CHAPTER ONE

A SURVEY OF INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The phrase „Indo-Anglian‟ was used to describe the original creative

writing in English by the Indians. It is the literature written by the Indians

whose mother-tongue is not English. According to K.R.S. Iyengar (1973:11)

there are three types of Indian writers in English, first those who have

acquired their entire education in English schools and universities. Secondly,

Indians who have settled abroad but are constantly in touch with the

changing surrounding and traditions of their country of adoption,and finally,

Indians who have acquired English as a second language. Consequently, a

large number of Indians were greatly moved by the genuine desire to present

before the western readers authentic pictures of life in India through their

numerous writings.

The Novel emerged as the most forceful and convincing of all thegenres

of literature in recent years. It has been widely accepted as the most

appropriate form for the exploration of experiences and ideas in today‟s

world. Indian English fiction has acquired extensive commendation,

distinction and prestigious position in recent times in the whole of the world.

The international literary awards like The Booker, The Pulitzer, The Sinclair

won by Indian novelists exemplify that they have been appreciated even by

1
the western critics. “It is now recognized that Indian English literature is not

only part of Commonwealth literature, but also occupies a great significance

in the World literature. Today it has won for itself international acclaim and

distinction”.1

The Indian English Novel has passed through several stages before

reaching present position where it gained a standing on par with its

counterparts in the West. The evolution of Indian fiction in English may be

broadly divided into four stages. It was in Bengal that a literary renaissance

first manifested itself, but almost immediately afterwards its traces could be

seen in Madras, Bombay and other more educated parts of India. The first

stage includes the works of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Toru Dutt, Romesh

Chander Dutt, B.R.Rajan, T.Ramakrishna and others. Bankim Chandra

Chatterjee‟s Rajmohan’s Wife (1864) was the first English novel written by an

Indian. His works brought a certain space and stature to Indian novels in

English.

The period after the First World War has been considered the second

period. In the first decade after the war, S.K. Ventaramani, Shankar Ram and

A.S.P. Ayyer were the novelists who came to the fore. After them comes the

emergence of the great „Trio‟- Mulk Raj Anand, R.K.Narayan and Raja Rao.

Who are considered as the finest painters of Indian sensibilities. They tried to

revive the ancient tradition of the Epics and Puranas of India.

2
 The three major writers together are called the major „trio‟ who

produced epoch-making pieces of English fiction writing. The Post-

Independence Era which is the third phase has a two-fold effect on Indian

writing in English. The radical changes like poverty, hunger, death, disease

etc., which were brought about by the Partition of the country, on the one

hand made the writers dream about a finer future and on the other hand

widened their vision, sharpened their self-examining faculty. Thereby

provided fertile soil for many novelists to flourish and a considerable number

of novels were produced. Some prominent writers of this period are-Bhabani

Bhattacharya, Manohar Malgonkar, Kushwant Singh, Sudhin Ghosh, G.V.

Desani, Ananthanarayanan, J. Menon Marath and others.

Another important feature of this period was the growth of Indian

women novelists. Their appearance added a new dimension to the Indian

English Novel. The chief figures are Ruth Pawar Jhabvala, Kamala

Markandaya, Nayantara Sahgal and Anita Desai.

After the 1960s there was a thematic and technical shift in focus in the

Indian English fiction owing to the influence of the modern British novel.

There was the impact in the post-war period on the populace that gave rise to

psychological disorders, loss of moral values and the disturbance to man‟s

peace of mind. This agonized existence of modern man is sympathetically

explored by Anita Desai and Arun Joshi and this changed the face of Indian

English novel. It is with the novels of Arun Joshi and Anita Desai that a new

3
era in the Indo-English fiction began and also witnessed a change in the

treatment of psychological themes. Chaman Nahal is also another major

novelist of repute who belongs to this period.

After 1980 is the period of so-called „new‟ fiction which includes new

novelists like Salman Rushdie, Vikram Seth, Upamanyu Chatterjee, Shashi

Deshpande, Shashi Tharoor, Amitav Ghosh, Amit Choudhary, Arundhati

Roy, Kiran Desai, Arvind Adiga and others. These novelists heralded a new

era in the history of Indian English Fiction. They experimented with new

themes and techniques. Vikram Seth has experimented even with the form of

the novel. His novel The Golden Gate (1986) is written in the form of verse.

Arundhati Roy, Arvind Adiga and Kiran Desai got Man Booker Prize for their

debut works. All the novelists of this period have proved that Indian English

fiction is conspicuous, prolific and unique.

The growth of Indian English Novel is remarkable. The number of new

novelists, both men and women, has increased in an unprecedented scale. The

range of themes, forms and sub-genres in Indian English Novel is very vast.

As far as the genres within Novel is concerned, there are political novel,

Novel of Social Realism, Novel of Magic Realism, The Partition Novel, Novel

of Diaspora, Historical Novel, Regional Novel, the Children‟s Fiction, the

Campus Novel and others. Like many sub-genres of Novel, Campus Novel is

originated from the west. The number of novels dealing with academic

themes is adequate that they can form a corpus

4
 However, there were some writers such as Michael Madhusudhan Dutt

and Romesh Chandra Dutt, who were persuaded not to write in English, but

to write in their mother-tongue Bengali.

But many Indian writers had chosen English as their medium of

expression and made their names in different fields of literature, for example,

Jawaharlal Nehru wrote his Autobiography, Glimpses of World History and

Discovery of India in English and not in Hindi. Similarly, Toru Dutt, Sarojini

Naidu and Sri Aurobindo wrote in English and not in Bengali. They used

English to represent the Indian culture and spirit. In this connection, the

remarks of Randolph Quirk and Raja Rao, are of worth quoting. According to

Quirk, English is not the private property of the Englishmen. Similarly, Raja

Rao says in the Preface of his novel Kanthapura (1938, rpt. 1971: 5) “One has to

convey in a language that is not one's own, the spirit that is one‟s own.” It

seems that the mother-tongue did not impede their way in writing in English.

Commenting on the use of English by the Indians as the medium of writing

and expression, James H. Cousins (1918: 179) says, “… If they (Indians) are

compelled as an alternative to writing in their own mother-tongue, let it be

not Anglo-Indian, but Indo-Anglian, Indian in spirit, Indian in thought,

Indian in emotion, Indian in imagery and English only in words….” In this

regard, R. K.Narayan, as pointed out by K.R.S. Iyengar (1973: 30) says: “… I

am able to confirm, after nearly thirty years of writing, that English has served

my purpose admirably.” This is how with a rich contribution to prose, poetry,

5
novel and drama, these writers have made Indo-Anglican literature as a

matter of pride to Indians and a source of admiration to the foreigners.

Besides this, Lord Macaulay‟s Minutes on Indian education in 1935 and

Lord Bentinck‟s decision to promote European literature and science among

the Indians instigated the Indians to use an alien tongue for creative

expression. Inspired by this policy, a few Indians from the English-educated

elite class such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo,

Rabindranath Tagore, Sarojini Naidu were stimulated to use English for

creative expression. They realised that by using English, they could reach pan-

India and even the world audience. Thereafter, the Indian writers in English

accepted English as a medium of expression for political and cultural reasons.

Some Indian writers such as Mulk Raj Anand, R.K.Narayan, Raja Rao, Nissim

Ezekiel and Jayant Mahapatra have adapted English to communicate Indian

sensibility. From the historical perspective, Indian English literature has

passed through several phases such as Indo-Anglican, Indo-English, Indian

Writing in English and recently Indian English literature. Now, it is a part of

Commonwealth literatures Post-Colonial studies. This new literature in

English is regarded as an important component of world literature. In spite of

diverse cultures, races and religions, it has successfully recaptured and

reflected the multi-cultural society. As a result, it has created a widespread

interest both in India and abroad.

6
 Yet, one cannot deny the fact that the Indian literary culture has been

fragmented into several regional languages as the creative writers in India

have been writing in regional languages such as Hindi, Kannada, Marathi,

Punjabi, Bengali etc. Therefore, Indian literature has become pan-Indian. As a

matter of fact, no one can overlook the contribution of regional literatures to

Indian English literature and vice-versa. But for the makers of Indian English

literature, English is the language of the expression of their creative urge.

1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN NOVEL IN ENGLISH

The possible literary form for a writer to keep himself always in touch

with the common readers is the fiction. It is in this area we find that the Indian

writers in English have made the most significant contribution. So, of all

genres, the novel is the most popular form today. According to H. M.

Williams (1976: 109), “It is undoubtedly the most popular vehicle for the

transmission of Indian ideas to the wider English speaking world.” We in

India, on a greater extent are indebted to the European and English novel

because as an art form, it has been imported to India from the West. In other

words, it is a gift of Western literature.

In the nineteenth century with the publication of Bunkim Chandra

Chatterjee‟s Rajmohan’s Wife (1864) and Lal Behari Day‟s Govind Samanta

(1874), Indian novel in English has grown by leaps and bounds in respect of

thematic variety and linguistic maturity.

7
 Both of them have used an acquired language to comment on the

Indian social context. But compared to the recent output, most early novels in

English were almost imitative and faulty. It is assumed that Indian novel in

English has its roots in the nineteenth century realistic tradition of English

novel.

The impact of English education, national awakening and the influence

of European models are the chief factors responsible for the rise and

development of Indian novel in English.

But with the passage of time the Indian novel in English has become

thoroughly Indian in terms of the themes, techniques and the human values.

In this regard, Meenakshi Mukherjee (1985: viii) observes that: „The novel in

India can be seen as the product of configurations in philosophical, aesthetic,

economic and political forces in the larger life of the country‟. “Despite

obvious, regional variations, a basic pattern seems to emerge from shared

factors like the Puranic heritage, hierarchical social structure, colonial

education, disjunction of agrarian life and many others that affect the form of

novel as well as its content.”2

In order to understand rise and development of Indian English Novel,

it is necessary to take into consideration its emergence, developing stages and

continuing traditions. The Indian novel in English has-been divided into three

successive periods such as: a) novel from1875 to 1920, b) novel from 1920 to

1947, and c) novel from 1947 onwards, by the Indian scholars likeK.R.S.

8
Iyengar (1962), M.K.Naik (1982) and Meenakshi Mukherjee (1985),

considering the socio-political changes in India before and after the

Independence. On the other hand, the classification of the novel by P.K.Rajan

(1995: 9) refers to a) Early Realism: From 1864 to 1935, b) Critical Realism:

From 1935 to the 1960‟s, c) Modernism: From the 1960s to the1980s, and d)

The New Novel: From 1981 onwards. However, such classification has its

own limitations as placing an individual writer in a specific period creates

several problems. Besides an individual writer practices several literary

modes and values of representation at the time of writing. Hence, the whole

corpus of Indian novel in English may be divided into three broad groups:

a) The traditional novel of social realism before Independence.

b) The modern novel of experimentation after Independence.

c) A new contemporary novel since 1981.

The intellectuals in India before Independence concentrated on the

national awakening and the society in a realistic manner. Bengal seems to be

the source of the Indian novel in English for the prominent pioneers of the

nineteenth century were upper-class Bengali writers, for instance, Bankim

Chandra Chatterjee, Romesh Chandra Dutt, Toru Dutt, and Rabindranath

Tagore, who dealt with the social problems within their reach. These writers

were not merely the imitators of the West but they had in the words of

Meenakshi Mukherjee (1971: 19), “direct involvement in values and

experiences which are valid in the Indian context.” The pioneer novelists were

9
trying to establish a new sense of social morality in place of the age-old social

values. They were social reformers and with them, the novel became an

exercise in social realism.

“The Indian novelists in English have their roots in two traditions the

Indian and the Western. It was a challenge for them to expresses distinctly an

Indian sensibility in an acquired language.”3

Though the novels were being written in the regional languages, for

instance, in Bengali, Hindi, Marathi and Malayalam, they had no English

tradition. Naturally, at the formative stage, the Indian writers were greatly

influenced by the European masterpieces of Leo Tolstoy, Henerie Balzac and

Fyodor Dostoevsky in English translations. There was a great impact of the

novels of the romantics and the early Victorians, Dickens and Thackeray. Yet

they were not the blind imitators of the Western models. On the other hand,

they tried to establish their own tradition of novel writing in accordance with

the age-old Indian tradition of story-telling. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee‟s

only novel in English Rajmohan’s Wife laid down the foundation for the first

generation novelists to record the rich heritage and social transformation in

India. Both the male and female novelists who emphasized their personal and

private experiences followed him. The early novels were, therefore, sketchy,

domestic and aloof from the political happenings. The early novelists depicted

rural and domestic life, filled with superstitions and religious whims, with an

equal emphasis on morals and social ills. In spite of that their creative efforts

10
were very poor:“The deeper issues of national as well as human life do not

enter into their novels. The women writers wrote about nubile romances and

marital male adjustment and their male counterparts wrote about socio-

political issues.”4

There is no comparison between the British women novelists and our

Indian English women novelists. However, their world was different from the

socio-ethical world of the British novelists. The early novelists in India

imitated the Western novel in respect of plot-construction, characterization

and narrative technique.

In spite of this the Indian novel in English has definitely taken many

steps forward after the First World War. The First World War stimulated the

nationalist spirit among the Indians and further the freedom movement led by

Mahatma Gandhi became an all India experience.

Indian Novel in English was affected by socio-political upheavals during the

1930‟s onwards. The writers such as Mulk Raj Anand, R.K.Narayan and Raja

Rao attempted to explore the contemporary Indian society from their specific

views without distorting the reality. They were reformists and didactic, yet,

the motive of propaganda remained with them.

Mulk Raj Anand, R. K. Narayan and Raja Rao emerged on the literary

scene in 1930. It was the real beginning of Indian novel in English. They were

labelled by William Walsh (1990: 62) as “The founding fathers”, “the genuine

novelists”, “and inaugurators of the form.” They made their appearance in the

11
thirties with the publication of Untouchable (1935), Swami and Friends (1935)

and Kanthapura (1938) respectively and established the tradition of Indian

English fiction.

“Indian novel in English around 1930s needed the novelists who could

grasp the social scene with an insight into the human consciousness and who

could interpret the real Indian world, distinctive in themes, issues and

treatment in their fiction”5. Mulk Raj Anand is humanist and a novelist with a

purpose. He writes from his personal experience and the experiences of real

people. For Mulk Raj Anand (2000: 65), the novel is “the creative weapon for

attaining humanness – it is the weapon of humanism.” He writes basically

about the lower class life. Widely read novelist Anand is influenced by

Charles Dickens, H. G. Wells and Tolstoy in both form and characterization.

He followed the ancient Indian tradition of story-telling, but his approach to

themes and events, is of a social realist. Therefore, his novels are the novels of

protest and social realism. Anand is influenced by the two ideologies – the

Western Marxism and the Eastern Gandhism.

He deals with the themes related to human predicament such as protest

against social and industrial evils, the status of women in India, exploitation

caused by caste system, class system and imperialism. G. S. Balarama Gupta

(1977: 115) aptly says, “The moot point to be noted about Anand is that he has

firmly believed in the role of a writer as essentially a crusader in the cause of

humanity: no hotchpotch of Vendanta‟s, no hazy mysticism, but inalienable

12
faith in man”. Anand‟s early novels, Coolie (1936), Two Leaves and a Bud (1937),

Village (1939), Across the Black Waters (1940) The Sword and the Sickle (1942) and

The Big Heart (1942) justify this point, as Anand has brought in them the lower

class down-trodden people such as the scavengers, the coolies, the leather-

workers, and the untouchables who form the bulk of Indian society. His novel

Untouchable is a classic experimentation in respect of theme and technique. It

represents a day from morning till evening in the life of a sweeper boy named

Bakha who is in the words of E. M. Forster (1981: 9) “a real individual, lovable

thwarted, sometimes grand, sometimes weak, and thoroughly Indian.”

R. K. Narayan, on the other hand, is the novelist of middleclass

sensibility. He is a natural story-teller in his novels from Swami and Friends

(1935) to The Painter of Signs (1976). His novels The Bachelor of Arts (1937), The

Dark Room (1938), The English Teacher (1945) and Mr.Sampath (1949) brilliantly

and realistically describe the South-Indian life. William Walsh (1983: 250),

says that R. K. Narayan‟s writing is “a distinctive blend of Western technique

and Eastern material.” The world of R. K. Narayan‟s novels is Malgudi, an

imaginary South-Indian town. In the words of Alan Warner (1961: 190)

Narayan “writes admirably plain English.” His is a very simple and straight-

forward style of narration.

Raja Rao is another prominent Indian novelist writing in English. But

he is not as prolific writer as Mulk Raj Anand and R.K.Narayan. His concern

with philosophical and mythological aspects distinguishes him from Mulk Raj

13
Anand and R. K. Narayan. His first novel Kanthapura, a masterpiece, describes

the village life and peasant sensibility. It shows the influence of Gandhian

ideology on an ordinary Indian. R. K. Srivastava (1987: 15) remarks: “Raja

Rao‟s Kanthapura is a garrulous account of primitivistic, religious, political and

social activities of rural people. The novel is not a two-dimensional picture of

villagers but a colourful audio-visual presentation ….characterizing the entire

country Kanthapura is India in miniature.”

On language crisis, Raja Rao, in his „forward‟ to Kanthapura (1938,rpt.

1971:5-6), says: “We cannot write like English. We should not. We can write

only as Indians. We have grown to look at the large world as part of us.” He

adds that English is “the language of our intellectual make up…. but not of

our emotional make up.” About the rich contribution of Mulk Raj Anand,

R. K. Narayan and RajaRao, the makers of Indian novel in English C.D.

Narasimhaiah (1973: 63) observes that the „human centrality‟ of Mulk Raj

Anand, „the comic as a mode of study in maturity‟ in R. K. Narayan, and the

„metaphysical aspect‟ of Raja Rao have really enriched the realmof Indian

novel in English. Besides, these three stalwarts, K.S.Venkataramani,

A.S.P.Ayyar, Ahmed Ali, Dhan Gopal Mukherji, K. A. Abbas and Humayun

Kabir have also written novels on rural, political and social life of India.

Thus the major contribution to the Indian novel in English in

the pre-Independence era is of men and not of women. Novel became an

established art form in the works of the „Three Musketeers‟ (M. K. Naik, 1977:

14
375) – Mulk Raj Anand, R. K.Narayan and Raja Rao- who were still actively

engaged in creative writing at the turn of the century. The novel form further

evolved and matured in the hands of scholars like Bhabhani Bhattacharya,

Manohar Malgonkar, Khushwant Singh, Chaman Nahal, Arun Joshi, Kamala

Markandaya, Nayantara Sahgal, Anita Desai, Shashi Deshpande etc. in the

post-Independence period.

The post-Independence Indian novel in English has been termed as the

modern novel. It is not radically different from the novel in the pre-

Independence India. It is no longer imitative. Instead, it has the modern

tendencies of experimentation in form, content and technique.

Modernism, though came late to India, it has played an important role

in shaping the second generation novelists such as Bhabhani Bhattacharya, B.

Rajan, Malgonkar, Khushwant Singh, Chaman Nahal, Arun Joshi, Kamala

Markandaya, Ruth PawarJhabvala, Nayantara Sahgal, Anita Desai, Shashi

Deshpande and a few others who have made a tremendous contribution to

novel in the 1950s, 1960s and1970s.

The Indian novelists before Independence were mainly interested in

social, political and historical concerns. But later in 1950s a new kind of novel

dealing with the contemporary issues appeared on the Indian literary scene.

The psychological novel depicting the human personality and inner realities

of life replaced the realistic novel. Makarand Paranjape says (1991: 25), “The

novel interprets or creates reality.” But the novel cannot be realistic or

15
completely devoid of social reality; therefore, there should be balance between

the personal and the social. The novels written in the post-Independence

period successfully render the Indian reality.

A number of novelists like Arun Joshi and Anita Desai have explored

the psychological and sociological conflicts in the social and the individual‟s

life. There is a kind of shift from socio-political concerns to the inner life of

human being. The modern Indian writers write about the socio-cultural

predicament of the modern man. Many modern novels dealt with man‟s

alienation from his self, his class, his society and humanity at large. In other

words, the centre of their novels shifted from the society to an individual. C.

Paul Verghese‟s comment in this regard is worth quoting (1971: 25). Most of

the novelists in their eagerness to find new themes „renounced the larger

world in favour of the inner man‟ and continued „a search for the Essence of

human living‟. It is this trend that continued in the seventies and it also

shaped the novels of the eighties.

Unlike 1930‟s and 50s, the year 1980s marks the significant stage in the

growth and development of Indian novel in English. It is during the 80s that

some very promising Indian English novelists and their novels earned great

honours and distinctions in the academic world. The Indian novel in English

“has now attained luxuriant growth and branched off in more directions than

one,” says R. S. Pathak in his „Preface‟ to Recent Indian Fiction (1994: 9). It

followed a definite pattern of development making tremendous progress in

16
the eighties and nineties in the hands of old masters aswell as the new

talented novelists like Salman Rushdie and others.

Their achievement lies in finding out the new fictional themes and

techniques. In a sense they are contemporary novelists as they deal with the

history of the post-Independence India, the predicament ofthe modern man

and the contemporary reality in modern India. They made the novel a

medium of global expression.

Thus the novel, with the publication of Salman Rushdie‟s Booker prize-

winner Midnights Children (1981) received an international acclaim and

became a major force in the world literature. It has created the Indian tradition

of fiction to which belong “Rushdie‟s Children” (The New York Times, 16

December, 1991), viz. Amitav Ghosh, Vikram Seth, Allan Sealy, Upamanyu

Chatterjee, Shashi Tharoor, Farrukh Dhondy, Rohinton Mistry and Firdaus

Kanga. Each one of them produced prize-winning novel. In their hands, the

Indian novel in English made tremendous progress.

Besides these makers of „new novel‟ some other novelists were

concerned with the life and the experiences of the minorities in India, for

example, Pratap Sharma, Ranga Rao, Boman Desai, Mukunda Rao, Gopal

Gandhi and so many others enriched the realm of Indian novel in English

beyond the expectations. According to K.R.S.Iyengar (1985: 322) novel is “a

living and evolving literary genre, andis trying, in the hands of its

17
practitioners, a fusion of form, substance and expression that is recognizably

Indian yet also bearing the marks of universality.

1.2 CHAMAN NAHAL’ S LIFE AND WORKS:

Chaman Nahal is the most significant novelist of the contemporary

Indian English fiction. He nearly wrote the eight novels. Chaman Nahal, like

Kushwant Singh, is major novelist who spreads himself with the older

generation and also a new.

As a modern novelist, he is like Thomas Hardy a link between the older

generation of Malgoankar and new generation of Arun Joshi. He was born in

the month of August, 1927 in Sialkot “a small town which is now in Pakistan

and lies only a few miles away from the state of Jammu and Kashmir”(SL,1).

He was a Rajastani, born in the family of the goldsmiths. His father was a

“jeweller, a profession which unfortunately carried a stigma in those

times”(SL, 1). Of his mother, Nahal says very little compared what he says

about his father. He says that she had “big, soft eyes ever remained a trifle

frightened”(SL, 14). First, he studied in “Kushal Chand Arya High

School”(SL,7). He had college education in Murray College where the

teaching staff was made of „Scotts and Englishmen‟ and therein he was fed

“with Shakesepare, Jane Austen, and Dickens, the staple fodder of English

teaching in India”(SL,7). Of his acquisition of English language he explains:

“Coming to English, no one in our household spoke language....I began

18
reading English only in V Class, when I was about ten”(SL, 7). He finds the

method of writing scripts of the Persian and Devanagari languages was found

to be more difficult compared to that of English. Of his reading hobby, he says

“I read A Journey to the Centre of the Earth at his prompting, and later the hole

of Jules Verne. Daniel Defoe was my favourite, however”(SL,15). He read the

works of Munsi Premchand, Rattan Nath Sarshar, Kipling, and Tolstoy.

Ramayana and Mahabharatha were the part and parcel of daily life. Of his job,

he says: “My first job was in Government College, Ajmer as a teacher of

English. I was twenty-two then...”(SL,30). Of his later readings, he frankly

admits: “I read through the entire Vedas, the mighty Upanishds, (parts of

Vedas) that brought up instant storms in you. I read Shankara. I read Sri

Aurobindo. I read the Jatakas, filling myself in more fully on the Buddha. I

read about Ashoka and what he did for Buddhism. I read the Chinese

travellers, F-Hein and Hiuen-Tsang, who travelled to India as pilgrims and

wrote on the mighty preceptor. I read about Tibet, about Lhasa, and about the

Dalai Lama”(SL, 33-34). After that short service, he went to work in National

Defence Academy, Khadakvasla, Pune which was a great professional

mistake he did. Because of the stilfing atmosphere of the Academy and his

self-realised superfluous status among the teachers, he left NDA. By that

time, he was married to Sudarshana and he had daughter named Ajantha,

born in 1955. Then he moved on to the University of Delhi in 1957 and later to

the University of Nottingham and returned with a Degree of Doctorate in

19
English. . Since 1949, he has taught in a succession of universities in India; he

became Professor of English at the University of Delhi in 1980. He, as a

professor and novelist, had a career for a period of forty years or so.

He has nearly five novels in addition to his masterpiece The Gandhi

Quartet. His first was the Weird Dance and Other Stories (1965), My True Faces

(1973) is the first novel; Into Another Dawn (1977) was followed it. The next

was the first volume of the Quartet, Azadi (1975). It was followed by another

interesting novel The Sunrise in Fiji (1988) and it was followed by The English

Queens (1979), a satirical novel.

In the later period, Nahal took up the task of writing the Gandhi trilogy

by writing its successive volumes- The Salt of Life (1993), The Triumph of the Tri

–Colour (1993) and The Crown and the Loin Cloth (1993). All volumes put

together with Azadi as the first volume made The Gandhi Quartet which

achieved immense fame and recognition.

The total output of Nahal caught the attention of the scholars and

academics. Many have done critical works on him.

M.K.Naik wrote in his A History of Indian English Literature and other

books. K.R.S. Iyengar also referred to him in his Indian Writing in English in

the section of the historical novelists. There several studies on him especially

on the Gandhi Quartet. Dr A.V. Subha Rayadu from Tirupathi University

worked on the Gandhi Quartet in 2000; Vikas Sharma (2000) worked the

20
historical aspect of his Quartet; Usha Rani (2012) worked on themes of quest

in his novels; Dr.S.R. Ravindranath studied thematically his novels; Dr. Usha

Sasanur (1998) worked on the Gandhi Quartet as a historical novel; G.K.

Badiger (2000) also critically evaluated him as one of the contemporary three

major historical novelists.

Thus, the critics have focused mainly on the historical aspect of the

fiction and neglected other aspect which is found in the novels four

novelslike, My True Faces, The Sunrise in Fiji, Into Another Dawn and The

English Queens. Even his first collection of short stories is beneficial in

understanding the major themes and techniques in the fiction of Chaman

Nahal.

He, at the age of 86, died on 26 November, 2013.

1.3. Hypothesis:

The problem taken up for the present study of the fiction of Chaman

Nahal is a total. This is the marked feature of the thesis whereas other have

studied only the historical fiction and even neglected to study his technical

aspect of it.

The study takes up the detailed and in depth study of the four novels and also

The Gandhi Quartet and the collection of the short stories. It is thematic and

technical aspects of the fiction. It is integrated kind of author study in which

the scholar takes up the analysis of the novels and short stories as well.

21
 This sort of study shall lead to the total and proper evaluation of

Chaman Nahal as a novelist and lead us to prove evaluation in comparison

with other contemporary novelists and recognize him as a major novelist of

modern Indian English fiction.

1.4. Research Methodology:

The methodology adapted is of both of analytical and descriptive

nature. There is also field work of going to place to place in search of

secondary materials and books. Reviews, articles published in different

national magazines and newspapers. In addition to the articles one has to

collect the interview of the novelist if any. The letters written by the author to

his friends and publishers are also important. The field work includes that

kind of going in search of a material concerning the topic.

This is case study of an author which includes the in depth study of all

novels and shorts stories of the writer. That is the reason why the work of

fiction occurs as it includes both novels and short stories as well.

1.5. The Design of the Thesis:

The design of thesis depends on the collection and analytical

interpretation of the novels and short stories.

There shall be five chapters of which the first one deals with the brief

survey of the Indian English fiction with including the literature survey and

biographical details of the author and the chapter design. In this chapter he
22
taken up from the earliest times, and discussed the first major novelists like

Mulk Raj Anand, R.K. Narayan and Raja Rao and also modernists like,

Salman Rushdie and Arundhati Roy. He has reference to the contemporary

historical novelists like Gidwani , Kushwant Singh, Malgoankar and others.

The second chapter takes the novels of first two novels- My True Faces

and Into Another Dawn in depth study from the thematic and technical points

of view- In My True Faces – he focuses on the main theme of the broken

marriage between Kamal Kant and his wife Malti. The quest motif holds the

narrative line. There is sudden takeover to mock-heroic tradition. Into Another

Dawn he focuses on the most popular theme of East-west encounter –Ravi

Sharma going to America and falling in love with an American woman, the

unhappy wife of a business executive.

The third chapter deals with the Sunrise in Fiji and The English Queens

from the thematic and technical points of view- In the former, he focuses on

the theme of quest for happiness in a life of a rich business man named

Harivansh Batra who goes to the island of Fiji and finds nothing. The

meaninglessness is existential theme in this outlandish novel. In the latter, he

focuses the use of supernatural element and extravaganza with the story of

Rekha and the army officer. There is satire at the core of the novel.

The fourth chapter deals with the masterpiece The Gandhi Quartet not

from the historical point of view but from the general point of view of social

23
and domestic themes of love and betrayal of a Hindu boy and a Muslim girl –

Arun and Chandani against the historical backdrop of the freedom struggle.

A summary of the first collection of short stories is also added.

It is micro-level story of love and betrayal between the two dominant

communities obliquely suggest the schism in the Indian nation which led to

the division of the country at the macro level. There, he establishes a

relationship between the story and the history, etc. In context of tradition-

bound modern Indian society inter-religious love never succeeds.

As a novelist Nahal points at the failure of the great principle of love in

the historical process and there is no hatred. Hatred is at the macro level but

love is at the micro level. The contrariness is created by Nahal to show both

are polarities. How the aspirations of the common people were thwarted by

the political and historical forces which became more powerful and dominant.

The fifth chapter is the Conclusion in which the conclusions of all

previous chapters are brought together into one to prove the argument that

Chaman Nahal is one of the major novelists of the cotemporary Indian

English fiction in comparison with the some of the novelists like Kushwant

Singh, Arun Joshi and Manohar Malgoankar, G.S. Gidwani and K.A.Abbas

etc. The major themes are of love, marriage, money and failure of business

and meaninglessness of life and the betrayal on the account of separation in

the affairs of love. These are domestic, social and political and historical. He

24
also focuses on the narrative techniques adapted by Nahal in various novels

in accordance with the themes.

There shall be a comprehensive bibliography on the works of the writer at the

end of the thesis.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/716/5/05

chapter1 .pdf

2. Meenakshi Mukharjee, The Twice Born Fiction,(Delhi: Pencraft

International 2010)

3. Sunanda Mongia, Recent Indian Fiction in English: An Overview,

Spectrum History of Indian Literature in English, ed., Singh Ram

25
 Sewak and Sing CharuSheel, (New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and

Distributors, 1997) 213

4. Indira Bhat and Suja Alexander, Arun Joshi’s Fiction: A Critique, (New

Delhi: Creative Books, 2001)

5. Mehrotra, Arvind, Encyclopaedia of Indian Writing in English. New Delhi:

India Ink, 1990

6. E. M. Forster A Passage to India. Penguin Publications New Delhi,(1981:

9)

7. H. M. Williams (1976: 109)

26