Short Notes On Fluid Mechanics - Chapter 1 - 2 - & - 3

Prepared By : Jitendra Singh Gill (Top educator on UNACADEMY, Ex- Scientific Officer BARC, Ex-Faculty
member MADE EASY and NEXT IAS ), for GATE/ESE Aspirants
Chapter 1 Properties of fluid

 Fluid is a substance that can flow under the action of tangential force (shear stress), no mater how small the shear stress
is
 In fluids, rate of deformation is for more important than total deformation because fluid continues to deform as long as
the external shear forces are applied.
 Fluid cannot resist shear stress under static conditions.
Characteristics of Solid, Liquid and Gas
Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas

1. Response to shear stress Resist total deformation Resist rate of Deformation
2. Compressibility (𝛽) Incompressible Virtually incompressible Compressible
3. Ability of conform to shape of No Yes Yes
container
4. Ability to expand without limits No (Cohesion-max) No Yes
5. Ability to form free surface Yes Yes No
6. Ability to resist small amount of tensile Yes yes No
Properties of fluid
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀 𝑘𝑔
𝟏. 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝝆) = = ( 3) 𝐼𝑛 𝐶𝐺𝑆 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚3 𝑜𝑟 𝑔⁄𝑐𝑐
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣 𝑚
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞 >> 𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑇, 𝑃 1𝑔⁄𝑐𝑐 = 1000 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
𝑃↑ 𝜌↑
𝑇↑ 𝜌↓ Water (for liquids)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1 𝑚3 𝜌𝑤 = 998 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝑎𝑡 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝟐. 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 (𝒗) = = ( )
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝜌 𝑘𝑔
Standard fluid Air/𝐻2 (for gases)

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝟑. 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.2 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝜌𝐻2 = 0.084 𝑘𝑔 ⁄𝑚3 𝑎𝑡 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑔 𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 20 ℃
𝟒. 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝜸) = = = 𝜌𝑔 ( 3 ) ⟹ 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣 𝑚
𝑑𝑣
−𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣 1 𝑑𝜌
𝟓. 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝜷) = = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑝 𝜌 𝑑𝑃
−(𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ) → −𝑣𝑒
𝛽=
𝑉𝑖 (𝑃𝑓 − 𝑃𝑖 ) → +𝑣𝑒
1
⟹ Isothermal compressibility for ideal gas 𝛽𝑇 =
𝑃
1
⟹ Adiabatic compressibility for ideal gas 𝛽𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎 =
𝛾𝑃
𝛽𝑖𝑠𝑜 > 𝛽𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎

1
𝟔. 𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 (𝑲) 𝐾 =
𝛽
𝐾𝑎𝑖𝑟 < 𝐾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
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⟹ Adiabatic bulk modulus
1 𝑑𝑃
𝐾𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎 = = 𝜌( ) = 𝑟𝑝
𝛽𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑑𝜌 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎
As per Newton’s law of viscosity: Shear stress is directly proportional to rate of shear strain.
𝒅𝒖
𝝉=𝝁
𝒅𝒚
𝟏. Dynamic viscosity (𝝁): SI unit - 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑆 ; MKS unit ; 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠 CGS Unit 𝑔/𝑐𝑚 ∙ 𝑠
1𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.1 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠
𝟐. 𝝊 = Kinematic viscosity: SI unit - 𝑚2 /𝑠 ; MKS unit ; 𝑚2 /𝑠 CGS Unit 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠
1 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 10−4 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠
Effect of temperature on viscosity
Liquid 𝑇↑ 𝜇𝑙𝑖𝑞 ↓
Gas 𝑇↑ 𝜇𝑔𝑎𝑠 ↑
Effect of pressure on viscosity
Liquid 𝑃↑ 𝜇𝑙𝑖𝑞 (𝑁𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) 𝜐𝑙𝑖𝑞 (𝑁𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)
Gas 𝑃↑ 𝜇𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝑁𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) 𝜐𝑔𝑎𝑠 ↓
Classification of fluids
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑛
𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜏=𝜇 ; 𝑁𝑜𝑛-𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜏 = 𝐴( ) +𝐵
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Non-Newtonian fluids
Non-Newtonian fluid
𝑑𝑢 𝑛
𝜏 = 𝐴( ) +𝐵
𝑑𝑦
Time-dependent: Time-independent
𝑑𝑢 𝑛 Diltant fluid (𝑛 > 1, 𝐵 = 0)
Thixotropic fluid 𝜏 = 𝐴 +𝐵 (𝑛 < 1, 𝐵 ≠ 0)
𝑑𝑦 Pseudoplastic fluid (𝑛 < 1, 𝐵 = 0)
𝑑𝑢 𝑛
Rheopectic 𝜏 = 𝐴 +𝐵 (𝑛 > 1, 𝐵 ≠ 0) Bingham plastic fluid (𝑛 = 1, 𝐵 ≠ 0
𝑑𝑦
Surface Tension:
 All molecules on liquid surface experiences a net inward pull due to which there is tension in the liquid surface. This
tension is called surface tension.
 Due to surface tension, liquid tries to minimize surface area hence drops are spherical in shape. For given volume sphere
has minimum surface area.
 Due to surface tension, liquid behaves like stretched elastic membrane because of which:
Follow on :
1. Small insects can walk on the liquid surface.

2. Small needle can float on liquid surface.
 Surface tension force acts along a line. (line force) 𝜎 = 𝐹 ⁄𝐿 𝑁/𝑚
 Surface tension is a binary property of fluid and depends on combination of fluid resent at the interface.
 Surface tension is also defined as Surface energy per unit surface area
Youngs ‘s Laplace equation
1 1
∆𝑃 = 2𝜎 ( + )
𝑅1 𝑅2
Special case
2𝜎
1. 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑃 =
𝑅
4𝜎
2. 𝑆𝑜𝑎𝑝 𝑏𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 ∆𝑃 =
𝑅
𝜎
3. 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑗𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑃 =
𝑅
2𝜎
4. 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 ∆𝑃 =
𝑅
Wetting fluid Non-Wetting fluid
1. Adhesive force > cohesive force 1. Cohesive force > Adhesive force
2. 𝜃 < 900 (Actual angle) 2. 𝜃 > 900 (obtuse angle)
3. Capillary rise 3. Capillary fall
4. Meniscus is concave up 4. Meniscus is convex up or concave down
Capillarity:
2𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟
𝜌 𝑟𝑔
Vapour pressure
 The pressure of vapours of liquid when both are in phase equilibrium is known as vapour pressure of liquid.
 With increase in temperature, vapour pressure increases.
 For boiling of liquid to take place, vapour pressure must be equal to atmospheric pressure.
 At 20 ℃ , vapour pressure of water = 2.34 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Chapter 2 Fluid Statics

Pressure:
 Pressure is a scalar quantity

 Pressure is always defined at a point.
 Pressure is defined only for fluids, not for solids. The counterpart of it in solids is compressive stress.
Pascal’s Law: As per pascal’s law pressure at a point in fluid is same in all the directions or pressure at a point in the fluid is
independent of orientation.
Follow on :
Spatial variation of pressure in static fluid:
∇𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔⃗ (𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐)
Hydrostatic Paradox: Pressure at a point in the fluid depends upon its depth from the free surface and specific weight of the
fluid and is independent of the shape of the container.
Units of pressure
(1) 1 𝑃𝑎 = 1𝑁/𝑚2
(2) 1 𝐵𝑎𝑟 = 105 𝑃𝑎
(3) 1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.01325 𝐵𝑎𝑟 = 1.01325 × 105 𝑃𝑎.
(4) 1 𝑘𝑔𝑓⁄𝑐𝑚2 = 9.81 × 104 𝑁⁄𝑚2
(5) 1 𝑃𝑠𝑖 = 6888.1 𝑃𝑎
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 14.7 𝑃𝑠𝑖
(6) 𝑋 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
(7) 1 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 = 132.92 𝑃𝑎
Barometer : Use to measure atmospheric pressure
 Mercury is used in barometer because of high density and low vapour pressure.
 If a hole is drilled in the barometric tube at the top, all the mercury in the column will fall down and gets collected in
the vessel.
Piezometer: It is a straight glass tube, one end of which is open to atmosphere and other is connected to the place where
pressure is to be measured
Limitation of Piezometer
 Cannot be used to measure vacuum pressure (Air will enter the pipe).
 Cannot be used when working fluid is gas.
 Cannot be used to measure very high pressure (ℎ ↑)
 Cannot be used to measure gauge pressure of higher fluid.
 Can be used to measure low and medium of liquids only.
⟹ Flat surface
 𝐹 = (𝜌𝑔ℎ)𝐴 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚

𝐼𝐶𝐺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
 ℎ𝑐𝑝 = ℎ +
𝐴ℎ
 Point of application of hydrostatic force is centroid of pressure prism
 Centre of pressure lies below centroid and both coincide for horizontal surface (𝜃 = 00 ).
 For homogenous fluid, location of centre of pressure is independent of the density of the fluid.
 As depth increases, centre of pressure comes closer to centroid.
⟹ Curved surface
𝐹𝐻 = [𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒] × 𝐴𝐻

𝐼𝐶𝐺
ℎ𝑐𝑝 = ℎ𝐶𝐺 +
𝐴𝐻 × ℎ𝐶𝐺
Follow on :
𝐹𝑉 = 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
Force of Buoyancy
 Magnitude = weight of the displaced fluid

 Point of application is known as centre of buoyancy which is centre of mass of displaced volume.
 Direction = vertically upward
 Force of buoyancy = Net hydrostatic force exerted by the fluid on the body immersed in a continuous homogeneous
fluid.
Types of equilibrium
1. Stable equilibrium
𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0; 𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0
Object in equilibrium if distributed from its state will come back to its original
equilibrium state.
2. unstable equilibrium
If disturbed, will move away from its equilibrium state
3. Neutral equilibrium
Attains equilibrium even in new state.
Rotational stability of completely submerged body
 Unstable equilibrium
 𝐺 above 𝐵
 Overturning couple
Follow on :
 Stable equilibrium
 𝐵 above 𝐺
 Restoring couple
 Neutral equilibrium
 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 coincide
 No couple
Rotational stability of floating body
 stable equilibrium
 𝑀 above 𝐺
 Restoring couple
 𝐺𝑀 > 0
 Unstable equilibrium
 𝑀 below 𝐺
 Overturning couple
 𝐺𝑀 < 0
 Neutral equilibrium
 𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 coincide
 No couple
 𝐺𝑀 = 0
Follow on :
𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐼𝑦𝑦
𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 ∶ Angular movement about longitudinal axis is known as rolling. 𝐵𝑀𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐺𝑀𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = − 𝐵𝐺
𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑
𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 ∶Angular movement about transverse axis is known as pitching 𝐵𝑀𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐺𝑀𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 = − 𝐵𝐺
𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑
𝐺𝑀 = 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑀 = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
Rolling is more dangerous than pitching
𝑘2
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠; 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡; 𝐾 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐺𝑀 × 𝑔
Experimental Method for determining Metacentric height
𝒑𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝑮𝑴 = 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑷 𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌
𝑾
Chapter 3 Fluid kinematics

Study of motion of fluid without studying the basic cause of motion
1. Lagrangian approach:
 Trace each and every fluid particle and write kinematic parameter for them
 Conservation of mass is inherent to Lagrangian approach
 Parametric equations: 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑥(𝑡) , 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧𝑝 = 𝑧(𝑡)
2. Eulerian approach (Control volume approach) :
field variable 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
Scaler field variable Vector field variable

𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) 𝑎(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
 Specify 𝑎 region and write field variable

 Conservation of mass needs to be checked.
⟹ Mass flow rate at any cross-section
Follow on :
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌(𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝑉
⃗⃗ ) = 𝜌|𝐴||𝑉| cos 𝜃
⟹ Conservation of mas applied to control volume
𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑉

𝑚̇𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
For steady state, 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
Continuity equation (conservation of mass)

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝜌
(𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣) + (𝜌𝑤) + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
∇ ∙ (𝜌𝑣⃗) + =0 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝜌𝑣⃗ ) + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Every possible velocity field has to satisfy continuity equation.
⟹ How to find out rate of change of field variable
𝐷 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝐷 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒; (𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑤 + ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕
= 𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝜕𝑡
⟹ Compressible flow and incompressible flow
𝑫𝝆 𝑫𝝆
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 − =𝟎 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 − ≠𝟎
𝑫𝒕 𝑫𝒕
Case-1: unsteady and compressible flow 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
∇ ∙ (𝜌𝑣⃗ ) + =0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝜌𝑣⃗ ) + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Case-2: steady and compressible flow ∇ ∙ (𝜌𝑣⃗ ) = 0
Case-3: unsteady and incompressible flow ∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗ = 0

Case-4: steady and incompressible flow ∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗ = 0
𝐷𝑉 𝜕𝑉
⟹ 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅: 𝑎⃗ = ⃗⃗ ∙ ∇)𝑉 +
= (𝑉
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
−2𝑄 2 (𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )
⟹ 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆: 𝑎𝑥𝑐 =
𝜋 2 𝐿𝑟𝑥5
[(+𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔) &(−𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔)]
Follow on :
𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑄
⟹ 𝑳𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆: = ( )
𝜕𝑡 𝜋𝑟𝑥2 𝜕𝑡
S. No. Types of flow Example Local acceleration Convective acceleration
1 Steady and uniform Flow through a duct of constant 0 0
c/s area at constant 𝑄
2 Unsteady and uniform Flow through a constant c/s area Exist 0
duct with varying Q or volume
flow rate
3 Steady and non-uniform Flow through a duct with varying 0 Exist
c/s and constant Q
4 Unsteady and non-uniform Flow through a duct with varying Exist Exist
c/s area and varying Q
Acceleration in polar co-ordinate form:
𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝜕𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝜃2 𝜕𝑉𝑟
𝑎𝑟 = 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑉𝜃 + 𝑉𝑧 − +
𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑉𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝜃 𝑧 𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝜃 𝜕𝑉𝜃
𝑎𝜃 = 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑉𝜃 + 𝑉𝑧 + +
𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝑡
𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉𝑧
𝑎𝑧 = 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑉𝜃 + 𝑉𝑧 +
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Flow visualization technique
1. Streamline:
 It is an imaginary line drawn in the flow field such that tangent to it at any point gives direction of local velocity vector.
 It is drawn at a particular time instant.

 Velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the streamline.
 Two streamlines cannot interest each other.
 There is no mass flow rate across a streamline
 Solid surfaces behave like streamline and vice-versa is also true.

Flow parallel to surface
 For unsteady flow, streamline pattern changes with time whereas for steady flow, streamline pattern is invariant with
⃗⃗ is not changing with time so streamline pattern is also same
time. 𝑉
Equation of streamline:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤
Follow on :
Pathline:
 It is actual path traced by a fluid particle over an

interval of time
Example: to study the path of a dye particle injected
 Two pathline intersect each other.
 Not imaginary (unlike streamline)
 Drawn for individual particle (unlike streamline)
Streakline:
 It is a line joining the location of different fluid particles at a

particular time instant that has passed through a fixed point in
the flow field.
 For steady flow, streamline, pathline, streakline coincide
 Streakline is the easiest to draw
Acceleration in streamline co-ordinate system

𝝏𝒗 𝝏𝒗 −𝒗𝟐
⃗⃗ = (𝒗
𝒂 + ) 𝒆̂𝒔 + ( ) 𝒆̂𝒏
𝝏𝒔 𝝏𝒕 𝒓
Translation with linear deformation:
Fluid element Motion and deformation
1. Pure translation:
 There is no change in linear dimension as well as angle included in between two mutually perpendicular lines
 Fluid element is displaced parallel to itself.
 Velocity vector is also known a rate of translational vector.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
∈̇𝑥𝑥 = ∈̇𝑦𝑦 = ∈̇𝑧𝑧 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝜀̇𝑣 = + + = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝜀̇𝑣 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒;
Translation with angular deformation and rotation:
Follow on :
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣
𝛾̇𝑥 𝑦 = + ; 𝛾̇𝑦𝑧 = + ;
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝛾̇𝑧𝑥 = +
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒓 (𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒓)

𝑣⃗ = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑖̂ + 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑗̂ + 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑘̂
𝜀̇𝑥𝑥 𝛾̇ 𝑥 𝑦/2 𝛾̇ 𝑥 𝑧/2
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜀̇𝑖𝑗 = [𝛾̇ 𝑦 𝑥/2 𝜀̇𝑦𝑦 𝛾̇ 𝑦 𝑧/2 ] 𝛾̇𝑥 𝑦 = + ; 𝛾̇𝑦𝑧 = + ; 𝛾̇𝑧𝑥 = +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
𝛾̇ 𝑧 𝑥/2 𝛾̇ 𝑧 𝑦/2 𝜀̇𝑧𝑧
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒓 (𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒓)

𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = [𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ] 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜇 𝛾̇𝑥 𝑦 ; 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜇 𝛾̇𝑦𝑧 ; 𝑟̇𝑧𝑥 = 𝜇 𝛾𝑧𝑥
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧
Incompressible flow
Normal stress
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇𝜀̇𝑥𝑥 ; 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇𝜀̇𝑦𝑦 ; 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇𝜀̇𝑧𝑧
Compressible flow
2 2 2
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇𝜀̇𝑥𝑥 − 𝜇(∇. 𝑣⃗); 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇𝜀̇𝑦𝑦 − 𝜇(∇. 𝑣⃗); 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = −𝑃 + 2𝜇𝜀̇𝑧𝑧 − 𝜇(∇. 𝑣⃗)
3 3 3
Under following situations, stress at a point will be same in all direction.
1. Fluid under static condition
2. Ideal fluid
3. Uniform flow
−𝑃 0 0
1) Fluid at rest, i.e., static conditions 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = [ 0 −𝑃 0 ]
0 0 −𝑃
−𝑃 0 0
2) Ideal fluid 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = [ 0 −𝑃 0 ]
0 0 −𝑃
−𝑃 0 0
3) Uniform flow 𝜎𝑖𝑗 = [ 0 −𝑃 0 ]
0 0 −𝑃
1 1
⟹ 𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚: 𝜔 ⃗⃗ = (∇ × 𝑉 ⃗⃗ ) = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗ 𝑉𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦: Ω = ∇ × 𝑣⃗ = 2𝜔 ⃗⃗
2 2
𝜔
⃗⃗ = 𝜔𝑦𝑧𝑖̂ + 𝜔𝑧𝑥𝑗̂ + 𝜔𝑥𝑦𝑘̂
 If angular velocity, 𝜔 = 0, flow is irrotational, i.e. fluid particle is not rotating about its mass centre.
 If 𝜔 ≠ 0, flow is rotational, i.e., fluid particles are rotating about its mass centre.
⟹ Velocity potential function
Irrotational flow: 𝜔 ⃗⃗ = 0; ∇ × 𝑣⃗ = 0
𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) scalar smooth function of space & time
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
In scalar form: 𝑢 = − ; 𝑣=− ; 𝑤=−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
In Polar form: 𝑣𝑟 = − ; 𝑣𝜃 = − ; 𝑣𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
For incompressible flow: ∇2 . 𝜙 = 0; 𝜙 has to satisfy Laplace equation to represent possible flow field.
 𝜙 is defined only for irrotational flow
Follow on :
 It is defined for 2𝐷 as well as 3D flow.

 It is defined only for incompressible flow.
Equipotential line (𝝓 = 𝒄):

𝑑𝑦 −𝑢
2𝐷 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑣
Stream function 𝝍(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒕): Stream function is a scalar smooth function of space and time
𝜕𝜓 −𝜕𝜓
𝐋𝐞𝐟𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑢 = 𝑣=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
−𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝐑𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑢 = 𝑣=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜓 −𝜕𝜓
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒄𝒐 − 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 ∶ 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 =
𝑟𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
 Stream function is defined only for 2𝐷 flow

 Stream function is defined for both rotational and irrotational.
 For irrotationality: ∇2 𝜓 = 0
 Stream function is constant along steam line:
𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒: = 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑣 𝑢
 Equipotential line and streamline are orthogonal to each other except at the stagnation point.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −𝑢 𝑣
 × = × = −1
𝑑𝑥 𝜓=𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝜙=𝑐 𝑣 𝑢
 Point with zero velocity in the flow field is Stagnation point.
 Difference in the value of stream function gives discharge between two streamlines per unit width perpendicular to
the plane.
Cauchy Riemann equation

−𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜓 −𝜕𝜙 −𝜕𝜓
= ; =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Circulation: it is line integral of tangential component of velocity around a closed curve in flow field.
Γ = 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝐴 [valid only when enclosed area 𝐴 do not contain any singular point]
Flow net: It is a graphical representation of flow field using equipotential lines and stream lines.
𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘: 𝜙 = −𝑢0 𝑥 + 𝑐; 𝜙 = −𝑢0 𝑥

𝜓 = 𝑢0 𝑦 + 𝐶; 𝜓 = 𝑢0 𝑦
In polar co-ordinates: 𝜙 = −𝑢0 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ; 𝜓 = 𝑢0 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Follow on :
2. Source flow and sink flow: pure radial flow.

⟹ Source flow
𝑄 1 𝑄
𝑣𝑟 = × ; 𝑣𝜃 = 0; 𝑞= = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐿 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿
𝜙 = 𝑚 ln 𝑟 + 𝐶
𝑞
𝜓 = 𝑚𝜃 + 𝐶 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 =
2𝜋
⟹ Sink flow: Streamline arc radially inward
𝜙 = 𝑚 ln 𝑟
𝜓 = −𝑚𝜃 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑞/2𝜋
+ve charge – source
-ve charge – sink
Electric field lines – streamlines
⟹ Combination of source and skink
𝑦
tan 𝜃1 =
𝑥+𝑎
𝑦
tan 𝜃2 =
𝑥−𝑎
 Note: 𝜙 & 𝜓 are alternative ways of expressing velocity
2 𝑎 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝜓 = −𝑚 tan−1 ( 2 )
𝑟 − 𝑎2
Follow on :
⟹ Doublet
−𝜆 sin 𝜃
𝜓𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡 =
𝑟
𝜆 cos 𝜃
𝜙=
𝑟
𝜆 is strength of doublet.
⟹ Flow past a cylinder kept in uniform flow:
𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎2
𝜓 = 𝑢0 𝑟 sin 𝜃 − ; 𝜓 = 𝑢0 𝑟 sin 𝜃 (1 − 2 ) ; 𝑣𝜃 = −𝑢0 𝑟 sin 𝜃 (1 − 2 ) ; 𝑣𝑟 = −𝑢0 𝑟 (1 − 2 ) cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝐶𝑝 = 1 − 4 sin2 𝛽
S. N. Name Combination (and Flow description) Equation of Stream function

1 Rankine half body source flow + uniform flow (curved, roughly, 𝜓 = 𝑈𝑟 sin 𝜃 + 𝑚𝜃
elliptical half body)
2 Rankine oval Source + sink + uniform flow (cylindrical oval 𝜓 = 𝑈𝑟 sin 𝜃 + 𝑚(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
shaped body)
3 Circular cylinder Uniform flow + Doublet (circular cylinder) 𝜆 sin 𝜃
𝜓 = 𝑈𝑟 sin 𝜃 −
𝑟
4 Rotating circular Uniform flow + Doublet + vortex (rotating circular 𝜆 sin 𝜃
𝜓 = 𝑈𝑟 sin 𝜃 − − 𝑘 ln 𝑟
cylinder cylinder) 𝑟
𝜆 is strength of doublet; 𝑚 is strength of source
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Short Notes On Fluid Mechanics - Chapter 1 - 2 - & - 3

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Prepared By : Jitendra Singh Gill (Top educator on UNACADEMY, Ex- Scientific Officer BARC, Ex-Faculty

member MADE EASY and NEXT IAS ), for GATE/ESE Aspirants

Chapter 1 Properties of fluid

Characteristics of Solid, Liquid and Gas

Characteristic Solid Liquid Gas

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1 𝑚3 𝜌𝑤 = 998 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝑎𝑡 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

Standard fluid Air/𝐻2 (for gases)

𝛽𝑖𝑠𝑜 > 𝛽𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎

𝐾𝑎𝑖𝑟 < 𝐾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

⟹ Adiabatic bulk modulus

1𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.1 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠

𝟐. 𝝊 = Kinematic viscosity: SI unit - 𝑚2 /𝑠 ; MKS unit ; 𝑚2 /𝑠 CGS Unit 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠

Effect of temperature on viscosity

Effect of pressure on viscosity

Liquid 𝑃↑ 𝜇𝑙𝑖𝑞 (𝑁𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) 𝜐𝑙𝑖𝑞 (𝑁𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)

Gas 𝑃↑ 𝜇𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝑁𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) 𝜐𝑔𝑎𝑠 ↓

1. Small insects can walk on the liquid surface.

Youngs ‘s Laplace equation

2. 𝜃 < 900 (Actual angle) 2. 𝜃 > 900 (obtuse angle)

3. Capillary rise 3. Capillary fall

4. Meniscus is concave up 4. Meniscus is convex up or concave down

Chapter 2 Fluid Statics

 Pressure is a scalar quantity

Spatial variation of pressure in static fluid:

∇𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔⃗ (𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐)

(2) 1 𝐵𝑎𝑟 = 105 𝑃𝑎

(3) 1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.01325 𝐵𝑎𝑟 = 1.01325 × 105 𝑃𝑎.

(4) 1 𝑘𝑔𝑓⁄𝑐𝑚2 = 9.81 × 104 𝑁⁄𝑚2

(5) 1 𝑃𝑠𝑖 = 6888.1 𝑃𝑎

1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 14.7 𝑃𝑠𝑖

(6) 𝑋 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛

(7) 1 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 = 132.92 𝑃𝑎

Barometer : Use to measure atmospheric pressure

 𝐹 = (𝜌𝑔ℎ)𝐴 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚

𝐹𝐻 = [𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒] × 𝐴𝐻

𝐹𝑉 = 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

 Magnitude = weight of the displaced fluid

If disturbed, will move away from its equilibrium state

Attains equilibrium even in new state.

Rotational stability of completely submerged body

Rotational stability of floating body

𝐺𝑀 = 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑀 = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

Rolling is more dangerous than pitching

Experimental Method for determining Metacentric height

Chapter 3 Fluid kinematics

2. Eulerian approach (Control volume approach) :

field variable 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

Scaler field variable Vector field variable

 Specify 𝑎 region and write field variable

⟹ Mass flow rate at any cross-section

⟹ Conservation of mas applied to control volume

𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑉

Continuity equation (conservation of mass)

Case-3: unsteady and incompressible flow ∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗ = 0

 It is drawn at a particular time instant.

 There is no mass flow rate across a streamline

 Solid surfaces behave like streamline and vice-versa is also true.

 It is actual path traced by a fluid particle over an