Laminar and Turbulent flows Reynolds experiment

Laminar Flow
●slow flow motion
●smooth paths in laminas/layers (i.e., limited cross layer mass transfer)
y
smooth

Real fluids
particle
paths

v
Turbulent flow
●unpredictable behaviour
●strong mixing (i.e., large cross flow direction transport)
●broad spectrum of time and length scales
y
chaotic
particle
paths From Rott, N., 1990. Note on the History of the Reynolds
Number. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 22(1): 1-12.
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P1 4 P1 5

Reynolds experiment: laminar, transitional or turbulent Transition between laminar and turbulent flow
ρVL VL
Reynolds number: Re = =
µ ν
M 
Laminar flow ρ = fluid density 3
,e.g.,kg/m3 
L 
M 
µ = dynamic viscosity  ,e.g.,Pa.s; kg/ms; Ns/m 2 
Transitional flow  LT 
 L2 
ν = kinematic viscosity  ,e.g., m 2 /s 
T 
Turbulent flow
L = appropriate length ( L,e.g., m )
A
DH = 4 = equivalent pipe diameter or hydraulic diameter ( L, e.g., m )
Pw

(Chanson 2009)

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P1 6 P1 9

Transition between laminar and turbulent flow Transition between laminar and turbulent flow
ρVL VL Industrial pipes
Reynolds number: Re = = ● Laminar flow: Re < 103 to 3×103
µ ν ● Turbulent flow: Re > 5×103 to 104
Appropriate length
● pipe: D = pipe diameter Laminar flow Turbulent flow

A
● Open channel: DH = 4 = equivalent pipe diameter or hydraulic diameter
Pw
A = cross section area ( L2 , e.g., m 2 ) ks
f
Pw = wetted perimeter ( L, e.g., m ) D

● Fluid drag on cylinders and spheres: ∅ = cylinder/sphere diameter

● Fluid drag on plates: x = distance from leading edge of the plate

δ = boundary layer thickness

CIVL4160, DPC
P1 10
CIVL4160, DPC Re P1 11

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 Transition between laminar and turbulent flow Transition between laminar and turbulent flow
Other flows Other flows
Transition laminar-turbulent eg, free-falling spheres: Transition, cont’d

= f ( inflow conditions, boundary conditions,...)

ρV ∅
eg, free-falling spheres: Transition Re = ∈ [1;1000]
µ
g ρ ( s − 1) π6 ∅ 3 4 g ( s − 1) ∅
4 ∅
CD =
FD
= = CD = g ( s − 1) 2
1
2 ρV 2 A 1
2 ρV 2 π4 ∅2 3V 2 3 V

FD = drag force (ML/T 2 )

s = specific gravity (-)
Stokes’ law
∅ = diameter (L)

Drag coefficient for a smooth solid sphere

from: Loth, E., 2008. Drag of non-
spherical solid particles of regular and
ρV ∅
Re =
irregular shape. Powder Technology,

µ
182(3): 342-353.
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P1 12 P1 13

Shear stress τ Shear stress τ

∂vx
Laminar flow. τ = µ
∂y
Question: What is shear stress?
∂vx ∂v
Turbulent flow. τ = ( µ + ρν T ) ≈ ρν T x
∂y ∂y
 M Pa 
τ = shear stress  ,e.g.,
 LT
2
N/m 2 

solid block M 
ρ = fluid density 3
,e.g.,kg/m 3 
L 
 Pa.s 
µ = dynamic viscosity  
M
,e.g., kg/ms 
 LT Ns/m 2 

 L2 
ν = kinematic viscosity  ,e.g., m 2 /s 
T 
Shear stress (τ) is a force per unit area applied parallel to the material face.  L2 
Shear stress is different from normal stress which is applied perpendicularly. ν T = momentum exchange coefficient  ,e.g., m 2 /s 
Shear stress occurs in regions of real fluid flow where the spatial velocity gradient T 
is non-zero. = property of the flow motion (not a fluid property)
= "eddy viscosity"
= f ( x, y, z , t )
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P1 14 P1 15

Shear stress τ Shear stress τ Example: Couette flow between two plats
∂vx
Laminar flow. τ = µ
∂y
Key property: τ ( y ) = constant = τ 0
∂vx ∂v
Turbulent flow. τ = ( µ + ρν T ) ≈ ρν T x
∂y ∂y FOR both laminar and turbulent Couette flows

τ 0 = τ ( y = 0 ) = boundary shear stress D

Laminar flow solution
τ
shear velocity = V* = 0
ρ dV  v y
τ =µ =
 V dimensions: L ,e.g.,m/s 
 *  dy  V0 D
 T   ⇒ V =0
dV V0  V
= τ ( y) = τ0 = µ 0
dy D  D

Turbulent velocity distribution is a much longer story, see Schlichting and Gersten
(2000) pages 517-540

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P1 16 P1 17

dpc: 4/9/2010 p2
 Tutorial Questions: 1 & 2 Real fluid flows: Introduction to turbulence
Text questions: All questions on p237-239 Turbulence
● unpredictable, pseudo-random behaviour
Worked Examples (looks random but has non-zero autocorrelation at near zero lags)
P1/1: Law of the Wall ● very-strong mixing properties
P1/2: Couette flow ● broad spectrum of time and length scales
0.9

Rii (1) = 0
0.8

v Rii (1) = 0.5

0.7

Rii (1) = 0.7

0.6
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

t
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P1 18 P2 19

Real fluid flows: Introduction to turbulence Turbulence characteristics (statistics)

Reynolds stresses (= Turbulent stresses, units: M/LT2, e.g., Pa, N/m2)
“turbulence is a three-dimensional time-dependent motion in
which vortex stretching causes velocity fluctuations to spread ● ρ vi′v′j = product of instantaneous velocity fluctuations times density
to all wavelengths between a minimum determined by viscous Flux of x-momentum in y-direction induces an additional shear stress
forces and a maximum determined by the boundary condition ● (Reynolds stress ρ v′x v′y ) in x-direction acting on the surface element
of the flow” Bradshaw (1971, p17) normal to y-direction.

Turbulence characteristics (statistics) ● Reynolds stress = transport effect resulting from turbulent motion
vx , v y , vz : (i.e., property of the flow motion not the fluid itself)
v = instantaneous velocity ( LT -1 ) y x = streamwise direction
y = direction normal to boundary ● ρ vi′v′j = f ( x, y, z , t )
v = time-averaged velocity
z = transverse direction  ρ vx′ vx′
v ' = v − v = instantaneous velocity fluctuation ● Reynolds stress tensor ρ v′y v′ x ρ vz vx′ 
 
= turbulent velocity fluctuation  ρ vx′ v′y
z
Normal stress ρ vi′vi′ ρ v′y v′ y ρ v′z v′ y 
 
Tangential stress ρ vi′v′j (i ≠ j )  ρ v′ v′ ρ v′y v′z ρ vz′ v′ z 
x  x z
symmetrical tensor
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P2 20 P2 22

Turbulence characteristics (statistics) Turbulence characteristics (statistics)

Turbulence statistics Turbulence statistics
“the small departures from a Gaussian probability distribution are the most
● interesting features of the turbulence: for instance, the triple products like ● Velocity components (i.e., vx , v y , vz )
mean (median); standard deviation; skewness; kurtosis
vx′ vx′ v′y , which would be zero in a Gaussian process, are connected with
energy transfer by the turbulence” Bradshaw (1971, p22) from web

e.g., PDF of longitudinal velocity vx in a developing boundary layer above skewness

a rough plate (see Chanson 2009 p247 for details)

PDF 0.12
data
0.6
Gaussian distribution +ve kurtosis
0.08
zero kurtosis
kurtosis -ve kurtosis
0.04

0
0
-4 0 4
7 8 9 10 11 12 13

vx [m/s]
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 Turbulence characteristics (statistics) Turbulence characteristics (statistics)
Turbulence statistics Turbulence statistics
ρ v′v′
● Reynolds stress tensor components (i.e., i j ) Integral turbulent time scale TE
mean (median); standard deviation; skewness; kurtosis Rough measure of the longest
● Eulerian autocorrelation and turbulent time scales connection in turbulent
1 N −k behaviour of v′i . That is, TE is
v′ ( t ) vi′ ( t + τ ) ∑ vi′ ( t = tn ) vi′ ( t = tn + k ) linked to large vortical structures.
Rii (τ ) = i ⇒ Rii (τ k ) ≈ N − k n =1 N (dimensionless quantity)
vi′ 2 1
∑  vi′ ( t = tn )
2
Coherent velocity structures are
N n=1  less dissipative than micro scale
Dissipation turbulent time scale τ Ex turbulence.
Measure of the most rapid +∞ tR ii = 0
changes that occur in the TE = ∫ Rii (τ ) dτ ≈ ∫ Rii (τ ) dτ
fluctuation ( vi′ ) and is a measure τ =0 τ =0

of turbulent energy dissipation at (TE dimensions: T, e.g., s )

small or micro-scale.
τ Ex estimated from curvature of
the autocorrelation function at τ = 0
(some text: Taylor micro scale.)
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P2 25 P2 26

Tutorial Questions: 3 & 4 Mean flow equations

Text Questions: 1, 2, and 3 on p257-262
● Total, mean and fluctuating velocity components v = v + v′
Worked Examples 1 t +T
where v = ∫ v ( t ) dt {careful selection of T is required for unsteady flow}.
P2: Calculation of turbulent statistics 2T t −T
1.2
v

0.8

0.4
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

0.1 v′
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P2 27 P3 28

Mean flow equations Mean flow equations

Continuity of mass equation for incompressible turbulent steady flow motion Replacing instantaneous velocity and pressure with vi = vi + vi′ and P = P + p′
∂vx ∂v y ∂vz ∂ ∂ ∂
( vx + v′x ) + ( vy + v′y ) + ( vz + v′z ) = 0
and time averaging the momentum (Navier-Stokes) equations yields,
+ + = 0 OR
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z z ∂vi ∂z ∂P z ∂  ∂v 
Time averaging the continuity equation yields, noting that v′ = 0
∑ ρv j = −ρ g 0 − +∑  µ i − ρ vi′v′j  for i = x, y, z
j=x ∂x j ∂xi ∂xi j = x ∂x j  ∂x j 
∂vx ∂v y ∂vz ∂vx′ ∂v′y ∂v′z
+ + = 0 AND + + =0 which is known as the Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations.
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z Time averaging has introduced the turbulent stress term into the equations of
Continuity of momentum equation for incompressible steady motion steady flow motion. Consequently, the RANS equations requires six additional
terms, three normal stresses or ρ vi′vi′ and three tangential stresses or ρ vi′v′j
 ∂vx ∂v ∂v  ∂z ∂P z ∂ 2 vx
ρ  vx + v y x + vz x  = − ρ g 0 − +∑µ {x-direction} for i ≠ j (since vi′v′j = v′j vi′ ). That is, there are now 10 unknowns ( P , vi , ρ vi′v′j )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂x j = x ∂x j ∂x j and only four equations. This situation is known as the closure problem.
or in tensor notation
Turbulent stresses are usually much greater than viscous stresses, i.e.,
z ∂vi ∂z ∂P z ∂ 2 vi ∂vi
∑ ρv j = −ρ g 0 − +∑µ for i = x, y, z − ρ vi′v′j ≫ µ . Near the wall, however, the viscous stress predominates and
j=x ∂x j ∂xi ∂xi j = x ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j
where P is the instantaneous pressure, and z0 is the vertical elevation. this region is known as the viscous sublayer.
This form of the momentum equation is known as the ‘Navier-Stokes’ equation.

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 Mean flow equations Mean flow equations
Viscous sublayer example Logarithmic profile (law of wall) example
∂v ∂v j
Very close to solid boundaries (wall) we have − ρ vi′v′j ≪ µ i and hence
∂x j Assuming − ρ vi′v′j = ρν T where ν is the momentum exchange
∂xi
T

y ∂vx
coefficient (eddy viscosity) and with the mixing length model of ν = lm2
∂vx vx ( y ) − vx ( y = 0) vx ( y ) 10 µ T
∂y
≈ = for y <
∂y y =0
y −0 y ρV* where lm is the mixing length which is, near the solid boundary lm = Ky
where K = 0.4 (von Karman constant), gives
y
∂vx vx ( y ) ∂vx
2
 ∂v 
vx τ0 = µ ≈µ τ 0 = ρν T ≈ ρ K 2 y2  x
dv
 and re-arranging x =
1 dy
∂y y=0
y ∂y  ∂y  V* K y
.
y =0  y =0 
Recalling the definition of shear velocity V* = τ 0 ρ and re-arranging yields x
vx 1  ρV* 
vx ρV* y = ln y  + D1 where D1 is an integration
V* K  µ
Integrating gives
= 
V* µ
ρV* y
40
Logarithmic velocity constant with D1 ≈ 5 for smooth turbulent flow. The law of wall is for a
this result is valid for < 10 vx velocity law defect law
developing turbulent boundary layer.
µ
30

V* 20 Viscous overlap
sub-layer region
10 overlap
region
ρV* y
µ
CIVL4160, DPC 10 100 1000 CIVL4160, DPC
P3 32 P3 34

Mean flow equations Tutorial Questions: 5,6,7,8 and 9

Logarithmic profile (law of wall) example
Text Questions: 4 on p262-263

V ~ water @ 1 m/s Worked Examples

V ~ air @ 40 m/s Red squares: Pitot
tube measurements
P2/1: Calculation of Reynolds Stress Tensor
from Koch and P2/2: Laminar flow in an inclined duct
Chanson (2005)
V
Blue open circles:
V* large wind tunnel data
by Osterlund (1999)

Red Line: Log-Law for

inner region

yV*
ν

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

(Chanson 2009, p311)P3 35 P3 36

Boundary layers and shear flows Boundary layers and shear flows
A boundary layer is the region of flow impacted Spatially varying boundary layer flow
(compared to the ideal fluid) by a solid body (e.g.,
wall, plate).

Boundary layers occur in real fluids (i.e., laminar and

turbulent flows) and it is usually assumed that at the
solid body the fluid velocity is zero (i.e., no slip
boundary condition from boundary friction)

The boundary layer concept was originally

introduced by Prandtl in 1904

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 Boundary layers and shear flows Boundary layers and shear flows
Definitions Definitions
Boundary layer thickness Momentum thickness

( )
δ
δ = y ( vx = 0.99V0 ) δ 2 = ∫ Vv 1 − Vv dy
x x
0 0
Other researches may use other fractions 0
(e.g., 98%), consequently this definition is not The distance the surface would need to move
unique. into the ideal flow to maintain the same
momentum flux
Displacement thickness
Energy thickness

( )
δ
δ1 = ∫ 1 − Vv dy
( ( ) ) dy
x δ
vx 2
0
0 δ 3 = ∫ Vv 1 −
x
0 V0
0
The distance the surface would need to move
into the ideal flow to maintain the same mass The distance the surface would need to move
flow rate if the flow was ideal into the ideal flow to maintain the same kinetic
energy flux

δ1
Shape factor
δ2
2,3
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P4 39 P4 40

Boundary layers and shear flows: Laminar flow Boundary layers and shear flows: Laminar flow
Laminar boundary layer Equations of motion in the ideal fluid
along a smooth flat plate region: continuity and momentum
and incompressible fluid
∂V0 ∂z 1 ∂P
=0 & g 0 + =0
Assume the pressure ∂x ∂x ρ ∂x
gradients is very small or
zero (pressure field is Boundary conditions
determined from the ideal- vx ( y = 0) = 0 no-slip condition at the boundary
flow above the plate)
v y ( y = 0) = 0 no mass flux through a solid boundary
Equations of motion in the boundary layer: continuity and momentum vx ( y = ∞) = V0 longitudinal velocity tends to V0 outside the boundary layer
∂vx ∂v y V0 is the ideal-fluid flow velocity (see figure)
+ =0 (vz spatial gradients are zero due to plate being very wide) ∂vx
∂x ∂y An alternative boundary condition is ( y = ∞) = 0
∂y
∂vx ∂v ∂v ∂z 1 ∂P µ ∂ vx 2

∂t
+ vx x + v y x = − g 0 −
∂x ∂y
+
∂x ρ ∂x ρ ∂y 2
{x-dir }
n Developing boundary layer on a flat plate in the absence of pressure gradient
requires the solution of
vx ( y = 0) = 0
where P is the pressure and z0 is the elevation positive upwards. ∂vx ∂v y ∂vx ∂v µ ∂ 2 vx
+ =0 & vx + vy x = with v y ( y = 0) = 0
Flow is two dimensional ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y 2
vx ( y = ∞) = V0
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
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Boundary layers and shear flows: Laminar flow Boundary layers and shear flows: Laminar flow
ρV0 x
The boundary layer remains laminar for Re x = < 3 × 105 , after that, As Λ has been assumed to vary with η only, the PDE is now an ODE and using
µ the chain rule
turbulent flow tends to develop. This threshold value is also affected by inflow
conditions, free-stream turbulence and plate roughness.
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂η
vx = − =− = V0 Λ ′
Solution of the laminar boundary layer on a flat plate ∂y ∂η ∂y
∂ψ ∂ψ
= − vx & = v y automatically satisfies the ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂η 1 V0ν ∂vx ∂v µ ∂ 2 vx
Recall stream function
∂y ∂x vy = − =− =− ( Λ − ηΛ ′ ) vx + vy x =
∂x ∂η ∂x 2 x ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y 2
continuity equation and thus leaves one PDE (momentum equ) to solve.
∂vx 1V ⇓
= − 0 ηΛ′′
Measurements (not shown here, but see Schlichting 1979) indicate that velocity ∂x 2 x
profiles are self similar, hence we aim to re-write the equation in terms of y/x ΛΛ′′ + 2Λ ′′′ = 0
∂vx V0
V0 = V0 Λ′′ (Blasius equation)
scaling. Blasius (1907, 1908) did this using η = y and ψ = − V0ν x Λ (η ) ∂y νx
νx Laminar solution, e.g., blood
∂ vx V
2 2

The relevant length scale in laminar flow is ν t , and using speed = dist × time, = Λ′′′
0 flows, slow geophysical flows
∂y 2 xν (mud flows) NOT for turbulent
V0 y y V
this length scale becomes νt ~ ν , hence η ~ ~ ~y 0 . flow
x νt V0 νx
ν
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 Boundary layers and shear flows: Laminar flow Boundary layers and shear flows: Laminar flow
Solutions to the Blasius equation Blasius equation solution properties
1. Numerical (solution calculated by Maple)
10 vx
η
0
Λ
0
Λ'
0
η
1.75
Λ
0.501135484
Λ'
0.560519241
η
4.75
Λ
3.035959525
Λ'
0.986652846
= 0.332η for η ≪ 1
0.11 0.002008729 0.036525932 2 0.65002452 0.629765715 5 3.28327392 0.991541832 Λ′′ ( 0 ) = 0.3320574 Numerical solution V0
0.22 0.008035239 0.073047171 2.25 0.815567335 0.69360573 5.5 3.78057209 0.996878825 8
Λ′ ≈ Λ′′ ( 0 )η for η ≪ 1 vx
= 1 for η > 6
0.33 0.018078521 0.109551649 2.5 0.996311091 0.751259756 6 4.279621103 0.998972899
0.44 0.032135523 0.146019198 2.75 1.19063417 0.802167913 6.5 4.779322509 0.999699094
0.55 0.050200606 0.182421675 3 1.396808225 0.846044584 7 5.27923901 0.999921606 6 V0
0.66 0.072264699 0.218723105 3.25 1.613070672 0.88290213 7.5 5.779218232 0.999981852
Λ′′ (η > 6 ) = 0 η
0.77 0.098314401 0.25487988 3.5 1.837698682 0.913040514 8 6.279213634 0.999996271
0.88
0.99
0.128331102
0.16229017
0.290841038
0.326548664
3.75
4
2.069076059
2.305746658
0.937004734
0.955518281
8.5
9
6.77921273
7.279212572
0.999999321
0.99999989
Λ′ ≈ 1 for η > 1 4
1.25 0.258032636 0.409557311 4.25 2.54644966 0.96940527 9.5 7.779212547 0.999999985
1.5 0.370138702 0.486789332 4.5 2.790134682 0.97951419 10 8.279212544 0.999999998 2
2. Power series approximations 1
y Sinusoidal vx/V0 = 0.332η
0
N aiη i δ
Parabolic
Λ≈∑ Blasius 'exact' solution 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
i =0 i !
v
3. Sinusoidal approximation Λ′ = x
vx πy vx V0 V0
= sin 0
V0 2δ 0 1
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
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Boundary layers and shear flows: Laminar flow Boundary layers and shear flows: Laminar flow
ρV x V x
Blasius equation solution properties Re x = 0 = 0 Blasius equation solution properties
Boundary layer characteristics µ ν Shear force per unit width on a plat L long
L
∫ τ 0 dx = 1.328ρ ν LV0
3
x
δ = 4.91 0
Re x Skin friction coefficient
x δ∝ x L
δ1 = 1.72 ∫ τ 0 dx
Re x 1 1.328 ρV0 L V0 L
δ∝ 0
= where Re L = =
x V0 1
2 ρV02 L Re L µ ν
δ 2 = 0.664
Re x

Boundary shear stress and shear force

∂vx V0 V03 µρ V 3 µρ
τ0 = µ = µV0 Λ′′ = Λ′′ = 0.322 0
∂y y =0
νx x x
1 ∂vx
τ0 ∝ → decreasing with increasing x;τ 0 ∝ V03
x ∂y
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P4 47 P4 48

Boundary layers and shear flows: Laminar flow Tutorial Questions: 10 & 11
Blasius equation solution and flow visualisation
Text Questions: 1, 2 and 3 on p288-290
8
Blasius boundary-layer profile on a flat Worked Examples
plate. The tangential velocity profile in the P4/1: Estimating boundary parameters from measurements
laminar boundary layer on a flat plate,
6 discovered by Prandtl and calculated P4/2: Predicting laminar boundary layer parameters
accurately by Blasius, is made visible by
tellurium. Water is flowing at 9 cm/s. The
Reynolds number is 500 based on
4 distance from the leading edge, and the
displacement thickness is about 5 cm. A
fine tellurium wire perpendicular to the
plate at the left is subjected to an
2 electrical impulse of a few milliseconds
duration. A chemical reaction produces a
slender colloidal cloud, which drifts with
the stream and is photographed a
0 moment later to define the velocity
0 0.5 1 profile. Photograph by F. X. Wortmann

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 Real fluid flow: Application of the Momentum integral Real fluid flow: Application of the Momentum integral
Momentum integral is valid for both laminar and turbulent flows. In the following, Combining the two equations (for the boundary layer and ideal fluid flow yields
we will apply the momentum integral to flow over a flat plate using the control ∞  ∂vx ∂v  ∞ ∂V ∂ 2 vx 
volume illustrated. ∫  vx + v y x  dy = ∫  V0 0 +ν  dy
Integrating the x-direction momentum 0 ∂x ∂y  0 ∂x ∂y 2 
equation for steady flow gives and rewriting it as
∞  ∂vx ∂v 
∞  ∂vx ∂v ∂V  ∞  ∂ 2v 

∫  vx + v y x  dy = ∫  vx + v y x − V0 0  dy = ∫ ν x
 dy
0 ∂x ∂y  0 ∂x ∂y ∂x  0 ∂y 2 
driving opposing Completing the integration on the right hand side yields
∞  1 ∂P ∂z ∂ 2 vx 
∫ − − g 0 +ν  dy ∞  ∂ 2 vx  ∞  ∂  ∂v   ∞  ∂ τ  τ   τ 
∞
τ
0 ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y 2  ∫ ν dy = ∫  ν x   dy = ∫     dy =   = 0 − 0  = − 0
2 
0  ∂y  0  ∂y  ∂y   0  ∂y  ρ    ρ 0  ρ ρ
Recall the differential form of the
and hence
Bernoulli equation (i.e., momentum
equation in the ideal fluid) ∞  ∂vx ∂v ∂V  τ
∫  vx + v y x − V0 0  dy = − 0
∂V ∂z 1 ∂P 0  ∂x ∂y ∂x  ρ
V0 0 = − g 0 −
∂x ∂x ρ ∂x where τ0 is the shear stress at y = 0 which is also the bed shear stress. Note, the
shear stress at y = ∞ is τ∞ = 0 due to ideal fluid flow.
drives the flow.
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P5 51 P5 52

Real fluid flow: Application of the Momentum integral Real fluid flow: Application of the Momentum integral
Solving for vy by using the continuity equation and the BC vy(y=0)=0 gives
∞ ∂ vx 
The new expression for ∫  v y  dy is then
∂vx ∂v y y
∂v  y ∂v y y  0 ∂y 
+ = 0 ⇔ v y = − ∫ x dy ∫ dy = v y  = v y ( y ) − v y (0) = v y ( y ) 
∂x ∂y 0 ∂x  0 ∂y
0
 ∞ ∂vx  ∞ ∂v ∞ ∂v
 dy = − V0 ∫ dy + ∫ v x x d y
x
∫  vy
which when inserted into the second term on the left hand side of the momentum 0 ∂y  0 ∂x 0 ∂x
equation yields and substituting this into the momentum equation gives
∞  ∂vx  ∞  y ∂v
  ∂v  ∞
 ∂vx ∂v ∂V  τ
 dy = − ∫   ∫
x
∫  vy dy  x  dy ∫  2vx − V0 x − V0 0  dy = − 0
0 ∂y  0   0 ∂x  ∂y  0  ∂x ∂x ∂x  ρ
recalling integrating by parts Using
∂v ∂u y ∂vx ∂vx ∂vx2 ∂ ∂v ∂V ∂v ∂ ∂V
∫u dy = uv − ∫ v dy u=∫ dy and v = vx 2v x = and {vxV0 } = V0 x + vx 0 or V0 x = {vxV0 } − vx 0
∂y ∂y 0 ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
∞
∞   y ∂vx  ∂vx   y ∂vx  ∞ ∂  y ∂vx  and substituting them into the momentum equation produces
∫  ∫ dy   dy =  v x ∫ dy  − ∫ v x  ∫ dy  dy ∞
 ∂ 2 ∂V0 τ
0   0 ∂x  ∂y   0 ∂x  0 0 ∂y  0 ∂x  ∫  {vx − vxV0 } + ( vx − V0 )  dy = − 0
0 ∂x ∂x  ρ
 ∞ ∂v  ∞ ∂v
= V0 ∫ x dy − 0  − ∫ vx x dy ∂ ∞ ∂V0 ∞ τ0
 0 ∂x  0 ∂x or ∫ vx (V0 − vx ) dy + ∫ ( vx − V0 ) dy =
∂x 0 ∂x 0 ρ
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P5 53 P5 54

i
vx 2  y 
Real fluid flow: Application of the Momentum integral Real fluid flow: Momentum integral example A = ∑ ai  
V0 i =0  δ 
( )
δ
The boundary layer displacement δ1 = ∫ 1 − VV dy and momentum
x Applying the momentum integral to a flat plate with constant V0 and assumed

(1 − ) dy thickness definitions simplifies the momentum integral to

δ 0
0
parabolic velocity profile.
δ2 = ∫ Vx
V0
Vx
V0
0 Boundary
∂
{V02δ 2 } + V0δ1 ∂∂Vx0 = τρ0 which is known in the literature as the von Karman
conditions:
∂x vx ( y = 0 ) = 0
momentum integral equation. vx ( y = δ ) = V0
Using the chain rule (differentiation) yields ∂vx
∂δ 2 ∂V τ =0
V02 + V0 (δ1 + 2δ 2 ) 0 = 0 ∂y y =δ
∂x ∂x ρ
i
and dividing through by V02 vx 2  y 
Parabolic velocity profile = ∑ ai  
∂δ 2 1 ∂V τ V0 i =0  δ 
+ (δ1 + 2δ 2 ) 0 = 0 2 Coefficients from boundary conditions are a0 = 0, a1 = 2, a2 = −1 and
∂x V0 ∂x ρV0 2
which are common forms of the momentum integral equation. vx y  y
consequently the velocity profile becomes = 2 − 
V0 δ δ 
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P5 55 P5 56

dpc: 4/9/2010 p8
 i i
vx 2  y vx 4  y
Real fluid flow: Momentum integral example A = ∑ ai   Real fluid flow: Momentum integral example B = ∑ ai  
V0 i =0  δ  V0 i =0  δ 
Applying the momentum integral to a flat plate with constant V0 and assumed Applying the momentum integral to a flat plate with constant V0 and assumed
velocity profile. polynomial velocity profile of fourth degree.
∂vx
Boundary conditions: used previously vx ( y = 0 ) = 0, vx ( y = δ ) = V0 ,
The boundary layer thickness is determined using the momentum integral which =0
∂ τ ∂y
reduces to V0
2
{δ 2 } = 0 when the free-stream velocity is constant. Using the y =δ
∂x ρ ∂v 4 V
more BCs? The {M} at the boundary is
2
assumed velocity profile gives δ 2 = δ & τ0 = µ x = µ 0 . The solution ∂vx ∂v 1 ∂P ∂z ∂ 2 vx
15 ∂y y =0 15 δ 2 vx 0
+ vy x = − − g 0 +ν
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y 2
to the ODE using δ 2 ( x = 0) = 0 is then δ 2 =
2 30 x ∂V0 ∂z 1 ∂P
. It follows then that and from the free-stream fluid flow we know V0 = −g 0 −
15 Re x ∂x ∂x ρ ∂x
L
∂ 2 vx V ∂V ∂ 2 vx
δ = 30
x 30 x ∫ τ 0 dx consequently = 0 0 and given V0 is constant yields = 0.
, δ1 = and 4 30 . ∂y 2 ν ∂x ∂y 2
Re x 3
0
= y =0 y =0
2 ρV0 L
Re x 1 2
15 Re L The final boundary condition comes from improving the smoothness of the
transition from the boundary layer velocity to the free-stream profiles by requiring
∂ 2 vx
=0
∂y 2 y =δ

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P5 57 P5 58

i
vx 4  y
Real fluid flow: Momentum integral example B = ∑ ai   Real fluid flow: Momentum integral example analysis
V0 i =0  δ 
Applying the momentum integral to a flat plate with constant V0 and assumed Are example A and B similar to the ‘exact’ solution given by the Blasius Eq?
polynomial velocity profile of fourth degree.
3 4 Variable Blasius Ex A Ex B
vx y  y  y
Using the boundary conditions results in = 2 − 2  +  
δ δ  δ 
10

V0 vx
8

y  y
2
y
3
 y  y
4

−  − 2  +  
6

which indicates that δ1 = δ and δ 2 = 315 δ . Solving the governing ODE of

3 37 4
? 2 2
10 V0
2

0
0 0.5 1
δ δ  δ δ  δ 
∂ τ 2 1295 x
V02 {δ 2 } = 0 gives δ 2 = 105 . It follows then that δ
Re x
4.91 5.48 5.84
∂x ρ Re x x
L Re x
6 1295 x 9 1295 x ∫ τ 0 dx δ1 1.72 1.83 1.75
δ= , δ1 = & 0
=
4 1295 . x
37 Re x 185 Re x 1
ρV L 2
Re x
105 Re L
2 0
δ2 0.664 0.730 0.685
x
L
∫ τ 0dx
0
Re L 1.328 1.461 1.371
1
2 ρV02 L

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P5 59 P5 60

Tutorial Questions: 12 & 13 Stall and Separation

Text Questions: 4, 5 and 6 on p290-299 The point at which the lift coefficient starts reducing is referred to as the stall
position . For airfoils, it is related to the angle of attack.
Worked Examples
P5: Shear stress from known velocity distributions
0.8

0.4
CL

0
-10 10 30
-0.4
Angle of attack

Flow separation from the boundary often causes drastic effects, including wakes
behind buildings, automobile drag and aircraft stall

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P5 61 P6 62

dpc: 4/9/2010 p9
 Stall and Separation Stall and Separation
Pressure distribution on ∂P Pressure distribution on a curved surface
<0 ∂P
curved surface ∂x >0 In any flow situation in which the pressure increases in the downstream direction,
● maximum pressure at ∂x flow separation is a possibility.
the upstream stagnation
point Boundary layer analysis can locate the separation point with reasonable certainty.
● minimum at the throat The flow downstream of separation and within the recirculation zone is no longer
(widest body) driven by the surrounding ideal flow. Consequently, the boundary layer flow
● favourable pressure analysis method used to locate the separation point is not applicable to this zone.
gradient ( ∂P ∂x < 0)
between stagnation and
throat
● adverse pressure gradient ( ∂P ∂x > 0) downstream of throat
The adverse pressure gradient can potentially lead to flow reversal near the
boundary (separated area or recirculation zone)
∂vx ∂P
Flow separation requires:τ 0 = 0 or = 0 and > 0 (adverse P/G)
∂y y =0
∂x
∂vx
Downstream of separation: <0
∂y y =0
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P6 64 P6 65

Stall and Separation Stall and Separation

Laminar separation on a thin ellipse. A 6:1 elliptic cylinder is held at zero angle of Boundary-layer separation on an inclined airfoil. When the NACA 64A015 airfoil of
attack in a wind tunnel. The Reynolds number is 4000 based on chord. Drops of figure 23 is raised to 5° incidence the laminar boundary layer sep arates from the
titanium tetrachloride on the surface form white smoke, which shows the laminar rear half of the upper surface. The flow remains attached to the lower surface,
boundary layer separating at the rear. Bradshaw 1970 from which it leaves tangentially at the trailing edge. Streamlines are shown by
coloured fluid filaments in water. ONERA photograph, Werle 1974

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P6 67 P6 69

Stall and Separation Tutorial Questions: 14

Karman vortex street behind a circular cylinder at Re = 105. The initially spreading
Text Questions: Nil
wake shown opposite develops into the two parallel rows of staggered vortices
that von Karman's inviscid theory shows to be stable when the ratio of width to Worked Examples
streamwise spacing is 0.28. Streaklines are shown by electrolytic precipitation in
water. Photograph by Sadatoshi Taneda.
P6/1: Golf balls
P6/2: Couette flow

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P6 72 P6 74

dpc: 4/9/2010 p10

 Wakes and shear flows Wakes and shear flows A1 B1
Splitter Plate
Free shear flow: two layers of fluid
travelling at different velocities with the
transfer of momentum from high- to
low-velocity flow zones. For example, A B
the wake behind a splitter plate.
y
Laminar flow motion Cross-section Flow rate Momentum in x dirn
● applies rarely to these flow situations x
AB 0 0
because these are unstable and break h h
up into turbulence. A A1 b ∫ V0 dy ρ b ∫ V02 dy
● Principles of shear flow nevertheless 0 0
apply to both laminar and turbulent flow h h
● In the splitter plate example, there is B B1 − b ∫ v x dy − ρ b ∫ vx2 dy
0 0
boundary layer flows around the plate
and wake behind the plate h h
A1 B1 −b ∫ (V0 − vx )dy − ρ b ∫ V0 (V0 − vx ) dy
0 0

∑
h
0 ρ b ∫ vx (V0 − vx ) dy
0

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P7 75 P7 76

Wakes and shear flows A1 B1 Wakes and shear flows: laminar flow
∂ (V0 − vx ,1 ) ∂ (V0 − vx ,1 ) ∂V0 ∂ 2 (V0 − vx ,1 )
(V − vx ,1 )
i.e.,
+ vy = V0 +ν
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y 2
0

A B 2nd 0 0 2nd 0 0
i.e., change in momentum equals the sum of forces.
 ∂V ∂v   ∂V ∂v  ∂V  ∂ 2V ∂ 2 v 
h
ρ b ∫ vx (V0 − vx ) dy = Drag on top surface of the plate (V0 − vx,1 )  ∂x0 − ∂xx ,1  + vy  ∂y0 − ∂yx,1  = V0 ∂x0 + ν  ∂y 20 − ∂y x2,1 
0      
As there is two sides to this problem, the complete picture becomes
∞
ρ b ∫ vx (V0 − vx ) dy = Drag on plate ∂vx ,1 ∂ 2 vx ,1 ∂vx ,1 ∂ 2 vx ,1
−∞ −V0 = −ν V0 =ν
(±h replaced with ±∞ as “V0-vx” vanishes outside the BL) ∂x ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y 2
Boundary conditions
Defining the velocity difference as vx ,1 ( x, y ) = V0 − vx ( x, y ) , assuming vx ,1 ≪ V0
∂vx ,1
and for zero pressure gradient, the equation of motion y = 0: = 0 and y = ±∞ : vx ,1 = V0
∂v ∂v ∂V ∂ 2 vx ∂x
vx x + v y x = V0 0 +ν η=y
V0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y 2 The PDE is transformed into an ODE using
νx
and assuming the

solution has the form u1 = V0C ( )

x −2
g (η )
1
Can be simplified as follows (next slide) L

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P7 77 P7 78

Wakes and shear flows: laminar flow Wakes and shear flows: laminar flow
Substituting assumed solution into the simplified momentum equation above By substituting vx ,1 ( x, y ) = V0 − vx ( x, y ) into the plate drag estimate we obtain
(using the chain rule) gives ∞
D = ρ bV0 ∫ vx ,1dy and further substituting the assumed solution gives
∂vx ,1 V 2C L −∞
V0 = − 0 3/2 (η g ′ (η ) + g (η ) )
∂x 2x g ′′ + 12 η g ′ + 21 g = 0 − 12 ∞ νx  νx 
∂ 2 vx ,1 V02C L D = ρ bV02C ( Lx ) ∫ g (η ) dη  Change of variable dη = dy 
ν = g ′′ (η ) −∞ V0  V0 
∂y 2 x3/2
νL ∞
and integrating this once produces g ′ + 12 η g = 0 noting the constant of integration = ρ bV02C ∫ g (η ) dη
V0 −∞
is zero from BC of η = 0: g’ = 0. ∞ ∞
We see from the solution of g that ∫ g (η ) dη = ∫ e
− 14η 2
dη = 2 π
− 14η 2 −∞ −∞
The solution is then g = e , with the constant set to 1 (unity) as there is a free
νL
constant in the assumed solution u1 = V0C ( Lx ) g (η )
− 12
and consequently D = 2 π ρ bV02 C
V0
ν
From the Blasius equation, the drag on the plate D = 2 × 1.328 × 12 ρV02 Lb
V0 L
0.664
hence C = = 0.37
π
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P7 79 P7 80

dpc: 4/9/2010 p11

 Wakes and shear flows: laminar flow Wakes and shear flows: two-dimensional laminar jet
The assumed solution with C and g determined and written in terms of original Another shear flow form occurs when fluid
 V 
2
is jetted into another fluid. The 2D jet is
− 41  y 0 
vx 0.664 x
(L) e
− 12  νx  formed from a rectangular slot of thickness
variables is = 1−
V0 π D and width B when B >> D.

0.6 Momentum of the jet is conserved or

y Re L = 1000 ∞
B ρ ∫ vx2 dy = constant
0.5 L −∞
At the nozzle, the momentum is ρ BDV0
x/L=5 2
x/L=10
0.4
x/L=50
Skipping the proof, the laminar jet is

( )
x/L=100
x −1/3 1 − tanh 2 y 
23
0.3 2 2
x/L=200 vx = 16 9 DV0
2 ν
1 3 9V0 D
2ν 2 x2
 
2

0.2
and the discharge of entrained fluid in the jet per unit width is
0.1 Q ∞
9V02 Dν
= q = ∫ v x dy = 2 3 2 x
vx B −∞
0
0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 V0

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P7 81 P7 82

Tutorial Questions: 15, 16 & 17 Turbulent Boundary Layer

Text Questions: 7 & 8 on p293-294
Turbulent flow
●unpredictable, highly fluctuation nature of velocity and pressure
Worked Examples ●strong mixing (i.e., large cross flow direction transport)
P7: Two dimensional jet ●broad spectrum of time and length scales

chaotic
particle
paths

Example of turbulent BL: Atmospheric boundary layer

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P7 83 P8 84

Turbulent Boundary Layer Turbulent Boundary Layer

Turbulent flow Developing turbulent boundary layer
Turbulent velocity fluctuations mass flux
in a developing boundary layer ● Short Pseudo-
above a rough plate with laminar region
V0 = 11.2 m/s,
x = 10 mm ● Transition zone
y = 2mm
vx = 9.1 m/s ● Turbulent region
Tu = 0.2
sampled at 400 Hz
The outer edge of 12ν 12ν
δL = =
the developing V* τ0 ρ
boundary layer is
not a stream line.

∂vx
τ0 ~ µ ~ δ −1/2 τ 0 ~ δ ???
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC ∂y
P8 85 P8 86

dpc: 4/9/2010 p12

 Turbulent Boundary Layer V0 Turbulent Boundary Layer: Example Smooth turbulent flow
y δ
Developing turbulent boundary layer To determine the boundary layer growth, the von Karman momentum integral for
boundary layer flow of
Characteristics of developing boundary layer x
∂δ 2 ∂V τ
V02 + V0 ( δ1 + 2δ 2 ) 0 = 0
● streamlines in BL are approximately parallel to the boundary ∂x ∂x ρ
is applied and it is assumed that the
● v y ≪ vx
velocity profile follows the power law
1/7
● shear stress occurs at the wall or y = 0 vx  y 
=  for 0 ≤ y ≤ δ
V0  δ 
● velocity is zero at y = 0 (at the plate) which is the no-slip condition
in the BL and is otherwise constant at V0.
Consequently,
● velocity is V0 outside the boundary layer
δ  vx  δ
● boundary layer thickness increases with increasing distance x δ1 = ∫  1 −  dy =
 V0  8
δ
0
● boundary layer is considered thin when ≪1
x δ v x  vx  7δ
δ2 = ∫  1 −  dy =
0 V0  V0  72
∆x
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P8 87 P8 88

Turbulent Boundary Layer: Example Smooth turbulent flow Turbulent Boundary Layer: Example Smooth turbulent flow
The shear stress is estimated by Solving the ODE by separation of variables
−1/4 −1/4 −1/4
τ0 V δ   V0  4 V 
∫ δ dδ = ∫ 0.231  dx ⇒ δ 5/4 = 0.231 0  x+C
1/4
≈ 0.0225  0 
ρV02  ν  ν  5 ν 
which is known as the Blasius resistance formula (an empirical resistance formula V0
suitable for smooth turbulent flow).
Combining the momentum, shear stress and displacement and y δ
momentum thickness equations yields
−1/4
7 2 ∂δ  δ 7δ  ∂V0 V δ 
V0 + V0  +  = 0.0225V02  0 
72 ∂x  8 36  ∂x  ν  ∂V0 x
For BL development in the absence of a pressure gradient or = 0 yields
∂x with δ = 0 at x = 0 (i.e., boundary layer is zero at the plate edge) gives C = 0 and
−1/4
dδ V  −1/5 −1/5 −1/5
δ 1/4 = 0.231 0  δ V x  δ1 V x  δ2 V x 
dx ν  = 0.371 0  , = 0.0463  0  & = 0.0360  0 
x  ν  x  ν  x  ν 

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P8 89 P8 90

Turbulent Boundary Layer: Example Smooth turbulent flow Tutorial Questions: 18 & 19
Integrating the bed shear stress provides the total force on the plate as
Text Questions: 1 & 2 on p321-322
L
∫ τ 0 dx V L 
−1/5 Worked Examples
0
= 0.072  0  P8: Transitional boundary layer dynamics
1
2 ρV02 L  ν 
● The turbulent BL grows, assuming the power law, at x4/5 compared to the
laminar BL growth of x1/2.
● Experiential results for turbulent BL along smooth plates with zero pressure
gradient yield empirically
L
∫ τ 0 dx V L 
−1/5
V0 L
0
= 0.074  0  for 5 ×105 ≤ ≤ 2 ×107
1
2 ρV L 0
2
 ν  ν
i.e., close agreement between theory and experiential results. The Blasius
resistance formula was applicable for Reynolds numbers between 104 and 105.
The total force equation, consequently, has a wider range of application than the
underlying resistance equation!

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P8 91 P8 92

dpc: 4/9/2010 p13

 Turbulent Boundary Layer: Velocity Distributions Turbulent Boundary Layer: Velocity Distributions
Turbulent boundary layers with zero pressure gradient Turbulent boundary layers with zero pressure gradient
Inner wall region
Inner wall region
viscous stresses >> turbulent stresses vx
40 Logarithmic velocity
● next to the wall velocity law defect law

● turbulent stress is negligible ∂v v V*

30

τ0 = µ x ≈µ x
Viscous overlap
40
Logarithmic (very close to the wall) sub-layer region
velocity ● viscous stress is large ∂y
20
vx 30 velocity law defect law y=0
y
10 ρV* y
V*
20
Viscous overlap
Wall region and in terms of shear velocity V* = τ0 ρ , vx is 10 100 1000 µ
10 sub-layer region ● called the ‘turbulent zone’ vx V* y inner

=
wall outer
wall
region region
region

Wall region V0 ν
ρV* y ● away from the wall This result is valid for viscous sub-layer of
● turbulent stress is large
µ
10 100 1000
● viscous stress is negligible V* y
smooth turbulent boundary layers and <5
inner
wall outer ν
wall
region region
region

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P9 93 P9 94

Turbulent Boundary Layer: Velocity Distributions Turbulent Boundary Layer: Velocity Distributions
Turbulent boundary layers with zero pressure gradient Smooth turbulent boundary layers with zero pressure gradient
Wall region Wall region (continued)
Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes equation vx
40 Logarithmic velocity The previous result is for smooth and rough vx
40 Logarithmic velocity

∂v j
velocity law defect law velocity law defect law
turbulent boundary layers. For smooth boundary
Turbulent Reynolds stress: τ = ρ vi v j = ρν T
30 30
V* Viscous overlap V* Viscous overlap
layers, the previous result becomes
∂xi
sub-layer region sub-layer region
20 20

where ν T is the momentum exchange coefficient ρV* y V* y ρV* y

10
vx 1  V* y  > 30 to 70 and 10

= ln  ν
 + 5.5
or “eddy viscosity” 10 100 1000 µ 10 100 1000 µ
V* K  ν 
2 ∂v
y
< 0.1 to 0.15
inner inner

Using Prandtl’s mixing model gives ν T = ℓ m x

wall outer wall outer
wall wall
region
region region
δ region
region region

∂x y
where ℓ m is the mixing length and for turbulent flow bounded by a solid object (i.e., Comparison with measurements: V V ~ water @ 1 m/s
boundary layer flow) ℓ m = Ky where K = 0.4 is von Karman’s constant. Hence Red squares: Pitot tube V ~ air @ 40 m/s
V*
2 measurements from Koch and
 ∂v   ∂v 
τ 0 = ρ vi v j
= ρ ν T x  ≈ K 2 y 2  x  (close to the wall) Chanson (2005)
 ∂y  y = 0
y =0
 ∂y  y = 0 Blue open circles: large wind
yV*
dv x 1 dy vx 1  V* y  tunnel data by Osterlund (1999)
or = and after integrating = ln   + D0 ‘law of the wall’ Red Line: Log-Law ν
V* K y V* K  ν 
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P9 95 P9 96

Turbulent Boundary Layer: Velocity Distributions Turbulent Boundary Layer: Velocity Distributions
Turbulent boundary layers with zero pressure gradient Power law velocity distribution in smooth turbulent boundary layers
Outer region To simplify matters (by having one function for the entire turbulent boundary layer)
Experimental data indicates the velocity defect vx
40 Logarithmic
velocity law
velocity the power law velocity was introduced, i.e.,
defect law
approach adequately models the outer region, i.e., 30 1/ N
V* vx  y 
=  for 0 ≤ y ≤ δ
Viscous overlap

V0 − vx 1  y 
sub-layer region

V0  δ 
20
y
= ln   for > 0.1 to 0.15
V* K δ  δ 10 ρV* y
The power law comes from self-similarity arguments (see Blasius solution for
10 100 1000 µ
inner
laminar boundary layer flow). Nevertheless, from experiments, the power law has
wall outer
wall
region
region region been found to broadly applicable!
“the log and power law results seem virtually indistinguishable, at least for zero-
The logarithmic law can be extended to the outer region for smooth turbulent pressure-gradient boundary layers” (George 2006).
Π 2π y 
vx 1  V* y  The BL thicknesses become
BL by adding a wake term, i.e., = ln   + 5.5 + 2sin   δ1 1 δ N δ N +2
V* K  ν  K  2δ  = ; 2 = & 1 =
δ N + 1 δ ( N + 1)( N + 2 ) δ2 N
which is suitable for the wall (turbulent zone) and outer regions, i.e., V* y > 30 to 70
ν Flow separations occurs for δ1/ δ2 > 1.8 to 2.4, i.e., N < 1.4 to 2.5
Note: the 1/7 power law (N=7) derives from Blasius resistance formula for smooth
turbulent flows.
George, W.K., 2006. Recent advancements toward the understanding of
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P9 97 turbulent boundary layers. AIAA, 44(11): 2435-2449. P9 98

dpc: 4/9/2010 p14

 Turbulent Boundary Layer: Velocity Distributions y Turbulent Boundary Layer: Velocity Distributions
Outer flow region in open channel flows Roughness
● Free-surface ● Surface roughness impacts the viscous sub-layer and wall region (turbulent
∂d zone).
● Velocity field v y = d ● Increasing roughness reduces the viscous sub-layer and wall region
∂t δ ● From experiments, the law of the wall becomes
● Impact on turbulence and turbulence structures
whirlpools x vx 1  V* y  y
free surface scars = ln   + 5.5 + D2 for < 0.1 to 0.15
V* K  ν  δ Smooth plate
ship wake y
where D2 (>0) is a function of the type
● Models for open channel outer flow region δ of roughness (roughness shape, 40
Rough
plate
Logarithmic
height and spacing), with D2 = 0 for vx
V0 − vx
1.5
 y smooth plates.
30 velocity law
Montes model: = 5.55  1 −  V*
y  δ Viscous
20
for > 0.2 to 0.3 V* sub-layer
δ 10
Increasing roughness
V0 − vx 2 ρV* y
1.5
 y V0 − vx
Zagustin model: = tanh −1  1 − 
y
for > 0.15 to 0.2
V* K  δ V*
10 100 1000
µ
δ inner
open channel data (Chanson 2009) wall
wall outer
region region
region
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P9 99 P9 100

Turbulent Boundary Layer: Velocity Distributions Tutorial Questions: 20, 21 & 22

Roughness
Text Questions: 3, 4 & 5 p323-325
● With large roughness, the flow becomes fully-rough, the viscous sub-layer
disappears and D2 becomes Worked Example
D2 = 3 −
1 k sV*
ln
P9: Velocity profile
K ν
where ks is the equivalent sand roughness height. The fully-rough velocity
profile becomes
vx 1  y 
= ln   + 8.5
V* K  k s 

vx
V*

y ks
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P9 101 P9 102
fully-rough data (Chanson 2009)

Turbulent Boundary Layer: Secondary currents Turbulent Boundary Layer: Secondary currents
● Two dimension flow (i.e., no secondary currents) Lab data: influence of side walls on bed and side wall shear stress τ0.
straight pipes of circular cross-section
very-wide open channels CL
● Three dimension flow (i.e., secondary currents) CL
Rivers, estuaries, Fjord, sounds, bays, seas and oceans
man-made channels
● Secondary currents
z
presence of boundaries leading to redistribution of shear and
modification of boundary layer characteristics.
e.g., river and tidal banks, curved systems

Experiment details
● Fully-developed open channel flow
● 0.25 m channel width, 78 mm flow depth,
● 1.29 m/s mean (over entire channel) velocity
● Froude Nr of 1.48
(see Chanson 2009)

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P10 104 P10 105

dpc: 4/9/2010 p15

 Turbulent Boundary Layer: Secondary currents Turbulent Boundary Layer: Secondary currents
River bank behaviour during flooding Lab data: meandering channel with a mobile bed.
Influence of banks between Longitudinal velocity Secondary flow vectors
floodplain and the main channel
on bed shear stress and
consequently velocity distribution.

Wormleaton, P.R., Sellin, R.H.J. and Bryant, T., 2004. Conveyance in a two-stage P. Rameshwaran, et al., 1999.
CIVL4160, DPC meandering channel with a mobile bed. Journal of Hydraulic Research, 42(5):
CIVL4160, DPC Flow mechanisms in two-stage meandering channel with mobile bed, 28th IAHR
P10 106 P10 107
492-505. Congress Proceedings IAHR Graz.

Tutorial Questions: Nil Turbulent Boundary Layer: Turbulent shear and wake flow
Text Questions: Nil Free-shear layer
Goertler 1942 solution for a free-shear layer used
Worked Example the steady RANS (momentum) equation of
P10: Rotating cylinder: tea leaves ∂vx ∂v ∂ 2 vx
vx + vy x = ν T
∂x ∂y ∂y 2
and assuming constant turbulent momentum
exchange coefficient (eddy viscosity) at x from
the singularity of
xV0
νT =
4K 2
The constant K lies between 9 and 13.5 for monophase flow and is a measure
of the jet expansion, i.e., 1 unit in y for every K units in x. Using self similarity
arguments, Goertler assumed the solution was of the form
xV0
ψ= Λ (η )
2
where ψ and Λ are the dimensional and non-dimensional stream functions and
η is the non-dimensional position using self-similar velocity profiles, i.e.,
η = K ( y − y50 ) / x
assuming Λ is only a function of η changes the PDE to an ODE.
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P10 109 P11 110

Turbulent Boundary Layer: Turbulent shear and wake flow Turbulent Boundary Layer: Turbulent shear and wake flow
Free-shear layer (continued) Free-shear layer (continued)
y50 is ideally zero however, experimental ∂vx KV0 ∂  KV  K 2V02
data indicates the y50 < 0 (as shown). vx = Λ′  0 Λ′  = − ηΛ′Λ ′′
Using the following chain rules ∂x 2 ∂x  2  4x
∂Λ ∂η ∂Λ ∂Λ ∂η ∂Λ ∂v V KV K 2 2
K V0
= & = v y x = 0 (ηΛ′ − Λ ) 0 Λ′′ = − (ηΛ′Λ′′ − ΛΛ′′ )
∂y ∂y ∂η ∂y ∂y ∂η ∂y 2 2 x 4x
∂η −η ∂η K ∂ 2 vx xV K 3V V2 K
with = − K ( y − y50 ) / x 2 = & = νT = − 02 2 0 Λ′′′ = − 0 Λ′′′
∂x x ∂y x ∂y 2 4K x 2 8 x
and and substituting these expressions into the steady RANS equation gives
∂ψ V ∂η ∂Λ KV0 K 2V02 K 2V02 V2 K
vx = =x 0 = Λ′ − ηΛ′Λ ′′ − (ηΛ′Λ′′ − ΛΛ′′ ) = − 0 Λ′′′
∂y 2 ∂y ∂η 2 4x 4x 8 x
which simplifies to
∂ψ ∂  xV  V  ∂η ∂Λ  V0 Λ ′′′ + 2 K ΛΛ′′ = 0
vy = − = −  0 Λ = − 0  Λ + x  = (ηΛ′ − Λ )
∂x ∂x  2  2 ∂x ∂η  2

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P11 111 P11 112

dpc: 4/9/2010 p16

 Turbulent Boundary Layer: Turbulent shear and wake flow Turbulent Boundary Layer: Turbulent shear and wake flow
Free-shear layer (continued) Free-shear layer (continued)
First boundary conditions is Assuming a power function solution of the form
∂ψ K Λ = λ 0 F0 (η ) + λ1 F1 (η ) + λ 2 F2 (η ) + λ 3 F3 (η )...
at y = −∞ : vx = =0
∂y with F0 (η ) = η gives
and recalling that
xV0 K Λ = η + λ F1 (η ) + λ 2 F2 (η ) + ...  K ( y − y50 )

η = K ( y − y50 ) / x ψ= Λ (η ) vx 1 
= 1+
2 x 1
e −t dt  = 1 + erf
2 K y y
with the following differentials ∫ 
2 V0 2  π  2 x 
K Λ′ = 1 + λ F1′ + λ 2 F2′ + ...
0
implies
 
η = −∞ : Λ′ = 0 K Λ′′ = λ F1′′+ λ 2 F2′′+ ...
Second boundary conditions is
∂ψ KV0 KV0 K Λ′′′ = λ F1′′′+ λ 2 F2′′′+ ...
at y = ∞ : vx = = Λ ′ = V0 or η = ∞ : Λ′ = V0 Substituting into the governing equation Λ ′′′ + 2 K ΛΛ ′′ = 0 results in
∂y 2 2
( λ F ′′′+ λ F ′′′+ ...) + 2 K
2
and rearranging produces
2
1

K
2

K2
(η + λ F (η ) + λ F (η ) + ...)( λ F ′′+ λ
1
2
2 1
2
F2′′+ ...) = 0
η = ∞ : Λ′ =
K solving to first order in λ (i.e., collecting all terms associated with λ0 and λ gives
F1′′′+ 2η F1′′= 0

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P11 113 P11 114

Turbulent Boundary Layer: Turbulent shear and wake flow Turbulent Boundary Layer: Turbulent shear and wake flow
Free-shear layer (continued) Free-shear layer (continued)
Let g = F1′′ results in a first order equation, viz From the boundary conditions and knowing that
dg π π
+ 2η g = 0 −∞
−t
∞
−t
∫ e dt = − ∫ e dt =
2 2

dη 2
&
2
0 0
solving by separation of variables gives the integration constants of
dg η
= −2η ⇒ ln g = −η 2 + C ⇒ g = De −η 2
2
2
and hence F1′ =
−t 2

g H =0 & D= ∫ e dt
λ π λ π 0
integrating once more gives Substituting F1′ into the assume power solution for Λ ′ gives
F1′ = ∫ gdη + F = D ∫ e −η dη + H
2
η K ( y − y50 )/ x
2 2
K Λ′ = 1 + λ F1′ = 1 + −t
∫ e dt = 1 + e − t dt
2 2
−η 2
As there is no analytical solution for ∫ e dη . Hence, we write this in a form
∫
π 0 π 0
suitable for numerical evaluation. There is four choices for the integration limits of K ( y − y50 )/ x
KV0 V  2 
recalling that vx = Λ′ results in vx = 0 1 + e −t dt 
2
±∞, 0 and η. To satisfy the boundary conditions of ∫
η = −∞ : K Λ ′ = 0 = 1 + λ F1′ ⇒ F1′ = −1 λ 2 2 π 0 
The form of the solution indicates that 1/K controls the shear layer expansion rate.
η = ∞ : K Λ′ = 2 = 1 + λ F1′ ⇒ F1′ = 1 λ For monophase flow, K ∈ [9; 13.5]
η
rules out ±∞ and hence F1′ = D ∫ e
−t 2
dt
0
CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC
P11 115 P11 116

Turbulent Boundary Layer: Turbulent shear and wake flow Turbulent Boundary Layer: Turbulent shear and wake flow
Free-shear layer (continued) Two-dimensional plane jet
Comparison with measurements, K = 13.5 ● Developing flow region
○ undisturbed jet core ( vx = V0 ) which is
surrounded by developing shear layers
○ very intense turbulent levels in shear
vx layers
○ shear layer solution consists of two free
V0 shear layers with a singularity at y = ±D/2
● Fully-developed flow region
○ maximum velocity along the centreline
reduces with increasing distance from the
source
○ without proof, the velocity well away from
the jet (x/D > 12) is
−1/2
η = K ( y − y50 ) / x vx  x  2 7.7 y 
= 2.67   1 − tanh 
V0 D  x 

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P11 117 P11 118

dpc: 4/9/2010 p17

 Turbulent Boundary Layer: Turbulent shear and wake flow Turbulent Boundary Layer: Turbulent shear and wake flow
Two-dimensional circular jet Comparisons
● Developing flow region
○ undisturbed jet core ( vx = V0 ) which is
surrounded by developing shear layers Laminar flow Turbulent flow
○ very intense turbulent levels in shear layers
Width Velocity Width Velocity
● Fully-developed flow region
○ maximum velocity along the centreline Plane x1/2 x −1/2 x1/2 x −1/2
reduces with increasing distance from the Wake
source x1/2 x −1 x1/3 x −2/3
Circular
○ without proof, the velocity well away from
the jet (x/D > 10) is
−1
Plane x 2/3 x −1/3 x x −1/2
−1
x  y 
2

(5 to 10)D
vx Jet
= 5.745   1 + 0.125 18.5  
V0 D    x   Circular x x −1 x x −1
See Liggett, J.A., 1994. Fluid mechanics. McGraw-Hill, New York, 495 pp.

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P11 122 P11 123

Tutorial Questions: 23 & 24 Laminar and Turbulent flows

Text Questions: 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 & 12 p325-330 Laminar Flow
●slow flow motion
●smooth paths in laminas/layers (i.e., limited cross layer mass transfer)
Worked Example y
P11: Plotting velocity profiles
smooth
particle
paths

v
Turbulent flow
●unpredictable behaviour
●strong mixing (i.e., large cross flow direction transport)
●broad spectrum of time and length scales
y
chaotic
particle
paths

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P11 124 P12 125

Transition between laminar and turbulent flow: Reynolds Nr Velocity profile

Laminar flow
1
vx v
ρVDH VDH vx πy or x
Re = = Laminar – Turbulent transition found ≈ sin V0 V0
µ ν from empirical measurements. V0 2δ

ρV0 x V0 x Pipes/channels: Re ~ 2000-4000 Turbulent flow

Re x = = 0.5

µ ν
1/ N
vx  y  Laminar
Flat plates Rex ~ 3×105 ≈ 
ρV0 L V0 L V0  δ 
Re L = = Spheres/cylinders: see graphs where the thicknesses are
µ ν δ1 = δ / ( N + 1), 0
Turbulent

ρV0δ V0δ
0 0.5 1

Reδ = = δ 2 = δ N / (( N + 1)( N + 2))

y
µ ν δ 3 = 2δ N / (( N + 1)( N + 3)) δ
For smooth turbulent flow: N = 7

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P12 126 P12 127

dpc: 4/9/2010 p18

 Boundary layers properties Laminar Boundary layer properties
Definitions Blasius Equation for LAMINAR flow
Laminar
Boundary layer thickness
Variable Blasius
δ = y ( vx = 0.99V0 ) 10

Displacement thickness vx 8

4
?
( ) dy
δ V0 2

δ1 = ∫ 1 − vx 0
0 0.5 1

V0
0 Re x
Momentum thickness δ 4.91
x
( )
δ
δ 2 = ∫ Vvx 1 − Vvx dy Laminar/Turbulent Re x
δ1
0 0
0 1.72
Energy thickness x

( ( ) ) dy
δ 2 Re x
δ 3 = ∫ Vv 1 −x vx
V0
δ2 0.664
0
0 x
L
Shape factor
∫ τ 0dx
δ1 0
Re L 1.328
1
ρV02 L
δ2 2

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P12 128 P12 129

Smooth Turbulent Boundary Layer properties Momentum integral

τ0
Turbulent boundary layer with Blasius resistance formula of ≈ 0.0225 Reδ−1/4
ρV02 Momentum integral equation, which is also known in the literature as the von
Karman
in the absence of a pressure gradient and assuming the velocity profile is

 y
1/7
∂
∂x
{V02δ 2 } + V0δ1 ∂∂Vx0 = τρ0
vx = V0   has the following boundary layer thicknesses δ = 0.371x Re−x 1/5
δ 
∂δ 2 ∂V τ
δ1 = 0.0463x Re −x1/5 and δ 2 = 0.0360 x Re−x 1/5 V02 + V0 (δ1 + 2δ 2 ) 0 = 0
L
∂x ∂x ρ
∫ τ 0 dx ∂δ 2 1 ∂V τ
The shear force from these assumptions is
0
= 0.072 Re −L1/5 + ( δ1 + 2δ 2 ) 0 = 0 2
1
2 ρV02 L ∂x V0 ∂x ρV0

However, experiential work indicates that In the absence of a pressure gradient ,

L momentum integral equation is
∫ τ 0 dx ∂δ 2
0
= 0.074 Re−L1/5 for 5 ×105 ≤
V0 L
≤ 2 ×107 τ 0 = ρV02
1
ρV02 L ν ∂x
2

CIVL4160, DPC CIVL4160, DPC

P12 130 P12 131

Wakes, shear flows and drag

When wake velocities are known, then the drag force is
∞
Laminar wakes ρ ∫ vx (V0 − vx ) dA = Drag
−∞

∞
Turbulent wakes ρ ∫ vx (V0 − vx ) dA = Drag
−∞

Drag
Wake
V0 vx or vx

Control volume

CIVL4160, DPC
P12 132

dpc: 4/9/2010 p19