Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences, Vol. 6, No. 3/4, pp. 373-386, 1991 0743-9547/91 $3.00 + 0.

00
Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Press Ltd

Temporal distribution of strain in the active Banda orogen: a reconciliation

of rival hypotheses

R. A. HARRIS
Department of Geology, White Hall, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, U.S.A.

(Received 31 August 1990; accepted for publication 5 May 1991)

Abstract--Integration of geological and geophysical data from the active Banda orogen reveals important
variations in structural style with time that reconcile rival hypotheses for the tectonic evolution of the Banda arc.
These variations indicate the temporal distribution of strain in the collision zone by vertical and horizontal
structural restorations of the collision through time.
In the western part of the collision (Sumba and Savu Islands) most plate convergence occurs at a very high
strain rate within 20-40 km of the deformation front. This narrow zone of frontal accretion expands eastward
toward Savu where it is part of a submarine accretionary pile over 150 km wide.
In West Timor the accretionary wedge is internally shortened and emergent. Uplift of the forearc upper plate
during this deformational phase causes its leading edge to detach and form nappes. The remainder of the forearc
is overridden along backthrusts by the orogenic wedge. Various sites of intra-wedge shortening and some
strike-slip motion may account for as much as 70% of plate convergence in West Timor.
The distribution of plate convergence away from the deformation front into more internal parts of the collision
zone is interpreted as a function of increasing frictional resistance at the base of the orogenic wedge. Resistance
to orogenic wedge advance is attributed to an abrupt increase in basal decollement slope, decrease in pore-fluid
pressures and increase in strength of incoming material. The combination of continued plate convergence and
increased coupling in East Timor cause the wedge to move almost entirely with the lower plate along arc-directed
backthrusts and backarc thrusts. Backthrusting eventually closes the Banda forearc basin entirely.
These lateral variations in structural style along the strike of the Banda orogen are attributed to the kinematics
of oblique collision, and structural and stratigraphic discontinuities of the Australian lower plate. Possible
relationships between different stuctural styles and the temporal distribution of strain in the orogenic zone is
constrained by structural restorations of the collision. The restorations demonstrate that each of the three different
models (imbricate, overthrust and upthrust) used to characterize the structure of the western Banda orogen may
be applied at various times during the arc-continent collision.

INTRODUCTION providing an extensive natural laboratory for discovery

and quantification of fundamental orogenic processes.
THE BANDA orogen of eastern Indonesia is the product
of complex interaction between the SE Asian, Australian Australian continental margin
and Pacific plates (Fig. 1). Relative to the SE Asian
plate, Australian continental crust moves NNE at be- Continental material incorporated into the Banda
tween 70 and 80 km/Ma toward oceanic realms of the orogen correlates directly with undeformed laterally
Pacific plate that move WNW at 100-130km/Ma equivalent sequences of the present NW Australian
(Minster and Jordan 1978, Daly et al. 1987, DeMets margin (Audley-Charles 1986a). This correlation helps
et al. 1990, Smith et al. 1990). Shear at the intersection in structural restorations of continental margin stratigra-
of the three plates is distributed through a complex zone phy in the fold-thrust zone of the Banda orogen. The
of convergence and sinistral shear between the Terera- NW Australian passive continental margin formed
Aiduna and Sorong fault systems (Fig. 1). Superposition during Middle-Late Jurassic breakup and Early Creta-
of the westward and northward plate motions in this ceous (Berriasian) sea-floor spreading in the adjacent
zone have detached, rotated and moved westward Wharton Basin (Falvey 1972, Larson 1975). A breakup
several continental fragments from the Australian plate unconformity separates two major sedimentary se-
(Hamilton 1979). quences found throughout northern Australia (pre- and
Three major tectonic elements form the Banda orogen post-rift sequences).
(Fig. 1): (1) the Banda Sea is a complex marginal basin Pre-breakup sedimentary successions of NW Aus-
that occupies the interior (concavity) of the Banda arc; tralia generally fill NW-SE striking grabens (Fig. 3) with
(2) the northern Australian-New Guinea continental two major stratigraphic sequences (Powell 1982). The
margin forms the external perimeter of the Banda oro- lower sequence consists of Late Cambrian to Carbon-
genic arc; and (3) the Banda arc constitutes an orogenic iferous clastics, evaporites and carbonates. These rocks
zone between the Banda Sea and Australian continental unconformably underlie an Early Permian to Early
margin. This orogenic zone has a paired system of Jurassic sequence of neritic turbidite deposits, carbon-
arcuate islands; an inner, intra-oceanic magmatic arc ates and siliciclastic sediment. Only the Early Permian-
and an outer, contractional wedge. The Banda orogen is Jurassic successions are exposed on platform regions of
a consequence of progressive collision of the continent° the Australian shelf and in the Banda orogenic zone.
bearing Australian plate with the Banda Sea (Fig. 2), Studies of these rocks in Timor (Audley-Charles 1968,
373
374 R.A. HARRIS

Pacific
Plate

"Sula <C)
Sulawesi

,•. .
BandaSea :~i
~ Weber
:
i o

~:~:~::: . . . . . . . . . ~i~ Basin . I~

• -" .~i~ii:i: ~ ~"

S u ~ ,,~ . AustralianPlate
Trenc.
Java ~___,~_h Savu ~
oceaniccrust continentalcrust
Fig. 1. Tectonicmap of Banda arc. Shaded region is zone of active volcanism. Large arrows are relative plate motion
directions.

Cook 1986, Bird 1987) indicate an accumulation of zone, Banda forearc basement is uplifted by underthrust-
around 3000 m in what is interpreted as an intra-cratonic ing of Australian continental margin sediments (Fig. 4).
basin of northern Gondwana. Banda forearc basement forms the Banda allochthon
Middle-Late Jurassic continental breakup is charac- or Banda terrane of Audley-Charles and Harris (1990).
terized in the NW Australian shelf (von Rad and Exon On Timor Island (Figs 3 and 4), the Banda allochthon
1983), and orogenic zones of Timor (Charlton 1987) and occurs as flat-lying, attenuated nappes (Barber and
Scram (Audley-Charles et al. 1979), by marine transgres- Audley-Charles 1976, Carter et al. 1976, Barber et al.
sion across ENE-WSW trending horsts and grabens 1977). These nappes structurally overlie folded and
(Fig. 3). Thin sedimentary successions from erosion or thrust Australian continental margin sequences (Fig. 4c).
non-deposition occur on structural highs. Open-ocean The Banda terrane is correlative with exposures on 22
passive margin conditions prevailed from Early Creta- other outer Banda arc islands including the larger islands
ceous until Miocene-Present arc-continent collision of Sumba, Tanimbar and Seram. The Banda allochthon
(Powell 1982). provides some of the only documented exposures of the
Post-breakup passive margin deposits encountered by forearc basement of an active intra-oceanic arc system.
wells and dredge samples from the present NW Aus- Although nappes were first described in Timor by the
tralian margin are dominantly pelagic. The margin is field studies of Wanner (1913) and then by Audley-
starved of terrigenous sediment. Distal slope and rise Charles (1968), more recent work (e.g. Fitch and Hamil-
facies are characterized by 500-1500 m of Late Creta- ton 1974, Chamalaun and Grady 1978, yon der Botch
ceous radiolarian chalk and Paleocene-Pliocene, semi- 1979, Hamilton 1979) challenges the stratigraphic and
consolidated foraminiferal and nanno chalks (von Rad structural basis for this interpretation. Alternative
and Exon 1983). These deposits are identical in age and models characterize structural styles as one of two end
composition to Early Cretaceous to Pliocene shales, members: either as an intensely sheared and chaotic
marls and radiolarites found in the orogenic zone of subduction m61ange of continental material (Hamilton
Timor and Seram (Audley-Charles et al. 1979). Post-rift 1979), or as somewhat undeformed Australian continen-
shelf facies successions consist of Cretaceous transgres- tal margin material uplifted along high angle faults
sions of sandstone and shale conformably overlain by (Chamalaun and Grady 1978). The evidence for each of
Cenozoic carbonate (Smith and Ross 1986). The shelf these models comes dominantly from studies of different
facies is up to 3000-4000 m thick (Balke and Burt 1976). parts of the Banda orogenic wedge. Each of these rival
hypotheses may actually represent a different instant in
Banda orogenic wedge time during the evolution of the Banda orogen. If so,
then each model may be one of several transitional
The zone of late Neogene contraction of underthrust phases of the tectonic evolution of arc-continent col-
Australian continental margin material comprises the lision. These various deformational phases may provide
outer Banda orogenic wedge (Fig. 3). The wedge is clues to the temporal distribution of strain throughout
bound by basins with water depths usually more than the orogenic zone.
3000 m in both the foreland outer perimeter of arc, and The aim of this paper is to: (1) document the transi-
internally in the forearc region. Within the orogenic tional nature of variations in structural style along
 Strain distribution in the active Banda orogen 375

G. Api Weber
( o) ............ ,,

PRESENT ~-~ SavuBasin

Java Trench 1 ~ '~'~'~l

Plateau
~.~i~'Weber
(b)
. • . .~:,:.~> . , . "-,~ •

2 Ma
::::..i;.[ii.: Savu Basin

t Plate:fu

(c) o. j ~ .,U
.. :::+. ×:~'.::J;~(" . : •

i!! !iii!.'.= ::::::i i :i:ii

. _. ............. •

4 Ma z~

Y :~iiiiii~:

(d ) .....~':iiii~:~I~
~ :::.::::~!::!::!!!:i!~ii:.,:::....

........... !.~i!~iil;~i~i:~5:?*i~s~,
............
~

5 Ma . ~ ~
,, JavaTrench •

Fig. 2. Horizontal restoration of collision between NW Australian slope (dark grey band) and Java Trench. Initial collision
occurs at 4-5 Ma of what is now the central Timor segment of Australian margin. Distribution of plate convergence in
collision zone is shown by progressive shortening of Australian margin (reduction in thickness of dark grey band), uplift
of orogenic wedge (dashed outlines of islands), closure and possible extrusion of forearc basin, backarc thrusting and
northward displacement of orogenic wedge and zone of active volcanism (shaded light grey).
376 R.A. HARRIS

h16"E 1120*E h24"E I 1128~

\
6"5

South Bende~/

(,
•I A V A

I
Bonaparte
Basin
Indian ( ~r ( - Scott
0 Ce a n ,~-~ A ~ Plateau
14'S

Australia

Fig. 3. Detail of western Banda orogen and NW Australian continental margin. Stipples represent frontal accretionary
wedge. Closely spaced dots represent Banda allochthon forearc upper plate. Structurally underlying the Banda allochthon
is underthrust Australian pre-rift sequence (NE-SW diagonal lines). Given NNE convergence rate of 75 km/Ma and
obliquity of convergence angle, collision between Australia and Java Trench propagates WSW at l l0 km/Ma along the
Australian continental margin. Assuming time-space equivalence, a distance of 110 km along deformation front represents
1 Ma in time. Lines correspond to various structural transects used for restoration of cross-sections (see Fig. 4).

orogenic strike; (2) relate these variations to plate kin- Charles et aL 1979, Jongsma et aL 1989). Superposition
ematics, and structural and stratigraphic discontinuities of northward and westward motions of the respective
of the Australian margin; and (3) discuss possible re- Australian and Pacific plates in this region also contrib-
lationships between different structural styles and the utes a major component of counter-clockwise (CCW)
temporal distribution of strain in the orogenic zone. rotation shown by paleomagnetic studies (Haile 1981).
Apart from rotation, geological and geophysical data
from Seram suggest its tectonic evolution is very similar
VARIATION IN STRUCTURAL STYLE to that of Timor Island (Audley-Charles et al. 1979,
Jongsma et al. 1989).
The Banda orogen manifests several episodes, phases At the Kai and Tanimbar Islands, the Australian
and types of deformation that produce a variety of continental margin, inner volcanic arc and outer con-
structural styles. The first episode of collisional defor- tractional wedge are subparallel to the Australian plate
mation is difficult to constrain, but is most likely transi- convergence vector (Fig. 2). This geometry may account
tional in time and space with the New Guinea orogeny for the occurrence of steeply dipping strike-slip faults in
to the NE. The New Guinea orogen marks the initial the hinterland, the relatively small (20-30 km wide)
collision between the proto-Banda allochthon (island compressional zone and mostly undeformed sedimentary
arc) and a promontory of NE Australia-northern New fill in small basins throughout the region (Jongsma et aL
Guinea around 30-40 Ma (see Pigram 1991). This col- 1989). Contractional deformation of the Australian mar-
lision causes considerable identation and modification of gin in this region began shortly after collision in Seram,
the Australian-Pacific plate margin (Fig. 1). The Banda but the extreme obliquity of arc-continent convergence
arc progressively developed as Australia continued to appears to have limited the extent of shortening.
move northward, becoming increasingly more involved The western Banda arc is part of an oblique collision
in the collision (Fig. 2). zone involving the NW Australian continental margin.
The Australian continental margin near Seram arrived Data from marine and onshore geological and geophys-
at the collisional front around Middle Miocene (Audley- ical studies document important variations along strike
 Strain distribution in the active Banda orogen 377

(a)

NE sw
I I
0 50 km
Sumba
3
0
-3
-6
-9

(b) Savu

(c)
SW
NE West Tirnor

(d)

i East Timor
0 50 km
'
0
-3
-6
-9

Fig. 4. Restored structural sections of seismogenic layer of Banda orogen at various stages of collisional deformation. Savu
documents the initiation of collision of distal continental margin sediments with Java Trench, West Timor represents 3-4 Ma
of collisional history and East Timor documents 4-5 Ma of collision (see text for further discussion). Sections are restored
using seismic and field data with three times vertical exaggeration. Deep structure is interpretive. Litbotectonic units:
Black forearc basement upper plate (Banda allochthon). Dark grey--frontal accretionary wedge of Java Trench and
m~lange. Horizontal stripes--Permian to Triassic Aileu-Maubisse Formation (most distal reaches of Australian continent).
Diagonal stripes--post-rift slope and rise deposits of Australian passive margin. Brkk pattern--Shelf facies of post-rift
deposits. Light grey--Permian to Jurassic pre-rift sedimentary sequence. White units underlying light grey are Cambrian
to Carboniferous pre-rift sediments or crystalline basement. White overlying orogenic wedge are synorogenic deposits.

in structural style in this region. These variations, a n d (i.e. B a r b e r 1981). T o illustrate a n d discuss the structural
the r e c o n n a i s s a n c e n a t u r e o f m a n y studies, are respon- variation, d a t a from m a r i n e a n d o n s h o r e investigations
sible for m u c h o f the d e b a t e a b o u t rival hypotheses for is i n t e g r a t e d here into four structural transects t h r o u g h
the s t r u c t u r a l e v o l u t i o n o f the western B a n d a o r o g e n S u m b a , Savu, W e s t T i m o r a n d East T i m o r (Fig. 4).
378 R.A. HARRIS

S u m b a transect length/thickness ratio of these slabs, shortening of the

wedge most likely involves fold-thrust deformational
Sumba is a recently uplifted segment of forearc crust styles (Breen et al. 1986). The thrust front is well defined
near where the Java Trench becomes the Timor Trough. by a vertical separation along faults and folds 2-4 km
The oldest rocks exposed on the island are Creta- long that occur throughout the lower slope. Mud di-
ceous-Neogene arc-type volcanic and sedimentary rocks apirism also produces ridges of mud volcanoes in the
(Audley-Charles 1985). These underlie Miocene-Recent lower plate.
sediments (Reed 1985, Karig et al. 1987, Reed et al. The decollement is seen in seismic reflection profiles at
1987, van Weering et al. 1989). The stratigraphic se- the deformation front. Reed (1985) and Karig et al.
quence and lithologic character of these rocks are correl- (1987) found a strong to moderate reflector interpreted
ative with the Palelo Group (Audley-Charles 1968), as the top of shallow marine Cretaceous shale under the
which forms the upper part of the Banda allochthon decollement. These shales overlie pre-rift sedimentary
(Barber and Audley-Charles 1976, Audley-Charles 1985, sequences of the Australian continental margin, indicat-
Audley-Charles and Harris 1990). The lower part of the ing the decollement at the toe of the orogenic wedge is
Banda allochthon has metamorphic complexes that also near the breakup unconformity.
may underlie the Palelo Group of Sumba. South of the Sumba region, and in the Java Trench to
The Palelo Group in Sumba connects with similar the west, a sharp boundary exists between the lower and
sequences in Timor via the Sumba submarine ridge upper slope of the accretionary wedge (Karig et al. 1980,
(Silver et al. 1983, Reed 1985, Reed et al. 1987, Karig Breen et al. 1986). Seismic reflection and sonar data
et al. 1987). The occurrence of Pliocene deep water facies show that deformation of recent sediments occurs
sediments on the ridge and in Sumba indicate the young throughout the lower slope region, around 20-30km
age of ridge uplift. The sediments tilt away from the from the deformation front. This implies that in the Java
ridge axis causing growth faults, massive slumps and Trench and the westernmost (youngest) Timor Trough,
slides, and shale diapirism (van Weering et al. 1989). The most of the convergence between Australia and SE Asia
recent deformation of these sediments and the emergence occurs at a high strain rate within the lower slope region.
of multiple Quaternary reef terraces on Sumba (vonder The only evidence that some strain is distributed to other
Borch et al. 1983) show that uplift of the Sumba ridge parts of the orogenic wedge is the development of
is still active. The cause of this uplift is most likely due backarc thrusts north of Flores and perhaps the recent
to recent changes in the type of lithosphere underthrust- uplift of Sumba.
ing the region. The uplift of Sumba is associated with normal faulting
South of Sumba is the transition from the Java Trench seismic events including the great 1977 Sumba earth-
to the Timor Trough. This transition represents an quake (McCaffrey 1989). These stresses are most likely
important change in the character of the lithosphere a function of bending forces associated with under-
presently underthrusting Sumba from Jurassic Indian plating or subcretion of continental material below the
Ocean to continental Scott Plateau (Fig. 2). The uplift of decollement. Gravity data from Sumba (Chamalaun
the Sumba ridge, and the progressive widening of the et al. 1981) indicate that continental-type crust underlies
arc-trench gap SE of Sumba, indicate an increase in the forearc basement exposed at the surface. This implies
accretionary influx into the forearc. Where old ocean that the continental Scott Plateau, or another continen-
crust is underthrust only the thin veneer of weak pelagic tal fragment, extends north under the forearc as far as
sediment and possibly igneous basement from upstand- Sumba Island. According to this scenario the Sumba
ing blocks of seamounts accrete to the upper plate. The ridge may trace the rough outline of underplated conti-
upstanding and weak continental crust of the Scott nental material.
Plateau significantly increases the influx of accretable Active backarc thrusting along the Flores thrust north
material. Some of this material accretes in front of the of Sumba shows that some of the stress from collision
Sumba ridge upper plate, which acts as a rigid buttress of the continental Scott Plateau transmits through the
(bulldozer blade). entire arc-forearc region. Although Silver et al. (1983)
Breen et al. (1986) describe and interpret frontal estimate only 35 km of convergence along the Flores
accretionary processes from seismic and side scan sonar thrust, active deformation in the backarc region and
acquired at the trench-trough transition south of uplift of Sumba Island both document the extent of
Sumba. The western part of the transition zone, at the collisional strain distribution, even early in the develop-
edge of the continental Scott Plateau, is characterized by ment of the orogenic wedge.
horizontal propagation of short decollements into weak
material of the lower plate. This process produces a Savu transect
wedge of small accreted slices that shorten along closely
spaced thrusts and conjugate strike-slip faults. Seismic The island of Savu is mostly composed of mixed clay
images of the accretion zone are usually chaotic. m61ange similar to the Bobonaro m61ange of Timor
To the east, between 120°40' E and 121 °, Breen et al. (Audley-Charles 1968). Blocks in the clay m61ange con-
(1986) found that decollements propagate up to 15 km sist of pre- and post-breakup sequences of the Australian
south of the thrust front allowing for the accretion of continental margin (Audley-Charles, unpublished
long slabs of lower plate material. Due to the maps). Possible origins for the m61ange are: (1) tectonic
 Strain distribution in the active Banda orogen 379

disruption of underthrust material; (2) accretion of mass (i.e. cross-sections of Timor in Hamilton 1979). This
waste deposits from the Australian continental margin; model is inconsistent with the geology of Timor Island
(3) mass wasting of over steepened accretionary wedge (Fig. 3), where in several places Australian margin
material; and (4) diapirism and stratal disruption by high material outcrops on the north coast (Leme and Coelho
fluid pressures. 1962, Audley-Charles 1968, Rosidi et al. 1979, Harris
Uplift of Savu Island is most likely a function of an 1989). The map geometry indicates that the forearc
increase in accretionary influx into the orogenic wedge nappes are detached from their roots and thin both to
by the encounter of the Java Trench with Australian rise the north and south.
and slope deposits. Seismic reflection profiles (Hamilton Price and Audley-Charles (1983, 1987) suggest the
1979) document frontal accretion at the trench and Savu backthrust is part of the much larger "Wetar
backthrusting on the north coast of Savu. Jurassic suture", which they infer to track along the break in slope
blocks extruded from mud volcanoes on the island may between Timor and the Savu and Wetar forearc basins.
suggest that the decollement for transfer of sediment The suture zone is drawn as a south dipping lithospheric
from the lower to the upper plate is most likely located thrust where Australian continental material overrides
near the breakup unconformity. forearc basement. Seismic lines show no evidence of
The Savu forearc basin north of Savu Island (Fig. 3) shortening in the interior of the Savu Basin (Karig et al.
is filled with more than 3000 m of relatively undeformed 1987), but the inferred position of the fault zone, along
sediment (Karig et al. 1987). Some of these sediments are the north coast of West Timor, is unexplored. A recently
overridden by the Savu backthrust, but no other evi- published seismic line across the north slope of central
dence of shortening exists in the basin. The active Timor shows some evidence of shortening at the base of
volcanic island of Flores bounds the Savu Basin to the the accretionary wedge, which led Breen et al. (1989) to
north. No evidence exists for backarc thrusting north of also infer a south dipping fault in the "Wetar suture"
Flores Island as in the Sumba transect. The development zone. My recent field studies of the north coast of central
of the Savu backthrust may prevent the transmission of Timor also document several north vergent structures
collisional stresses into the arc region. including arc-directed backthrusts.
Uplift and erosion of the accretionary wedge in West
Nappe emplacement Timor expose several large massifs of the Banda alloch-
thon along strike of the submerged Sumba ridge to the
The Savu backthrust forms the southern flank of the west. The allochthon is detached from its roots and
Sumba ridge. The thrust carries an assemblage of forms the roof of a growing wedge of accreted and
m61ange and broken formation (Savu Island) over the underplated continental material. Because the slice is
Sumba ridge and its sedimentary cover (Fig. 4). The detached, continued underthrusting and accretion of
position of the Savu backthrust suggests it is related to Australian margin sequences lifts it passively to a struc-
the closure of the Savu Basin. East of Savu the Banda turally high position where it occurs as isolated nappes
forearc basin begins to decrease in width from 200 km throughout Timor. In contrast, the forearc roots of the
north of Savu to 5 km north of central Timor. Demise nappes become progressively buried by arc-directed
of the forearc basin is partly a function of vertical thickening in the collision zone (Fig. 3c, d). Analysis of
movements associated with progressive uplift as in the the steep gravity gradient in northern Timor (Kaye 1990)
Sumba transect. Horizontal shortening between the ac- shows that dense crustal material occurs beneath the
cretionary wedge and the arc are also necessary to north coast of Timor in a similar geometry to Fig. 3c, d).
completely close the Banda forearc north of Timor. Substantial subaerial erosion of the upper plate nappe
Uplift of the forearc basin occurs throughout the most likely causes the progressive eastward thinning of
western Banda arc in Sumba, Timor, Kisar, Leti and nappe thickness from estimates of 6-8 km in Savu and
several other islands (Barber and Audley-Charles 1976, Sumba, 3-4 km in West Timor and 1-2 km in central
Audley-Charles 1985, Audley-Charles and Harris 1990). Timor (Figs 3 and 4). Subaerial erosion rates in Timor
Underthrusting of low density continental material of may be high due to moderate to high uplift rates.
the Australian margin is a likely cause of the uplift. Estimates of uplift rates in Timor vary from 0.5 km/Ma
Although vertical displacement alone may account for along the perimeter of the island (Chappell and Veeh
uplift of the western and eastern Savu Basin, it cannot 1978) to an average of 2 km/Ma in the central basin of
explain the progressive eastward decrease in the width of West Timor (Audley-Charles 1986b), suggesting a domal
upper plate rocks. Assuming an initial forearc width of uplift pattern. Microfaunal studies by DeSmet et al.
200km north of Savu, the uplifted forearc in Timor (1989) provide an estimate of uplift rates in central West
decreases to a width of 80-100 km in East Timor. The Timor as high as 10km/Ma averaged over the past
extensive exposure of Australian margin sequences on 0.2 Ma. Evidence from vertebrate fossil studies also
the north coast of Timor, between nappes of the upper suggest that during the Quaternary a land bridge existed
plate and their forearc roots, is also difficult to explain between Timor and the Banda volcanic arc (Audley-
by only vertical motion of the upper plate. Uplift alone Charles and Hooijer 1973). The island of Sumba may
of the wedge-shaped forearc upper plate predicts that the provide a good modern analog of what Timor may have
hinterland of the collision zone (north coast of Timor) looked like before the forearc upper plate was fractured
should be overlain by the thickest part of the forearc slab and overthrust.
380 R.A. HARRIS

West Timor transect have large-scale slumps into the trough. Locally these
slumps are seen in Industry seismic lines to involve the
West Timor consists mostly of two iithotectonic units entire post-rift sequence of the lower slope. Large slump
separated by the east-west trending Central Basin. The scars also occur on the inner slope (Karig et al. 1987).
northern part of the island consists of the Banda alloch- Interpretations of the amount of active deformation in
thon, which forms resistant peaks that protrude through the Timor Trough differ. Karig et al. (1987) interpret
a blanket of m61ange. The Central Basin fills a flexural seismic reflection profiles crossing the trough to show "a
depression in front (south) of the Banda allochthon progression of sedimentation and deformation that ex-
massifs. This basin represents a perched remnant of an tends to the surface, indicating continuing deformation
early phase of foreland basin development. Synorogenic in this setting". In contrast, Johnston and Bowin (1981)
deposits of the Central Basin overlap the Banda alloch- and Charlton (1988) show through analysis of sedimen-
thon, m61ange and the accretionary prism of Australian tation patterns in the Timor Trough near DSDP 262 that
continental material. convergence at the deformation front has ceased. This
South of the Central Basin, an erosional window implies that crustal shortening in the West Timor region
through synorogenic detritus exposes an accretionary is more distributed throughout the orogen zone. Possible
prism of mostly Cretaceous-Late Miocene pelagic sedi- effects of the distribution of collisional strain away from
ments, known as the Kolbano sequence (Carter et al. the toe of the orogenic wedge are: (1) the rapid uplift
1976). The Kolbano sequence represents Australian rates of West Timor evidenced by Quaternary coral reefs
slope deposits (Charlton 1987) that are shortened and raised to 1300 m (Rosidi et al. 1979) and Late Pliocene
repeated by frontal accretionary processes (Fig. 4). Shelf deep water microfauna in synorogenic deposits now at
facies equivalents to the Kolbano sequence are notably over 1000m elevation (De Smet et al. 1989); (2) the
lacking in the uplifted parts of the accretionary wedge increasing indentation of the deformation front toward
suggesting that the collision of the orogenic wedge with central Timor; and (3) active backarc thrusting (Fig. 4).
the Australian shelf is a recent phenomenon. In the hinterland of the West Timor transect small
The Late Jurassic age of the oldest rocks included in erosional windows through massifs of the Banda alloch-
the accretionary wedge reinforce interpretations along thon expose Permian-Jurassic pre-rift sequences that
the Sumba and Savu transects that the decollement at have underthrust and uplifted the leading edge of the
the front of the wedge is near the Late Jurassic breakup forearc upper plate. During frontal accretion this ma-
unconformity of the Australian continental margin. This terial was below the decollement allowing it to under-
indicates that only post-rift sequences are involved in the thrust deeper into the accretionary prism before transfer
frontal accretionary phase of initial collision. Synoro- from lower to upper plate. Volume accountability is
genic sediments unconformably overlying the Kolbano difficult for the forearc upper plate if it is thrust intact
sequence and the upper slope of the accretionary prism over the shortened wedge of pre-rift Australian conti-
show little evidence of recent crustal shortening. nental material. At the north coast of West Timor, where
At the toe of the West Timor orogenic wedge Karig continental rocks are exposed, the forearc upper plate
et al. (1987) document a simple, strongly convex-upward should be at least 20 km thick. No evidence exists for
lower slope region where acoustically opaque trough fill overthrusting of a slab this thick. Most of the pre-rift
strata are accreted. Local disruption of this pattern sediments on the north coast of Timor were deformed at
forms a low angle sloping zone 15-20 km wide that is very low temperatures and yield vitrinite reflectance
broken by several ridges of north dipping strata. These values of less than 1.0 (unpublished data of the author).
ridges are around 7-10 km in breadth and most likely Where the forearc narrows to only 10km north of
represent accreted material from the Australian conti- central Timor, the problem is even more acute.
nental shelf. Structural lows between the ridges form If the forearc has not completely overridden the
slope basins of various sizes and structural histories. underthrust Australian margin then its closure must be
Most of these basins, including others further upslope, accounted for in part by underthrusting, strike-slip
have growth faults against which strata dip progressively extrusion or tectonic erosion. The only structural restor-
steeper to the north with depth. ation of the Banda orogen that accounts for forearc
The Timor Trough is also variable along strike where volume is presented by Price and Audley-Charles (1987).
up to 1000 m of sediment fill it in places. These sediments Their restoration models the closure of the Banda
onlap the depressed continental shelf of Australia, which forearc by whole lithosphere rupture of the lower plate
forms the outer slope. DSDP 262 penetrated to 442 m in allowing it to override the forearc. The existence of
the trough, encountering very fine grained clastic and lithospheric ruptures is difficult to test without deep
carbonate deep water deposits underlain by shelf and seismic images of central Timor, but the mechanism of
upper flank facies carbonate of the outer slope (Heirtzler forearc wedging into continental material merits serious
et al. 1974). The outer slope dips into the trough at near consideration. It is important to note that backthrusting
2° and becomes progressively buried by trough fill of continental material over colliding arc terranes also
toward the inner slope (Karig et al. 1987). Industry occurs in Taiwan and other orogens (Mitchell 1983,
seismic lines show steep normal faults with large dis- Harris and Audley-Charles 1987). In Taiwan, Suppe
placements offsetting the Australian continental margin and Liou (1979) propose that the forearc acts as a
sequence down to the NW. Some of these fault blocks wedge between the lower plate basement and its cover
 Strain distribution in the active Banda orogen 381

allowing the cover to override the forearc via arc- compressed sequence verges to the north toward the
directed backthrusts. Banda arc instead of continentward like most of the
The possibility of strike-slip extrusion of forearc orogenic wedge. Near the capital city of Dili, metamor-
material away from the closing gap between Australia phosed Australian basement is thrust to within 10020 km
and the Banda arc is difficult to support. Some large of the Banda arc island of Atauro. These metamorphic
vertical faults are found south of the volcanic arc near rocks rapidly decrease in grade to the south where
Flores, but it is uncertain how much extrusion this may conodonts (Grady and Berry 1977) and vitrinite (unpub-
accommodate. lished data of the author) indicate paleotemperatures of
The possibility of tectonic erosion of the forearc is also less than 1500200°C.
highly probable due to the low angle nature of the
underthrust Australian margin. Subduction erosion
structurally thins the upper plate as the dip of a subduc- PLATE KINEMATICS OF WESTERN
tion zone decreases (von Huene 1986). A decrease in the BANDA OROGEN
dip of the basal decollement from 4-8 ° along the Java
Trench to 2 ° in the Timor Trough is noted by Karig et al. Relative plate motion vectors between Australia and
(1987). Crustal stretching and thinning during alloch- Asia, calculated from both geological (Minster and
thon emplacement also may cause considerable fragmen- Jordan 1978, DeMets et al. 1990) and satellite laser
tation of the nappes. Extensional detachment faults are ranging (Smith et al. 1990) data bases, indicate an
common throughout the Banda allochthon (Harris Australian plate convergence rate of 70°80 km/Ma and
1989). direction of N20030E. The extent to which the Banda
Sea plate is kinematically part of greater Asia is not
E a s t T i m o r transect known. Various rotations with respect to Asia are
proposed for the region, but are poorly constrained. The
East Timor provides a perspective of Banda orogen few kinematic indicators available from the western
structural style that is not found in any other part of the Banda arc are consistent with a NNE convergence vector
Banda arc with the possible exception of Scram. Oro- for Australia. Fault plane solutions of earthquakes in the
genic wedge structure in other parts of the Banda arc is orogenic wedge (McCaffrey 1988, 1989) show northward
mostly obscured by blankets of synorogenic detritus and convergence along the Java Trench and NNE conver-
reef deposits that usually overlie thick massifs of the gence near Savu. The 1978 event in central Timor shows
Banda allochthon. Uplift and erosion in East Timor a NNE direction of convergence of Australia with
have removed most of the synorogenic detritus and respect to Timor. A fault plane solution of the event
forearc nappes, forming windows into the internal parts indicates thrusting at a depth of about 10 km and an
of the orogenic wedge. These erosional windows corre- angle of around 30°. Left-lateral transcurrent faults in
spond to antiformal culminations, with wavelengths of the contractional wedge, similar to lateral ramps in
several km, that lift underthrust pre-rift sequences of the thrust belts, are also oriented NNE (Audley-Charles
Australian margin to an elevation of nearly 3000 m. 1985, Charlton 1986).
The deformed wedge of East Timor surprisingly shows Using the NNE plate motion vector, and approximate
only localized effects of intense deformation and has a trends of the deformation front and NW Australian
very low temperature thermal history. Microstructures continental slope, a velocity triangle predicts a lateral
are dominantly compactional in origin with only faint westward propagation rate for the Banda orogen of
traces of compressional deformation at the deepest around l l0km/Ma (Fig. 3). Assuming the NW Aus-
structural levels and near the basal decollement of tralian continental slope is straight and laterally continu-
overthrust nappes. Paleotemperature indicators yield ous to the first approximation (discussed below), various
maximum paleotemperatures of 150-200°C. The low phases of the collision should be similar at each time,
temperature deformation of these rocks requires a only shifted in space (Bowin et al. 1980, Suppe 1984).
shallow orogenic path that limits the depth to which Therefore, to move 110 km along the collisional front is
Australian margin sediments are underthrust beneath equivalent to moving 1 Ma in time. Independent evi-
the forearc upper plate before emerging again to the dence from stratigraphic relations in Timor confirms this
surface. reconstruction. The distance along the strike of the
South of the structural culminations, isolated klippen orogen from Timor, where stratigraphic evidence
of the Banda allochthon are all that remains of the suggests the collision began 3-5 Ma ago, to where the
extensive upper plate overthrust that caps the orogenic slope-trench collision is now starting (south of Savu) is
wedge of West Timor. The klippen structurally overlie 3000500 km.
Permian-Jurassic pre-rift sequences along a fault that Time-space equivalence provides an important
now dips toward the foreland (Fig. 4). Accreted post-rift method for understanding variations in structural style
slope and rise material is piled up south of the Banda of the Banda orogen. For example, past perspectives of
allochthon klippen as in the Kolbano region of West the early evolution of Timor are provided by more
Timor. western parts of the orogen, and future perspectives of
North of the basement culminations of East Timor are the geologic evolution of Savu are found to the east in
multiple repetitions of Permian-Triassic strata. The Timor. Each major island in the outer orogenic arc
382 R.A. HARRIS

characterizes a different, but transitional phase of Aus- 30 km/Ma due to outgrowth of the accretionary wedge.
tralian continental margin contraction. If the collision is Some plate convergence occurs by internal shortening
a continuum process that varies systematically along along the Savu backthrust and other structures con-
strike due only to the obliquity of continent-trench tributing to uplift of the island. The ramping of Aus-
collision, then cross-sections at regularly spaced intervals tralian continental material over the Savu forearc basin
should provide a serial representation of the temporal provides a way for accreting material to reach the
distribution of strain in the Banda orogen. surface via a shallow deformation path.
It is very likely that the accretionary prism outgrowth
seen south of Savu also occurred previously to the east
STRUCTURAL RESTORATION where the collision is older. This implies that the accre-
tionary prism has experienced considerable internal
Figure 4 illustrates in cross-section structural restor- shortening between Savu and Timor. The increase in
ations at regularly spaced intervals through the Banda surface slope angle of the inner slope of the wedge, from
orogen. Sections through Sumba, Savu and West Timor less than 2° south of Savu to a slope of more than 4 °
are 300 km apart, which corresponds to time intervals of between Roti and central West Timor, is consistent with
approximately 3 Ma. The East Timor section is 170 km a minimum average of 30 km/Ma of internal shortening
from the West Timor section corresponding to 1.5 Ma of of the wedge over the past 3 Ma. Rapid uplift of part of
elapsed time. The sections incorporate available field, the lower slope to form the Kolbano Mountains in
seismic and gravity data, and use classical area balancing southern West Timor is consistent with these rates of
techniques (Gougel 1962, Dahlstrom 1969). The general internal shortening.
scarcity of data in the region, particularly the lack of Inferred backthrusts near the north coast of West
onshore seismic control, allow for a number of possible Timor may also contribute a total of 3(L40 km of internal
balanced solutions. The solutions that honor the data shortening of the orogenic wedge. Backarc thrusts north
most are used. of Alor also take up a total of 30-40 km of plate conver-
The cross-sections illustrate the progressive distri- gence. These various sites ofintra-wedge shortening could
bution of strain away from the toe of the orogenic wedge account for as much as 70% of plate convergence in West
with time. Shortening of the Australian margin becomes Timor. Not included in this estimate is the possible
increasingly partitioned between frontal accretion, sub- extrusion of material out of the collision zone. These
cretion and backthrusting. At the Java Trench west of results limit the convergence at the deformation front
Sumba very little evidence of shortening exists through- south of West Timor to a maximum average of 20 km/Ma
out the arc-trench system except in the lower slope over the past 3 Ma. Present motion at the deformation
region, within 20-40 km of the deformation front. It is front is probably much less than this average.
estimated that at least 80% of the 70-80km/Ma of The orogenic wedge in East Timor comprises the
Australia-Asia plate convergence occurs in this region. entire forearc region, which is half the size of the Savu
The Sumba transect shows continued evidence of high forearc and twice the structural relief. At the toe of the
strain rates at the toe of the orogenic wedge in addition orogenic wedge the underthrust rate is significantly less
to recent uplift of the forearc basin and backarc thrust- than the convergence rate. The decrease in outer slope
ing. To account for the uplift by bending forces requires angle from 4 ° to 2° and submergence of the Kolbano
the addition of a minimum of 125 km z of underplated high suggest the frontally accreted part of the wedge has
material. Backarc thrusting can account for a maximum collapsed. The axis of uplift, where long wavelength
of 30 km of convergence (Silver et al. 1983). The devel- culminations form, is now far north of any other parts
opment of backarc thrusts and the northward indenta- of the orogenic wedge.
tion of the arc is most likely a consequence of stress The formation of structural culminations in East
transmission through the forearc suggesting buckling Timor is diagnostic of increasing amounts of internal
forces also may be an important component of the shortening, verses advance, of the orogenic wedge. A
deformation in Sumba. Due to the recent nature of uplift possible cause of this shortening may be continued
and backarc thrusting in the Sumba region it is estimated underthrusting of the steep basement ramp that marks
that a maximum of 40-50% of plate convergence over the Australian shelf-slope inflection. Paleogeographic
the past 1 Ma has occurred at the toe of the wedge. This reconstructions (Fig. 2) indicate that the orogenic wedge
distribution of strain throughout the arc-forearc region of central Timor encountered the basement ramp about
is enigmatic for the westernmost and youngest part of 2-3 Ma ago. As the orogenic wedge interacts with the
the Banda orogen. According to the calculated rate of shelf-slope break, the dip of the basal detachment may
westward propagation of the Banda orogen, Sumba increase suddenly from around 2-3': to as much as
should represent a position 3 Ma before collision with 10-15 °. This rapid change in slope could act as a major
Australia. This inconsistency, and the difference between barrier for the orogenic wedge. To advance over the
Sumba and the steady-state Sunda arc to the west, is basement ramp the wedge must shorten and thicken
attributed to lateral discontinuity of the Australian internally to restore its critical taper (Davis et al. 1983,
margin in the Scott Plateau region. Platt 1986).
In the Savu region the subduction rate of the lower Internal deformation of orogenic wedges involves
plate exceeds the plate convergence rate by at least step down of the decollement zone to deeper levels
 Strain distribution in the active Banda orogen 383

(underplating) and out-of-sequence thrusting. This pro- allochthon, allowing only dense and dry parts of the
cess eventually leads to involvement of deeper continen- lower plate to subduct; (3) cessation of volcanic activity
tal material in the orogen (Jamieson and Beaumont above delaminated lower plate; and (4) northward dis-
1988). Internal deformation in Timor is evidenced by the placement of the volcanic arc by backarc thrusting.
increased lower slope angle and involvement of pre-rift
sequence rocks. The collapse of the toe of the orogenic
wedge in East Timor suggests it has probably overridden LATERAL DISCONTINUITY OF AUSTRALIAN
the shelf and now has a supercritical taper. The remain- LOWER PLATE
der of the orogenic wedge is compressed between inward
dipping buttresses of the underthrust forearc to the Assuming time-space equivalence for the Banda oro-
north and continental basement ramp to the south gen is only valid to the degree that the deformation front
(Fig. 4). and continental slope of Australia lack major lateral
The pattern of shallow seismic events throughout the discontinuities. For the most part, the deformation front
western Banda orogen show a trend of northward is laterally continuous, except for the "Sumba enigma"
displacement of active seismic strain release (Eva et al. of Audley-Charles (1985). Where the deformation front
1988, McCaffrey 1988, 1989). This trend develops into a is laterally continuous (East Timor to Savu), under-
conspicuous lack of seismic events east of the structural thrusting of a more or less continuous continental lower
discontinuity between West and East Timor. The aseis- plate is assumed. Although much of the original struc-
mic nature of East Timor suggests that presently most of tural and stratigraphic variation in the underthrust lower
the collisional strain is transmitted to the hinterland plate is obscured by collision, it is possible to compare
region. Backthrusting and backarc thrusting in this undeformed segments that have not yet reached the
region may account for the bulk of northward Aus- trench (western Australian margin).
tralian plate motion in East Timor. It is also likely that The western continental margin of Australia is charac-
internal shortening of the orogenic wedge in East Timor terized by protrusion of a series of large continental
may occur episodically at a frequency undetected by the plateaus separated from one another by intervening
available seismic record of the region. abyssal plains. The plateaus are rectangular masses of
An increasing component of anti-vergent translation thinned continental crust that extend 300-500km be-
of orogenic wedge material along backthrusts is associ- yond the continental edge. From south to north these
ated with an increase in frictional resistance or coupling features are the Naturaliste, Cuvier, Exmouth and Scott
along the basal decollement. Possible causes of increased Plateaus. Spaced at minimum intervals of around
coupling of the East Timor orogenic wedge are the 500 km, the plateaus form significant and abrupt lateral
abrupt increase in basal decollement slope, decrease in discontinuities in the western Australian margin.
pore-fluid pressures and increase in strength of incoming The Scott Plateau is colliding now with the Java
material. High pore-fluid pressures in an orogenic wedge Trench south of Sumba. How much of the plateau
are usually manifest at the surface by mud volcanism. region has underthrust the forearc is not known. The
The distribution of mud volcanism throughout the west- gravity profile of Sumba shows that continental material
ern Banda orogen is very similar to the distribution of extends beneath the island (Chamalaun et al. 1981).
recent shallow seismicity. The lack of both shallow Recent underthrusting of this material is most likely the
seismic events and mud volcanism in the central part of cause of the recent uplift and active seismicity of Sumba
Timor are consistent with an increase in coupling at the Island, and backarc thrusting. The present axis of uplift
base of the orogenic wedge due to a decrease in in Sumba and along the Sumba ridge to the east may
pore-fluid pressures. The recent underthrusting of thick provide a rough estimate of the northern extent of the
(> 3000 m) and relatively strong (Jaeger and Cook 1979) underthrust plateau. The presence of the plateau ex-
shelf carbonates in the East Timor region may also plains much of the enigmatic aspects of Sumba including
increase frictional resistance to sliding at the base of the its departure from time-space equivalence predictions
orogenic wedge. for the western Banda orogen.
Continued plate convergence during a phase of in- Structural and stratigraphic variations along the NW
creased coupling of the orogenic wedge can cause the Australian margin also occur in association with
wedge to move with the lower plate along arc-directed NW-SE trending grabens formed during earlier unsuc-
backthrusts and backarc thrusts like the Wetar thrust cessful rift events (Fig. 3). The orthogonal nature of
(Silver et al. 1983). Northward displacement of the these features with respect to the present NE-SW trend
Timor Trough in the East Timor transect is consistent of the margin provide another significant discontinuity
with up to 100 km of arcward motion of the orogenic along passive margin strike. One major pre-breakup
wedge. How this motion is distributed between back- feature affecting the western Banda orogen is the Bona-
thrusts and backarc thrusts is difficult to constrain. parte Basin. Pre- and post-rift sequences in this basin
Other features to note in the series of cross-sections may achieve a thickness of 10,000m near the Timor
are: (1) detachment of the leading edge of the forearc and Trough, compared to 4000-45000 m outside the basin.
the passive nature of its emplacement above the growing Pre-Permian sediments also accumulate to great thick-
accretionary wedge; (2) progressive delamination of nesses in the Bonaparte Basin and are often missing
Australian margin material by the roots of the forearc outside the basin. The Pre-Permian section includes
384 R.A. HARRIS

substantial deposits and diapirs of salt (Edgerly and such as the Alpine, Carpathian, Apennine, Aegean,
Crist 1974). It is very likely that the thickened sedimen- Cyprian, Betic-Rif, Caribbean and Yukon-Koyukuk
tary section of the Bonaparte Basin influences the devel- arcs. Many of these arcs form orogenic loops where
opment of the Banda orogen by providing an abrupt mountain belts change strike by up to 180°. Extensional
change in the rheology of material entering the collision basins form in the interior of the loops with much of the
zone. extension occurring simultaneously with radially di-
The Bonaparte Basin collides with the Banda arc in rected contraction at the orogenic front. The present
the Timor region. The extrapolated width of the basin extension of the Weber Basin, which is surrounded on
is nearly the same as the island length. Although little three sides by active radially directed contraction of the
data is available from the northwestern part of the Banda arc, is a type example. Whether these orogenic
Bonaparte Basin to compare with stratigraphic relations processes are a result of the relative motions of larger
in Timor, the possible effects of this interaction on the bounding plates or the product of body forces that act
development of the Banda orogenic wedge need serious independent of plate kinematics is controversial (Dewey
consideration. 1988). The arcuate geometry of the Banda orogen is
interpreted here as a product of superimposed NNW
Australian and WNW Pacific plate motion.
TECTONIC CONTROVERSY The Banda arc collided with the NW Australian
continental margin at the end of the Miocene. The
Some major phases of deformation in the Banda collision began in central Timor and migrates to the SW
orogen (frontal accretion, allochthon emplacement and at about 110 km/Ma. The transition from subduction to
culmination development) are similar to different models collision initially involves increased frontal accretion of
(imbricate, overthrust and upthrust) relating to an ap- a thickening layer-wedge of distal continental margin
parent controversy over the tectonic evolution of the sediments. Collision of the continental slope with the
Banda orogen (Barber 1981). expanding accretionary prism increases the slope angle
Imbricate or accretionary wedge models proposed by of the basal decollement, which causes considerable
Fitch and Hamilton (1974) are mostly based on marine internal shortening and uplift of the wedge. This uplift
seismic data from submerged parts of the orogen. This forms large wavelength culminations that detach the
model is popular among researchers who rely mostly on leading edge of the forearc upper plate from its roots as
data from marine geology and geophysics ( v o n d e r nappes. Underthrusting of relatively strong continental
Borch 1979, Silver et al. 1983, Karig et al. 1987). Most shelf material and a decrease in pore-fluid pressure
of the submarine segments of the Banda arc are deform- further increases frictional resistance to orogenic wedge
ing primarily by frontal accretionary processes. advance. Increased coupling causes the orogenic wedge
The overthrust model initially proposed by Wanner to move more with the lower plate along backthrusts,
(1913) and later championed by Audley-Charles (1968) backarc thrusts and wrench faults.
is dominantly based on field data from Timor where The temporal distribution of strain in the Banda
overthrust nappes of the Banda allochthon are well orogen shows that rival hypotheses for the structural
exposed. Subsequent field-based studies of the islands of style of the Banda arc-Australia collision each focus on
Timor and Seram also support this model (Carter et al. a different deformational phase of collision.
1976, Barber et al. 1977, Audley-Charles et al. 1979,
Haile et al. 1979, Brown and Earle 1983). Acknowledgements--I am grateful to Mike Audley-Charles for his
open mind and patience in the field; to Robert Hall, Mike Searle,
The upthrust model proposed by Chamalaun and Neville Price, John Milsom, Steve Kaye, Mike Martin, Schuman Wu,
Grady (1978) results from detailed field mapping near Mike Dropkin, Alan Smith and Soebardjio Tjokrosapoetro for idea-
the Cribas anticline (basement culmination) in central generating discussion; to Robert McCaffrey and Tony Barber for
helpful reviews; and to Sahat Tobing and the Indonesia Geological
East Timor. Extensional unroofing above, and associ- Research and Development Centre for scientific support in Indonesia.
ated with, culmination development significantly This study is supported in part by the American Chemical Society
modifies structural relations from earlier deformational Petroleum Research Fund, Union Texas S.E. Asia, Western Mining
Co., TOTAL Indonesie and the University of London Consortium for
processes in this region. Geological Research in Southeast Asia.
Each of these models focuses on a different deforma-
tional phase in the evolution of the Banda orogen.
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