to that
subducted at Timor (Duretz et al., 2011). Our subducted length of 215–229 km New structural mapping and balanced cross sections in Timor-Leste have
of continental crust is therefore consistent with numerical modeling for appro­ provided new insight into the process of arc-continent accretion. Mapping re­
priately fast subduction rates and old subducted oceanic crust. veals that a 2 km succession of Australian strata has duplexed below overthrust
Banda arc units to form the majority of the orogenic wedge. This observation
Banda Banda Timor necessitates large shortening amounts at Timor of 326–362 km. While many
Timor ­authors have assumed that continental subduction during arc-continent accre­
Sea Arc Trough
tion is generally short lived (McKenzie, 1969; Dewey and Bird, 1970), we show that
215–229 km of Australian continental crust have subducted during arc-continent
collision in Timor. This magnitude of continental subduction also has significant
implications for the history of continental crust because it allows the possibility
for substantial recycling of continental lithosphere at subduction zones.
km
9
22
5–
21

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the Office of the Secretary of State for Natural Resources in Timor-Leste for their as­
sistance in completing fieldwork, particularly Norberta Soares da Costa, Jhony da Costa Soares,
and Jhony Reis. Thanks are also due to Timorese geologists Lamberto Fernandes, Mario Amaral,
Domingos Guterres, Octaviana de Jesus, and Romi Martin for their assistance in the field. This
work was supported by National Science Foundation grant 0948449. D.J.J.v.H. was supported by
European Research Council Starting Grant 306810 (Subduction Initiation reconstructed from Neo­
Figure 12. Schematic of 215–229 km of continental subduction. Magnitude of continental sub- tethyan Kinematics [SINK]) and acknowledges a Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research
duction is required to balance the length of restored Australian strata. Subducted Australian (NWO) VIDI grant number 864.11.004. R.R.B. acknowledges financial support from the Molengraaff
margin includes some length of transitional crust. Foundation. We appreciate very helpful reviews from Alex Webb, Tim Charlton, and Jeff Lee.

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GEOSPHERE  |  Volume 11  |  Number 6 Tate et al.  |  Continental subduction in Timor-Leste 24

 Geosphere, published online on 2 October 2015 as doi:10.1130/GES01144.1

Geosphere

Australia going down under: Quantifying continental subduction during arc-continent accretion in Timor-Leste
Garrett W. Tate, Nadine McQuarrie, Douwe J.J. van Hinsbergen, Richard R. Bakker, Ron Harris and Haishui Jiang

Geosphere published online 2 October 2015;

doi: 10.1130/GES01144.1

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