Unit 2 Mathematics

6
Complex Numbers and Elementary

Functions of Complex Variable
6.1. RECAPITULATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Students have already studied complex numbers in lower classes and are familiar with the basic concepts
of the subject but still we would like to revise the main principles and methods of complex numbers for the
benefit of students.
6.2. COMPLEX NUMBERS
(i) Definition of a Complex Number
A number of the form x + iy, where x and y are real numbers and i = - 1 , is called a complex number.
The set of complex numbers is denoted by C.
If z = x + iy is a complex number, then
x is called the real part of z and we write Re(z) = x
y is called the imaginary part of z and we write Im(z) = y
If x = 0 and y ≠ 0, then z = 0 + iy = iy is called a purely imaginary number.
If y = 0, then z = x + i.0 = x is a real number.
If x = 0 and y = 0, then z = 0 + i . 0 = 0 is called the zero complex number.
(ii) Conjugate of a Complex Number
If z = x + iy, then z = x − iy is called conjugate of z
(iii) Properties of Complex Numbers

(a) The sum, difference, product and quotient of two complex numbers is a complex number.
(b) If a complex number is equal to zero, then its real and imaginary parts are separately equal to zero.
Thus, x + iy = 0 ⇒ x = 0 and y = 0
(c) If two complex numbers are equal, then their real and imaginary parts are separately equal.
Thus, x + iy = a + ib ⇒ x = a and y = b
(d) If two complex numbers are equal, then their conjugates are also equal.
Thus, a + ib = c + id ⇒ a – ib = c – id
In general f(x + iy) = g(x + iy) ⇒ f(x – iy) = g(x – iy) (on changing i to – i)
(iv) Polar-form of a Complex Number

Let P represents a non-zero complex number z = x + iy in xy-plane. Then the ordered pair (x, y)
represents z. Let (r , θ) be polar coordinates of P. Then OP = r, ∠ XOP = θ
∴ x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
338
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEX VARIABLE 339
and z = r cos θ + i r sin θ Y
= r (cos θ + i sin θ)
is polar representation of z.
P(x, y)
Squaring and adding the values of x and y, we get (r, q)
r 2 = x2 + y2 r
y
then OP = r = x 2 + y 2 is called Modulus or Norm or
q
Absolute Value of z and is represented by | z |. X
O x
y y
Dividing y by x, we get tan θ = or θ = tan–1
x x
‘θ’ is called Amplitude or Argument of z. The value of θ lying in the interval – π < θ ≤ π is called Principal
Value of amplitude.
(v) If z1 and z2 are Two Complex Numbers, then
(a) | z1 z2 | = | z1 | | z2 |
z1 | z1 |
(b) =
z2 | z2 |
(c) arg (z1 z2) = arg z1 + arg z2
æz ö
(d ) arg ç 1 ÷ = arg z1 – arg z2 (z2 π 0)
è z2 ø
(e) z1 + z2 ≤|z1|+|z2|
( f ) z1 − z2 ≥ |z1|−| z2|
(g) | z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 – z2 |2 = 2 | z1 |2 + 2 | z2 |2
(h) | z |2 = | z |2 = zz
(i) arg z + arg z = 0
6.3. DE-MOIVRES THEOREM

(P.T.U., May 2002, 2004, Dec., 2005, May 2007, 2008, 2010, 2014)
Statement. (i) If n is any integer, positive or negative, then

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
and (ii) If n is a fraction, positive or negative, then one of the values of
(cos θ + i sin θ)n is cos nθ + i sin nθ.
Proof. Case I. When n is a positive integer.
We shall prove the theorem by induction method.
When n = 1, the theorem becomes
(cos θ + i sin θ)1 = cos 1 θ + i sin 1 θ
⇒ cos θ + i sin θ = cos θ + i sin θ which is true.
340 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
Let us suppose the theorem is true for n = m

i.e., let (cos θ + i sin θ)m = cos mθ + i sin mθ ...(1)
Now, (cos θ + i sin θ)m+1 = (cos θ + i sin θ)m (cos
θ + i sin θ)
= (cos mθ + i sin mθ)(cos θ + i sin θ) [Using (1)]
= (cos mθ cos θ – sin mθ sin θ) + i(sin m θ cos θ + cos mθ sin θ)
= cos (mθ + θ) + i sin (mθ + θ) = cos (m + 1)θ + i sin (m + 1) θ
⇒ The theorem is true for n = m + 1.
Hence by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, the theorem is true for all positive integers n.
Case II. When n is a negative integer.
Let n = – m, where m is a positive integer.
∴ (cos θ + i sin θ)n = (cos θ + i sin θ)–m
1 1
= m
= [by Case I]
(cos q + i sin q) cos mq + i sin mq
1 cos mq - i sin mq
= +
cos mq + i sin mq cos mq - i sin mq
cos mq - i sin mq cos mq - i sin mq
= cos 2 = [Q i2 = – 1]
mq - i sin mq cos 2 mq + sin 2 mq
2 2
= cos mθ – i sin mθ = cos (– m)θ + i sin (– m)θ

[Q cos (– θ) = cos θ ; sin (– θ) = – sin θ]
= cos nθ + i sin nθ. [Q – m = n]
Case III. When n is a fraction, positive or negative.
p
Let n = , where q is a positive integer and p is any integer, positive or negative. It follows from case I, that
q
q
æ q qö æ qö æ qö
çè cos q + i sin q ÷ø = cos çè q × q ÷ø + i sin çè q × q ÷ø = cos θ + i sin θ
q q
Taking qth root of both sides, cos + i sin is one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)1/q
q q
p
æ q qö
Raising to pth power, ç cos + i sin ÷ is one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)p/q
è q qø
p p
or cos θ + i sin θ is one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)p/q.
q q
p
Since = n, cos nθ + i sin nθ is one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)n
q
Hence De-Moivre’s Theorem is completely established.
Cor. 1. (cos θ + i sin θ)–n = cos (– nθ) + i sin (– nθ) = cos nθ – i sin nθ
Cor. 2. (cos θ – i sin θ)n = [cos (– θ) + i sin(– θ)]n = cos (– nθ) + i sin (– nθ) = cos nθ – i sin nθ
Cor. 3. (cos θ – i sin θ)– n = [cos (– θ) + i sin (– θ)]–n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
1
Cor. 4. = (cos θ + i sin θ)–1 = cos θ – i sin θ.
cos q + i sin q
Caution. For the application of De-Moivre’s Theorem
1. Real part must be with cos and imaginary part with sin i.e., De-Moivre’s Theorem cannot be directly
applied to (sin θ + i cos θ)n.
Procedure to find the (sin θ + i cos θ)n
n
é æp ö æp öù æp ö æp ö
(sin θ + i cos θ)n = ê cos ç - q÷ + i sin ç - q÷ ú = cos n ç - q÷ + i sin n ç - q÷
ë è 2 ø è 2 ø û è 2 ø è 2 ø
2. The angle with sin and cos must be the same i.e., De-Moivre’s Theorem cannot be applied to
(cos α + i sin β)n.
Note. (cis θ1)(cis θ 2) ..... (cis θ n) = cis (θ 1 + θ 2 + ..... + θ n).
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1. (a) Is (sin θ + i cos θ)n = sin nθ + i cos nθ ? If not justify it. (P.T.U., Dec. 2006)
5 3
(cos 3q + i sin 3q ) (cos q - i sin q )
(b) Simplify : .
(cos 5q + i sin 5q )7 (cos 2q - i sin 2q )5
Sol. (a) (sin θ + i cos θ)n ≠ sin nθ + i cos nθ
n
é æp ö æp öù
Q (sin θ + i cos θ)n = ê cos ç - q÷ + i sin ç - q÷ ú
ë è2 ø è2 øû
æ np ö æ np ö
= cos ç - nq÷ + i sin ç - nq÷ ≠ sin nθ + i cos nθ.
è 2 ø è 2 ø
(cos 3q + i sin 3q)5 (cos q - i sin q)3 [(cos q + i sin q)3 ]5 [(cos q + i sin q)- 1 ]3
(b) =
(cos 5q + i sin 5q) (cos 2q - i sin 2q )
7 5
[(cos q + i sin q)5 ]7 [(cos q + i sin q)-2 ]5
(cos q + i sin q)15 (cos q + i sin q) -3

= = (cos θ + i sin θ)15–3–35+10
(cos q + i sin q)35 (cos q + i sin q)-10
= (cos θ + i sin θ)–13 = cos 13θ – i sin 13θ.
4
æ cos q + i sin q ö
Example 2. Simplify : ç .
è sin q + i cos q ÷ø
4
é cos q + i sin q ù (cos q + i sin q)4
Sol. ê ú =
ë sin q + i cos q û
4
é æp ö æp öù
êcos çè - q÷ø + i sin çè - q÷ø ú
ë 2 2 û
(cos q + i sin q) 4 (cos q + i sin q) 4
= =
æp ö æp ö cos (2 p - 4q) + i sin (2p - 4q)
cos 4 ç - q÷ + i sin 4 ç - q÷
è2 ø è2 ø
(cos q + i sin q) 4 (cos q + i sin q) 4

= = = (cos θ + i sin θ)8 = cos 8θ + i sin 8θ.
cos 4q - i sin 4q (cos q + i sin q)-4
x- y a-b
Example 3. (i) If x = cos α + i sin α, y = cos β + i sin β, prove that = i tan .
x+ y 2
(P.T.U., Dec. 2012)
(x + y) (xy - 1) sin a + sin b
(ii) = .
(x - y) (xy + 1) sin a - sin b
x - y (cos a + i sin a ) - (cos b + i sin b)
Sol. (i) LHS = =
x + y (cos a + i sin a ) + (cos b + i sin b)
(cos a - cos b) + i(sin a - sin b)
=
(cos a + cos b) + i(sin a + sin b)
a+b a-b a+b a-b
- 2 sin sin + i × 2 cos sin
= 2 2 2 2
a+b a-b a+b a-b
2 cos cos + i × 2 sin cos
2 2 2 2
a+b a-b a+b a-b
i 2 sin sin + i cos sin
= 2 2 2 2 [Q i2 = – 1]
a+b a-b a+b a-b
cos cos + i sin cos
2 2 2 2
a-b é a+b a + bù
i sin i sin + cos
2 êë 2 2 úû a-b
= = i tan = RHS
a-b é a+b a + bù 2
cos cos + i sin
2 êë 2 2 úû
[(cos a + i sin a) + (cos b + i sin b)] [(cos a + i sin a) (cos b + i sin b) - 1]
(ii) LHS =
[(cos a + i sin a) - (cos b + i sin b)] [(cos a + i sin a) (cos b + i sin b) + 1]
[(cos a + cos b)] + i (sin a + sin b)] [cos (a + b) + i sin (a + b) - 1]
=
[(cos a - cos b) + i (sin a - sin b)] [cos (a + b) + i sin (a + b) + 1]
é a+b a-b a+b a - bù
ê2 cos 2 cos 2 + 2i sin 2 cos 2 ú éë- [(1 - cos (a + b )] + i sin (a + b)]ùû
ë û
=
é a+b a-b a+b a - bù
ê- 2 sin 2 sin 2 + 2i cos 2 sin 2 ú éë[1 + cos (a + b)] + i sin (a + b) ùû
ë û
a-b é a+b a + bù é a+b a+b a + bù
2 cos cos + i sin - 2 sin 2 + 2i sin cos
2 êë 2 2 úû êë 2 2 2 úû
=
a-b é a+b a + bù é a+b a+b a + bù
2i sin ê cos + i sin ú ê 2 cos2 + 2i sin cos
2 ë 2 2 ûë 2 2 2 úû
a - b 2i sin a + b écos a + b + i sin a + b ù
2 êë 2 úû
cos
2 2
=
a-b a+b é a+b a + bù
i sin 2 cos ê cos + i sin
2 2 ë 2 2 úû
a+b a-b
2 sin cos
= 2 2 = sin a + sin b = RHS
a+b a - b sin a - sin b
2 cos sin
2 2
Example 4. If ‘a’ denotes cos 2α + i sin 2α with similar expressions for b, c, d, prove that
1 ab cd
(i) abcd + = 2 cos (α + β + γ + δ) (ii) + = 2 cos (α + β – γ – δ).
abcd cd ab
Sol. (i) a = cos 2α + i sin 2α, b = cos 2β + i sin 2β
c = cos 2γ + i sin 2γ , d = cos 2δ + i sin 2δ
abcd = (cos 2α + i sin 2α)(cos 2β + i sin 2β)(cos 2γ + i sin 2γ )(cos 2δ + i sin 2δ)
= cos (2α + 2β + 2γ + 2δ) + i sin (2α + 2β + 2γ + 2δ)
abcd = (abcd)1/2 = [cos (2α + 2β + 2γ + 2δ) + i sin (2α + 2β + 2γ + 2δ)]1/2
= cos (α + β + γ + δ) + i sin (α + β + γ + δ)
1
= ( abcd )-1 = [cos (α + β + γ + δ) + i sin (α + β + γ + δ)]–1
abcd
= cos (α + β + γ + δ) – i sin (α + β + γ + δ)
1
∴ abcd + = 2 cos (α + β + γ + δ).
abcd
ab (cos 2a + i sin 2a)(cos 2b + i sin 2b) cos (2a + 2b) + i sin (2a + 2b)
(ii) = =
cd (cos 2g + i sin 2g )(cos 2d + i sin 2d) cos (2 g + 2d) + i sin (2 g + 2d)
= cos (2α + 2β – 2γ – 2δ) + i sin (2α + 2β – 2γ – 2δ)
1/2
ab é ab ù
∴ = = [cos (2α + 2β – 2γ – 2δ) + i sin (2α + 2β – 2γ – 2δ)]1/2
cd êë cd úû
= cos (α + β – γ – δ) + i sin (α + β – γ – δ)
-1
cd æ ab ö
= = [cos (α + β – γ – δ) + i sin (α + β – γ – δ)]–1
ab çè cd ÷ø
= cos (α + β – γ – δ) – i sin (α + β – γ – δ)
ab cd
∴ + = 2 cos (α + β – γ – δ).
cd ab
Example 5. If sin α + sin β + sin γ = cos α + cos β + cos γ = 0, prove that
(i) cos 3α + cos 3β + cos 3γ = 3 cos (α + β + γ ) (P.T.U., Dec. 2002)
(ii) sin 3α + sin 3β + sin 3γ = 3 sin (α + β + γ )
(iii) cos (β + γ ) + cos (γ + α) + cos (α + β) = 0
(iv) sin (β + γ ) + sin (γ + α) + sin (α + β) = 0
(v) cos 2α + cos 2β + cos 2γ = 0 (vi) sin 2α + sin 2β + sin 2γ = 0
(vii) Σ cos 4α = 2 Σ cos 2(β + γ ) (viii) Σ sin 4α = 2 Σ sin 2(β + γ )
(ix) sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 3/2. (P.T.U., May 2003)
Sol. Let a = cos α + i sin α ; b = cos β + i sin β ; c = cos γ + i sin γ .
a + b + c = (cos α + cos β + cos γ ) + i(sin α + sin β + sin γ )
= (0) + i(0) = 0
∴ a+b+c=0
⇒ a+b=– c
Cubing both sides (a + b)3 = – c3
or a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b) = – c3
or a3 + b3 – 3abc = – c3
or a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
⇒ (cos α + i sin α)3 + (cos β + i sin β)3 + (cos γ + i sin γ )3
= 3(cos α + i sin α)(cos β + i sin β)(cos γ + i sin γ )
⇒ (cos 3α + i sin 3α) + (cos 3β + i sin 3β) + (cos 3γ + i sin 3γ )
= 3[cos (α + β + γ ) + i sin (α + β + γ )]
⇒ (cos 3α + cos 3β + cos 3γ ) + i (sin 3α + sin 3β + sin 3γ )
= 3 cos (α + β + γ ) + i ◊ 3 sin (α + β + γ )
Equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides,
cos 3α + cos 3β + cos 3γ = 3 cos (α + β + γ )
sin 3α + sin 3β + sin 3γ = 3 sin (α + β + γ )
∴ Parts (i) and (ii) are proved.
1 1 1
Now, + + = a–1 + b–1 + c–1
a b c
= (cos α + i sin α)–1 + (cos β + i sin β)–1 + (cos γ + i sin γ )–1
= (cos α – i sin α) + (cos β – i sin β) + (cos γ – i sin γ )
= (cos α + cos β + cos γ ) – i(sin α + sin β + sin γ )
= 0 – i(0) [From given conditions]
1 1 1
∴ + + =0 ⇒ bc + ca + ab = 0 or Σbc = 0
a b c
⇒ Σ(cos β + i sin β)(cos γ + i sin γ ) = 0 ⇒ Σ[cos (β + γ ) + i sin (β + γ )] = 0
Equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides
Σcos (β+ γ) = 0
Σ sin (β + γ ) = 0
∴ Parts (iii) and (iv) are proved.
Since a+b+c= 0
Squaring a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca) = 0
But ab + bc + ca = 0 [Proved above]
∴ a2 + b2 + c2 = 0 i.e., Σa2 = 0
⇒ Σ(cos α + i sin α)2 = 0
⇒ Σ(cos 2α + i sin 2α) = 0
Equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides
Σ cos 2α = 0 78
Σ sin 2α = 0 9
∴ Parts (v) and (vi) are proved
3 a+b+c= 0
∴ a+b= –c
Squaring a2 + b2 + 2ab = c2 or a2 + b2 – c2 = – 2ab
Squaring again a4 + b4
+ + 2a2b2 – 2b2c2 – 2c2a2 = 4a2b2
c4
⇒ Σa4 = 2Σb2c2
⇒ Σ(cos α + i sin α)4 = 2Σ(cos β + i sin β)2(cos γ + i sin γ )2
⇒ Σ(cos 4α + i sin 4α) = 2Σ(cos 2β + i sin 2β)(cos 2γ + i sin 2γ )
⇒ Σ(cos 4α + i sin 4α) = 2Σ[cos (2β + 2γ ) + i sin (2β + 2γ )]
S cos 4a = 2 S cos 2(b + g ) ü
ý
S sin 4a = 2 S sin 2(b + g ) þ
Parts (vii) and (viii) are proved
1 - cos 2a 1 - cos 2b 1 - cos 2 g
Now, sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = + +
2 2 2
3 1 3 1
= - (cos 2a + cos 2b + cos 2 g ) = - × 0 from part ‘v’
2 2 2 2
3
=
2
1 + cos 2a 1 + cos 2b 1 + cos 2 g

Similarly, cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = + +
2 2 2
3 1 3 1
= + (cos 2a + cos 2b + cos 2g ) = + × 0 from part ‘v’
2 2 2 2
3
= .
2
Hence (ix) part is proved.
Example 6. If cos α + 2 cos β + 3 cos γ = 0 ; sin α + 2 sin β + 3 sin γ = 0 prove that
(i) cos 3 α + 8 cos 3β + 27 cos 3γ = 18 cos (α + β + γ )
(ii) sin 3α + 8 sin 3β + 27 sin 3γ = 18 sin (α + β + γ )
(iii) cos (2α – β – γ ) + 8 cos (2β – γ – α) + 27 cos (2γ – α – β) = 18
(iv) sin (2α – β – γ ) + 8 sin (2β – γ – α) + 27 sin (2γ – α – β) = 0.
Sol. Let a = cos α + i sin α, b = cos β + i sin β, c = cos γ + i sin γ
By given conditions a + 2b + 3c = (cos α + 2 cos β + 3 cos γ ) + i(sin α + 2 sin β + 3 sin γ ) = 0
∴ a + 2b = – 3c …(1)
Cubing both sides
(a + 2b)3 = – 27c3
or a3 + 8b3 + 6ab (a + 2b) = – 27c3
a3 + 8b3 + 6ab (– 3c) = – 27c3 [Using (1)]
or a3 + 8b3 + 27c3 = 18abc …(2)
(cos α + i sin α)3 + 8 (cos β+i sin β)3 + 27 (cosγ +i sin γ )3

= 18 (cos α + i sin α) (cos β + i sin β) (cos γ + i sin γ )
[cos 3α + 8 cos 3β + 27 cos 3γ ] + i [sin 3α + 8 sin 3β + 27 cos 3γ ]
= 18 [cos (α + β + γ ) + i sin (α + β + γ )]
Comparing real and imaginary parts
cos 3α + 8 cos 3β + 27 cos 3γ = 18 cos (α + β + γ ) ; part (i) is proved
sin 3α + 8 sin 3β + 27 sin 3γ = 18 sin (α + β + γ ) ; part (ii) is proved
Now, from (2) a3 + 8b3 + 27c3 = 18 abc
a2 b2 c2
Divide by abc; +8 + 27 = 18
bc ac ab
(cos a + i sin a)2 (cos b + i sin b) 2
∴ +8
(cos b + i sin b) (cos g + i sin g ) (cos a + i sin a) (cos g + i sin g )
(cos g + i sin g )2
+ 27 = 18
(cos a + i sin a ) (cos b + i sin b)
cis 2a cis 2b cis 2g
∴ +8 + 27 = 18
cis (b + g ) cis (g + a ) cis (a + b)
or cis (2α – β – γ ) + 8 cis (2β – γ – α) + 27 cis (2γ – α – β) = 18
Comparing real and Imaginary parts on both sides
cos (2α – β – γ ) + 8 cos (2β – γ – α) + 27 cos (2γ – α – β) = 18
sin (2α – β – γ ) + 8 sin (2β – γ – α) + 27 sin (2γ – α – β) = 0 (iii) and (iv) are proved.
Example 7. Find the general value of θ which satisfies the equation
(cos θ + i sin θ)(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ) ....... [cos (2r – 1)θ + i sin (2r – 1)θ] = 1.
Sol. (cos θ + i sin θ)(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ) ..... [cos (2r – 1)θ + i sin (2r – 1)θ] = 1
⇒ cos [θ + 3θ + ..... + (2r – 1)θ] + i sin [θ + 3θ + ..... + (2r – 1)θ] = 1
⇒ cos [1 + 3 + ..... + (2r – 1)]θ + i sin [1 + 3 + ..... + (2r – 1)] θ = 1
r
⇒ cos r (1 + 2r – 1)θ + i sin (1 + 2r – 1) θ = 1
2 2
[3 1, 3, 5, ....., 2r – 1 form an A.P. with r terms.
Number of terms ù
Their sum = (First term + Last term) ú
2 û
⇒ cos (r2 θ) + i sin (r2 θ) = 1.
cos (r 2 θ) = 1 78 ⇒ r2 θ = 2n π
sin ( r 2 θ) = 1 9
2np
Hence θ = , where n is any integer.
r2
p p
Example 8. (a) If xr = cos r
+ i sin , prove that x1 x2 x3 ...... • = – 1.
2 2r
p p ép æ 1 öù ép æ 1 öù
(b) If xr = cos + i sin r , show that x1 x2 x3 ... xn = cos ê çè 1 – n ÷ø ú + i sin ê çè 1 – n ÷ø ú .
3 r
3 ë2 3 û ë2 3 û
Hence show that x1 x2 x3 ... • = i. (P.T.U., May 2003)
p p
Sol. (a) xr = cos r
+ i sin r
2 2
Putting r = 1, 2, 3, ...., we have
p p ð ð
x1 = cos + i sin , x2 = 2 + i sin 2
2 2 2 2
p p
x3 = cos 3 + i sin 3 and so on.
2 2
\ x1 x2 x3 .... to •
æ p pö æ p pöæ p pö
= ç cos + i sin ÷ ç cos 2 + i sin 2 ÷ ç cos 3 + i sin 3 ÷ .... to •
è 2 2ø è 2 2 ø è 2 2 ø
æp p p ö æp p p ö
= cos ç + 2 + 3 + ..... to ¥÷ + i sin ç + 2 + 3 + ..... to ¥÷
è2 2 2 ø è 2 2 2 ø
p p
2 2 p p p
= cos + i sin 3 + 2 + 3 ..... • is infinite G.P.
1 1 2 2 2
1- 1-
2 2
a
and sum of infinite G.P. =
1- r
= cos p + i sin p = – 1.
p p p
(b) xr = cos r
+ i sin r = cos r
3 3 3
Put r = 1, 2, 3, ..., n
p p p p
x1 x2 x3 ... xn = cis cis 2 cis 3 ... cis n
3 3 3 3
ép p p pù pé 1 1 1 ù
= cis ê + 2 + 3 ... n ú = cis ê1 + + 2 ... n ú
ë3 3 3 3 û 3 êë 3 3 3 - 1 ûú
1
which is a G.P. with C.R. =
3
é 1ù
1 ê1 - n ú
p ë 3 û pé 1 ù a (1 - r n )
= cis = cis ê1 - n ú 3 for a G.P. Sn =
3
1-
1 2 ë 3 û 1- r
3
p é 1 ù pé 1 ù
= cis ê1 - n ú + i sin 2 ê1 - n ú
2 ë 3 û ë 3 û
1
When n Æ •, Æ 0 i.e.,
3n
p é 1 ù p
x 1 x 2 x 3 ... • = Lt cis ê1 - n ú = cis 2
n®¥ 2 ë 3 û
p p
+ i sin = 0 + i. 1 = i
= cos
2 2
1 1
Example 9. If x + = 2 cos θ, y + = 2 cos φ, prove that one of the values of
x y
xm yn 1
(i) n
+ m
is 2 cos (mθ – nφ) (ii) xmyn + is 2 cos (mθ + nφ).
y x x yn
m
1
Sol. = 2cos θ
x+
x
⇒ x2 + 1 = 2x cos θ ⇒ x2 – 2x cos θ + cos2θ + sin2 θ = 0
⇒ (x – cos θ)2 = – sin2 θ ⇒ x – cos θ = ± i sin θ ⇒ x = cos θ ± i sin θ
∴ One of the values of x is cos θ + i sin θ.
Similarly, one of the values of y is cos φ + i sin φ.
xm (cos q + i sin q)m cos mq + i sin mq

(i) One of the values of n
= n
= = cos (mθ – nφ) + i sin (mθ – nφ)
y (cos f + i sin f) cos nf + i sin nf
-1
yn é xm ù
One of the values of , i.e., ê n ú
xm ëê y ûú
= [cos (mθ – nφ) + i sin (mθ – nφ)]–1 = cos (mθ – nφ) – i sin (mθ – nφ).
xm yn
Hence one of the values of n
+ m is 2 cos (mθ – nφ).
y x
(ii) One of the values of xmyn
= (cos θ + i sin θ)m (cos φ + i sin φ)n = (cos mθ + i sin mθ) (cos nφ + i sin nφ)
= cos (mθ + nφ) + i sin (mθ + nφ)
1
One of the values of , i.e. (xmyn)–1
x yn m
= [cos (mθ + nφ) + i sin (mθ + nφ)]–1 = cos (mθ + nφ) – i sin (mθ + nφ).
1
Hence one of the values of xmyn + is 2 cos (mθ + nφ).
xm y n
1 x 2n + 1 cos nq
Example 10. (a) If 2 cos θ = x + , prove that 2n - 1 = .
x x + x cos (n - 1) q
(b) If x2 – 2x cos θ + 1 = 0 show that x2n – 2xn cos nθ + 1 = 0.
(c) Find an equation whose roots are the nth powers of the roots of the equation x2 – 2x cos θ + 1 = 0.
1
Sol. (a) 2 cos θ = x + or x2 – 2x cos θ + 1 = 0
x
2 cos q ± 4 cos2 q - 4
Solve for x; x=
2
2 cos q ± 2i sin q
or x= = cos θ ± i sin θ …(1)
2
∴ Two values of x are cos θ + i sin θ and cos θ – i sin θ
Choose any one of the two values
Let x = cos θ + i sin θ
x2n + 1 (cos q + i sin q)2 n + 1
Then =
x 2 n -1 + x (cos q + i sin q)2 n -1 + (cos q + i sin q)
cos 2nq + i sin 2nq + 1
=
cos (2n - 1)q + i sin (2n - 1)q + cos q + i sin q
(1 + cos 2nq) + i sin 2nq
=
[cos (2n - 1)q + cos q] + i [sin (2n - 1)q + sin q]
2 cos 2 nq + 2i sin nq cos nq

=
2 cos nq cos (n - 1) q + i 2 sin nq cos (n - 1) q
2 cos nq [cos nq + i sin nq] cos nq
= =
2 cos (n - 1)q [cos nq + i sin nq] cos (n - 1)q
Part (a) is proved.
(b) Solving x2 – 2x cos θ + 1 = 0 we get x = cos θ ± i sin θ from (1)
Let x = cos θ + i sin θ
x2n – 2xn cos nθ + 1 = (cos θ + i sin θ)2n – 2 (cos θ + i sin θ)n cos nθ + 1
= cos 2nθ + i sin 2nθ – 2 cos nθ [cos nθ + i sin nθ] + 1
= cos 2nθ + i sin 2nθ – 2 cos2 nθ – 2 i sin nθ cos nθ + 1
= [cos 2nθ – 2 cos2 nθ + 1] + i [sin 2nθ – 2 sin nθ cos nθ]
= [(1 + cos 2nθ) – 2 cos2 nθ] + i [sin 2nθ – sin 2nθ]
= [2 cos2 nθ – 2 cos2 nθ] + i [sin 2nθ – sin 2nθ]
= 0 + i . 0 = 0 = RHS
(c) Roots of x2 – 2x cos θ + 1 = 0 are
cos θ + i sin θ and cos θ – i sin θ from (1)
Let α = cos θ + i sin θ, β = cos θ – i sin θ (Proved in part a)
We want to form an equation whose roots are αn and βn.
∴ Quadratic equation is x2 – (αn + βn) x + (αn βn) = 0 | 3 x2 – Sx + P = 0
n n n
α + β = (cos θ + i sin θ) + (cos θ – i sin θ) n
= cos nθ + i sin nθ + cos nθ – i sin nθ = 2 cos nθ

αn βn = (cos θ + i sin θ)n (cos θ – i sin θ)n = [cos2 θ + sin2 θ]n = 1
∴ Required equation is x2 – 2 cos nθ x + 1 = 0
æ p qö æ np nq ö
Example 11. Prove that: (1 + sin θ + i cos θ)n + (1 + sin θ – i cos θ)n = 2n + 1 cos n ç - ÷ cos ç - ÷.
è 4 2ø è 4 2ø
(P.T.U., May 2008)
Sol. (1 + sin θ + i cos θ)n + (1 + sin θ – i cos θ)n
n n
é æp ö æp öù é æp ö æp öù
= ê1 + cos ç - q÷ + i sin ç - q÷ ú + ê1 + cos ç - q÷ - i sin ç - q÷ ú
ë è2 ø è2 øû ë è2 ø è2 øû
n
é æ p qö æ p qö æ p qöù
= ê 2 cos 2 ç - ÷ + 2i sin ç - ÷ cos ç - ÷ ú
ë è 4 2ø è 4 2ø è 4 2øû
n
é æ p qö æ p qö æ p qö ù
+ ê 2 cos 2 ç - ÷ - 2i sin ç - ÷ cos ç - ÷ ú
ë è 4 2 ø è 4 2 ø è 4 2ø û
q ö éì æ p q ö ü ùú
n n
n n æp ê æ p qö æ p qö ü ì æ p qö
= 2 cos -
çè 4 2 ÷ø í cos - +
çè 4 2 ÷ø i sin -
çè 4 2 ÷ø ý + ícos - -
çè 4 2 ÷ø i sin -
çè 4 2 ÷ø ý
êë î þ î þ úû
æ p qö é æ np nq ö æ np nq ö æ np nq ö æ np nq ö ù
= 2n cosn ç - ÷ êcos ç - ÷ + i sin ç - ÷ + cos ç - ÷ - i sin ç - ÷ú
è 4 2ø ë è 4 2ø è 4 2ø è 4 2ø è 4 2 øû
æ p qö æ np nq ö æ p qö æ np nq ö
= 2n cosn ç - ÷ 2 cos ç - ÷ = 2n + 1 cosn ç - ÷ cos ç - ÷
è 4 2ø è 4 2 ø è 4 2 ø è 4 2ø
n
æ 1 + sin q + i cos q ö æ np ö æ np ö
Example 12. Prove that ç = cos ç - nq÷ + i sin ç - nq÷ .
è 1 + sin q - i cos q ÷ø è 2 ø è 2 ø
Sol. (sin θ + i cos θ)(sin θ – i cos θ) = sin2 θ – i2 cos2 θ
= sin2 θ + cos2 θ [3 i2 = – 1]
=1 …(1)
n n
é1 + sin q + i cos q ù é (sin q + i cos q)(sin q - i cos q) + sin q + i cos q ù
∴ ê ú =ê ú [Using (1)]
ë1 + sin q - i cos q û ë 1 + sin q - i cos q û
[Note the step]
n
é (sin q + i cos q) (sin q - i cos q + 1) ù n
= ê ú = (sin θ + i cos θ)
ë 1 + sin q - i cos q û
n
é æp ö æp öù
= ê cos ç - q÷ + i sin ç - q÷ ú
ë è 2 ø è 2 øû
æ np ö æ np ö
= cos ç - nq÷ + i sin ç - nq÷ .
è 2 ø è 2 ø
m m m
æm bö
Example 13. (i) Prove that (a + ib) n + (a - ib) n = 2(a + b 2 2
) 2n cos ç tan-1 ÷
èn aø
np
(ii) ( 3 + i)n + ( 3 - i)n = 2 n +1 cos (P.T.U., May 2004)
6
n
+1 np
(iii) (1 + i)n + (1 – i)n = 22 cos . (P.T.U., May 2003)
4
Sol. (i) Let a = r cos θ and b = r sin θ
Squaring and adding, r 2 = a2 + b2 ∴ r= a2 + b2
b b
Dividing tan θ = ∴ θ = tan–1
a a
m m m m
( a + ib ) n + ( a - ib ) n = [ r (cos q + i sin q )] n + [ r (cos q - i sin q)] n
m m m m
= r n (cos q + i sin q) n + r n (cos - i sin q) n
m m
æ m m ö æ m m ö
= r n ç cos q + i sin q÷ + r n çè cos q - i sin q÷ø
è n n ø n n
m m
æ m ö æm bö
= r n ç 2 cos q÷ = ( a 2 + b2 ) n . 2 cos ç tan -1 ÷
è n ø èn aø
m
æm bö
= 2 (a 2 + b2 ) 2 n cos ç tan -1 ÷ .
èn aø
(ii) Let 3 = r cos θ and 1 = r sin θ

Squaring and adding 4 = r2 ∴ r=2
3 1
cos θ = , sin θ =
2 2
p
∴ θ=
6
Now, ( 3 + i )n + ( 3 - i )n = (r cos θ + ir sin θ)n + (r cos θ – ir sin θ)n
= rn (cos θ + i sin θ)n + rn (cos θ – i sin θ)n
Apply De-Moivre’s theorem
ìcos nq + i sin nq ü
= rn í ý
î+ cos nq - i sin nq þ
= rn ◊ 2 cos nθ
p p
= 2n ◊ 2 cos n ◊ = 2n + 1 cos n .
6 6
(iii) Put 1 = r cos θ and 1 = r sin θ.
Squaring and adding 2 = r2 ∴ r = 2
p
Dividing tan θ = 1 ∴ θ =
4
∴ (1 + i)n + (1 – i)n = (r cos θ + i r sin θ)n + (r cos θ – i r sin θ)n
= rn [cos nθ + i sin nθ + cos nθ – i sin nθ]
n
( ) np np
n +1
= 2 . 2 cos nθ = 2 . cos = 22 2n/2
cos .
4 4
Example 14. If (a1 + ib1 )(a2 + ib2 ) ...... (an + ibn ) = A + iB, prove that,
(i) (a12 + b12) (a22 + b22) ..... (an2 + bn2) = A2 + B2.
b1 b b B
(ii) tan–1 + tan–1 2 + ..... + tan–1 n = tan–1 .
a1 a2 an A
Sol. Let a1 + ib1 = r1 (cos θ 1 + i sin θ 1).
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides r1 cos θ 1 = a1 ; r1 sin θ 1 = b1
Squaring and adding, r12 = a12 + b12
b1 b1
Dividing, tan θ 1 = or θ1 = tan–1
a1 a1
b2
Similarly, r 2 2 = a2 2 + b2 2 , θ2 = tan–1
a2
b3
r 3 2 = a3 2 + b3 2 , θ3 = tan–1
a3
........................................................................
........................................................................
bn
r n 2 = an 2 + bn 2 , θn = tan–1
an
Now it is given that (a1 + ib1)(a2 + ib2) ....... (an + ibn) = A + iB
⇒ r1(cos θ 1 + i sin θ 1) r2 (cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2) ...... rn (cos θ n + i sin θ n) = A + iB
⇒ r1r2 ...... rn[(cos θ 1 + i sin θ 1)(cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2) ..... (cos θ n + i sin θ n)] = A + iB
⇒ r1r2 ...... rn [cos (θ1 + θ2 + ...... + θn) + i sin (θ1 + θ 2 + ...... + θ n)] = A + iB.
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides,
r1r2 ....... rn cos (θ 1 + θ2 + ...... + θn) = A …(1)
r1r2 ....... rn sin (θ 1 + θ2 + ...... + θn) = B …(2)
Squaring and adding (1) and (2),
r12 r22 ....... rn2 [cos2(θ1 + θ 2 + ...... + θ n) + sin2 (θ 1 + θ 2 + ...... + θ n)] = A2 + B2
⇒ r12 r22 ....... rn2 = A2 + B2
⇒ (a12 + b12) (a22 + b22) ..... (an2 + bn2) = A2 + B2 …(I)
B
Dividing (2) by (1), tan (θ1 + θ2 + ...... + θ n) =
A
B
⇒ θ 1 + θ 2 + ..... + θn = tan–1
A
b b b B
⇒ tan–1 1 + tan–1 2 + ... + tan–1 n = tan–1 …(II)
a1 a2 an A
Example 15. If (1 + x )n = p0 + p1x + p2 x2 + p3 x3 + .... show that
n n
np np
(i) p0 – p2 + p4 ..... = 2 2 cos (ii) p1 – p3 + p5 ..... = 2 2 sin .
4 4
Sol. (1 + x)n = p0 + p1x + p2x2 + p3x3.....
Put x = i on both sides, (1 + i)n = p0 + p1i + p2i2 + p3i3 + p4i4 + p5i5 + ..... = p0 + ip1 – p2 – ip3 + p4 + ip5 + .....
[3 i2 = – 1, i3 = i.i2 = – i, i4 = (i2)2 = 1, i5 = i i4 = i]
∴ (1 + i)n = (p0 – p2 + p4 ......) + i (p1 – p3 + p5 .....) …(1)
Let 1 + i = r (cos θ + i sin θ)
Equating real and imaginary parts r cos θ = 1, r sin θ = 1 …(2)
Squaring and adding, r2 = 1 + 1 = 2 ∴ r= 2
1 1 1 1
From (2), cos θ = = , sin θ = =
r 2 r 2
p
Both these equations are satisfied when θ =
4
æ p pö
∴ 1+i= 2 ç cos + i sin ÷
è 4 4ø
n n
æ p pö æ np np ö
⇒ (1 + i)n = ( 2) n ç cos + i sin ÷ = 2 2 çè cos 4 + i sin 4 ÷ø
è 4 4ø
n
æ np np ö
∴ From (1), 2 2 ç cos + i sin = (p0 – p2 + p4 ....) + i (p1 – p3 + p5 .....)
è 4 4 ÷ø
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides,
n
np
p0 – p2 + p4 ..... = 2 2 cos …(I)
4
n
np
p1 – p3 + p5 ..... = 2 2 sin …(II)
4
c æ nö
Example 16. If x = cos θ + i sin θ and 1 - c 2 = nc – 1. Show that 1 + c cos θ = (1 + nx) ç 1 + ÷ .
2n è xø
Sol. Given 1 - c 2 = nc – 1 ...(1)
and x = cos θ + i sin θ
1
∴ = cos θ – i sin θ
x
c æ nö c é æ 1ö 2ù
RHS = (1 + nx) ç1 + ÷ = ê1 + n çè x + ÷ø + n ú
2n è x ø 2n ë x û
c c éæ 1ö ù
= [1 + n ◊ 2 cos θ + n2] = êç n + ÷ø + 2 cos qú …(2)
2n 2 ëè n û
1 + 1 - c2
From (1), n=
c
Eliminate n from (2),
é
ù
2
1 + 1 - c2 + c2
c é1 + 1 - c ù cê ú
2
c
×ê + + 2 cos qú = ê + 2 cos qú

RHS =
2 ê c 1 + 1 - c2 ú 2 ê c 1 + 1 - c2 ú
ë û êë úû
é
c ê1 + 1 - c + 2 1 - c + c
2 2 2
ù
ú
+ 2 cos qú =
cê
é 2 1 + 1 - c2
{ } + 2 cos qùúú

= ê ê
2ê c 1 + 1 - c2 ú 2 ê c 1 + 1 - c2 ú
ë û ë û
c é2 ù
= + 2 cos qú = 1 + c cos θ = LHS
2 êë c û
æ p yö
Example 17. If sin y = i tan θ, prove that cos θ + i sin θ = tan ç + ÷ .
è4 2ø
i sin q sin y cos q 1
Sol. i tan θ = sin y ⇒ = Þ =
cos q 1 i sin q sin y
cos q + i sin q 1 + sin y
By componendo and dividendo, =
cos q - i sin q 1 - sin y
y y y y
+ sin 2
cos 2 + 2 cos sin
or (cos θ + i sin θ)(cos θ – i sin θ) =
–1 2 2 2 2
y y y y
cos 2 + sin 2 - 2 cos sin
2 2 2 2
2
é y yù
ê cos + sin ú
(cos θ + i sin θ)(cos θ + i sin θ) = ê 2 2
or ú
ê cos y yú
- sin
êë 2 2 úû
y y
+ sin
cos
or cos θ + i sin θ = 2 2
y y
cos - sin
2 2
y
Dividing the numerator and denominator on RHS by cos , we get
2
y
1 + tan
2 = tan æ p yö
cos θ + i sin θ =
y çè 4 + 2 ÷ø .
1 - tan
2
Example 18. If α, β are the roots of x2 – 2x + 2 = 0, then prove that:
(t + a )n - (t + b )n sin nf
(i) =
a-b sinn f
(t + a )n + (t + b )n cos nf
(ii) = , where t + 1 = cot φ.
a+b sinn f
Sol. x2 – 2x + 2 = 0
2± 4-8 2 ± i2
x= = =1± i
2 2
∴ α = 1 + i, β = 1 – i
( t + α ) n − ( t + β )n ( t + 1 + i ) n − ( t + 1 − i ) n
(i) =
α−β 1+ i −1+ i
(cot f + i )n - (cot f - i )n
= given t + 1 = cot φ
2i
(cos f + i sin f)n - (cos f - i sin f)n
=
2i (sin f) n
(cos nf + i sin nf) - (cos nf - i sin nf)
=
2i sin n f
2i sin n f sin n f
= n
=
2i sin f sin n f
(ii) Do it yourself.
Example 19. If a = cis a, b = cis b, c = cis g, prove that
(b + c ) (c + a ) (a + b ) b-g g -a a -b
= 8 cos cos cos .
abc 2 2 2
(b + c ) (c + a ) (a + b ) æ b + cö æ c + aö æ a + bö
Sol. = ç ...(1)
abc è a ÷ø çè b ÷ø çè c ÷ø
b+c æ b c ö é cis b cis g ù

= ç + ÷=ê +
è a a ø ë cis a cis a úû
Now,
a
= cis (β – α) + cis (γ – α)
= cos (β – α) + i sin (β – α) + cos (γ – α) + i sin (γ – α)
b + g - 2a b-g b + g - 2a b-g
= 2 cos cos + 2i sin cos
2 2 2 2
b-g ì b + g - 2a b + g - 2a ü
= 2 cos ícos + i sin ý
2 î 2 2 þ
b-g b + g - 2a
= 2 cos cis
2 2
c+a g -a g + a - 2b
Similarly, = 2 cos cis
b 2 2
a+b a-b a + b - 2g
and = 2 cos cis
c 2 2
∴ From (1),
( b + c ) ( c + a ) ( a + b) b-g b + g - 2a g -a g + a - 2b
= 2 cos cis 2 cos cis
abc 2 2 2 2
a-b a + b - 2g
2 cos cis
2 2
b-g g -a a-b b + g - 2a + g + a - 2b + a + b - 2 g
= 8 cos cos cos cis
2 2 2 2
b-g g -a a-b
= 8 cos cos cos cis 0
2 2 2
b-g g -a a-b
= 8 cos cos cos . |3 cis 0 = 1
2 2 2
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. Prove that
(cos 3q + i sin 3q)5 (cos 2q - i sin 2q)3 (cos a + i sin a) 4
(i) -9
= 1 (ii) = sin (4α + 5β) – i cos (4α + 5β).
(cos 4q + i sin 4q) (cos 5q + i sin 5q) 9
(sin b + i cos b)5
2. If a = cis α, b = cis β and c = cis γ , prove that

ab c 1
(i) + = 2 cos (α + β – γ ) (ii) apbqcr + = 2 cos (pα + qβ + rγ ).
c ab a p bq c r
p q
3. If p = cis 2θ and q = cis 2φ, prove that - = 2i sin (θ – φ).
q p
4. If cos α + cos β + cos γ = 0 = sin α + sin β + sin γ , show that
3
sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = .
2
5. If x = cos α + i sin α, y = cos β + i sin β, z = cos γ + i sin γ and x + y + z = 0, then prove that
x–1 + y–1 + z–1 = 0.
6. Prove that the general value of θ which satisfies the equation
4 mp
(cos θ + i sin θ) (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) ..... (cos nθ + i sin nθ) = 1 is , where m is any integer.
n( n + 1)
1 1
7. If 2 cos θ = a + , 2 cos φ = b + , prove that one of the values of
a b
1 1
(i) ab + is 2 cos (θ + φ) (ii) apbq + p q is 2 cos (pθ + qφ)
ab a b
8. Prove that
(i) [(cos θ + cos φ) + i(sin θ + sin φ)]n + [(cos θ + cos φ) – i(sin θ + sin φ)]n
æ q - fö n(q + f)
= 2n+1 cosn ç cos
è 2 ÷ø 2
(ii) [(cos θ – cos φ) + i(sin θ – sin φ)]n + [(cos θ – cos φ) – i(sin θ – sin φ)]n
q-f n( p + q + f)
= 2n+1 sinn cos
2 2
q nq
(iii) (1 + cos θ + i sin θ)n + (1 + cos θ – i sin θ)n = 2n+1 cosn cos
2 2
n
æ 1 + cos q + i sin q ö
(iv) ç = cos nθ + i sin nθ.
è 1 + cos q - i sin q ÷ø
æ xö æ xö æ xö
9. If ç1 + i ÷ ç1 + i ÷ ç1 + i ÷ ...... = A + iB, prove that
è aø è bø è cø
æ x2 ö æ x2 ö æ x2 ö
(i) ç1 + 2 ÷ ç1 + 2 ÷ ç1 + 2 ÷ ...... = A2 + B2
è a øè b øè c ø
–1 x –1 x x B
(ii) tan + tan + tan–1 + ..... = tan–1 .
a b c A
np
10. If α, β be the roots of x2 – 2x + 4 = 0, prove that αn + βn = 2n+1 cos .
3
6.4. ROOTS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

As already discussed in De-Moivre’s Theorem that when n is a rational number (i.e., fraction positive or
negative) then cos nq + i sin nq is one of the values of (cos q + i sin q)n. Now we shall find all the values of
p
(cos q + i sin q)n, where n = q ; p, q are both integers; (p, q) = 1 and q π 0
6.4(a). SHOW THAT THERE ARE G AND ONLY G DISTINCT VALUES OF

1
G
(COS q + E SIN q ) , G BEING A POSITIVE INTEGER
1
q q
By De-Moivre’s Theorem, we know that cos + i sin is one of the values of (cos q + i sin q) q .
q q
1
Let us find all the values of (cos q + i sin q) q
1 1
q q 2np + q 2np + q
(cos q + i sin q) = [cos (2np + q) + i sin (2np + q)] = cos + i sin
q q
1
Putting n = 0, 1, 2, ......, q – 1 in succession, we obtain the following q values of (cos q + i sin q) q

q q ù
cos + i sin when n = 0 ú
q q
ú
2p + q 2p + q ú
q q ú
4p + q 4p + q ú
cos + i sin when n = 2 ú ...(I)
q q ú
...................................................................... ú
ú
...................................................................... ú
2(q - 1)p + q 2(q - 1)p + q ú
cos + i sin when n = q - 1ú
q q úû
Since no two of the angles in the q values in (I) are equal or differ by a multiple of 2π, therefore, their sines
and cosines cannot be equal simultaneously.
∴ All the q values obtained in (I) are distinct.
If we put n = q, we get
2qp + q 2qp + q æ qö æ qö q q
cos + i sin = cos ç 2p + ÷ + i sin ç 2p + ÷ = cos + i sin
q q è qø è qø q q
This value is the same as the one obtained by putting n = 0.
Similarly, if we put n = q + 1, q + 2, ......., we will get the same values as obtained in (I) by putting n = 1, 2, .....
1
q
Hence (cos q + i sin q) has q and only q distinct values obtained by putting n = 0, 1, 2, ......, q – 1 in
2np + q 2np + q
cos + i sin .
q q
Working Rule for finding the qth roots of x + iy
Let x + iy = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
1 1 1 1 1
q q q q q
∴ ( x + iy ) = r (cos q + i sin q) = r [cos (2 np + q ) + i sin (2 np + q )]
1
éq 2np + q 2np + q ù
= r êcos + i sin ú
ë q q û
1
q
Putting n = 0, 1, 2, ......., q – 1, the q values of ( x + iy ) are obtained.
6.4(b). SHOW THAT (COS q + E SIN q )F/G HAS G AND ONLY G DISTINCT
VALUES, F AND G BEING INTEGERS PRIME TO EACH OTHER
p 1
(cos q + i sin q) q = [(cos q + i sin q) p ] q

1
q
= (cos pq + i sin pq) [3 p is an integer]
1
2np + pq q 2np + pq
= [cos (2 np + pq) + i sin (2 np + pq)] = cos + i sin
q q
To find all the values of the given expression, putting n = 0, 1, 2, ......, (q – 1) in succession, we obtain the
p
following q values of (cos q + i sin q) q

pq pq ù
q q
ú
2p + pq 2p + pq ú
q q ú
4p + pq 4p + pq ú
cos + i sin when n = 2 ú ...(I)
q q ú
...................................................................... ú
ú
...................................................................... ú
2(q - 1)p + pq 2(q - 1)p + pq ú
cos + i sin when n = q - 1ú
q q úû
Since no two of the angles in the q values in (I) are equal or differ by a multiple of 2π, therefore, their sines
and cosines cannot be equal simultaneously.
∴ All the q values obtained in (I) are distinct.
If we put n = q, we get
2qp + pq 2qp + pq æ pq ö æ pq ö pq pq
cos
q
+ i sin
q
= cos çè 2p + q ÷ø + i sin çè 2p + q ÷ø = cos q + i sin q
This value is the same as the one obtained by putting n = 0.

Similarly, if we put n = q + 1, q + 2, ......., we will get the same values as obtained in (I) by putting n = 1, 2, .....
Hence (cos θ + i sin θ)p/q has q and only q distinct values obtained by putting n = 0, 1, 2, ......, q – 1 in
2np + pq 2np + pq
cos + i sin .
q q
Note 1. To find the distinct values of (cos q + i sin q)p/q, p and q must be co-prime i.e., p and q should have
no common factor > 1.
e.g., (cos q + i sin q)9/12 does not have 12 distinct values but only 4, since (cos q + i sin q)9/12 = (cos q + i sin q)3/4 ,
here q = 4.
Note 2. The q distinct values of (cos q + i sin q) p/q are obtained by putting n = 0, 1, 2, ....., q – 1 in
2np + pq 2np + pq æ pq 2np ö æ pq 2np ö

cos + i sin = cos ç + + i sin ç +
q q è q q ÷ø è q q ÷ø
æ pq pq ö æ 2np 2np ö
= ç cos + i sin ÷ ç cos + i sin
è q q ø è q q ÷ø
n
pq 2np pq æ 2p ö
= cis cis = cis ◊ ç cis
q q q è q ÷ø
pq 2p
= arn, where a = cis , r = cis .
q q
Thus, the q distinct values of (cos q + i sin q)p/q are a, ar, ar2, ......., arq – 1
Their product = a . ar . ar2 ....... arq–1 = aq . r1 + 2 + ...... + (q –1)
q ( q - 1)
q -1 q ( q - 1) q
(1 + q - 1) æ pq ö æ 2p ö 2
= aq r 2 = aq . r 2 = ç cis ÷ ç cis
è q ø è q ÷ø
q -1
éæ 2p ö ùú
q/2
= cis pq . êç cis = cis pq . (cis p)q – 1
êè q ÷ø ú
ë û
= (cos pq + i sin pq)(cos p + i sin p)q–1 = (– 1)q – 1 (cos pq + i sin pq).
6.4(c). SHOW THAT THE G VALUES OF (COS q + E SIN q)F/G FORM A GEOMETRICAL
PROGRESSION WHOSE SUM IS ZERO, F AND G BEING INTEGERS PRIME
TO EACH OTHER OF (COS q + E SIN q )F/G
Proceeding as in 6.4(b), the sum of q values of (cos q + i sin q)p/q is

a(1 - r q ) é 2p ù
= a + ar + ar2 + ..... + arq – 1 = ê r = cis ¹ 1ú
1- r ë q û
é æ 2p ö ù
q
ê
a 1 - ç cis ú
êë è q ÷ø ú a(1 - cis 2p) a[1 - (cos 2p + i sin 2p)] a[1 - (1 + 0)]
=
û= = = = 0.
1- r 1- r 1- r 1- r
Example 1. (a) Find nth roots of unity and prove that these form a geometrical progession. Also show that
the sum of these n roots is zero and their product is (–1)n–1. (P.T.U., Dec. 2013)
(b) Solve x7 = 1 and prove that the sum of the nth powers of the roots is 7 or zero, according as n is or is
not a multiple of 7.
Sol. (a) We have to evaluate (1)1/n
(1)1/n = (cos 0 + i sin 0)1/n = (cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ)1/n
2k p 2k p
= cos + i sin , where k = 0, 1, 2, ....., (n – 1)
n n
∴ nth roots of unity are
2p 2p 4p 4p 6p 6p
1, cos + i sin , cos + i sin , cos + i sin , .....,
n n n n n n
2(n - 1)p 2(n - 1)p
cos + i sin
n n
2p 2p
Let cos + i sin =λ
n n
∴ nth roots of unity are
1, λ, λ2, λ3 ....., λn – 1, which forms a G.P. with first term = 1 and C.R. = λ
Now sum of these roots = 1 + λ + λ 2 + ...... + λn – 1
1(1 - l n ) a(1 - r n )
= , where λ ≠ 1 sum of G.P. =
1- l 1- r
n
æ 2p 2p ö
Now, λn = ç cos + i sin ÷ = cos 2π+ i sin 2π= 1
è n nø
1-1
∴ Sum = =0
1- l
( n - 1) n
( n - 1) n
æ 2p 2p ö 2
Their product = 1 ◊ λ ◊ λ2 ...... λn–1 = λ1 + 2 + 3 ...... (n – 1) = l 2 = ç cos + i sin
è n n ÷ø
æ 2p n( n - 1) ö æ 2p n(n - 1) ö
= cos ç . ÷ + i sin ç . = cos (n – 1) π + i sin (n – 1)π
è n 2 ø è n 2 ÷ø
= (–1)n – 1 + 0 = (–1)n–1.
(b) We have to evaluate (1)1/7
(1)1/7 = (cos 0 + i sin 0)1/7 = [cos (2nπ + 0) + i sin (2nπ + 0)]1/7
2np 2np
= cos + i sin , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
7 7
∴ The seventh roots of unity are
2p 2p 4p 4p 6p 6p
cos 0 + i sin 0; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin cos + i sin ;
7 7 7 7 7 7
8p 8p 10 p 10p 12p 12 p
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin .
7 7 7 7 7 7
The nth powers of the roots are
2np 2np 4np 4np 6np 6n p 8np 8np
1; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ;
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
10np 10np 12np 12np
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin
7 7 7 7
12np 12np
or 1, x, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6, where x = cos + i sin
7 7
If n is not a multiple of 7, x ≠ 1
1 é æ 2np ö ù
7
1(1 - x 7 ) 2 np
∴ Reqd. sum = 1 + x + x2 + ..... + x6 = = ê1 - ç cos + i sin ú
1- x 1 - x êë è 7 7 ÷ø úû
1 1
= [1 – (cos 2nπ + i sin 2nπ)] = [1 – 1] = 0
1- x 1- x
If n is a multiple of 7, let n = 7 m, where m is an integer.
2np
x = cis = cis 2mπ = 1.
7
∴ Required sum = 1 + x + x2 + ..... + x6 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 7.
Example 2. Find the values of (– 1)1/6.
Sol. – 1 = cos π + i sin π
∴ (– 1)1/6 = (cos π + i sin π)1/6 = [cos (2nπ + π) + i sin (2nπ + π)]1/6
(2n + 1) p (2n + 1) p
= cos + i sin , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
6 6
Putting n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, the required values are
p p p p 5p 5p
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ;
6 6 2 2 6 6
7p 7p 3p 3p 11p 11p
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin
6 6 2 2 6 6
3 1 æ pö æ pö
or +i. ; 0 + i ◊ 1 ; cos ç p - ÷ + i sin ç p - ÷ ;
2 2 è 6ø è 6ø
æ pö æ pö æ pö æ pö
cos ç p + ÷ + i sin ç p + ÷ ; 0 + i(– 1) ; cos ç 2p - ÷ + i sin çè 2p - 6 ÷ø
è 6ø è 6ø è 6ø
3 +i p p p p p p
or ; i ; – cos + i sin ; – cos – i sin ; – i ; cos – i sin
2 6 6 6 6 6 6
3 +i - 3 +i - 3 -i 3 -i 3 ±i - 3 ±i
or ;i; ; ;–i; or ± i ; ; .
2 2 2 2 2 2
3/4
æ1 3 iö
Example 3. Find all the values of ç + and show that their continued product is 1.
è2 2 ÷ø
(P.T.U., Dec. 2011, 2012)
1 3
Sol. Let +i. = r (cos θ + i sin θ)
2 2
1 3
Equating real and imaginary parts r cos θ = , r sin θ = . . .(1)
2 2
1 3
Squaring and adding, r2 = + =1 ∴ r=1
4 4
1 1 3 3
From (1), cos θ = = ; sin θ = =
2r 2 2r 2
p
Both these equations are satisfied when θ =
3
1 3 p p
∴ +i◊ = cos + i sin
2 2 3 3
3/4 1/4
æ1 3i ö éæ p pö ù
3
ç2 + 2 ÷ = êç cos + i sin ÷ ú = (cos π + i sin π)1/4

è ø êëè 3 3 ø úû
(2 n + 1) p (2 n + 1) p
= [cos (2nπ + π) + i sin (2nπ + π)]1/4 = cos + i sin
4 4
Putting n = 0, 1, 2, 3, the required values are
p p 3p 3p 5p 5p 7p 7p
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
1+ i -1+ i -1- i 1- i 1 ± i -1 ± i
i.e., , , , i.e., , .
2 2 2 2 2 2
æ p 3p 5p 7p ö æ p 3p 5p 7p ö
The required product = cos ç + + + + i sin ç + + +
è4 4 4 4 ÷ø è4 4 4 4 ÷ø
= cos 4π + i sin 4 π = 1.
n n
æ - 1+ i 3ö æ-1-i 3ö
Example 4. Prove that ç ÷ +ç ÷ has the value –1, if n = 3k ± 1 and the value 2, if
è 2 ø è 2 ø
n = 3k, where k is an integer.
1 3
Sol. Let -= r cos θ, = r sin θ
2 2
1 3
Squaring and adding + = r2 ∴ r = 1
4 4
1 3 2p
∴ cos θ = - , sin θ = ⇒ θ=
2 2 3
n n
æ - 1+ i 3ö æ -1- i 3ö n n
∴ ç ÷ +ç ÷ = (r cos θ + i r sin θ) + (r cos θ – i r sin θ)
è 2 ø è 2 ø
= rn [cos nθ + i sin nθ + cos nθ – i sin nθ] = 2rn cos nθ
2np
= 2 cos
3
If n = 3k ± 1
n n
æ - 1+ i 3ö æ -1- i 3ö 2p æ 2p ö
Then +ç = 2 cos (3k ± 1) = 2 cos ç 2k p ±
ç
è 2 ÷
ø è 2 ÷
ø 3 è 3 ÷ø
2p æ 1ö
= 2 cos
3
=2 çè - 2 ÷ø = – 1
If n = 3k
n n
æ - 1+ i 3ö æ -1- i 3ö 2p
Then ç ÷ +ç ÷ = 2 cos 3 (3k)
è 2 ø è 2 ø
= 2 cos 2kπ = 2.1 = 2
n n
æ - 1+ i 3ö æ -1- i 3ö
Hence ç ÷ +ç ÷ = – 1 if n = 3k ± 1 i.e., n is not a multiple of 3
è 2 ø è 2 ø
= 2 if n = 3k i.e., n is a multiple of 3.
1 1
Example 5. Prove that (a + ib) n + (a - ib) n has n real values and find those of (1 + i 3 )1/3 + (1 – i 3 )1/3.
Sol. Let a = r cos θ, b = r sin θ
Squaring and adding, a2 + b2 = r2 ∴ r= a 2 + b2
b b
Dividing, tan θ = ∴ θ = tan–1
a a
1 1 1 1
∴ ( a + ib ) n + ( a - ib ) n = [ r (cos q + i sin q)] n + [ r (cos q - i sin q)] n
1 1 1 1
= r n [cos (2 r p + q) + i sin (2 r p + q)] n + r n [cos (2 r p + q) - i sin (2 r p + q)] n
1
é 2r p + q 2r p + q 2r p + q 2r p + q ù
= rn êcos + i sin + cos - i sin
ë n n n n úû
1 1
2r p + q é 2r p + q ù
= r n . 2 cos = 2 [(a 2 + b2 )1/2 ] n cos ê ú
n ë n û
1
é1 æ böù
= 2 ( a 2 + b 2 ) 2 n cos ê ç 2r p + tan -1 ÷ ú
ë n è aøû
which is real and will give n real values corresponding to r = 0, 1, 2, ......, (n – 1).
Putting a = 1, b = 3 and n = 3, the three required values of (1 + i 3 )1/3 + (1 – i 3 )1/3 are
é1 æ 3öù
2(1 + 3)1/6 cos ê ç 2r p + tan -1 ú , where r = 0, 1, 2
êë 3 è 1 ÷ø ú
û
é1 æ pöù
i.e., 2 ◊ (22)1/6 cos ê ç 2r p + ÷ ú , where r = 0, 1, 2
ë3 è 3øû
6rp + p
i.e., 2.21/3 cos , where r = 0, 1, 2
9
p 7p 13p
i.e., 24/3 ◊ cos ; 24/3 ◊ cos ; 24/3 ◊ cos
9 9 9
rp
i.e., 24/3 ◊ cos , where r = 1, 7, 13
9
2p 2p
Example 6. If a = cos + i sin , b = a + a2 + a4, c = a3 + a5 + a6, show that b and c are the roots of
7 7
the equation x2 + x + 2 = 0.
7
æ 2p 2p ö
Sol. a7 = ç cos + i sin = cos 2π + i sin 2π = 1
è 7 7 ÷ø
Now, b + c = a + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 = (1 + a + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6) – 1
1(1 - a 7 ) é a (1 - r n ) ù
= –1 êSn = ú
1- a ëê 1 - r ûú
1
= [1 – 1] – 1 = – 1 [Q a7 = 1]
1- a
and bc = (a + a2 + a4)(a3 + a5 + a6) = a4 + a6 + a7 + a5 + a7 + a8 + a7 + a9 + a10
= a4 + a6 + 1 + a5 + 1 + a + 1 + a2 + a3
[Q a7 = 1 ∴ a8 = a7 . a = a etc.]
= (1 + a + a + a + a + a + a ) + 2
2 3 4 5 6
1(1 - a 7 ) 1
= +2= (1 – 1) + 2 = 2
1- a 1- a
∴ The equation whose roots are b and c is
x2 – (b + c)x + bc = 0 or x2 – (– 1)x + 2 = 0 or x2 + x + 2 = 0.
Example 7. Solve the following equations:
(a) x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 = 0
(b) x4 – x3 + x2 – x + 1 = 0 (P.T.U., May 2003, 2005)
(c) x7 + x4 + x3 + 1 = 0 (P.T.U., Dec., 2010)
(d) x9 – x5 + x4 – 1 = 0.
Sol. (a) Given equation is x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 = 0 …(1)
Multiplying both sides by (x – 1), we have x7 – 1 = 0 …(2)
⇒ x7 = 1
2np 2np
∴ x = (1)1/7 = (cos 0 + i sin 0)1/7 = (cos 2nπ + i sin 2nπ)1/7 = cos + i sin
7 7
Putting n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 the seven roots of (2) are
2p 2p 4p 4p
cos 0 + i sin 0 ; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ;
7 7 7 7
6p 6p 8p 8p
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ;
7 7 7 7
10 p 10p 12p 12p
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin .
7 7 7 7
8p 8p æ 6p ö æ 6p ö 6p 6p
But cos + i sin = cos ç 2p - ÷ + i sin ç 2p - ÷ = cos – i sin
7 7 è 7 ø è 7 ø 7 7
10 p 10 p æ 4p ö æ 4p ö 4p 4p
cos
7
+ i sin
7
= cos çè 2p - 7 ÷ø + i sin çè 2p - 7 ÷ø = cos 7 – i sin 7
12 p 12 p æ 2p ö æ 2p ö 2p 2p
cos
7
+ i sin
7
= cos çè 2p - 7 ÷ø + i sin çè 2p - 7 ÷ø = cos 7 – i sin 7
2p 2p 4p 4p 6p 6p
∴ Roots of (2) are 1, cos ± i sin ; cos ± i sin ; cos ± i sin
7 7 7 7 7 7
rp rp
or 1, cos ± i sin , where r = 2, 4, 6.
7 7
The root 1 corresponds to x – 1 = 0
∴ The remaining six roots are those of the given equation.
rp rp
Hence the roots of (1) are given by cos ± i sin , where r = 2, 4, 6.
7 7
(b) Given equation is x4 – x3 + x2 – x + 1 = 0
Multiply both sides by x + 1 we have (x + 1) (x4 – x3 + x2 – x + 1) = 0
i.e., x5 + 1 = 0 i.e., x5 = – 1 = cos π + i sin π
∴ x5 = cos (2nπ + π) + i sin (2nπ + π)
x = (cos (2n + 1) π + i sin (2n + 1) π)1/5
(2n + 1)p (2n + 1) p
x = cos + i sin , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
5 5
Putting n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 five roots of x5 + 1 = 0 are
p p 3p 3p
cos + i sin , cos + i sin , cos π + i sin π,
5 5 5 5
7p 7p 9p 9p
cos + i sin , cos + i sin
5 5 5 5
p p 3p 3p
or cos + i sin , cos + i sin , – 1,
5 5 5 5
3p 3p p p
cos – i sin , cos – i sin
5 5 5 5
p p 3p 3p
or the roots are – 1, cos ± i sin , cos ± i sin .
5 5 5 5
root x = – 1 corresponds to x + 1 = 0
p p 3p 3p
∴ The remaining four roots i.e., cos ± i sin , cos ± i sin are roots of the given equation.
5 5 5 5
(c) Given equation is x7 + x4 + x3 + 1 = 0 i.e., x4(x3 + 1) + (x3 + 1) = 0
i.e., (x4 + 1)(x3 + 1) = 0 …(1)
either x + 1 = 0 or x + 1 = 0
4 3
Now, x4
= –1 ⇒ x = (– 1)1/4 x3 =
–1 ⇒ x = (– 1)1/3
∴ x = (cos π + i sin π)1/4 ∴ x = (cos π + i sin π)1/3
= [cos (2nπ + π) + i sin (2nπ + π)]1/4 = [cos (2nπ + π) + i sin (2nπ + π)]1/3
(2 n + 1) p (2 n + 1) p (2 n + 1) p (2 n + 1) p
= cos + i sin = cos + i sin
4 4 3 3
Putting n = 0, 1, 2, 3, the four roots of Putting n = 0, 1, 2 ; the three roots of
x4 + 1 = 0 are x3 + 1 = 0 are
p p 3p 3p p p
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin cos + i sin ; cos π + i sin π ;
4 4 4 4 3 3
5p 5p 7p 7p 5p 5p
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin cos + i sin
4 4 4 4 3 3
p p 3p 3p p p p p
i.e., cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ; i.e., cos + i sin ; – 1 ; cos – i sin
4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
3p 3p p p
cos – i sin ; cos – i sin
4 4 4 4
1± i -1± i 1± i 3
i.e., ; i.e., ;–1
2 2 2
1± i -1± i 1± i 3
Hence the roots of (1) are – 1, ; ; .
2 2 2
(d) Given equation is x9 – x5 + x4 – 1 = 0
x5 (x4 – 1) + (x4 – 1) = 0 or (x5 + 1) (x4 – 1) = 0
∴ x5 + 1 = 0 or x4 – 1 = 0
x = –1
5 x4 = 1 = cos 0 + i sin 0 = cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ
2kp 2kp
x5 = cos π + i sin π ∴ x = cos + i sin
4 4
x5 = cos (2kπ + π) + i sin (2kπ + π) k = 0, 1, 2, 3
2k + 1 2k + 1 kp kp
∴ x = cos π + i sin π = cos + i sin
5 5 2 2
where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 where k = 0, 1, 2, 3
p p 3p 3p
∴ x = cos + i sin , cos + i sin , ∴ x = cos 0 + i sin 0,
5 5 5 5
5p 5p 7p 7p p p
cos + i sin , cos + i sin , cos + i sin ,
5 5 5 5 2 2
9p 9p
cos + i sin cos π + i sin π,
5 5
p p 3p 3p 3p 3p
x = cos + i sin , cos + i sin , cos + i sin
5 5 5 5 2 2
3p 3p
cos π + i sin π, cos – i sin ∴ x = 1, i, – 1, – i
5 5
p p
cos – i sin = ± 1, ± i
5 5
p p 3p 3p
∴ x = cos ± i sin , cos ± i sin , – 1, ± 1, ± i
5 5 5 5
Example 8. Solve x12
– 1 = 0 and find which of its roots satisfy the equation + + 1 = 0. x4 x2
Sol. x12 – 1 = 0 ∴ x12 = 1
x 12 = cos 0 + i sin 0 = cos 2nπ + i sin 2nπ
2np 2np
∴ x = cos + i sin ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...,11
12 12
np np
∴ x = cos + i sin ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., 11
6 6
p 2p 3p 4p 5p
∴ x = cis 0, cis , cis , cis , cis , cis ,
6 6 6 6 6
6p 7p 8p 9p 10 p 11p
cis , cis , cis , cis , cis , cis
6 6 6 6 6 6
π p 2p 5p æ 5p ö
= 1, cis , cis , i, cis , cis , – 1, cis ç - ÷ ,
6 3 3 6 è 6ø
æ 2p ö æ pö æ pö
cis ç - , – i, cis çè - 3 ÷ø , cis çè - 6 ÷ø
è 3 ÷ø
æ pö æ pö æ 2p ö æ 5p ö
= ± 1, ± i, cis ç ± ÷ , cis çè ± 3 ÷ø , cis çè ± 3 ÷ø , cis çè ± 6 ÷ø
è 6ø
3 ± i 1± i 3 -1± i 3 - 3 ± i
= ± 1, ± i, , , ,
2 2 2 2
3 ±i 1± i 3
= ± 1, ± i, ± ,±
2 2
Now, x4 + x2 + 1 = 0
-1± i 3 2p 2p
x2 = = cos ± i sin
2 3 3
æ 2p ö æ 2p ö
= cos ç 2k p + ± i sin ç 2k p +
è 3 ÷ø è 3 ÷ø
1æ 2p ö 1æ 2p ö
∴ 2k p +
x = cos
ç ÷ ± i sin ç 2k p + , where k = 0, 1
2è 3ø 2è 3 ÷ø
p p 4p 4p
∴ x = cos ± i sin , cos ± i sin
3 3 3 3
1± i 3 -1m i 3 1± i 3 1±i 3 1±i 3
= , = ,– =±
2 2 2 2 2
∴ Last four roots of x12 – 1 = 0 are the roots of x4 + x2 + 1 = 0.
Example 9. Prove by the use of De-Moivre’s Theorem that the roots of the equation (x – 1)n = xn
1é rp ù
(n being a +ve integer) are ê1 + i cot , where r has the values 1, 2, ......, (n – 1).
2ë n úû
n
æ x - 1ö
Sol. (x – 1)n = xn ∴ çè ÷ =1
x ø
n
æ x - 1ö
or çè ÷ = cos 0 + i sin 0 = cos 2rπ + i sin 2rπ
x ø
Taking the nth root of both sides

1
x -1 2r p 2r p
= (cos 2r p + i sin 2r p ) n = cos + i sin
x n n
1 2r p 2r p
1 – = cos + i sin r = 0, 1, 2, ....., (n – 1)
x n n
x -1
When r = 0, we have = cis 0 = 1 or x – 1 = x or – 1 = 0, which is impossible
x
Actually the given equation is of degree (n – 1) and not n since xn cancels on both sides.
∴ r = 1, 2, 3, ......, (n – 1)
2r p
Putting = θ, it becomes
n
1
= 1 – cos θ – i sin θ
x
1 1 1
x= = =
1 - cos q - i sin q q q q qæ q qö
2 sin 2 - i . 2 sin cos 2 sin ç sin - i cos ÷
2 2 2 2è 2 2ø
q q q q
sin + i cos sin + i cos
2 2 2 2 =1 é qù
= = ê1 + i cot 2 ú
qæ q qö q 2 ë û
2 sin ç sin 2 - i 2 cos2 ÷ 2 sin
2è 2 2ø 2
é 1 rp ù
Hence x= ê1 + i cot n ú , where r = 1, 2, ......, (n – 1).
ë 2 û
Example 10. Use De-Moivre’s Theorem to solve the equation (z – 1)5 + z5 = 0. (P.T.U., Dec. 2012)
Sol. (z – 1)5 = – z5
5
æ z - 1ö
çè ÷ = – 1 = cos p + i sin p
z ø
= cos (2k + 1) p + i sin (2k + 1) p
2k + 1 2k + 1
cos p + i sin p
z -1 5 5
= where, k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
z 1
2k + 1 2k + 1
cos p + i sin p -1
z -1- z 5 5
By componendo dividendo =
z 1
1
\ z=
2k + 1 2k + 1
1 - cos p - i sin p
5 5
1
=
2 k + 1 2k + 1 2k + 1
2 sin 2 p - 2 sin p cos p
10 10 10
1
=
2 k + 1 é 2k + 1 ù
2 sin 2 p ê1 - i cot pú
10 ë 10 û
2k + 1
1 + i cot p
= 10
2k + 1 2k + 1
2 sin 2 p cosec 2 p
10 10
1æ 2k + 1 ö
\ z = ç1 + i cot p÷ , where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
2è 10 ø
Put z = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, we get
1æ pö 1æ 3p ö
z= 1 + i cot ÷ , ç 1 + i cot ÷ ,
2 çè 10 ø 2 è 10 ø
1æ 5p ö 1 æ 7p ö 1 æ 9p ö
ç 1 + i cot ÷ , ç 1 + i cot ÷ , ç 1 + i cot
2 è ø
10 2 è ø
10 2 è 10 ÷ø
9p æ pö p
cot = cot ç p - ÷ = - cot
10 è 10 ø 10
7p æ 3p ö 3p
cot = cot ç p - ÷ = - cot
10 è 10 ø 10
5p p
cot = cot = 0
10 2
1æ pö 1æ 3p ö
\ z = ç 1 ± i cot ÷ , ç 1 ± i cot ÷ , 0
2è 10 ø 2 è 10 ø
1æ pö 1æ 3pö
Hence z = 0, 1 ± i cot ÷ , ç1 ± i cot ÷ .
2 çè 10 ø 2 è 10 ø
rp
Example 11. If (3 + x)3 – (3 – x)3 = 0, then prove that x = 3i tan , r = 0, 1, 2. (P.T.U., May 2010)
3
Sol. Given (3 + x)3 – (3 – x)3 = 0

3
æ3+ xö
or çè 3 - = 1 = cis 2rp
x ÷ø
3+ x 1
2r p
or = cis 2r p 3 = cis ; r = 0, 1, 2
3- x 3
2rp
3 + x cis 3
or =
3- x 1
Apply componendo dividendo
2r p
cis +1
3+ x+3- x 3
=
3+ x-3+ x 2r p
cis -1
3
2r p
1 + cis
6 3
=
2x æ 2r p ö
- ç1 - cis ÷
è 3 ø
2r p 2r p rp rp rp
1 + cos + i sin 2 cos 2 + 2i sin cos
3 3 3 = 3 3 3
- =
x 2r p 2r p 2 rp rp rp
1 - cos - i sin 2 sin - 2i sin cos
3 3 3 3 3
rp é rp rp ù rp rp
2 cos cos + i sin
3 êë 3 úû
cot cis
3 3 3
= = .
rp é rp rp ù -i é rp rp ù
2 sin ê sin - i cos ú êi sin + cos ú
3 ë 3 3û ë 3 3û
rp rp
cot cis
or
3
- = 3 3 = i cot rp
x -i rp 3
cis
3
3 rp
or x =– tan
i 3
rp
or x = 3i tan , where r = 0, 1, 2 .
3
2k + 1
Example 12. Show that the roots of (x + 1)6 + (x – 1)6 = 0 are ± i cot π , (k = 0, 1, 2) and deduce that
12
2
æ 2k + 1 ö
(i) (x + 1)6 + (x – 1)6 = 2 Õ çè x
k =0
2
+ cot 2
12
p÷
ø
p 3p 5p p 3p 5p 1
(ii) cot cot cot =1 (iii) sin sin sin = .
12 12 12 12 12 12 4 2
Sol. The given equation is (x + 1)6 = – (x – 1)6
6
æ x + 1ö
⇒ çè x - 1÷ø = – 1 = cis π
x +1 2n + 1
⇒ = (cis π)1/6 = [cis (2nπ + π)]1/6 = cis π, where n = 0, 1, 2, ......, 5
x -1 6
2n + 1
= cos θ + i sin θ, where θ =
π
6
x + 1 + x - 1 cos q + i sin q + 1
By componendo and dividendo =
x + 1 - x + 1 cos q + i sin q - 1
(1 + cos q) + i sin q 2 cos 2 q /2 + 2 i sin q /2 cos q /2
x= =
- (1 - cos q) + i sin q - 2 sin 2 q /2 + 2 i sin q /2 cos q /2
q cos q /2 + i sin q /2 1 q cos q /2 + i sin q / 2
= cot = cot
2 - sin q /2 + i cos q /2 i 2 cos q /2 + i sin q / 2
1 q i 2n + 1 2n + 1
= cot = 2 cot π = – i cot π , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
i 2 i 12 12
p 3p
when n = 0, x = – i cot when n = 1, x = – i cot
12 12
5p 7p æ 5p ö 5p
when n = 2, x = – i cot
12
when n = 3, x = – i cot
12
= – i cot çè p - 12 ÷ø = i cot 12
9p æ 3p ö 3p
when n = 4, x = – i cot = – i cot ç p - ÷ = i cot
12 è 12 ø 12
11p æ pö p
when n = 5, x = – i cot = – i cot ç p - ÷ = i cot
12 è 12 ø 12
∴ The roots of the given equation are
p 3p 5p 2k + 1
± i cot , ± i cot , ± i cot or ± i cot
π, where k = 0, 1, 2.
12 12 12 12
p 3p 5p
(i) Since the roots of (x + 1)6 + (x – 1)6 = 0 are ± i cot , ± i cot , ± i cot
12 12 12
æ pöæ pö
∴ (x + 1)6 + (x – 1)6 = λ ç x - i cot ÷ ç x + i cot ÷
è 12 ø è 12 ø
æ 3p ö æ 3p ö æ 5p ö æ 5p ö
× ç x - i cot ÷ ç x + i cot ÷ ç x - i cot ÷ ç x + i cot ÷
è 12 ø è 12 ø è 12 ø è 12 ø
æ pöæ 3p ö æ 2 2 5p ö
= λ ç x 2 - i 2 cot 2 ÷ ç x 2 - i 2 cot 2 x - i cot 2 ÷
è 12 ø è 12 ÷ø çè 12 ø
æ pöæ 3p ö æ 2 5p ö
= λ ç x 2 + cot 2 ÷ ç x 2 + cot 2 ÷ ç x + cot 2 ÷
è 12 ø è 12 ø è 12 ø
Equating co-efficients of x6, 1 + 1 = λ ⇒ λ=2
æ pöæ 3p ö æ 2 5p ö
∴ (x + 1)6 + (x – 1)6 = 2 ç x 2 + cot 2 ÷ ç x 2 + cot 2 ÷ ç x + cot 2 ÷ …(1)
è 12 ø è 12 ø è 12 ø
2
æ 2k + 1 ö
=2 Õ çè x
k =0
2
+ cot 2
12
p÷ .
ø
Note. Just as Σ represents sum, II represents product.
p 3p 5p
(ii) Putting x = 0 in (1), 1 + 1 = 2 cot2 cot2 cot2
12 12 12
p 3p 5p
⇒ cot cot cot =1
12 12 12
æ pö
çè taking + ve sign with square root since all the angles involved are less than ÷
2ø
æ pöæ 3p ö æ 5p ö
(iii) Putting x = 1 in (1), 26 = 2 ç 1 + cot 2 ÷ ç 1 + cot 2 ÷ ç 1 + cot 2
è 12 ø è 12 ø è 12 ÷ø
p 3p 5p
⇒ cosec2 cosec2 cosec2 = 25 = 32
12 12 12
p 3p 5p 1 p 3p 5p 1 1
⇒ sin2 sin2 sin2 = ⇒ sin sin sin = = .
12 12 12 32 12 12 12 32 4 2
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1. Find all the values of
(i) (1)1/4 (ii) (– 1)1/5 (iii) (i)1/3
(iv) (– i)1/6 (v) (32)1/5 (vi) (– 8i)1/3 (P.T.U., May 2012)
(vii) (- 1) 1/ 4
(P.T.U., Dec. 2003)
2. Find the 5th roots of unity and prove that the sum of their nth powers always vanishes unless n be a multiple
of 5, n being an integer, and then the sum is 5.
3. Find all the values of
(i) (–1 + i)2/5 (ii) (1 - i 3)1/3
(iii) (1 + i) 1/4
(P.T.U., Dec. 2010) (iv) ( -1 + i 3)3/2 .
4. Find all the values of (1 + i 3 )3/4 and show that their continued product is 8.
5. If w is a complex cube root of unity, prove that 1 + w + w2 = 0. (P.T.U., May 2011)
( 3 - 1) + i( 3 + 1)
6. Express r = in the form r (cos q + i sin q) and derive all the values of r1/4.
2 2
7. Find all the values of (1 + i)1/3 and obtain their product.
8. Use De-Moivre’s theorem to solve the following equations:
(i) x5 – 1 = 0 (ii) x7 + 1 = 0
(iii) x + x + x + x + 1 = 0
4 3 2
(iv) x4 + x2 + 1 = 0.
9. Solve the following equations:
(i) (1 + x)n = (1 – x)n (ii) (5 + x)5 – (5 – x)5 = 0
(iii) z – (1 – z) = 0
4 4
[Hint: Consult S.E. 9] (P.T.U., May 2012)

(iv) (1 + x)3 = i(1 – x)3.
(2r -1) p
10. Show that the roots of the equation (1 + x)2n + (1 – x)2n = 0 are given by ± i tan , where
4n
r = 1, 2, 3, ....., n.
ANSWERS
p p 3p 3p
1. (i) ±1, ± i (ii) – 1, cos ± i sin , cos ± i sin
5 5 5 5
± 3 +i æ rp rp ö
(iii) – i, (iv) ± ç cos + i sin , r = 3, 7, 11
2 è 12 12 ÷ø
æ 2p 2p ö æ 4p 4p ö
(v) 2, 2 ç cos ± i sin ,2 çè cos 5 ± i sin 5 ÷ø (vi) 2i, ± 3 –i
è 5 5 ÷ø
1± i -1± i
(vii) , .
2 2
2p 4p 6p 8p 2p 2p 4p 4p
2. 1, cis , cis , cis , cis or 1, cos ± i sin , cos ± i sin
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
(4 n + 3) p æ rp rp ö
3. (i) 21/5 cis , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 (ii) 21/3 ç cos - i sin , r = 1, 7, 13
10 è 9 9 ÷ø
rp
(iii) ± 21/8 cis , where r = 1, 9 (iv) ± 2 2
16
3 3
1± i -1± i 5p rp
4. 24 . , 24 . 6. r = cis ; ± cis , where r = 5, 29
2 2 12 48
rp
7. 21/6 cis ; r = 1, 9, 17 ; product = 1 + i
12
2p 2p 4p 4p rp rp
8. (i) 1, cos ± i sin , cos ± i sin (ii) – 1, cos ± i sin , where r = 1, 3, 5
5 5 5 5 7 7
rp rp 1± i 3 -1± i 3
(iii) cos ± i sin , where r = 2, 4 (iv) ,
5 5 2 2
rp rp
9. (i) i tan , where r = 0, 1, 2, ......, (n – 1) (ii) 5i tan , where r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
n 5
1 1æ 1 ö (4r + 1) p
(iii) , ç1 ± i (iv) i tan , where r = 0, 1, 2.
2 2è 2 ÷ø 12
6.5(a). EXPRESS COSn θ IN TERMS OF COSINES OF MULTIPLES OF θ (n BEING A

POSITIVE INTEGER)
Let x = cos θ + i sin θ, ∴ xn = cos nθ + i sin nθ
1 1
then = cos θ – i sin θ, ∴ = cos nθ – i sin nθ
x xn
1 1
Adding x+ = 2 cos θ ; xn + n = 2 cos nθ
x x
n
æ 1ö n–1 1 + nC xn–2 ◊ 1 + ....
(2 cos θ)n = çè x +
∴ n n n
÷ø = C0x + C1x ◊ 2
x x x2
1 1 1
+ nCn–2 x2 ◊ n-2
+ nCn–1x1 ◊ n -1
+ n Cn ◊
x x xn
Since in a binomial expansion co-efficients of terms equidistant from the beginning and end are equal i.e.,
nC = nC ; nC n
n 0 n–1 = C1 etc. we combine the first term with the last, the second with the last but one and so on.
Case I. If n is even
Number of terms = n + 1 i.e., odd
There is only one middle term which is left by itself as the last term after grouping in pairs.
n
n- 1
nC x 2 × 1
The middle term = Tn = = nCn/2 xn/2 ◊ n/2 = nCn/2
+1
n/2 x n/2 x
2
æ 1ö æ n- 2 1 ö n æ n- 4 1 ö
∴ (2 cos θ)n = nC0 ç x n + n ÷ + nC1 çè x + n - 2 ÷ø + C2
n
çè x + n - 4 ÷ø + ...... + Cn/2
è x ø x x
1 1
But xn + n
= 2 cos nθ, xn–2 +
= 2 cos (n – 2) θ etc. n-2
x x
∴ 2n cosn θ = nC0 ◊ 2 cos nθ + nC1 ◊ 2 cos (n – 2)θ + nC2 ◊ 2 cos (n – 4)θ + .... + nCn/2
Hence if n is even
cosn θ =
1 LM C n
0 cos nθ + nC1 cos (n – 2) θ + nC2 cos (n – 4) θ + ....
1 n ù
× Cn/2 ú
2 n-1
N 2 û
If n is even
1 n
Last term of cosn θ = n
Cn
2 2
1 n 1 n! é n n! ù
= n
× Cn = n × êQ Cr = ú
2 2 æ n ö æ nö ë r ! ( n - r ) !û
2
çè 2 ÷ø ! çè n - 2 ÷ø !
1 n!
= n
×
2 éæ n ö ù 2
êçè 2 ÷ø !ú
ë û
Case II. If n is odd
Number of terms = n + 1 i.e., even
There are two middle terms Tn + 1 and Tn + 3
2 2
n -1 n +1
n- 1 1
Tn + 1 = Tn - 1 = n C n -1 . x 2 . n -1
= n C n -1 x 2 . n -1
= n C n -1 x.
+1
2 2 2 2 2
x 2 x 2
n +1 n -1
n- 1 1 1
Tn + 3 = Tn + 1 = nCn + 1 . x 2 . n +1
= nC n +1 x 2 . n +1
= nC n - 1 .
2 2
+1
2
n-
2 2
x
x 2 x 2
Using n Cr = n Cn - r we have n C n + 1 = n C n +1
n-
2 2
∴ The two middle terms pair up together
æ 1ö æ n-2 1 ö æ n-4 1 ö æ 1ö
∴ (2 cos θ)n = nC0 ç x n + n ÷ + nC1 çè x + n - 2 ÷ + nC2 çè x + n - 4 ÷ + ....... + n C n -1 çè x + ÷
è x ø x ø x ø 2
xø
or 2n cosn θ = nC0 . 2 cos nθ + nC1 . 2 cos (n – 2)θ + nC2. 2 cos (n – 4)θ + ..... + n C n-1 . 2 cos θ
2
Hence if n is odd
1 n
cosn θ = n-1
[nC0 cos nθ + nC1 cos (n – 2)θ + nC2 cos (n – 4)θ + ...... + C n-1 cos θ]
2 2
If n is odd
1 n
Last term of cosn q = n -1
C n-1 cos q
2 2
1 n 1 n!
= n -1
. C n-1 cos θ = n -1
. . cos θ
2 2 æ n - 1 ö æ n - 1ö
2
çè 2 ÷ø ! çè n - 2 ÷ø !
1 n!
= n -1
. . cos θ
2 æ n - 1ö æ n + 1ö
çè 2 ÷ø ! çè 2 ÷ø !
Note 1. The expansion of cosn θ is in terms of cosines of multiples of θ.
Note 2. Pascal’s Rule to write the binomial co-efficients.
n
æ 1ö
Note 3. We see that cosn q will contain factors of the type ç x + ÷ . To find coefficients of various powers of x we
è xø
will use Pascals rule of binomial coefficients which is as follow:
1
The series of co-efficients in successive powers of x + beginning with the power unity are as follows :
x
Index (Power) Binomial Co-efficients
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
8 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
and so on.
Each figure is obtained by adding the figure just above it to the figure preceeding the latter (i.e., upper + left hand)
e.g., 5 + 10 35 + 21
↓ ↓
15 56
n
æ 1ö n
It may be observed that the expansion of ç x + ÷ starts with x , the powers decreasing by 2 every time.
è xø
5
æ 1ö 10 5 1
Thus ç x + ÷ = x5 + 5x3 + 10x + + 3 + 5 ; binomial co-efficients being written by Pascal’s Rule.
è xø x x x
Example 1. Express cos8 q in terms of cosines of multiples of q. (P.T.U., May 2006, 2014)
1
Sol. Let x = cos q + i sin q, then = cos q – i sin q
x
1 1
So that x+ = 2 cos q and xm + m = 2 cos mq, where m is a +ve integer …(1)
x x
From (1) we have
8
æ 1ö
(2 cos q)8 = ç x + ÷
è xø
By Pascal’s Rule
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
1 1 1 1
∴ (2 cos θ)8 = x8 + 8x6 + 28x4 + 56x2 + 70 + 56 + 28 4 + 8 6 + 8
x2 x x x
æ 8 1ö æ 6 1ö æ 4 1ö æ 2 1ö
= ç x + 8 ÷ + 8 ç x + 6 ÷ + 28 ç x + 4 ÷ + 56 ç x + 2 ÷ + 70
è x ø è x ø è x ø è x ø
28 cos8 θ = 2 cos 8θ + 8 . 2 cos 6θ + 28 . 2 cos 4θ + 56 . 2 cos 2θ + 70
1
∴ cos 8 θ = 7 [cos 8θ + 8 cos 6θ + 28 cos 4θ + 56 cos 2θ + 35]
2
1
= [cos 8θ + 8 cos 6θ + 28 cos 4θ + 56 cos 2θ + 35]
128
6.5(b). EXPRESS SINn θ IN A SERIES OF COSINES OR SINES OF MULTIPLES OF

θ ACCORDING AS n IS AN EVEN OR ODD INTEGER
1
Let x = cos θ + i sin θ ; then = cos θ – i sin θ
x
1
∴ x– = 2i sin θ
x
1 1
Also, xn + n = 2 cos nθ and xn – = 2i sin nθ
x xn
Case I. When n is even.
n
é1ù 1 n 1
(2i sin θ)n = ê x - = nC0 xn – nC1 xn–1 . + C2 xn–2 . 2 – ......
ë x úû x x
1 1 1
+ Cn–2 x . n - 2 – nCn–1 x . n - 1 + nCn n
n 2
x x x
Number of terms = n + 1, i.e., odd
There is only one middle term which is left by itself as the last term after grouping in pairs.
n n/2
n- æ 1ö
Middle term = Tn = nCn x 2
çè -
2
+1
2
x ÷ø
n n n
1
= (- 1) 2 . nC n x 2 = (- 1) 2 . n C n
2 x n/2 2
n
æ 1ö æ n- 2 1 ö æ n- 4 1 ö
∴ (2i sin θ)n = nC0 ç x n + n ÷ – nC1 çè x + n - 2 ÷ + n C2 çè x + n - 4 ÷ – ... + (- 1) 2 . n C n
è x ø x ø x ø 2
n n
⇒ 2n . ( - 1) 2 sinn θ = nC n
0 . 2 cos nθ – C1 . 2 cos (n – 2)θ + nC 2 . 2 cos (n – 4)θ – ...... + (- 1) 2 . nC n
2
n n
[Q i n = (i 2 ) 2 = ( - 1) 2 ]
1 n ù
n
1
⇒ sinn θ = n
. 2[nC0 cos nθ – nC1 cos (n – 2)θ + nC2 cos (n – 4)θ – ...... + ( - 1) 2 . Cn ú
2ú
2
2n (- 1) 2 û
n
n
( - 1) 2 é 1 ù
= n - 1 ê n C 0 cos nq - n C1 cos ( n - 2)q + n C 2 cos ( n - 4)q - ..... + ( - 1) 2 . n C n ú
2 êë 2 2ú
û
é n
ù
ê n 1 (- 1)n ú
êQ n is even \ (- 1) = 1, n
= n
= (- 1) 2 ú
ê (- 1) 2 (- 1) 2 ú
ë û
Case II. When n is odd.
Number of terms = n + 1 i.e., even
There are two middle terms Tn + 1 and Tn + 3
2 2
n -1
n -1
n
n- æ 1ö 2
Tn + 1 = Tn - 1 = C n -1 . x 2
çè -
2 2
+1
2
x ÷ø
n +1 n -1 n -1
n 1 2 nC
= C n -1 . x 2 . (- 1) 2
n -1
= (- 1) n -1 .x
2 2
x 2
n +1
n +1
n
n- æ 1ö 2
Tn + 3 = Tn + 1 = C n +1 . x 2
çè - ÷ø
2 2
+1
2
x
n -1 n +1 n +1
n 1 2 nC
1
= C n - n -1 . x 2 . ( - 1) 2 . n +1
= (- 1) n -1 .
2 2
x
x 2
n -1
2 nC
1
= (- 1)(- 1) n -1 .
2
x
∴ The two middle terms pair up together.
1 1 1 1 1
∴ (2i sin θ)n = nC0 xn – nC1 xn –1 ◊ + nC2 . xn –2 ◊ 2 – ......– nCn–2 x2 ◊ n - 2 + nCn–1 x ◊ n - 1 – nCn ◊
x x x x xn
n-1
æ 1 ö æ 1 ö æ 1 ö æ 1ö
= nC0 ç x n - n ÷ – nC1 ç x n - 2 - n - 2 ÷ + nC2 ç x n - 4 - n - 4 ÷ – ...... + ( - 1) 2 ◊ n C n -1 ç x - ÷
è x ø è x ø è x ø è xø
2
1
Since xm – = 2i sin mθ
xm
n-1
∴ 2n ◊ i ◊ ( - 1) 2 sinn θ = nC0 ◊ 2i sin nθ – nC1 ◊ 2i sin (n – 2)θ
n -1
+ nC 2 ◊ 2i sin (n – 4)θ – ...... + ( - 1) 2 × n C n -1 . 2i sin θ
2
é n -1 n -1 ù
n n -1 2
êQ i = i × i = i (i ) 2 = i ( - 1) 2 ú
êë úû
n -1 ù
1 é
⇒ sinn θ = n -1
× 2 ê n C0 sin nq - n C1 sin (n - 2)q + nC2 sin (n – 4)θ – ...... + ( - 1) 2 n C n -1 sin q ú
êë úû
2n × ( -1) 2 2
n -1 ù
1 én n n n
= n -1 ê 0 C sin nq - C1 sin ( n - 2)q + C 2 sin ( n − 4) θ - ...... ( - 2 C n -1 sin qú
1)
êë úû
2n -1 . (-1) 2 2
n -1
n -1 ù
(-1) 2 én n n n
= ê C0 sin nq - C1 sin (n - 2)q + C2 sin ( n - 4)q – ...... + ( - 1) 2 C n -1 sin q ú
2n -1 êë 2 úû
n -1
ù
1 ( - 1) n -1 ú
[Q n is odd, n – 1 is even ∴ (– 1)n–1 = 1, n -1
= n -1
= (- 1) 2 ú
(- 1) 2 (- 1) 2 ú
û
Example 2. Express sin8 θ in a series of cosines of multiples of θ.

1
Sol. Let x = cos θ + i sin θ ; then = cos θ – i sin θ
x
1 1 1
so that x – = 2i sin θ, x + = 2 cos θ and xm + m = 2 cos mθ
x x x
8
æ 1ö 56 28 8 1
(2i sin θ)8 = ç x - ÷ = x8 – 8x6 + 28x4 – 56x2 + 70 – 2 + 4 - 6 + 8 | By Pascal’s Rule
è xø x x x x
æ 1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö
= ç x8 + 8 ÷ - 8 ç x 6 + 6 ÷ + 28 ç x 4 + 4 ÷ - 56 ç x 2 + 2 ÷
è x ø è x ø è x ø è x ø
⇒ 28 ◊ i8 sin8 θ = 2 cos 8θ – 8 ◊ 2 cos 6θ + 28 ◊ 2 cos 4θ – 56 ◊ 2 cos 2θ + 70
1
∴ sin8 θ = 7 8 [cos 8θ – 8 cos 6θ + 28 cos 4θ – 56 cos 2θ + 35]
2 ×i
1
= [cos 8θ – 8 cos 6θ + 28 cos 4θ – 56 cos 2θ + 35].
128
m n
æ 1ö æ 1ö
Expansion of sinm θ cosn θ : We see that sinm θ cosn θ will contain factors of the type ç x - ÷ ç x + ÷ .
è xø è xø
To find coefficients of various powers of x we consider the following example :
4 2
æ 1ö æ 1ö
For example. To obtain the coefficients of various powers of x in the product ç x - ÷ çè x + ÷ø ,
è xø x
we have the following rule:
4
æ 1ö
First write the coefficients of ç x - ÷ in a row Q out of the two indices 4 is greater coefficient of
è xø
4
æ 1ö
çè x - ÷ø are 1, – 4, 6, – 4, 1 | By Pascal’s Rule
x
4
æ 1ö æ 1ö
Then to find coefficients of ç x - ÷ çx + ÷ add in the upper number its proceeding number in the same
è xø è xø
æ 1ö
line. First coefficient is always one. Repeat the process, the same number of times as is the index of ç x + .
è x ÷ø
1 –4 6 –4 1
I
1 –4+1 6–4 –4+6 1–4 0+1
i.e., 1 –3 2 2 –3 1
II
1 –3+1 2–3 2+2 –3+2 1–3 0+1
i.e., 1 –2 –1 4 –1 –2 1
4 3 4
æ 1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö
Similarly to multiply ç x + ÷ by ç x - ÷ , we have the following rule. Write coefficients of çè x + ÷
è xø è xø xø
4
æ 1ö æ 1ö
and then to find coefficients of ç x + ÷ ç x - ÷ , subtract in the upper number its proceeding number in the
è xø è xø
same line. First coefficient is always one. Repeat the process the same number of times as is the index of
æ 1ö
çè x - x ÷ø .
1 4 6 4 1
I
1 4–1 6–4 4–6 1–4 0–1
i.e., 1 3 2 –2 –3 –1
II
1 3–1 2–3 –2–2 –3+2 –1+3 0+1
i.e., 1 2 –1 –4 –1 2 1
III
1 2–1 –1–2 –4+1 –1+4 2+1 1–2 0–1
i.e., 1 1 –3 –3 3 3 –1 –1
Example 3. Show that 25 sin4 θ cos2 θ = cos 6θ – 2 cos 4θ – cos 2θ + 2. (P.T.U., May 2011)
1
Sol. Let x = cos θ + i sin θ ; then= cos θ – i sin θ
x
1 1 1
So that x+ = 2 cos θ, x – = 2i sin θ, xm + m = 2 cos mθ.
x x x
4 2
æ 1ö æ 1ö
We have (2i sin θ)4 (2 cos θ)2 = ç x - ÷ çx + ÷ ...(1)
è xø è xø
4
æ 1ö
The co-efficients of the various powers of x in ç x - ÷ are (by Pascal’s Table) 1, –4, 6, – 4, 1.
è xø
4
æ 1ö æ 1ö
Multiplying ç x - ÷ by ç x + ÷ twice in succession as shown in the following scheme:
è xø è xø
1 –4 6 –4 1
I 1 –3 2 2 –3 1
II 1 –2 –1 4 –1 –2 1
4 2
æ 1ö æ1ö 1 2 1
∴ çè x - ÷ çx +
÷ø = x – 2x – x + 4 – 2 − 4 + 6
6 4 2
xø èx x x x
æ 1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö
= ç x6 + 6 ÷ - 2 ç x 4 + 4 ÷ - ç x 2 + 2 ÷ + 4
è x ø è x ø è x ø
= 2 cos 6q – 2 ◊ 2 cos 4q – 2 cos 2q + 4
∴ From (1), 26. i4 sin4 q cos2 q = 2 [cos 6q – 2 cos 4q – cos 2q + 2]
∴ 25 sin4 q cos2 q = cos 6q – 2 cos 4q – cos 2q + 2.
Example 4. Expand cos5 q sin7 q in a series of sines of multiples of q.
1
Sol. Let x = cos q + i sin q ; = cos q – i sin q
x
1 1 1
So that x+ = 2 cos q, x – = 2i sin q, xm – m = 2i sin mq.
x x x
7 5
æ 1ö æ 1ö
We have (2i sin q)7 ◊ (2 cos q)5 = ç x - ÷ ç x + ÷ ...(1)
è xø è xø
7
æ 1ö
The co-efficients of the various powers of x in ç x - ÷ are (by Pascal’s Table)
è xø
1 –7 21 – 35 35 – 21 7 –1
7
æ 1ö æ 1ö
Multiplying ç x - ÷ by ç x + ÷ five times in succession, as shown in the following scheme.
è xø è xø
1 –7 21 – 35 35 – 21 7 –1
I 1 –6 14 – 14 0 14 –14 6 –1
II 1 –5 8 0 – 14 14 0 –8 5 –1
III 1 –4 3 8 – 14 0 14 –8 –3 4 –1
IV 1 – 3 – 1 11 – 6 – 14 14 6 – 11 1 3 – 1
V 1 – 2 – 4 10 5 – 20 0 20 – 5 – 10 4 2 –1
7 5
æ 1ö æ 1ö
∴ çè x - ÷ø çè x + ÷ø
x x
20 5 10 4 2 1
= x12 – 2x10 – 4x8 + 10x6 + 5x4 – 20x2 + 0 + 2
- 4
- 6
+ 8
+ 10
-
x x x x x x12
é 1 ù é 1 ù é 1ù é 1ù é 1ù é 1ù
= ê x12 - 12 ú - 2 ê x10 - 10 ú - 4 ê x 8 - 8 ú + 10 ê x 6 - 6 ú + 5 ê x 4 - 4 ú - 20 ê x 2 - 2 ú .
ë x û ë x û ë x û ë x û ë x û ë x û
= 2i sin 12q – 2 . 2i sin 10q – 4 . 2i sin 8q + 10 . 2i sin 6q + 5 . 2i sin 4q – 20 . 2i sin 2q.
∴ From (1),
212 . i7 . sin7 q cos5 q = 2i [sin 12q – 2 sin 10q – 4 sin 8q + 10 sin 6q + 5 sin 4q – 20 sin 2q]
1
sin7 q cos5 q = [sin 12q – 2 sin 10q – 4 sin 8q + 10 sin 6q + 5 sin 4q – 20 sin 2q]
2 . i6
11
1
=– [sin 12q – 2 sin 10q – 4 sin 8q + 10 sin 6q + 5 sin 4q – 20 sin 2q].
211
Example 5. In sin4 q cos3
q = A1cos q + A3cos 3q + A5cos 5q + A7cos 7q, prove that
A1 + 9 A3 + 25 A5 + 49 A7 = 0.
1
Sol. Let x = cos q + i sin q ; = cos q – i sin q
x
1 1
∴ x+ = 2 cos q ; x – = 2i sin q
x x
4 3
æ 1ö æ 1ö
(2 i sin q)4 (2 cos q)3 = ç x - ÷ ç x + ÷
è xø è xø
4
æ 1ö
By Pascal’s Table coefficients of various powers of x in ç x - ÷ are 1, – 4, 6, – 4, 1
è xø
4
æ 1ö æ 1ö
Multiplying ç x - ÷ by ç x + ÷ three times in succession as shown below:
è xø è xø
1 –4 6 –4 1
I 1 –3 2 2 –3 1
II 1 –2 –1 4 –1 –2 1
III 1 –1 –3 3 3 –3 –1 1
4 3
æ 1ö æ 1ö 3 3 1 1
∴ çè x - ÷ø çè x + ÷ø = x – x – 3x + 3x + x - 3 - 5 + 7
7 5 3
x x x x x
æ 1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö
(2i sin q)4 (2 cos q)3 = ç x 7 + 7 ÷ - ç x 5 + 5 ÷ – 3 ç x3 + 3 ÷ + 3 ç x + ÷
è x ø è x ø è x ø è xø
7 4 3
2 sin q cos q = 2 cos 7q – 2 cos 5q – 3 . 2 cos 3q + 3 . 2 cos q
1
∴ sin4 q cos3 q = [cos 7q – cos 5q – 3 cos 3q + 3 cos q]
26
3 3 1 1
= cos q – cos 3q – cos 5q + cos 7q
64 64 64 64
= A1 cos q + A3 cos 3q + A5 cos 5q + A7 cos 7q (given)
3 3 1 1
∴ A1 = , A3 = - , A5 = - , A7 =
64 64 64 64
3 27 25 49 52 - 52
A1 + 9A3 + 25 A5 + 49 A7 = – – + = = 0.
64 64 64 64 64
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
Prove that :
1
1. cos7 q = (cos 7q + 7 cos 5q + 21 cos 3q + 35 cos q). (P.T.U., Dec. 2011)
64
1
2. cos6 q = [cos 6q + 6 cos 4q + 15 cos 2q + 10].
32
1
3. sin6 q = (10 – 15 cos 2q + 6 cos 4q – cos 6q.
32
4. 26 sin7 θ = 35 sin θ – 21 sin 3θ + 7 sin 5θ – sin 7θ.

5. 64 (cos8 θ + sin8 θ) = cos 8θ + 28 cos 4θ + 35.
1
6. sin7 θ cos3 θ = – (sin 10θ – 4 sin 8θ + 3 sin 6θ + 8 sin 4θ – 14 sin 2θ).
29
1
7. sin6 θ cos2 θ = (5 – 4 cos 2θ – 4 cos 4θ + 4 cos 6θ – cos 8θ).
27
1
8. cos5 θ sin3 θ = – (sin 8θ + 2 sin 6θ – 2 sin 4θ – 6 sin 2θ).
27
1
9. cos6 θ sin4 θ = (cos 10θ + 2 cos 8θ – 3 cos 6θ – 8 cos 4θ + 2 cos 2θ + 6).
29
6.6. EXPANSION OF COS nθ AND SIN nθ (n BEING A +ve INTEGER)
We know, from De-Moivre’s Theorem, that cos nθ + i sin nθ = (cos θ + i sin θ)n
Expanding the right hand side by Binomial Theorem, we have
cos nθ + i sin nθ = (cos θ)n + nC1(cos θ)n–1 (i sin θ) + nC2(cos θ)n–2(i sin θ)2
+ nC3(cos θ)n–3 (i sin θ)3 + nC4(cos θ)n–4(i sin θ)4 + ...
+ nCn–1(cos θ)(i sin θ)n–1 + nCn(i sin θ)n
Now, i2 = – 1, i3 = i2 . i = – i, i4 = (i2)2 = 1 and so on.
nC n n n
n–1 = C1 = n, Cn = C0 = 1
∴ cos nθ + i sin nθ = cosn θ + i nC1 cosn–1 θ sin θ – nC2 cosn–2 θ sin2 θ – i nC3 cosn–3 θ sin3 θ +
nC cosn–4 θ sin4 θ + ....... + in–1 . n cos θ sinn–1 θ + in sinn θ
4
Two cases arise, according as n is odd or even.
Case I. If n is odd, (n – 1 is even)
cos nθ + i sin nθ = cosn θ + i nC1 cosn–1 θ sin θ – nC2 cosn–2 θ sin2 θ – inC3 cosn–3 θ sin 3 θ
n -1 n -1
+ nC4 cosn–4 θ sin4 θ + ...... + n .( - 1) 2 cos θ sinn–1 θ + i .( - 1) 2 sinn θ
é n -1 n -1 n -1 ù
n -1 2 2 n n -1
ê Q i = ( i ) = -
( 1) 2 ; i = i.i = - 2 ú
i ( 1)
êë úû
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
cos nθ = cosn θ – nC2 cosn–2 θ sin2 θ + nC4 cosn–4 θ sin4 θ + .......
n -1
+ n (- 1) 2 cos θ sinn–1 θ ...(1)
n -1
and sin nθ = nC1 cosn–1 θ sin θ – nC3 cosn–3 θ sin3 θ + ....... + ( - 1) 2 sinn θ …(2)
Case II. If n is even, [(n – 1) is odd, (n – 2) is even]
cos nθ + i sin nθ = cosn θ + i. nC1 cosn–1 θ sin θ – nC2 cosn–2 θ sin2 θ – i. nC3 cosn–3 θ sin3 θ
n-2 n
+ nC4 cosn–4 θ sin4 θ + ...... + i ( - 1) n n cos θ sinn–1 θ + ( - 1) 2 sinn θ
é n-2 n-2 n nù
êQ i n -1 = i . i n - 2 = i (i 2 ) 2 = i ( - 1) 2 ; i n = (i 2 ) 2 = ( - 1) 2 ú
êë úû
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
n
cos nq = cosn q – nC2 cosn–2 q sin2 q + nC4 cosn–4 q sin4 q – ....... + ( - 1) 2 sinn q …(3)
n-2
and sin nq = nC1 cosn–1 q sin q – nC3 cosn–3 q sin3 q + ....... + ( - 1) 2 n cos q sinn–1 q …(4)
Example 1. (a) Expand cos 7q in descending powers of cos q. (P.T.U., Dec. 2013)
(b) Expand sin 7q in ascending powers of sin q.
Sol. We have (cos 7q + i sin 7q) = (cos q + i sin q)7.
Expanding the RHS by Binomial Theorem, we have
cos 7q + i sin 7q = (cos q)7 + 7C1 (cos q)6 (i sin q) + 7C2 (cos q)5 (i sin q)2 + 7C3 (cos q)4 (i sin q)3 + 7C4
(cos q)3 (i sin q)4 + 7C5 (cos q)2 (i sin q)5 + 7C6 (cos q) (i sin q)6 + 7C7 (i sin q)7
Now, i2 = – 1, i3 = i . i2 = – i, i4 = 1, i5 = i, i6 = – 1
7.6
i7 = i3 . i4 = – i, 7C7 = 1, 7C6 = 7C1 = 7, 7C5 = 7C2 = = 21,
1.2
7C 7C7.6.5.
4= 3= = 35
1.2.3
∴ cos 7θ + i sin 7θ = cos7 θ + 7i cos6 θ sin θ – 21 cos5 θ sin2 θ – 35i cos4 θ sin3 θ
+ 35 cos3 θ sin4 θ + 21i cos2 θ sin5 θ – 7 cos θ sin6 θ – i sin7 θ
Equating real and imaginary parts,
(a) cos 7θ = cos7 θ – 21 cos5 θ sin2 θ + 35 cos3 θ sin4 θ – 7 cos θ sin6 θ
= cos7 θ – 21 cos5 θ (1 – cos2 θ) + 35 cos3 θ (1 – cos2 θ)2 – 7 cos θ (1 – cos2 θ)3
= cos7 θ – 21 cos5 θ + 21 cos7 θ + 35 cos3 θ (1 – 2 cos2 θ + cos4 θ) – 7 cos θ (1 – 3 cos2 θ
+ 3 cos4 θ – cos6 θ)
= 64 cos7 θ – 112 cos5 θ + 56 cos3 θ – 7 cos θ
(b) sin 7θ = 7 cos6 θ sin θ – 35 cos4 θ sin3 θ + 21 cos2 θ sin5 θ – sin7 θ
= 7(1 – sin2 θ)3 sin θ – 35(1 – sin2 θ)2 sin3 θ + 21(1 – sin2 θ) sin5 θ – sin7 θ
= 7(1 – 3 sin2 θ + 3 sin4 θ – sin6 θ) sin θ – 35(1 – 2 sin2 θ + sin4 θ) sin3 θ + 21 sin5 θ – 21 sin7 θ – sin7 θ
= 7 sin θ – 56 sin3 θ + 112 sin5 θ – 64 sin7 θ.
Example 2. Prove that 2(1 + cos 8θ) = (x4 – 4x2 + 2)2 , where x = 2 cos θ.
Sol. 2(1 + cos 8θ) = 2 . 2 cos2 4θ = (2 cos 4θ)2 …(1)
Now, cos 4θ = cos4 θ – 4C 2 cos2 θ sin2 θ + 4C 4 sin4 θ
= cos4 θ – 6 cos2 θ (1 – cos2 θ) + (1 – cos2 θ)2 = 8 cos4 θ – 8 cos2 θ + 1
∴ From (1), we have
2(1 + cos 8θ) = (16 cos4 θ – 16 cos2 θ + 2)2
= [(2 cos θ)4 – 4(2 cos θ)2 + 2]2 = (x4 – 4x2 + 2)2, where x = 2 cos θ.
1 + cos 7 q
Example 3. Prove that = (x3 – x2 – 2x + 1)2, where x = 2 cos θ.
1 + cos q
7q 7q q
2 cos 2 2 cos 2 2 sin 2
1 + cos 7q 2 = 2 ´ 2
Sol. =
1 + cos q q q q
2 cos 2 2 cos 2 2 sin 2
2 2 2
2
æ 7q qö
2 cos sin æ sin 4q - sin 3q ö
2
ç 2 2 ÷
= ç = ...(1)
q q ÷ çè sin q ÷ø
ç 2 cos sin ÷
è 2 2 ø
Now, sin 4θ = C1 cos θ sin θ – 4C3 cos θ sin3 θ = 4 cos3 θ sin θ – 4 cos θ sin3 θ
4 3
and sin 3θ = 3 sin θ – 4 sin3 θ

1 + cos 7q
∴ From (1), we have = (4 cos3 θ – 4 cos θ sin2 θ – 3 + 4 sin2 θ)2
1 + cos q
= [4 cos3 θ – 4 cos θ (1 – cos2 θ) – 3 + 4(1 – cos2 θ)]2
= (8 cos3 θ – 4 cos2 θ – 4 cos θ + 1)2
= (x3 – x2 – 2x + 1)2, where x = 2 cos θ.
6.7(a). EXPANSION OF TAN nθ
sin nq n C1 cos n -1 q sin q - n C3 cos n - 3 q sin 3 q + n C5 cos n - 5 q sin 5 q ...

tan nθ = =
cos nq cos n q - n C2 cos n - 2 q sin 2 q + n C4 cos n - 4 q sin 4 q ...
Dividing the numerator and denominator by cosn θ
n
C1 tan q - n C3 tan3 q + n C5 tan5 q - ...
tan nθ =
1 - n C2 tan 2 q + n C4 tan 4 q - ...
6.7(b). EXPANSION OF TAN (θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + ...... + θn)

We know that
cos (θ 1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + ... + θ n) + i sin (θ 1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + ..... + θ n)
= (cos θ 1 + i sin θ 1) (cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2) (cos θ 3 + i sin θ 3) ...... (cos θ n + i sin θ n) ...(1)
æ sin q1 ö
Now, cos θ 1 + i sin θ 1 = cos θ 1 ç 1 + i = cos θ 1(1 + i tan θ 1)
è cos q1 ÷ø
cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 = cos θ 2 (1 + i tan θ 2)
cos θ 3 + i sin θ 3 = cos θ 3 (1 + i tan θ 3)
...........................................................
...........................................................
cos θ n + i sin θ n = cos θ n(1 + i tan θ n)
∴ (1) may be written as
cos (θ1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + ...... + θ n) + i sin (θ 1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + ...... + θ n)
= cos θ 1 cos θ 2 cos θ 3 ...... cos θ n(1 + i tan θ 1)(1 + i tan θ 2) ...... (1 + i tan θ n)
= cos θ 1 cos θ 2 ...... cos θ n [1 + is1 + i2s2 + i3s3 + i4s4 + i5s5 + ......]
where sr denotes the sum of the products of the tangents of the angles θ 1, θ 2 ......, θ n taken r at a time.
i.e., s1 = Σ tan θ 1, s2 = Σ tan θ 1 tan θ 2 and so on.
= cos θ 1 cos θ 2 ...... cos θ n[1 + is1 – s2 – is3 + s4 + is5 – ......]
= cos θ 1 cos θ 2 ...... cos θ n[(1 – s2 + s4 – ......) + i(s1 – s3 + s5 – ......)]
Equating the real and imaginary parts
cos (θ 1 + θ 2 + ...... + θ n) = cos θ 1 cos θ 2 ...... cos θ n(1 – s2 + s4 ......) …(2)
sin (θ 1 + θ 2 + ...... + θ n) = cos θ 1 cos θ 2 ...... cos θ n(s1 – s3 + s5 ......) …(3)
s1 – s3 + s5 – ...
Dividing (3) by (2), tan (θ 1 + θ 2 + ...... + θ n) =
1 – s2 + s4 – ...
Example 4. If α, β, γ be the roots of equation x3 + px2 + qx + p = 0 prove that tan–1 α + tan–1
β + tan–1 γ = nπ radians, except in one particular case and point it out. (P.T.U., May 2002)
Sol. Let α = tan θ 1, β = tan θ 2, γ = tan θ 3, then θ 1 = tan α, θ 2 = tan β, θ 3 = tan γ
–1 –1 –1
Given equation is x3 + px2 + qx + p = 0

Its roots are α, β, γ i.e., tan θ 1, tan θ 2, tan θ 3.
∴ s1 = Σα = Σ tan θ 1 = – p
s2 = Σαβ = Σ tan θ 1 tan θ 2 = q
s3 = αβγ = tan θ 1 tan θ 2 tan θ 3 = – p
s1 – s3 - p + p 0
Now, tan (θ1 + θ2 + θ3) = = = =0
1 – s2 1- q 1- q
0
Unless q = 1 in which case the fraction takes the indeterminate form .
0
Leaving out the exceptional case, we have tan (θ 1 + θ 2 + θ 3) = 0
∴ θ1 + θ 2 + θ3 = nπ radians.
Hence tan–1 α + tan–1 β + tan–1 γ = nπ radians except when q = 1.
p
Example 5. If tan–1x + tan–1y + tan–1z = ; prove that xy + yz + zx = 1. (P.T.U., May 2003)
2
Sol. Let tan–1x = θ 1, tan–1y = θ 2, tan–1z = θ 3
p
given θ1 + θ2 + θ3 =
2
p
∴ tan (θ 1 + θ 2 + θ 3) = tan =∞
2
s1 - s3
∴ =∞ ∴ 1 – s2 = 0 or s2 = 1
1 - s2
or tan θ 1 tan θ 2 + tan θ 2 tan θ 3 + tan θ 3 tan θ 1 = 1
or xy + yz + zx = 1.
Example 6. If α, β, γ , δ are the roots of the equation x4 – x3 sin 2θ + x2 cos 2θ – x cos θ – sin θ = 0, prove that
p
tan–1 α + tan–1 β + tan–1 γ + tan–1 δ = nπ + – θ.
2
Sol. Let tan–1 α = θ1 , tan–1 β = θ2 , tan–1 γ = θ3 , tan–1 δ = θ4

∴ tan θ 1 = α, tan θ 2 = β, tan θ 3 = γ , tan θ 4 = δ
Given = n is x4 – x3 sin 2θ + x2 cos 2θ – x cos θ – sin θ = 0
Its roots are α, β, γ , δ i.e., tan θ 1, tan θ 2, tan θ 3, tan θ 4
∴ s1 = Σα = Σ tan θ 1 = sin 2θ
s2 = Σαβ = Σ tan θ 1 tan θ 2 = cos 2θ
s3 = Σαβγ = Σ tan θ 1 tan θ 2 tan θ 3 = cos θ
s4 = αβγδ = tan θ 1 tan θ 2 tan θ 3 tan θ 4 = – sin θ
s1 - s 3 sin 2q - cos q
Now, tan (θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + θ4) = =
1 - s 2 + s 4 1 - cos 2q - sin q
2 sin q cos q - cos q cos q (2 sin q - 1)
= = = cot θ
1 - (1 - 2 sin q) - sin q
2
sin q (2 sin q - 1)
æp ö
∴ tan (θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + θ4) = tan ç - q÷
è2 ø
p
∴ θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + θ4 = nπ +
– θ.
2
Example 7. If q1, q2, q3 be the three values of q which satisfy the equation tan 2q = l tan (q + a) and be
such that no two of these differ by a multiple of p, prove that q1 + q2 + q3 + a is a multiple of p.
(P.T.U., Dec. 2002)
Sol. The given equation is tan 2q = l tan (q + a)
2 tan q tan q + tan a

or = l.
1 - tan q2
1 - tan q tan a
⇒ 2 tan θ(1 – tan θ tan α) = λ(1 – tan2 θ) (tan θ + tan α)

⇒ 2 tan θ – 2 tan2 θ tan α = λ(tan θ + tan α – tan3 θ – tan2 θ tan α)
or λ tan3 θ – (2 – λ) tan α tan2 θ + (2 – λ) tan θ – λ tan α = 0.
This equation is a cubic in tan θ and as such, its roots are tan θ 1, tan θ 2, tan θ 3
(2 - l ) tan a 2-l
s1 = Σ tan θ 1 = , s2 = Σ tan θ 1 tan θ 2 = ,
l l
l tan a
s3 = tan θ 1 tan θ 2 tan θ 3 = = tan α
l
(2 - l ) tan a
s – s3 - tan a
Now, tan (θ1 + θ2 + θ3) = 1 = l
1 – s2 2-l
1-
l
(2 - l ) tan a - l tan a 2 (1 - l) tan a

= =
l-2+l - 2(1 - l )
0
= – tan α, except when λ = 1 in, which case the fraction takes the indeterminate form .
0
⇒ tan (θ 1 + θ 2 + θ 3) = tan (– α)
∴ θ 1 + θ 2 + θ 3 = nπ – α or θ 1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + α = nπ, a multiple of π.
In case λ = 1, the given equation becomes tan 2θ = tan (θ + α) which gives
2θ = nπ + (θ + α) or θ = nπ + α so that the values of θ differ by multiples of π.
Example 8. Prove that the equation ah sec θ – bk cosec θ = a2 – b2 has four roots and that the sum of the
four values of θ which satisfy it is equal to an odd multiple of π radians.
q
Sol. Let tan =t
2
q
1 - tan 2
2 = 1-t 1 + t2
2
Now, cos q = ∴ sec q =
q 1 + t2 1 - t2
1 + tan 2
2
q
2 tan 1 + t2
sin q = 2 = 2t ∴ cosec q =
q 1 + t2 2t
1 + tan 2
2
Making these substitutions in the given equation, we have
1 + t2 1 + t2
ah . - bk . = a2 – b 2
1-t 2
2t
Multiplying both sides by 2t(1 – t2)

2aht(1 + t2) – bk(1 – t2)(1 + t2) = 2(a2 – b2) (1 – t2)t
or 2aht + 2aht3 – bk(1 – t4) = 2(a2 – b2)(t – t3)
or bkt4 + (2ah + 2a2 – 2b2)t3 + (2ah – 2a2 + 2b2)t – bk = 0 …(1)
It is a biquadratic in t and hence has four roots.
Let θ 1, θ 2, θ 3, θ 4 be the four values of θ satisfying the given equation then the roots of (1) are
q1 q q q
tan , tan 2 , tan 3 , tan 4 .
2 2 2 2
Let us denote them by t1, t2, t3, t4.
q1 2ah + 2a 2 - 2b2 q q
s1 = Σt1 = S tan =- , s2 = Σ t1t2 = S tan 1 tan 2 = 0
2 bk 2 2
q1 q q 2ah - 2a 2 + 2b2
s3 = Σt1t2t3 = S tan tan 2 tan 3 = -
2 2 2 bk
q1 q q q - bk
s4 = t1t2t3t4 = tan tan 2 tan 3 tan 4 = =–1
2 2 2 2 bk
æq q q q ö s1 - s3
Now, tan ç 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ÷ =
è 2 2 2 2 ø 1 - s2 + s4
2ah + 2a 2 - 2b 2 2ah - 2a 2 + 2b2 4b2 - 4a 2

- +
bk bk bk p
= = = • = tan
1 - 0 -1 0 2
q1 q2 q3 q4 p
∴ + + + = np +
2 2 2 2 2
or θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + θ4 = 2nπ + π = (2n + 1)π = an odd multiple of π.
Example 9. Prove that the equation sin 3θ = a sin θ + b cos θ + c has six roots and that the sum of the six
values of θ which satisfy it is equal to an odd multiple of π radians.
Sol. sin 3θ = a sin θ + b cos θ + c
3 sin θ – 4 sin3 θ = a sin θ + b cos θ + c
∴ 4 sin3 θ + (a – 3) sin θ + b cos θ + c = 0
3
æ 2 tan q / 2 ö 2 tan q / 2 1 - tan 2 q / 2
or 4ç ÷ + (a – 3) + b +c= 0
è 1 + tan 2 q / 2 ø 1 + tan 2 q / 2 1 + tan 2 q / 2
Let tan θ/2 = t
32t 3 2t 1 - t2
∴ + (a - 3) +b +c= 0
(1 + t 2 )3 1 + t2 1 + t2
or 32t3 + (2a – 6) t (1 + t2)2 + b(1 – t2) (1 + t2)2 + c (1 + t2)3 = 0
or 32t3 + (2a – 6) (t + 2t3 + t5) + b(1 – t2) (1 + 2t2 + t4) + c (1 + 3t2 + 3t4 + t6) = 0
or 32t + (2a – 6) t + (4a – 12) t3 + (2a – 6) t5 + b + bt2 – bt4 – bt6 + c + 3ct2 + 3ct4 + ct6 =
3 0
or (c – b) t6 + (2a – 6) t5 + (3c – b) t4 + (32 + 4a – 12) t3 + (b + 3c) t2 + (2a – 6) t + (b + c) = 0.
It is sixth degree in t ∴ it has six roots.
q1 q q q q q
Roots of this equation are tan , tan 2 , tan 3 , tan 4 , tan 5 , tan 6 i.e., t1, t2, t3, t4, t5, t6
2 2 2 2 2 2
q1 2a - 6
∴ s1 = Σ t1 = Σ tan =–
2 c-b
3c - b 20 + 49
s2 = Σ t1t2 = ; s3 = Σ t1t2t3 = –
c-b c -b
b + 3c 2a - 6 b+c
s4 = Σ t1t2t3t4 = , s5 = Σt1t2t3t4t5 = – , s6 =
c-b c-b c -b
æ q + q2 + q3 + q4 + q5 + q6 ö s – s3 + s5
∴ tan ç 1 ÷ = 1
è 2 ø 1 – s2 + s4 – s6
(2a - b) 20 + 4a 2a - 6
- + -
c -b c-b c-b
=
3c - b b + 3c c + b
1- + -
c-b c-b c-b
- 2a + 6 + 20 + 4a - 2a + 6 32 p
= = = • = tan
c - b - 3c + b + b + 3c - c - b 0 2
q1 + q2 + q3 + q 4 + q5 + q6 p
∴ = np +
2 2
or θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + θ4 + θ5 + θ6 = 2nπ + π = (2n + 1) π = odd multiple of π.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1. Prove that cos 6q = 32 cos6 q – 48 cos4 q + 18 cos2 q – 1. (P.T.U., May 2012)
sin 6q
2. (a) Express as a polynomial in cos q.
sin q
sin 7q
(b) Prove that = 7 – 56 sin2 q + 112 sin4 q – 64 sin6 q.
sin q
3. Prove that:
(i) cos 8q = 128 cos8 q – 256 cos6 q + 160 cos4 q – 32 cos2 q + 1.
sin 8q
(ii) = 128 cos7 q – 192 cos5 q + 80 cos3 q – 8 cos q.
sin q
5t - 10t 3 + t 5
(iii) tan 5q = , where t = tan q.
1 - 10t 2 + 5t 4
7 tan q - 35 tan 3 q + 21 tan5 q - tan 7 q
(iv) tan 7q = .
1 - 21 tan 2 q + 35 tan 4 q - 7 tan6 q
4. Prove that :
np
(i) 2n/2 cos = 1 – nC2 + nC4 – nC6 + ... •
4
np n
(ii) 2n/2 sin = C1 – nC3 + nC5 – ... •
4
é p ù
ê Hint : Put q = 4 in 1.5(c)ú .
ë û
p p
5. Express tan 5q in terms of powers of tan q and deduce that 5 tan4 – 10 tan2 + 1 = 0.
10 10
6. Prove that 1 + cos 9A = (1 + cos A)(16 cos4 A – 8 cos3 A – 12 cos2 A + 4 cos A + 1)2.
é 1 + cos 9 A ù
ê Hint : Find the value of see solved example 3ú
ë 1 + cos A û
7. Prove that the equation a2 cos2 q + b2 sin2 q + 2ga cos q + 2 fb sin q + c = 0 has four roots and that the sum of the
values of q which satisfy it is an even multiple of p radians.
ANSWERS
5 tan q - 10 tan3 q + tan5 q
2. (a) 32 cos5 q – 24 cos3 q + 6 cos q 5. tan 5q = .
1 - 10 tan 2 q + 5 tan 4 q
6.8. FORMATION OF EQUATIONS
We explain this method by examples given below :
2p 4p 6p 8p
Example 1. Form an equation whose roots are cos , cos , cos , cos .
9 9 9 9
2p 4p 6p 8p
(a) Also form an equation whose roots are sec , sec , sec , sec .
9 9 9 9
2p 4p 6p 8p
(b) Also form an equation whose roots are sec2 , sec2 , sec2 , sec2 and prove that
9 9 9 9
2p 4p 6p 8p
tan2 + tan2 + tan2 + tan2 = 36.
9 9 9 9
2np
Sol. Let q = , where n is an integer (zero, positive or negative)
9
Now give values to q as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, we see that
for n = 0, cos q = cos 0 = 1
2p
for n = 1, cos q = cos
9
4p
9
6p
9
8p
9
10 p æ 8p ö 8p
9
= cos çè 2p - 9 ÷ø = cos 9
12p æ 6p ö 6p
for n = 6, cos q = cos = cos ç 2p - ÷ = cos
9 è 9 ø 9
14 p æ 4p ö 4p
9
= cos çè 2p - 9 ÷ø = cos 9
16p æ 2p ö 2p
9
= cos çè 2p - 9 ÷ø = cos 9
We see that for n = 5, 6, 7, 8, we do not get any new value of cos q.
2p 4p 6p 8p
\ The only distinct values of cos q are 1, cos , cos , cos , cos
9 9 9 9
Consider 9q = 2np (Resolve 9q into 5q and 4q)
(Q There are 5 distinct values of cos q)
or 5q + 4q = 2np
or 5q = 2np – 4q
or cos 5q = cos (2np – 4q)
or cos (4q + q) = cos 4q
cos 4q cos q – sin 4q sin q = cos 4q.
or cos 4q (cos q – 1) – 2 sin 2q cos 2q sin q = 0
or (cos q – 1) (2 cos2 2q – 1) – 4 sin2 q cos q (2 cos2 q – 1) = 0
or (cos q – 1) [2 (2 cos2 q – 1)2 – 1] – 4 cos q (1 – cos2 q) (2 cos2 q – 1) = 0
or (cos q – 1) [2 (4 cos4 q – 4 cos2 q + 1) – 1] – 4 cos q (2 cos2 q – 1 – 2 cos4 q + cos2 q) = 0
or (cos q – 1) [8 cos4 q – 8 cos2 q + 1] – 4 cos q [– 2 cos4 q + 3 cos2 q – 1] = 0
or 8 cos5 q – 8 cos3 q + cos q – 8 cos4 q + 8 cos2 q – 1 + 8 cos5 q – 12 cos3 q + 4 cos q = 0
or 16 cos5 q – 8 cos4 q – 20 cos3 q + 8 cos2 q + 5 cos q – 1 = 0
Put cos q = x
16x5 – 8x4 – 20x3 + 8x2 + 5x – 1 = 0
x = 1 satisfies this equation
\ (x – 1)(16x4 + 8x3 – 12x2 – 4x + 1) = 0
\ x = 1 corresponds to cos q = 1
2np
i.e., the value of cos for n = 0
9
\ If we delete x – 1, then the remaining equation 16x4 + 8x3 – 12x2 – 4x + 1 = 0 will have the roots
2p 4p 6p 8p
cos , cos , cos , cos …(1)
9 9 9 9
1
(a) Take x = in (1)
y
The equation changes to
16 8 12 4 1 1 1 1
+ - - + 1 = 0 and roots change to , , ,
y 4
y 3
y 2
y 2 p 4 p 6 p 8p
cos cos cos cos
9 9 9 9
2p 4p 6p 8p
\ The equation whose roots are sec , sec , sec , sec is
9 9 9 9
y4 – 4y3 – 12y2 + 8y + 16 = 0 …(2)
Change y to x.
The required equations is
x4 – 4x3 – 12x2 + 8x + 16 = 0
(b) In (2) put y2 = t
t2 – 4yt – 12 t + 8y + 16 = 0
or (t2 – 12t + 16)2 = (4t – 8)2 y2
or (t2 – 12t + 16)2 = (4t – 8)2 . t
or t4 + 144t2 + 256 – 24t3 – 384t + 32t2 =t(16t2 – 64t + 64)

t4 – 40t3 + 240t2 – 448t + 256 = 0
2p 4p 6p 8p
Its roots are sec2 , sec2 , sec2 , sec2
9 9 9 9
2p 4p 6p 8p
Sum of the roots = sec2 + sec2 + sec2 + sec2 = 40
9 9 9 9
2p 4p 4p 8p
\ 1 + tan2 + 1 + tan2 + 1 + tan2 + 1 + tan2 = 40
9 9 9 9
2p 4p 6p 8p
\ tan2 + tan2 + tan2 + tan2 = 36.
9 9 9 9
p 3p 5p
Example 2. Form an equation whose roots are cos , cos , cos and hence evaluate
7 7 7
p 3p 5p p 3p 5p
sec + sec + sec . Also obtain the equation whose roots are tan2 , tan2 , tan2 and hence
7 7 7 7 7 7
p 3p 5p
evaluate cot2 cot2 cot2 .
7 7 7
(2 n + 1) p
Sol. Let q = , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
7
p
7
3p
7
5p
7
7p
for n = 3, cos q = cos =–1
7
9p æ 5p ö 5p
for n = 4, cos q = cos = cos ç 2p - ÷ = cos
7 è 7ø 7
11p æ 3p ö 3p
7
= cos çè 2p - 7 ÷ø = cos 7
13p æ pö p
7
= cos çè 2p - 7 ÷ø = cos 7
We see that for n = 4, 5, 6, we are not getting different values of cos q.
∴ Distinct values of cos q are obtained for
p 3p 5p 7p
n = 0, 1, 2, 3 i.e., cos , cos , cos , cos =–1
7 7 7 7
∴ 7q = (2n + 1)p
(Q There are only four distinct values of cos q ∴ Resolve 7q into 4q and 3q)
∴ 4q + 3q = (2n + 1)p
4q = (2n + 1)p – 3q
cos 4q = cos {(2n + 1)p – 3q} = – cos 3q
or 2 cos 2q – 1 = – (4 cos3 q – 3 cos q)
2
or 2 [2 cos2 q – 1]2 – 1 = – 4 cos3 q + 3 cos q

or 2 [4 cos4 q – 4 cos2 q + 1] – 1 = – 4 cos3 q + 3 cos q
or 8 cos4 q – 8 cos2 q + 2 – 1 = – 4 cos3 q + 3 cos q
or 8 cos4 q + 4 cos3 q – 8 cos2 q – 3 cos q + 1 = 0
Put cos q = x
8x4 + 4x3 – 8x2 – 3x + 1 = 0 …(1)
x = – 1 satisfies (1)
∴ 3 2
(x + 1)(8x – 4x – 4x + 1) = 0
(2n + 1) p 7p
x = – 1 corresponds to cos q = cos for n = 3 i.e., cos .
7 7
∴ 8x3 – 4x2 – 4x + 1 = 0 has roots
p 3p 5p
cos , cos , cos
7 7 7
1
Change x to
y
8 4 4
- - +1=0
y 3
y 2
y
or 8 – 4y – 4y2 + y3 = 0
or y3 – 4y2 – 4y + 8 = 0 …(2)
1 1 1 p 3p 5p
Its roots are , , i.e., sec , sec , sec
p 3p 5p 7 7 7
cos cos cos
7 7 7
p 3p 5p
sec + sec + sec = sum of the roots = 4
7 7 7
Put y2 = t in (2)
∴ ty – 4t – 4y + 8 = 0
or (t – 4)2 y2 = (4t – 8)2
(t – 8t + 16)t = 16t2 – 64t + 64
2
or t3 – 24t2 + 80t – 64 = 0 …(3)

p 3p 5p p p p
It has roots sec2 , sec2 , sec2 here t = sec2 = 1 + tan2 or tan2 = t – 1.
7 7 7 7 7 7
Put z = t – 1 or t = z + 1 in (3)
(z + 1)3 – 24(z + 1)2 + 80(z + 1) – 64 = 0
z3 + 3z2 + 3z + 1 – 24z2 – 48z – 24 + 80z + 80 – 64 = 0
or z3 – 21z2 + 35z – 7 = 0 …(4)
p 3p 5p
It has roots tan2 , tan2 , tan2
7 7 7
p 3p 5p
Now, tan2 tan2 tan2 = Product of the roots = 7
7 7 7
p 3p 5p 1
\ cot2 cot2 cot2 = . Proved.
7 7 7 7
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

2p 4p 6p
1. (a) Prove that cos , cos , cos are the roots of 8x3 + 4x2 – 4x – 1 = 0. Hence form an equation whose
7 7 7
2p 4p 6p
roots are sec , sec , sec .
7 7 7
2p 4p 6p
(b) Also form an equation whose roots are sec2 , sec2 , sec2 and prove that
7 7 7
2p 4p 6p
tan2 + tan2 + tan2 = 21.
7 7 7
p 3p 5p 7p 9p
2. Form an equation whose roots are cos , cos , cos , cos , cos .
11 11 11 11 11
Hence evaluate :
p 3p 5p 7p 9p
(i) cos + cos + cos + cos + cos .
11 11 11 11 11
p 3p 5p 7p 9p
(ii) sec + sec + sec + sec + sec .
11 11 11 11 11
ANSWERS
1. (a) x3 + 4x2 – 4x – 8 = 0. (b) x3 – 24x2 + 80x – 64 = 0.
1
2. 32x5 – 16x4 – 32x3 + 12x2 + 6x – 1 = 0 (i) (ii) 6.
2
6.9. EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE

Def. The exponential function of the complex variable z = x + iy, where x and y are real, is defined as
Exp. (z) = ex+iy = ex (cos y + i sin y) = ex cis y
Note. When x = 0, eiy = cos y + i sin y = cis y
Changing i to – i, e–iy = cos y – i sin y = cis (– y).
Prove that ez is a periodic function, where z is a complex variable. (P.T.U., May 2008)
Proof. Let z = x + iy
Then, by definition ez = ex+iy = ex (cos y + i sin y) = ex [cos (2nπ + y) + i sin (2nπ + y)]
= ex+i(2nπ+y) = e(x+iy)+2nπi = ez+2nπi
z
i.e., e remains unchanged when z is increased by any multiple of 2πi.
⇒ ez is a periodic function with period 2πi.
Example 1. Split up into real and imaginary parts:
2
(i) e +
3xy 4iy
(ii) e(5+3i) .
2
(P.T.U., May 2014)
3 xy + 4iy 2 2
Sol. (i) e = e3 xy . e i 4 y = e3 xy (cos 4 y 2 + i sin 4 y 2 )
2
R(e3 xy + 4 iy ) = e3 xy cos 4 y 2
2
Im ( e 3 xy + 4 iy ) = e3 xy sin 4 y 2
(ii) (5 + 3i)2 = 25 + 9i2 + 30i = 16 + 30i [Q i2 = – 1]
2
∴ e (5 + 3i) = e16+30i = e16 (cos 30 + i sin 30)
Re [ e(5 + 3i ) ] = e16 cos 30, Im [ e(5 + 3i ) ] = e16 sin 30.

2 2
∴
Example 2. Prove that [sin (α – θ) + e–iα sin θ]n = sinn–1 α [sin (α – nθ) + e–iα sin nθ].
Sol. LHS = [(sin α cos θ – cos α sin θ) 7+ (cos α – i sin α) sin θ]n
= (sin α cos θ – i sin α sin θ)n = [sin α (cos θ – i sin θ)]n
= [sin α . e–iθ]n = sinn α . e–inθ
RHS = sinn–1 α [(sin α cos nθ – cos α sin nθ) + (cos α – i sin α) sin nθ]
= sinn–1 α [sin α cos nθ – i sin α sin nθ] = sinn α [cos nθ – i sin nθ]
= sinn α . e–inθ
∴ LHS = RHS
6.10. CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
1. Definitions. For all real values of x, we know that

eix = cos x + i sin x and e–ix = cos x – i sin x
eix + e- ix eix - e- ix
Adding and subtracting, we get cos x =
; sin x =
2 2i
These are called Euler’s Exponential values of sin x and cos x, where x ∈ R.
If z = x + iy the circular functions of z are defined as follows :
eiz + e - iz eiz - e - iz sin z eiz - e- iz
cos z = , sin z = , tan z = = iz
2 2i cos z i (e + e - iz )
cos z i (eiz + e - iz ) 1 2 1 2i
cot z = = iz , sec z = = iz , cosec z = = iz
sin z e - e- iz cos z e + e - iz
sin z e - e- iz
2. Euler’s Theorem.
For all values of q, real or complex, eiq = cos q + i sin q.
eiq + e - iq eiq - e - iq
For all values of q, real or complex cos q = and sin q =
2 2i
eiq + e - iq eiq - e - iq 2eiq
∴ cos q + i sin q = + = = eiq.
2 2 2
Hence, eiq = cos q + i sin q for all values of q.
3. Periodicity of Circular Functions.

(a) To prove that sin z and cos z are periodic functions with period 2π.
eiz - e - iz
We know that sin z =
2i
If n is any integer, then
ei ( z + 2 np ) - e - i ( z + 2 np )
sin (z + 2np) =
2i
eiz . e 2 npi - e - iz . e -2 npi eiz - e - iz
= = [Q e2npi = 1 = e–2npi]
2i 2i
= sin z
⇒ sin z remains unchanged when z is increased by any multiple of 2p.
∴ sin z is a periodic function with period 2p.
Similarly, cos z can be shown to be a periodic function with period 2p.
(b) To prove that tan z is a periodic function with period p.
eiz - e- iz
We know that tan z =
i(eiz + e - iz )
ei ( z + n p ) - e - i ( z + n p ) eiz . einp - e- iz . e - inp

If n is any integer, tan (z + np) = i ( z + np ) - i ( z + np )
= iz inp
i [e +e ] i [e . e + e - iz . e- np ]
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by einp
eiz . e2 npi - e- iz eiz - e- iz

= = = tan z | Q e2npi = 1 = e–2npi
i[eiz . e2 npi + e- iz ] i (eiz + e- iz )
⇒ tan z remains unchanged when z is increased by any multiple of p.

∴ tan z is a periodic function with period p.
6.11. TRIGONOMETRICAL FORMULAE FOR COMPLEX QUANTITIES
If z is a complex quantity, prove that

(i) sin2 z + cos2 z = 1 (ii) sin 2z = 2 sin z cos z
(iii) cos 2z = cos z – sin z = 2 cos z – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2 z
2 2 2
2 tan z
(iv) tan 2z = (v) sin (– z) = – sin z
1 - tan 2 z
3 tan z - tan3 z
(vi) sin 3z = 3 sin z – 4 sin3 z (vii) tan 3z =
1 - 3 tan2 z
2 2
æ eiz - e- iz ö æ eiz + e- iz ö
Proof. (i) LHS = sin2 z + cos2 z =ç ÷ + ç ÷
è 2i ø è 2 ø
=– 1
4
(e2iz + e–2iz – 2) + 1
4
(e2iz + e–2iz + 2) = 1
2
+ 1
2
= 1 = RHS
eiz - e - iz eiz + e - iz e 2iz - e-2iz

(ii) RHS = 2 sin z cos z = 2. . = = sin 2z = LHS
2i 2 2i
2 2
2 2 æ eiz + e- iz ö æ eiz - e- iz ö
(iii) cos z – sin z = ç ÷ -ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2i ø
1 e 2iz + e -2iz
= [(e2iz + e–2iz + 2) + (e2iz + e–2iz – 2)] = = cos 2z
4 2
2
æ eiz + e - iz ö 1 e 2iz + e -2iz
2 cos2 z – 1 = 2 ç ÷ - 1 = (e2iz + e–2iz + 2) – 1 = = cos 2z
è 2 ø 2 2
2
æ eiz - e - iz ö 1 2iz –2iz e 2iz + e -2iz
1 – 2 sin2 z = 1 – 2 ç ÷ = 1 + (e + e – 2) = = cos 2z
è 2i ø 2 2
Hence the result.
eiz - e - iz
2.
2 tan z i (eiz + e - iz ) 2( eiz - e - iz )( eiz + e - iz )
(iv) RHS = = =
1 - tan 2 z é eiz - e - iz ù
2
i[( eiz + e - iz ) 2 + ( eiz - e - iz ) 2 ]
1 - ê iz - iz ú
êë i (e + e ) úû
2(e 2iz - e -2iz ) e 2iz - e -2iz

= = = tan 2z = LHS
i.2(e2iz + e-2iz ) i (e2iz + e-2iz )
ei ( - z ) - e - i ( - z ) e - iz - eiz eiz - e - iz
(v) sin (– z) = = =- = – sin z.
2i 2i 2i
e3iz - e -3iz x3 - y 3
(vi) sin 3z = = , where x = eiz, y = e–iz
2i 2i
( x - y )3 + 3xy ( x - y ) 1
= = [(eiz – e–iz)3 + 3 . eiz . e–iz (eiz – e–iz)]
2i 2i
1 1
= [(2i sin z)3 + 3(2i sin z)] = [– 8i sin3 z + 6i sin z] = 3 sin z – 4 sin3 z.
2i 2i
3 tan z - tan3 z
(vii) RHS =
1 - 3 tan 2 z
3 3
é eiz - e - iz ù é eiz - e - iz ù é eiz - e - iz ù 1 é eiz - e - iz ù
3 . ê iz - iz ú
- ê iz - iz ú
3 ê iz - iz ú
+ . ê iz - iz ú
êë i (e + e ) úû êë i (e + e ) úû êë i (e + e ) úû i êë e + e úû
= 2
= 2
é eiz - e - iz ù é eiz - e - iz ù
1 - 3 . ê iz - iz ú
1 + 3 . ê iz - iz ú
ëê i (e + e ) ûú ëê e + e ûú
3
x 1 æ xö
3 + .ç ÷
iy i è y ø
= 2
, where x = eiz – e–iz, y = eiz + e–iz
æ xö
1+ 3ç ÷
è yø
3xy 2 + x 3 y2 x(3 y 2 + x 2 ) x (3e2iz + 3e -2iz + 6 + e2iz + e-2iz - 2)

= . = =
iy3 y 2 + 3 x2 iy( y 2 + 3 x2 ) iy (e2 iz + e -2 iz + 2 + 3e2 iz + 3e -2iz - 6)
x (4e 2iz + 4e -2iz + 4) (eiz - e - iz )(e 2iz + e -2iz + 1)

= -2iz
= iz
2iz
iy(4e + 4e - 4) i( e + e- iz )(e2iz + e-2iz - 1)
e3iz - e-3iz é3 ( a - b)( a 2 + b 2 + ab ) = a 3 - b3 ù

= ê ú
i (e3iz + e-3iz ) ëê ( a + b)( a + b - ab ) = a + b ûú
2 2 3 3
= tan 3z.
Example 3. If α, β are the imaginary cube roots of unity prove that
æ 3 3 ö
aeax + bebx = – e–x/2 ç cos x + 2 sin x .
è 2 2 ÷ø
Sol. We know that imaginary cube roots of unity are w and w2, where
-1+ i 3 -1- i 3
w= , w2 = .
2 2
-1+ i 3 -1- i 3
Here α= , β=
2 2
æ 1 3ö æ 1 3ö
ç- 2 + i 2 ÷ x ç- 2 - i 2 ÷ x
è ø è ø
aeax + bebx = αe + be
3 3 ì i 3 3 ü
i x -i x ï x -i
2 ï
x
= αe–x/2. e 2 + βe–x/2, e 2 = e–x/2 ía e 2 + be ý
ï
î ï
þ
ìï æ 3 3 ö æ 3 3 ö üï
= e–x/2 ía ç cos x + i sin x ÷ + b ç cos x - i sin x ý
ïî è 2 2 ø è 2 2 ÷ø ïþ
ì
ï 3 3 ü
ï
= e–x/2 í(a + b) cos x + i (a - b) sin xý
ï
î 2 2 ï
þ
α + β = – 1, α– β = i 3
ì
ï 3 3 ü
ï
∴ aeax + bebx = e–x/2 í- cos x + i (i 3) sin xý
ï
î 2 2 ï
þ
ì
ï 3 3 ü
ï
= – e–x/2 ícos x + 3 sin xý .
ï
î 2 2 ï
þ
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. If z = x + iy, find the real and imaginary parts of exp (z2).
2. Prove that:
(i) sin (a + nq) – eia sin nq = e–inq sin a (ii) [sin (a + q) – eia sin q]n = sinn a . e–inq
3. If z is a complex number, prove that:
(i) cos (– z) = cos z (ii) tan (– z) = – tan z
sin 2 z
(iii) cos 3z = 4 cos3 z – 3 cos z (iv) tan z = .
1 + cos 2 z
4. If z1, z2 are complex numbers, show that:
(i) sin (z1 + z2) = sin z1 cos z2 + cos z1 sin z2 (ii) cos (z1 – z2) = cos z1 cos z2 + sin z1 sin z2
tan z1 + tan z 2 z1 + z2 z - z2
(iii) tan (z1 + z2) = (iv) sin z1 + sin z2 = 2 sin cos 1
1 - tan z1 tan z2 2 2
(v) cos z1 – cos z2 = 2 sin z1 + z2 sin z2 - z1

2 2
5. Show that:
1 –b b i –b b
(i) cos (a + ib) = (e + e ) cos a + (e + e ) sin a
2 2
1 –b b i –b b
(ii) sin (a + ib) = (e + e ) sin a + (e + e ) cos a.
2 2
ANSWER
2
- y2 2
- y2
1. ex cos 2 xy, e x sin 2xy.
6.12. LOGARITHMS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Definition. If w = ez, where z and w are complex numbers, then z is called a logarithm of w to the base e.
Thus loge w = z.
1. Prove that loge w is a many-valued function.
We know that e2nπi = cos 2nπ + i sin 2nπ = 1
Let ez = w, then ez+2nπi = ez . e2nπi = ez. 1 = ω
∴ by definition loge w = z + 2nπi, where n is zero, or any +ve or –ve integer.
Thus if z be a logarithm of w, so is z + 2nπi.
Hence the logarithm of a complex number has infinite values and is thus a many-valued function.
Note. The value z + 2nπi is called the general value of loge w and is denoted by Loge w.
Thus Loge w = z + 2nπi = 2nπi + loge w
If w = x + iy, then Log (x + iy) = 2nπi + log (x + iy).
If we put n = 0, in the general value, we get the principal value of z, i.e., loge w.
2. Prove that log (– N) = πi + log N, where N is positive.
Proof. – N = N(– 1) = N(cos π + i sin π) = N . eiπ
∴ log (– N) = log (N . eiπ) = log N + log eiπ = log N + πi.
3. Separate log (α + iβ) into real and imaginary parts.
b
Proof. Let α + iβ = r(cos θ + i sin θ) so that r = a 2 + b2 , θ = tan–1
a
∴ Log (α + iβ) = 2nπi + log (α + i β) = 2nπi + log [r(cos θ + i sin θ)]

= 2nπi + log (r eiθ ) = 2nπi + log r + log eiθ = 2nπi + log r + iθ
b 1 b
= 2nπi + log a 2 + b 2 + i tan–1 = 2nπi + log (α2 + β2) + i tan–1
a 2 a
1 é bù
= log (a 2 + b2 ) + i ê2np + tan -1 ú
2 ë aû
∴ Re[Log (α + iβ)] = 1
2
log (α2 + β2)
b
Im[Log (α + iβ)] = 2 nπ + tan–1
a
1 b
Note. Putting n = 0, the principal value of log (α + iβ) = 2
log (α2 + β2) + i tan–1 .
a
1 r sin q
Example 1. Prove that log (1 + reiθ) = log (1 + 2r cos θ + r2) + i tan–1 .
2 1 + r cos q
æ qö q
Deduce that log (1 + cos θ + i sin θ) = log ç 2 cos ÷ + i
è 2ø 2
Sol. log (1 + reiθ) = log [1 + r(cos θ + i sin θ)] = log [(1 + r cos θ) + i(r sin θ)]
1 r sin q
= log [(1 + r cos θ)2 + (r sin θ)2] + i tan–1
2 1 + r cos q
1 r sin q
= log [1 + 2r cos θ + r2 cos2 θ + r2 sin2 θ] + i tan–1
2 1 + r cos q
1 r sin q
= log [1 + 2r cos θ + r2] + i tan–1 …(1)
2 1 + r cos q
Putting r = 1 in (1),
1 sin q
log (1 + eiθ) = log (1 + 2 cos θ + 1) + i tan–1
2 1 + cos q
q q
2 sin cos
1 2 2
i.e., log (1 + cos θ + i sin θ) = log [2(1 + cos θ)] + i tan –1
2 2 q
2 cos
2
1 é qù æ qö 1 éæ qö ù
2
q
= log ê 2 . 2 cos 2 ú + i tan -1 ç tan ÷ = log êç 2 cos ÷ ú + i
2 ë 2û è 2ø 2 êëè 2ø ú 2
û
1 æ qö q æ qö q
= . 2 log ç 2 cos ÷ + i . = log ç 2 cos ÷ + i .
2 è 2 ø 2 è 2 ø 2

Example 2. (a) Find the general value of log - 1+ i 3 . (P.T.U., May 2012)
(b) Prove that log (– 4) = 2 log 2 + (2n + 1) π i. (P.T.U., May 2007)

Sol. (a) - 1 + i 3 = r (cos q + i sin q)
r cos q = – 1 and r sin q = 3
Squaring and adding
r2 = 1 + 3 = 4
\ r= 2
1 æ pö 2p
cos q = - = cos ç p - ÷ = cos
2 è 3 ø 3
3 æ pö 2p
sin q = = sin ç p - ÷ = sin
2 è 3ø 3
2p
\ q=
3
æ 2p 2p ö
- 1 + i 3 = 2 ç cos + i sin
è 3 3 ÷ø
2p
i
= 2e 3
General value of - 1 + i 3

= 2npi + log - 1 + i 3
æ i 2p ö
= 2npi + log ç 2e 3 ÷
è ø
i 2p
= 2npi + log 2 + log e 3
2p
= 2npi + log 2 + i
3
æ 1ö
= log 2 + 2pi ç n + ÷
è 3ø
3n + 1
= log 2 + 2 pi
3
(b) – 4 = 4 (– 1) = 4 (cos π + i sin π) = 4eiπ
Log (– 4) = Log (4eiπ) = 2nπi + log (4e iπ)
= 2nπi + log 4 + log eiπ
= 2nπi + log 4 + iπ
= log 4 + (2n + 1) πi
= log 22 + (2n + 1) πi
= 2 log 2 + (2n + 1) πi.
Example 3. Separate into real and imaginary parts Log (4 + 3i).
Sol. Let 4 + 3i = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
Equating real and imaginary parts r cos θ = 4 ; r sin θ = 3
Squaring and adding, r2 = 16 + 9 = 25 ∴ r=5
3 3
Dividing, tan θ = ∴ θ = tan–1
4 4
∴ log (4 + 3i) = Log [r(cos θ + i sin θ)] = Log (reiθ) = 2nπi + log (reiθ)
3
= 2nπi + log r + log eiθ = 2nπi + log 5 + iθ = log 5 + 2nπi + i tan–1
4
∴ Re[log (4 + 3i)] = log 5
æ 3ö
Im[log (4 + 3i)] = ç 2np + tan -1 .
è 4 ÷ø
æ a - ib ö 2ab
Example 4. (a) Prove that tan ç i log =
è a + ib ÷ø a 2 - b2
ì
ï 1 + ie- iq ü
ï
(b) Prove that sin íi log iq ý
is wholly real.
ï
î 1 - ie ï
þ
Sol. (a) Let a + ib = r (cos θ + i sin θ)
Equating real and imaginary parts r cos θ = a, r sin θ = b
b
Dividing, tan θ = ...(1)
a
Also, a – ib = r (cos θ – i sin θ)
é r (cos q - i sin q) ù é e- iq ù
L.H.S. = tan êi log ú = tan êi log iq ú
ë r (cos q + i sin q) û êë e úû
= tan [i log e ] = tan [i(– 2iθ) log e]
–2iθ | log e = 1
b
2
2 tan q a
= tan 2θ = = [Using (1)]
1 - tan 2 q b2
1- 2
a
2ab
= 2 .
a - b2
ì 1 + i (cos q - i sin q ü
(b) sin íi log ý
î 1 - i (cos q + i sin q) þ
ì (1 + sin q) + i cos q ü
= sin íi log ý
î (1 + sin q) - i cos q þ
ì æp ö æp öü
ï 1 + cos ç - q÷ + i sin ç - q÷ ï
ï è2 ø è2 øï
= sin íi log ý
ï æp ö æp ö
1 + cos ç - q÷ - i sin ç - q÷ ï
ï
î è2 ø è2 øïþ
ì æ p qö æ p qö æ p qö ü
ï 2 cos 2 ç - ÷ + 2 i sin ç - ÷ cos ç - ÷ ï
ï è 4 2ø è 4 2ø è 4 2ø ï
= sin íi log ý
ï æ p qö æ p qö æ p qö
2 cos 2 ç - ÷ - 2 ç sin - ÷ cos ç - ÷ ï
ï
î è 4 2ø è 4 2ø è 4 2ø ïþ
ì æ p qö æ p qö ü ì æ p qö ü
ï cos ç - ÷ + i sin ç - ÷ ï iç - ÷
ï è 4 2ø è 2 2ø ï ïï e è 4 2ø ïï
= sin íi log ý = sin íi log ý
ï æ p qö æ p qö æ p qö
cos ç - ÷ - i sin ç - ÷ ï ï - iç - ÷ ï
ï
î è 4 2ø è 4 2ø ï
þ ïî e è 4 2ø ïþ
ì 2 iç - ÷ ü
æ p qö
ì 2 æp
ï ï öü æp ö
= sin íi log e è 4 2 ø ý = sin íi ç - q÷ ý = – sin ç - q÷ = – cos θ
ï ï î è 2 ø þ è 2 ø
î þ
which is wholly real.
Example 5. Express log (log i) in the form A + iB.
p p
Sol. i = cos + i sin = eiπ/2
2 2
p p
∴ Log i = 2nπi + log eiπ/2 = 2nπi + i = i(4n + 1)
2 2
é pù é pù
∴ Log (Log i) = Log êi (4p + 1) ú = 2mπi + log êi (4p + 1) 2 ú
ë 2û ë û
p
= 2mπi + log i + log (4n + 1)
2
æ p
p p p i ö
= 2mπi + log eiπ/2 + log (4n + 1) ç3 i = cos + i sin = e 2
÷
2 è 2 2 ø
p p p p
= 2mπi + i + log (4n + 1) = log (4n + 1) + i(4m + 1) .
2 2 2 2
x + iy y
Example 6. (a) Show that log = 2i tan-1 .
x - iy x
1 1 + ix
(b) Prove that tan–1 x = log . (P.T.U., May 2007)
2i 1 - ix
Sol. (a) Let x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
y
∴ x2 + y 2 = r2 and tan θ =
x
x + iy r (cos q + i sin q) eiq
log = log = log - iq = log e2iθ = 2iθ
x - iy r (cos q - i sin q) e
y
= 2i tan–1 .
x
(b) Let 1 = r sin θ, x = r sin θ ∴ r2 = 1 + x2, tan θ = x.
1 1 + ix
R.H.S. = log
2i 1 - ix
1 r cos q + i r sin q 1 cos q + i sin q
= log = log
2i r cos q - i r sin q 2i cos q - i sin q
1 eiq 1 1
= log - iq = log e2iθ = 2iθ = θ = tan–1 x.
2i e 2i 2i
6.13. GENERAL EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

The exponential function az is defined by the equation az = ez log a, where a and z are any numbers, real or
complex.
Since Log a = 2nπi + log a
∴ The general exponential function az = ez log a

∴ az = ez(2nπi + log a)
Hence az is a many valued function and its principal value is obtained by putting n = 0.
Example 7. (a) Prove that ii is wholly real and find its principal value. Also show that the values of ii form
a G.P. (P.T.U., Dec. 2007, May 2010, Dec. 2013)
æ 1ö
(b) Prove that log ii = – ç 2n + π. (P.T.U., Dec. 2002)
è 2 ÷ø
Sol. (a) ii = ei Log i [By definition]
= ei[2nπi + log i] = ei[2nπi + log (cos π/2 + i sin π/2)]
ip /2
= e [2 p + log
i n i e i npi + ip / 2] i 2 (4 n + 1)p / 2
= e- (4
] n+1)p / 2
= e [2 =e
which is wholly real.
The principal value of ii = e–π/2 (putting n = 0)
Putting n = 0, 1, 2, ....... the values of ii are e–π/2, e–5π/2, e–9π/2,.....
which form a G.P. whose common ratio is e–2π.
(b) Log ii = i log i
é æ p pöù
= i[2nπ i + log i] = i ê2npi + log ç cos + i sin ÷ ú
ë è 2 2øû
é p
i ù é pö æ 1ö
= i ê 2npi + log e 2 ú = i ê 2npi + i ÷ = i2 π çè 2n + 2 ÷ø
êë úû ë 2ø
æ 1ö
= – ç 2n + ÷ p .
è 2ø
Example 8. If iα+iβ = α + iβ, prove that α2 + β2 = e - ( 4n + 1) πβ.
Sol. α + iβ = ia + ib = elog ia + i b = e(a + i b) log i

= e(α + iβ)[2nπi + log i] = e(α + iβ)[2nπi + log (cos π/2 + i sin π/2)]
iπ / 2
= e(α + iβ)[2nπi + log e ] = e(α + iβ)[2nπi + iπ/2] = e–β(4n + 1)π/2 + iα(4n + 1)π/2
é ap ap ù
= e–β(4n + 1)π/2 . eiα(4n + 1)π/2 = e–β(4n + 1)π/2 êcos (4n + 1) + i sin (4n + 1)
ë 2 2 úû
[Q eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ]
Equating real and imaginary parts
ap ap
α = e–(4n + 1)βπ/2 . cos (4n + 1) ; β = e–(4n + 1)βπ/2 . sin (4n + 1)
2 2
Squaring and adding,
é ap ap ù
α2 + β2 = e–(4n + 1)βπ êcos 2 (4n + 1) + sin 2 (4n + 1) = e–(4n + 1)βπ.
ë 2 2 úû
Example 9. Considering only the principal value, prove that the real part of
æp ö
(1 + i 3 )1 + i 3
is 2e-p 3
cos ç + 3 log 2÷ .
è3 ø
(1 + i 3)[ 12 log(1+ 3) + i tan -1 3]

Sol. (1 + i 3)1 + i 3
= e(1 + i 3) log (1 + i 3 )
=e
(1 + i 3)[ 12 log 4 + ip /3] (1 + i 3)( 12 .2log2 + ip /3)

= e =e
(log 2 - p / 3) + i ( p /3 + 3 log 2)
= e = elog 2 - p / 3
. ei ( p /3 + 3 log 2)
é æp ö æp öù
= elog 2 e -p / 3
êcos çè + 3 log 2÷ø + i sin çè + 3 log 2÷ø ú
ë 3 3 û
é æp ö æp öù
= 2e -p / 3
êcos çè + 3 log 2÷ø + i sin çè + 3 log 2÷ø ú [Q elog f(x) = f(x)]
ë 3 3 û
æp ö
⇒ Real part of (1 + i 3)1+ i 3
is 2e-p / 3
cos ç + 3 log 2÷ .
è3 ø
i ......... ad . inf.
i
Example 10. If i = A + iB and only principal values are considered, prove that
pA B
(a) tan = (b) A2 + B2 = e–Bπ.
2 A
i ......... ad . inf.
Sol. i i = A + iB ⇒ iA + iB = A + iB
Now, A + iB = i + iB = e(A + iB) log i
A (Taking principal values only)
ip /2
= e(A + iB) log (cos p / 2 + i sin p / 2) = e(A + iB) log ( e )
= e(A + iB)(iπ/2) = e–(Bπ/2) + i . (Aπ/2)

æ Ap Ap ö
= e - Bp / 2 . eiAp / 2 = e - Bp / 2 ç cos + i sin
è 2 2 ÷ø
Ap
A = e– B(π/2) cos …(1)
2
Ap
B = e–B(π/2) sin …(2)
2
Ap B
Dividing (2) by (1), tan = …(I)
2 A
æ Ap Ap ö
Squaring and adding (1) and (2), A2 + B2 = e–Bπ ç cos 2 + sin 2 = e–Bπ …(II)
è 2 2 ÷ø
æ bö
2 tan-1 ç ÷
y è aø
Example 11. If (a + ib)p = mx+iy, then prove that = when only principal values are
x log (a + b2 )
2
considered. (P.T.U., Dec. 2006)

Sol. (a + ib)p = mx+iy

Taking log of both sides, log (a + ib)p = log mx+iy
or p log (a + ib) = (x + iy) log m
é bù
or p ê 12 log (a 2 + b2 ) + i tan -1 ú = x log m + iy log m
ë aû
(Considering only the principal values)
Equating real and imaginary parts x log m = 1
2
p log (a2 + b2) …(i)
b
y log m = p tan–1 …(ii)
a
b b
p tan -1 2 tan -1
y a a .
Dividing (ii) by (i), = =
x 1
2
p log ( a 2 + b 2 ) log ( a 2 + b 2 )
2a
Example 12. If tan log (x + iy) = a + ib and a2 + b2 ≠ 1, then prove that tan log (x2 + y2) = .
1 - a2 - b2
Sol. tan log (x + iy) = a + ib …(i)

⇒ tan log (x – iy) = a – ib …(ii)
Now, tan log (x2 + y2) = tan log (x + iy)(x – iy)
tan log ( x + iy ) + tan log ( x - iy )
= tan [log (x + iy) + log (x – iy)] =
1 - tan log ( x + iy ) . tan log ( x - iy )
a + ib + a - ib 2a
= = , where a2 + b2 ≠ 1.
1 - ( a + ib)( a - ib ) 1 - a 2 - b 2
p
æ p ö
i
i - p
4 2
Example 13. Show that =e çè cos + i sin ÷
4 2 4 2ø
i
i 1

i log i log i
i log i
Sol. i =e = e =e 2
p
p i
We know that i = cis =e 2
2
1
ip
1 æ pö 2 1 æ pö
çè cis 2 ÷ø . 2 çè i 2 ÷ø
i
i i log e 2
∴ = e 2 =e
p p ip æ p pö
i cis
4 çè cos 4 + i sin 4 ÷ø
= e 4 4 =e
p 1+ i p p p
i (i - 1) i -
= e 4 2
= e4 2 = e4 2 .e 4 2
p p
- p - é p p ù
= e 4 2 cis =e 4 2
êcos + i sin ú.
4 2 ëê 4 2 4 2 ûú
(1 + i)x + iy b 1
Example 14. If x - iy
= α + i β, prove that one of the values of tan–1 = πx + y log 2.
(1 - i) a 2
Sol. First take (1 + i)x + iy
x + iy
log (1 + i)
(1 + i)x + iy = e = e (x + iy) log (1 + i)
One of the values of
1 é -1 y ù
êlog x + y + i tan x ú
2 2
log (1 + i) = log | 1 + i | + i tan–1
1 ë û
p
= log 2 +i
4
æ pö æ pö é pù
( x + iy ) ç log 2 + i ÷ ç x log 2 - y 4 ÷ø + i ê y log 2 + x 4 ú
è 4ø
∴ (1 + i)x+iy = e = eè ë û
æ yp ö é x pù
ç x log 2 - 4 ÷ø + i ê y log 2 + 4 ú
(1 + i)x+iy = eè ë û
Changing i to – i
æ y pö é x pù
çè x log 2 - ÷ - i ê y log 2 +
4 ø ë 4 úû
(1 – i)x–iy = e
æ y pö é x pù
è ç x log 2 - 4 ÷ø + i ê y log 2 + 4 ú é x pù
(1 + i ) x + iy e ë û 2i ê y log 2 +
ë 4 úû
= =e
(1 - i ) x - iy æ
çè x log 2-
y pö é
- i ê y log 2 +
x pù
4 ÷ø ë 4 úû
e
é x pù é x pù
i ê 2 y log 21/ 2 + i ê y log 2 +
ë 2 úû ë 2 úû
= e = e
æ x pö æ xp ö
∴ α + i β = cos ç y log 2 + + i sin ç y log 2 +
è 2 ÷ø è 2 ÷ø
æ xp ö æ x pö
∴ α = cos ç y log 2 + and β = sin ç y log 2 +
è 2 ÷ø è 2 ÷ø
b é x pù
∴ = tan ê y log 2 +
a ë 2 úû
b 1
tan–1 = πx + y log 2 is one of the values.
a 2
Example 15. Find modulus and argument of (1 + i)1– i. (P.T.U., May 2003)
1- i
i
Sol. (1 + i)1–i = elog(1 + ) = e(1–i) log (1 + i)
é 1ù é1 pù
(1- i ) êlog 1 + 1 + i tan -1 ú (1- i ) ê log 2 + i ú
ë 1û ë2 4û
= e =e
æ1 pö æp 1 ö æ1 pö æp 1 ö
log 2 + ÷ + i ç - log 2÷ log 2 + ÷ i ç - log 2÷
èç 2 4ø è4 2 ø èç 2 4ø è4 2 ø
= e =e .e
æ1 pö
ç log 2 + 4 ÷ø é æp 1 ö æp 1 öù
= eè 2 êcos çè - log 2÷ø + i sin çè - log 2÷ø ú
ë 4 2 4 2 û
æ1 pö
è ç log 2 + ÷ø æp 1 ö
Real part of (1 + i)1–i = e 2 4
cos ç - log 2÷
è4 2 ø
æ1 pö
è ç log 2 + ÷ø æp 1 ö
Img. part of (1 + i)1–i = e 2 4
sin ç - log 2÷
è4 2 ø
Modulus of (1 + i)1–i = (Re) 2 + (Im) 2
æ1 pö
2 ç log 2 + ÷
è2 4ø é 2 æp 1 ö 2 æp 1 öù
= e êcos çè 4 - 2 log 2÷ø + sin çè 4 - 2 log 2÷ø ú
ë û
æ1 pö 1 p p p
2 ç log 2 + ÷ log 2 +
è2 4ø
= e .1 = e 2 4 = elog 2
. e4 = 2 e4
æp 1 ö
sin ç - log 2÷
Img. part è4 2 ø p 1
Argument of (1 + i)1–i = tan–1 = tan–1 = - log 2.
Real part æp 1 ö 4 2
cos ç - log 2÷
è4 2 ø
4m + 1
Example 16. Prove that Logi i = , where m, n are integers.
4n + 1
Loge i
Sol. Logi i =
Loge i
ip
p
We know that i = cis =e2
2
ip
p
∴ Loge i = 2mπ i + Log i = 2m Fi + Log e 2 = 2m πi + i
2
iπ
= (4m + 1) , where m is any integer
2
Similarly, Loge i in the denominator
ip
= 2nπ i + Log i = (4n +1) , where n is any integer
2
ip
(4m + 1)
∴ Logi i = 2 = 4m + 1 .
ip 4n + 1
(4n + 1)
2
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1. Find the general value of
(i) log (– i) (ii) log (1 + i).
(iii) log (– 3) (P.T.U., Dec. 2002)
2. Prove that
æ x - iö é æ a + ib ö ù a 2 - b2
(i) i log ç = p – 2 tan–1 x (ii) cos êi log ç ú=
è x + i ÷ø ëê è a - ib ø÷ ûú a2 + b2
p
- (4 n + 1) æ 1ö
(iii) ii = e 2 (iv) Log ii = – ç 2 n + ÷ p.
è 2ø
3. Show that
æ 3- iö æ 1ö
(i) log (1 + i tan a) = log sec a + i a (ii) Loge ç = 2i ç np - tan -1 ÷
è 3 + i ÷ø è 3ø
4. Prove that sin (log ii) = – 1.
5. If log log (x + iy) = p + iq, show that y = x tan [tan q log x 2 + y 2 ].
( a + ib) p + iq
6. Prove that the principal value of is cos 2 (pa + q log r) + i sin 2 (pa + q log r), where
( a - ib) p - iq
b
r= a 2 + b 2 and a = tan–1 .
a
(1 + i )1- i
7. Prove that = sin (log 2) + i cos (log 2).
(1 - i )1+ i
p2
- æp ö
8. Prove that the real part of the principal value of ilog (1+i) is e 8
cos ç log 2÷ .
è4 ø
ANSWERS
pi 1 p
1. (i) (4n – 1) , (ii) log 2 + i(8n + 1) .
2 2 4
(iii) log 3 + i(2n + 1) p
6.14. (a) HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

e x - e- x
(i) For all values of x, real or complex. The quantity is called hyperbolic sine of x and is
2
written as sinh x and
e x + e- x
(ii) The quantity is called hyperbolic cosine of x and is written as cosh x.
2
e x - e- x e x + e- x
Thus sinh x = ; cosh x =
2 2
The other hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of hyperbolic sine and cosine as follows :
sinh x e x - e- x cosh x e x + e - x
tanh x = = ; coth x = =
cosh x e x + e - x sinh x e x - e - x
1 2 1 2
sech x = = x -x
; cosech x = = x
cosh x e + e sinh x e - e - x
e 0 - e -0 1 - 1 e 0 + e -0 1 + 1
Note. sinh 0 = = =0; cosh 0 = = =1
2 2 2 2
e x + e - x e x - e- x
cosh x + sinh x = + = ex ;
2 2
e x + e- x e x - e- x
cosh x – sinh x = - = e–x.
2 2
6.14(b). RELATIONS BETWEEN HYPERBOLIC AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
eiq + e - iq eiq - e - iq
cos θ = ; sin θ =
2 2i
Putting θ= ix in these equations, we get
ei ( ix) + e - i ( ix ) e - x + e x
cos (ix) = = = cosh x
2 2
ei ( ix) - e - i ( ix ) e - x - e x - (e x - e - x ) i 2 (e x - e - x ) ex - e- x
sin (ix) = = = = =i. = i sinh x
2i 2i 2i 2i 2
sin (ix) i sinh x
tan (ix) = = = i tanh x
cos (ix) cosh x
cos (ix) cosh x i cosh x
cot (ix) = = = 2 = – i coth x
sin (ix) i sinh x i sinh x
1 1
sec (ix) = = = sech x
cos (ix) cosh x
1 1 i
cosec (ix) = = = = – i cosech x.
sin (ix ) i sinh x i 2 sinh x
eq - e-q eq + e-q eq - e-q
By definition, sinh θ = ; cosh θ = ; tanh θ = q
2 2 e + e-q
Putting θ = ix, we get
eix - e - ix eix - e - ix eix - e- ix
sinh (ix) = =i. = i sin x ; cosh (ix) = = cos x
2 2i 2
eix - e - ix
ix - ix
e -e sin x
tanh (ix) = ix - ix
= i . ix 2i - ix = i . = i tan x.
e +e e +e cos x
2
6.14(c). PROVE THAT HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS ARE PERIODIC AND FIND

THEIR PERIODS
e x - e- x
(i) We know that sinh x =
2
e x + 2n pi - e - ( x + 2npi )
∴ sinh (x + 2nπi) = , where n is any integer
2
1 x e x - e- x
= 1
2
[ex . e2nπi – e–x . e–2nπi] =
[e . 1 – e–x . 1] = = sinh x
2 2
Thus sinh x remains unchanged when x is increased by any multiple of 2πi.
Hence sinh x is a periodic function and its period is 2πi.
e x + e- x
(ii) cosh x =
2
e x + 2 n pi + e - ( x + 2 n pi )
cosh (x + 2nπi) = , where n is any integer
2
e x + e- x
= 1
2
[ex . e2nπi + e–x . e–2nπi] = 1
2
[ex . 1 + e–x . 1] = = cosh x
2
Thus cosh x remains unchanged when x is increased by any multiple of 2πi.
Hence cosh x is a periodic function and its period is 2πi.
e x - e- x
(iii) tanh x = x
e + e- x
e x + npi - e - ( x + npi )
tanh (x + nπi) = , where n is any integer
e x + npi + e - ( x + npi )
e x . e npi - e - x . e - npi
=
e x . e npi + e - x . e - npi
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by enπi
e x . e 2 npi - e - x e x - e - x
= = = tanh x [Q e2nπi = cos 2nπ + i sin 2nπ = 1]
e x . e 2 npi + e - x e x + e - x
Thus tanh x remains unchanged when x is increased by any multiple of πi.
Hence tanh x is a periodic function and its period is πi.
Note. cosech x, sech x and coth x being reciprocals of sinh x, cosh x and tanh x respectively, are also periodic functions
with periods 2πi, 2πi and πi respectively.
6.15. FORMULAE OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
1. Prove that (a) cosh2 x – sinh2 x = 1, (b) sech2 x + tanh2 x = 1, (c) coth2 x – cosech2 x = 1
Proof. (a) For all values of θ, cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
Putting θ = ix, we get cos2 (ix) + sin2 (ix) = 1
or (cosh x)2 + (i sinh x)2 = 1 [Q cos ix = cosh x ; sin (ix) = i sinh x]
or 2 2
cosh x – sinh x = 1 [Q i2 = – 1]
(b) We know that cosh2 x – sinh2 x = 1
Dividing both sides by cosh2 x, we have
1 – tanh2 x = sech2 x ⇒ sech2 x + tanh2 x = 1
(c) We know that cosh x – sinh x = 1
2 2
Dividing both sides by sinh2 x, we have

coth2 x – 1 = cosech2 x ⇒ coth2 x – cosech2 x = 1
2. Prove that (a) sinh (x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
(b) cosh (x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
tanh x ± tanh y
(c) tanh (x ± y) =
1 ± tanh x tanh y
1 é 1 ù
Proof. (a) sinh (x ± y) =
i
sin i (x ± y) êQ sinh x = i sin ix ú
ë û
1
(sin ix cos iy ± cos ix sin iy)
=
i
1
= (i sinh x cosh y ± cosh x . i sinh y)
i
[Q sin iθ = i sinh θ ; cos iθ = cosh θ]
Hence sinh (x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
(b) cosh (x ± y) = cos i (x ± y) [Q cosh x = cos ix]

= cos ix cos iy m sin ix sin iy = cosh x cosh y m i sinh x . i sinh y
= cosh x cosh y m (– sinh x. sinh y) [Q i2 = – 1]
Hence cosh (x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
sinh ( x ± y ) sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
(c) tanh (x ± y) = =
cosh ( x ± y ) cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
Dividing the numerator and denominator by cosh x cosh y
tanh x ± tanh y
\ tanh (x ± y) =
1 ± tanh x tanh y
2 tanh x
3. Prove that (a) sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x =
1 - tanh 2 x
1 + tanh 2 x
(b) cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 2 cosh2 x – 1 = 1 + 2 sinh2 x =
1 - tanh 2 x
2 tanh x
(c) tanh 2x =
1 + tanh 2 x
Proof. (a) We know that sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
Putting θ = ix, we get sin (2ix) = 2 sin (ix) cos (ix) or i sinh 2x = 2 . i sinh x. cosh x
or sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
2 tan q
Also, sin 2θ =
1 + tan 2 q
2 tan ix 2 . i tanh x
Putting θ = ix, we get sin (2ix) = =
1 + tan ix
2
1 + (i tanh x) 2
2i tanh x 2 tanh x
or i sinh 2x = or sinh 2x =
1 - tanh x2
1 - tanh 2 x
(b) We know that cos 2θ = cos2 θ – sin2 θ
Putting θ = ix, we get cos (2ix) = cos2(ix) – sin2 (ix) or cosh 2x = (cosh x)2 – (i sinh x)2
or cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
We know that cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ – 1
Putting θ = ix, we get cos (2ix) = 2 cos2 (ix) – 1 or cosh 2x = 2 cosh2 x – 1
cosh 2 x + 1
Cor. cosh2 x =
2
We know that cos 2θ = 1 – 2 sin2 θ
Putting θ = ix, we get cos (2ix) = 1 – 2 sin2 (ix)
or cosh 2x = 1 – 2 (i sinh x)2 = 1 + 2 sinh2 x
cosh 2 x - 1
Cor. sinh2 x =
2
1 - tan 2 q
We know that cos 2θ =
1 + tan 2 q
1 - tan 2 (ix) 1 - (i tanh x) 2 1 + tanh 2 x

Putting θ = ix, we get cos (2ix) = = or cosh 2x =
1 + tan 2 (ix) 1 + (i tanh x) 2 1 - tanh 2 x
2 tan q
(c) We know that tan 2θ =
1 - tan 2 q
2 tan (ix)
Putting θ = ix, we get tan (2ix) =
1 - tan 2 (ix)
2i tanh x 2i tanh x
i tanh 2x = =
1 - (i tanh x) 2
1 + tanh 2 x
2 tanh x
∴ tanh 2x = .
1 + tanh 2 x
4. Prove that (a) sinh 3x = 3 sinh x + 4 sinh3 x.
3 tanh x + tanh 3 x
(b) cosh 3x = 4 cosh3 x – 3 cosh x (c) tanh 3x = .
1 + 3 tanh 2 x
Proof. (a) We know that sin 3θ = 3 sin θ – 4 sin3 θ
Putting θ = ix, we get sin (3ix) = 3 sin (ix) – 4 sin3 (ix)
or i sinh 3x = 3i sinh x – 4 (i sinh x)3
or i sinh 3x = 3i sinh x + 4 i sinh3 x [Q i3 = – i]
or sinh 3x = 3 sinh x + 4 sinh3 x
(b) We know that cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ – 3 cos θ
Putting θ = ix, we get cos (3ix) = 4 cos3 (ix) – 3 cos (ix)
or cosh 3x = 4 cosh3 x – 3 cosh x
3 tan q - tan 3 q
(c) We know that tan 3θ =
1 - 3 tan 2 q
3 tan (ix ) - tan 3 (ix )

Putting θ = ix, we get tan (3ix) =
1 - 3 tan 2 (ix)
3 × i tanh x - (i tanh x)3

or i tanh 3x =
1 - 3 (i tanh x)2
3 × i tanh x + i tanh 3 x 3 tanh x + tanh 3 x

or i tanh 3x = or tanh 3x = .
1 + 3 tanh 2 x 1 + 3 tanh 2 x
5. Prove that:
(i) 2 sinh A cosh B = sinh (A + B) + sinh (A – B)
(ii) 2 cosh A sinh B = sinh (A + B) – sinh (A – B)
(iii) 2 cosh A cosh B = cosh (A + B) + cosh (A – B)
(iv) 2 sinh A sinh B = cosh (A + B) – cosh (A – B)
Proof. We shall prove only the last result.
The first three are left as an exercise for the student.
We know that 2 sin x sin y = cos (x – y) – cos (x + y)
Putting x = iA ; y = iB, we get 2 sin (iA) . sin (iB) = cos i (A – B) – cos i (A + B)
or 2 . i sinh A . i sinh B = cosh (A – B) – cosh (A + B)
or – 2 sinh A sinh B = cosh (A – B) – cosh (A + B) [Q i2 = – 1]
or 2 sinh A sinh B = cosh (A + B) – cosh (A – B)
6. Prove that:
C+D C-D
(i) sinh C + sinh D = 2 sinh cosh
2 2
C+D C-D
(ii) sinh C – sinh D = 2 cosh sinh
2 2
C+D C-D
(iii) cosh C + cosh D = 2 cosh cosh
2 2
C+D C-D
(iv) cosh C – cosh D = 2 sinh sinh
2 2
Proof. We shall prove only the last result. The first three are left as an exercise for the student.
x+ y y-x
We know that cos x – cos y = 2 sin sin
2 2
Putting x = iA and y = iB, we get
æ A + Bö æ B - Aö
cos (iA) – cos (iB) = 2 sin ç i sin ç i
è 2 ÷ø è 2 ÷ø
A+B B-A
⇒ cosh A – cosh B = 2i sinh . i sinh
2 2
A+B B-A A+B B-A
= – 2 sinh sinh = 2 sinh sinh
2 2 2 2
[3 sinh (– x) = – sinh x]
7. Prove that:
tanh x + tanh y + tanh z + tanh x tanh y tanh z
tanh (x + y + z) =
1 + tanh x tanh y + tanh y tanh z + tanh z tanh x
tan a + tan b + tan g - tan a tan b tan g
Proof. We know that, tan (α + β + γ ) =
1 - tan a tan b - tan b tan g - tan g tan a
Putting α = ix ; β = iy ; γ = iz, we get
tan (ix ) + tan (iy ) + tan (iz ) - tan (ix ) tan (iy ) tan (iz )
tan i (x + y + z) =
1 - tan (ix) tan (iy ) - tan (iy) tan (iz ) - tan (iz ) tan (ix)
i tanh x + i tanh y + i tanh z - i tanh x . i tanh y . i tanh z
i tanh (x + y + z) =
1 - i tanh x . i tanh y - i tanh y . i tanh z - i tanh z . i tanh x
tanh x + tanh y + tanh z + tanh x tanh y tanh z
or tanh (x + y + z) = .
1 + tanh x tanh y + tanh y tanh z + tanh z tanh x
Example 1. Separate into real and imaginary parts
(a) sin (x + iy) (b) cos (x + iy) (P.T.U., Dec. 2004)
(c) tan (x + iy) (d ) cot (x + iy)
(e) sec (x + iy) (P.T.U., May 2004) ( f ) cosec (x + iy).
Sol. (a) sin (x + iy) = sin x cos iy + cos x sin iy
= sin x cosh y + cos x ◊ i sinh y = sin x cosh y + i ◊ cos x sinh y
(b) cos (x + iy) = cos x cos iy – sin x sin iy
= cos x cosh y – sin x ◊ i sinh y = cos x cosh y – i ◊ sin x sinh y
sin ( x + iy ) 2 sin ( x + iy ) cos ( x - iy )
(c) tan (x + iy) = =
cos ( x + iy ) 2 cos ( x + iy ) cos ( x - iy )
sin 2 x + sin 2iy é3 2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A - B) ù

= ê 2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)ú
cos 2 x + cos 2iy ë û
sin 2 x + i × sinh 2 y sin 2 x sinh 2 y
= = +i◊ .
cos 2 x + cosh 2 y cos 2 x + cosh 2 y cos 2 x + cosh 2 y
cos ( x + iy ) 2 cos ( x + iy ) sin ( x - iy )
(d) cot (x + iy) = =
sin ( x + iy ) 2 sin ( x + iy ) sin ( x - iy )
sin 2 x - sin 2iy é3 2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) - sin (A - B) ù

ê
2 sin A sin B = cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)úû
=
cos 2iy - cos 2 x ë
sin 2 x - i . sinh 2 y sin 2 x sinh 2 y
= = –i.
cosh 2 y - cos 2 x cosh 2 y - cos 2 x cosh 2 y - cos 2 x
1 2 cos ( x - iy )
(e) sec (x + iy) = =
cos ( x + iy ) 2 cos ( x + iy ) cos ( x - iy )
2(cos x cos iy + sin x sin iy) 2(cos x cosh y + sin x × i sinh y)
= =
cos 2 x + cos 2iy cos 2 x + cosh 2 y
2 cos x cosh y 2 sin x . sinh y
= +i◊
cos 2 x + cosh 2 y cos 2 x + cosh 2 y
1 2 sin ( x - iy )
(f ) cosec (x + iy) = =
sin ( x + iy ) 2 sin ( x + iy ) sin ( x - iy )
2(sin x cos iy - cos x sin iy ) 2(sin x cosh y - cos x i sinh y )
= =
cos 2iy - cos 2 x cosh 2 y - cos 2 x
2 sin x cosh y 2 cos x sinh y
= –i. .
cosh 2 y - cos 2 x cosh 2 y - cos 2 x
Example 2. Separate the following into real and imaginary parts :
(a) sinh (x + iy) (b) cosh (x + iy)
(c) tanh (x + iy) (d) coth (x + iy)
(e) sech (x + iy) ( f ) cosech (x + iy).
1
Sol. (a) sinh (x + iy) = sin i (x + iy) [3 i sinh θ = sin iθ]
i
i
= 2 sin (ix – y) = – i (sin ix cos y – cos ix sin y)
i
= – i (i sinh x cos y – cosh x sin y) = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
(b) cosh (x + iy) = cos i (x + iy) [3 cosh θ = cos iθ]

= cos (ix – y) = cos ix cos y + sin ix sin y = cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
1
(c) tanh (x + iy) = tan i (x + iy) [3 i tanh θ = tan iθ]
i
i sin (ix - y ) 2 sin (ix - y ) cos (ix + y )
= 2 tan (ix – y) = – i =–i◊
i cos (ix - y ) 2 cos (ix - y ) cos (ix + y )
sin 2 ix - sin 2 y i sinh 2 x - sin 2 y
=–i. =–i◊
cos 2 ix + cos 2 y cosh 2 x + cos 2 y
sinh 2 x sin 2 y
= +i◊ .
cosh 2 x + cos 2 y cosh 2 x + cos 2 y
cosh ( x + iy ) cos i ( x + iy ) cos (ix - y )
(d) coth (x + iy) = = =i◊
sinh ( x + iy ) 1 sin i ( x + iy ) sin (ix - y)
i
2 sin (ix + y ) cos (ix - y ) sin 2 ix + sin 2 y i sinh 2 x + sin 2 y
= i◊ =i◊ =i◊
2 sin (ix + y ) sin (ix - y ) cos 2 y - cos 2 ix cos 2 y - cosh 2 x
- sinh 2 x sin 2 y
= +i◊
cos 2 y - cosh 2 x cos 2 y - cosh 2 x
sinh 2 y sin 2 y
= –i◊ .
cosh 2 x - cos 2 y cosh 2 x - cos 2 y
1 1
(e) sech (x + iy) = =
cosh ( x + iy ) cos i ( x + iy )
1 2 cos (ix + y ) 2(cos ix cos y - sin ix sin y)
= = =
cos (ix - y ) 2 cos (ix + y ) cos (ix - y ) cos 2ix + cos 2 y
2(cosh x cos y - i sinh x sin y ) 2 cosh x cos y 2 sinh x sin y
= = –i◊ .
cosh 2 x + cos 2 y cosh 2 x + cos 2 y cosh 2 x + cos 2 y
1 1 i
(f) cosech (x + iy) = = =
sinh ( x + iy ) 1 sin (ix - y )
sin i ( x + iy )
i
2 sin (ix + y )
=i◊
2 sin (ix + y ) sin (ix - y )
2 (sin ix cos y + cos ix sin y ) 2 (i sinh x cos y + cosh x sin y )
=i◊ =i◊
cos 2 y - cos 2ix cos 2 y - cosh 2 x
2 sinh x cos y 2 cosh x sin y
=– +i◊
cos 2 y - cosh 2 x cos 2 y - cosh 2 x
2 sinh x cos y 2 cosh x sin y
= –i◊ .
æ p qö
Example 3. If u = log tan ç + ÷ , then prove that:
è 4 2ø
u q
(i) tanh = tan (P.T.U., May 2006) (ii) cosh u = sec θ
2 2
(iii) tanh u = sin θ (iv) sinh u = tan θ. (P.T.U., Dec. 2005)
æ p uö
(v) θ = – i log ç tan + i ÷ . (P.T.U., May 2003)
è 4 2ø
æ p qö
Sol. u = log tan ç + ÷
è 4 2ø
q q
1 + tan 1 + tan
æ p qö 2 eu / 2 2
(i) eu = tan ç + ÷ ⇒ eu/2 . eu/2 = ⇒ =
è 4ø 2 q e - u / 2 1 - tan q
1 - tan
2 2
By componendo and dividendo
æ qö æ qö
çè1 + tan ÷ - ç1 - tan ÷ø
eu / 2 - e - u / 2 2ø è 2 u q
= ⇒ tanh = tan
eu / 2 + e - u / 2 æ qö æ qö 2 2
çè1 + tan ÷ + ç1 - tan ÷ø
2ø è 2
u q
1 + tanh 2 1 + tan 2
(ii) cosh u = 2 = 2 [Using part (i)]
u q
1 - tanh 2 1 - tan 2
2 2
1
= = sec θ.
cos q
u
2 tanh
(iii) We know that tanh u= 2 = 2 tan q /2 [Using part (i)]
2 u 1 + tan 2 q /2
1 + tanh
2
= sin θ.
u
2 tanh
(iv) We know that sinh u= 2 = 2 tan q /2 [Using part (i)]
u 1 - tan 2 q /2
1 - tanh 2
2
= tan θ.
u q
(v) From (i) part tanh = tan (prove it)
2 2
ei q / 2 - e - i q / 2
1 iu 2i1 ei q / 2 - e - i q / 2
tan = iq/2 - i q/2
=
i 2 e +e i ei q / 2 + e - i q / 2
2
iu
tan
2 = ei q / 2 - e - iq / 2
or
1 ei q / 2 + e - i q / 2
(By componendo-dividendo)
iu
1 + tan
2 = ei q / 2 + e - i q / 2 + ei q / 2 - e - i q / 2
iu ei q / 2 + e - i q / 2 - ei q / 2 + e - i q / 2
1 - tan
2
æ p i uö 2ei q / 2
tan ç + ÷ = = ei θ
è4 2ø 2e - i q / 2
æp uö
∴ i θ = log tan ç + i
è4 2 ÷ø
1 æp uö
∴ θ= log tan ç + i ÷
i è4 2ø
æp uö
∴ θ = – i log tan ç + i ÷ .
è4 2ø
Example 4. If sin (A + iB) = x + iy, prove that
x2 y2
(i) + =1 (P.T.U., Dec. 2002)
cosh2 B sinh2 B
(ii) x2 cosec2 A – y2 sec2 A = 1.
Sol. (i) x + iy = sin (A + iB) = sin A cos iB + cos A sin iB = sin A cosh B + i cos A sinh B
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides
x = sin A cosh B ; y = cos A sinh B …(1)
x y
From (1), = sin A ; = cos A
cosh B sinh B
x2 y2
Squaring and adding, + = sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
cosh B sinh 2 B
2
x y
(ii) Also from (1), = cosh B ; = sinh B
sin A cos A
x2 y2
Squaring and subtracting, - = cosh2 B – sinh2 B = 1
sin 2 A cos 2 A
or x2 cosec2 A – y2 sec2 A = 1.
Example 5. If x + iy = cosh (u + iv), show that
x2 y2
(i) + =1 (ii) x2 sec2 v – y2 cosec2 v = 1. (P.T.U., Jan. 2010)
cosh 2 u sinh 2 u
Sol. x + iy = cosh (u + iv)
= cos i(u + iv) [3 cosh θ = cos iθ]
= cos (iu – v) = cos iu cos v + sin iu sin v = cosh u cos v + i sinh u sin v
Equating real and imaginary parts, x = cosh u cos v ; y = sinh u sin v …(1)
x y
(i) From (1), = cos v, = sin v
cosh u sinh u
x2 y2
Squaring and adding, + = cos2 v + sin2 v = 1
cosh 2 u sinh 2 u
x y
(ii) From (1), = cosh u ; = sinh u
cos v sin v
Squaring and subtracting, x2 sec2 v – y2 cosec2 v = cosh2 u – sinh2 u = 1.
Example 6. If x + iy = tan (A + iB) ; prove that
(i) x2 + y2 + 2x cot 2A = 1
(ii) x2 + y2 – 2y coth 2B + 1 = 0
Sol. (i) x + iy = tan (A + iB)
Changing i into – i, we get x – iy = tan (A – iB)
Now tan 2A = tan [(A + iB) + (A – iB)]
tan (A + iB) + tan (A - iB) ( x + iy ) + ( x - iy ) 2x
= = =
1 - tan (A + iB) tan (A - iB) 1 - ( x + iy ) ( x - iy ) 1 - ( x 2 + y 2 )
1 2x
or = or 1 – (x2 + y2) = 2x cot 2A
cot 2A 1 - ( x2 + y2 )
or x2 + y2 + 2x cot 2A = 1
(ii) tan (2iB) = tan [(A + iB) – (A – iB)]
tan (A + iB) - tan (A - iB) ( x + iy ) - ( x - iy ) 2iy
= = =
1 + tan (A + iB) tan (A - iB) 1 + ( x + iy ) ( x - iy ) 1 + x 2 + y 2
2iy 1 2y
or i tanh 2B = or =
1 + x2 + y 2 coth 2B 1 + x 2 + y 2
or 1 + x2 + y2 = 2y coth 2B
Hence x2 + y2 – 2y coth 2B + 1 = 0.
np p 1 æ p aö
Example 7. If tan (θ + iφ) = cos α + i sin α = eiα, prove that θ = + and φ = log tan ç + ÷ .
2 4 2 è 4 2ø
(P.T.U., Dec. 2007)
Sol. tan (θ + iφ) = cos α + i sin α …(1)
Changing i into – i, we get
tan (θ – iφ) = cos α – i sin α …(2)
tan (q + if) + tan (q - if)
Now, tan 2θ = tan [(θ + iφ) + (θ – iφ)] =
1 - tan (q + i f) tan (q - i f)
(cos a + i sin a) + (cos a - i sin a )
=
1 - (cos a + i sin a) (cos a - i sin a)
2 cos a 2 cos a
= =
1 - (cos a - i sin a )
2 2 2
1 - (cos 2 a + sin 2 a )
2 cos a 2 cos a p
= = = • = tan
1-1 0 2
p
∴ 2θ = nπ + [3 tan θ = tan α ⇒ θ = nπ + α]
2
np p
or θ= +
2 4
Also tan 2iφ = tan [(θ + iφ) – (θ – iφ)]
tan (q + i f) - tan (q - if) (cos a + i sin a) - (cos a - i sin a)
= =
1 + tan (q + if) tan (q - if) 1 + (cos a + i sin a) (cos a - i sin a)
2i sin a 2i sin a
= = = i sin α
1 + (cos a + sin a )
2 2
1+1
i tanh 2φ = i sin α or tanh 2φ = sin α
e 2 f - e -2 f sin a e 2 f + e -2 f 1
or 2f -2 f
= or 2f -2 f
=
e +e 1 e -e sin a
By componendo and dividendo
2e 2f 1 + sin a 1 + sin a
-2f
= or e4φ =
2e 1 - sin a 1 - sin a
2
a a a a é a aù
+ sin 2 + 2 cos
cos 2 sin cos + sin ú
e4φ = 2 2 2 2 =ê 2 2
or ê a úú
2 a 2 a a a ê a
cos + sin - 2 cos sin cos - sin
2 2 2 2 êë 2 2 ûú
a a a
+ sin
cos 1 + tan
or e2φ = 2 2 = 2 = tan æ p + a ö
a a a çè 4 2 ÷ø
cos - sin 1 - tan
2 2 2
æ p aö æ p aö
Taking logarithms of both sides log e2φ = log tan ç + ÷ or 2φ = log tan ç + ÷
è 4 2ø è 4 2ø
1 æ p aö
∴ log tan ç + ÷ .
φ=
2 è 4 2ø
Example 8. Separate into real and imaginary parts log sin (x + iy).
Sol. Log sin (x + iy) = log (sin x cos iy + cos x sin iy)
= log (sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y)
= log (α + iβ), where α = sin x cosh y, β = cos x sinh y
1 b
= log (α2 + β2) + i tan–1
2 a
1 æ cos x sinh y ö
= log (sin2 x cosh2 y + cos2 x sinh2 y) + i tan–1 ç
2 è sin x cosh y ÷ø
1 é1 - cos 2 x cosh 2 y + 1 1 + cos 2 x cosh 2 y - 1ù
= log ê . + . ú + i tan (cot x tanh y)
–1
2 ë 2 2 2 2 û
1 é1 ù
= log ê (2 cosh 2 y - 2 cos 2 x)ú + i tan–1 (cot x tanh y)
2 ë4 û
1 é1 ù
= log ê (cosh 2 y - cos 2x )ú + i tan–1 (cot x tanh y).
2 ë 2 û
ip
Example 9. (a) Find all values of z such that sinh z = e 3
(b) Find all the roots of sinh z = i. (P.T.U., May 2003)
(c) Find all values of z such that 2 sin z = cosh β + i sinh β ; β real.
Sol. (a) Let z = x + iy
ip
sinh (x + iy) = e 3
p p 1 3
sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y = cos + i sin = +i
3 3 2 2
Equating real and imaginary parts,
1 1
sinh x cos y = ⇒ sinh x = …(1)
2 2 cos y
3 3
cosh x sin y = ⇒ cosh x = …(2)
2 2 sin y
Squaring and subtracting (1) from (2),
3 1
cosh2 x – sinh2 x = -
4 sin 2 y 4 cos 2 y
3 1 1
1= . 2 -
4 sin y 4 cos 2 y
or 4 sin2 y cos 2 y = 3 cos2 y – sin2 y
4 sin2 y – 4 sin4 y = 3 – 4 sin2 y
4 sin4 y – 8 sin2 y + 3 = 0
8 ± 64 - 48 8 ± 4
sin2 y = =
8 8
12 3 4 1
sin2 y = = ; sin2 y = =
8 2 8 2
3
sin2 y = is impossible 3 for real y ; sin2 y ≤ 1
2
1 1
∴ sin2 y = ∴ sin y = ±
2 2
1
sin y ≠ –
2
3 If sin y is –ve, then from (2) cosh x is also –ve which is impossible
1 p
∴ sin y = = sin
2 4
p
∴ general value of y = nπ + (– 1)n
4
p 1
Then y = nπ + , cos y is +ve 3 when n is even cos (nπ + θ) = cos θ and cos y =
4 2
From (1) and (2)
1 æ 1 1 ö 3 +1
1 = log ç + + 1÷ = log
sinh x = ∴ x = sinh–1
2 2 è 2 2 ø 2
3 3 3 æ 3 3 ö 3 +1
cosh x = = ∴ x = cosh–1 = log ç + - 1÷ = log
2.
1 2 2 è 2 2 ø 2
2
3 +1 æ pö
∴ z = x + iy = log + i ç np + ÷
2 è 4ø
π
Case II. If n is odd, y = nπ –
, cos y is –ve 3 if n is odd. ∴ cos (nπ – θ) = – cos θ and
4
æ pö p 1
cos y = cos ç np - ÷ = – cos =–
è 4 ø 4 2
1 3
From (1) and (2) sinh x = – , cosh x =
2 2
æ 1 ö æ 1 1 ö 3 -1
∴ x = sinh–1 ç -
è ÷ = log ç- + + 1÷ = log
2ø è 2 2 ø 2
3 -1 æ pö
∴ z = x + iy = log + i ç np - ÷ .
2 è 4ø
(b) sinh z = i
1
sin iz = i or sin iz = i2 = – 1
i
or sin i(x + iy) = – 1 or sin (ix – y) = – 1
sin ix cos y – cos ix sin y = – 1
or i sinh x cos y – cosh x sin y = – 1
Comparing real and imaginary parts
sinh x cos y = 0 ...(1)
cosh x sin y = 1 ...(2)
From (1) either sinh x = 0 or cos y = 0
i.e., x= 0
Substitute in (2), we get
p p
sin y = 1 = sin ∴ y = 2nπ ±
2 2
n p p
i.e., y = nπ + (– 1) But y π 2nπ –
2 2
p p
y = nπ + 3 If y = 2nπ – then from (2) cosh x = – 1
2 2
which is impossible
æ pö æ 2n + 1 ö
∴ z = 0 + i ç np + ÷ = i ç p÷
è 2ø è 2 ø
Case II. If n is odd
p p
y = nπ – ∴ y = 2nπ +
2 2
æ pö
∴ z = i ç np - ÷ ∴ From (2) cosh x = 1
è 2ø
æ 2n - 1 ö
= iç p÷ ∴ x= 0
è 2 ø
æ pö æ pö
∴ z = i ç 2np + ÷ = i ç mp + ÷ , where m is even
è 2ø è 2ø
which is same as in case I.
2n + 1
Hence, z= i π if n is even
2
2n - 1
=i π if n is odd.
2
(c) 2 sin z = cosh β + i sinh β
1 1
sin z = cosh β + sinh β {3 cos iβ = cosh β, sin i β = i sinh β}
2 2
p p
= sin cos i β + cos sin i β
4 4
æp ö
= sin ç + i b÷
è4 ø
æp ö
∴ z = nπ + (– 1)n ç + i b÷
è4 ø
é pù
= ên p + (- 1)n ú + iβ (– 1)n ; n ∈ I.
ë 4û
sin 2x tan u
Example 10. If tan (x + iy) = sin (u + i v) prove that = . (P.T.U., Dec. 2003)
sinh 2y tanh v
Sol. tan (x + i y) = sin (u + i v) = sin u cosh v + i cos u sinh v
Change i to – i
tan (x – i y) = sin u cosh v – i cos u sinh v
Adding tan (x + i y) + tan (x – i y) = 2 sin u cosh v
Subtracting tan (x + i y) – tan (x – i y) = 2 i cos u sinh v
tan ( x + i y ) + tan ( x - i y ) tan u
Dividing the two =
tan ( x + i y ) - tan ( x - i y ) i tanh v
sin ( x + i y ) sin ( x - i y )
+
cos ( x + i y ) cos ( x - i y ) 1 tan u
=
sin ( x + i y ) sin ( x - i y ) i tanh v
-
cos ( x + i y ) cos ( x - i y )
sin ( x + i y + x - i y ) 1 tan u sin (2 x ) 1 tan u

or = or =
sin ( x + i y - x + i y ) i tan v sin (2i y ) i tanh v
sin 2 x 1 tan u sin 2 x tan u
or = or =
i sinh 2 y i tanh v sinh 2 y tanh v
6.16. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS
As for a real variable x, we define inverse sine function as y = sin–1 x when x = sin y
Similarly we define inverse sine function for a complex variable z as
ω = sin–1 z when z = sin ω
eiw - e - iw
Now, z = sin ω = (by def. of sin w)
2i
or 2iz = eiω – e–iω
1
Solve for eiω 2iz = eiω –
eiw
or (2iz) eiω = ei2ω – 1
or e2iω – (2iz) eiω – 1 = 0
2iz ± 4i 2 z 2 + 4
∴ eiω = = iz ± 1 - z2
2
∴ iω = log (iz ± 1 - z 2 )
é only + ve sign is taken 3 ± 1 - z 2 is ù
iω = log (iz + 1 - z 2 ) ê ú
ê - 2ú
ë covered by double value function 1 z û
1
∴ ω= log (iz + 1 - z 2 )
i
∴ ω = sin–1 z = – i log (iz + 1 - z 2 )
sin–1 z is defined for all values of z except
iz + 1 - z 2 = 0 i.e., iz = – 1 − z 2
or (iz)2 = 1 – z2 or – z2 = 1 – z2 or 0=1, which is impossible
∴ sin–1 z = – i log (iz + 1 – z2 )

Similarly other complex inverse functions are defined by the following :
cos–1 z = – i log (z + 1 – z2 )
i 1 + iz i i+z
tan–1 z = - log = log ;z≠ ±i
2 1 - iz 2 i-z
æ i + z2 - 1 ö
1
cosec–1 z = sin–1 = – i log ç ÷ ; z≠ 0
z çè z ÷ø
1 æ 1 + 1 - z2 ö
sec–1 z = cos–1 = – i log ç ÷ ;z≠ 0
z çè z ÷ø
1 i z +i
cot–1 z = tan–1
= - log ,z≠ ± i
z 2 z -i
We will give proofs of tan–1 z and cosec–1 z
Remaining three i.e., cos–1 z, sec–1 z, cot–1 z students can easily prove themselves
sin w
Let tan–1 z = ω ∴ z = tan ω =
cos w
eiw - e - iw iz eiw - e - iw
z= or = .
i (eiw + e - iw ) 1 eiw + e - iw
Apply componendo-dividendo
1 + iz 2eiw
= = e2iω
1 - iz 2e - iw
Taking log of both sides
1 + iz
∴ 2iω = log
1 - iz
1 1 + iz - i 1 + iz
∴ ω= log = log | When iz ≠ 1 or z ≠ – i
2i 1 - iz 2 1 - iz
-i i (-i + z ) i i-z i i+z
or ω= log = – log = log , where z ≠ i
2 i (- i - z ) 2 i+z 2 i-z
i 1 + iz i i+z
Hence, tan–1 z = – log or log , z≠ ± i
2 1 - iz 2 i-z
i + z2 - 1
To prove cosec–1 z = – i log , z≠ 0
z
1
Let cosec–1 z = ω ∴ z = cosec w =
sin w
1 2i
∴ z= iw - iw
or z= iw
e -e e - e - iw
2i
or zeiω – ze–iω – 2i = 0 Multiply by eiω
or zei2ω – z – 2i eiω = 0 or ze2(iw) – 2i e(iw) – z = 0
2i ± 4i 2 + 4 z 2 i ± z2 - 1
Solve for eiω ; eiω = , z≠ 0 or eiw =
2z z
i + z2 - 1
Taking +ve sign eiω =
z
Taking log of both sides,
i + z2 - 1
iω = log , z≠ 0
z
1 i + z2 - 1
∴ ω= log
i z
i + z2 - 1
or ω = – i log , z ≠ 0. Proved.
z
6.17. INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTION

For a complex variable z:

(a) To prove sinh–1 z = log z + z 2 + 1
Let sinh–1 z = ω ∴ z = sinh ω
w -w
e -e 1
∴ z= or 2z = eω –
2 ew
or e2ω – 2zeω – 1 = 0
2z ± 4z 2 + 4
Solve for eω eω = =z+ z2 + 1 (Taking +ve sign only)
2
∴ ω = log (z + z2 + 1 ) or sinh–1 z = log (z + z2 + 1 )
(b) To prove cosh–1 z = log (z + z2 - 1 )

Let cosh–1 z = ω ∴ z = cosh ω
w -w
e +e 1
∴ z= or 2z = eω+
2 ew
or e2ω – 2z eω+ 1 = 0
2z ± 4z 2 - 4
Solve for eω, eω = = z + z2 - 1 (Taking +ve sign only)
2
∴ ω = log (z + z2 - 1 )
or cosh–1 z = log (z + z 2 - 1 ).
1 1+ z
(c) To prove tanh–1 z = log ;z≠ ± 1
2 1- z
ew - e -w
Let tanh–1 z = ω ∴ z = tanh ω =
ew + e -w
z ew - e -w
∴ = w
1 e + e -w
Apply componendo-dividendo.
1+ z 2e w
= = e2ω
1- z 2e -w
1+ z 1+ z
∴ e2ω = or 2w = log , where z ≠ 1
1- z 1- z
1 1+ z
∴ w= log , z≠ 1
2 1- z
1 1- z
We can also be put in the form – log , where z ≠ – 1
2 1+ z
1 1+ z
∴ w= log , where z ≠ ±1
2 1- z
1 1+ z
∴ tanh–1 z =
log , where z ≠ ± 1
2 1- z
Readers can easily prove the remaining inverse hyperbolic functions
1 1 + 1 + z2
i.e., cosech–1 z = sinh–1 = log ;z≠ 0
z z
1 1 + 1 - z2
sech–1 z = cosh–1 = log ;z≠ 0
z z
1 1 z +1
coth–1 z = tanh–1 = log ; z ≠ ± 1.
z 2 z -1
Example 11. Separate into real and imaginary parts
(i) tan–1 (x + iy). (P.T.U., May 2006)
(ii) cos–1 (eiθ ) ; θ is an acute angle (P.T.U., May 2002, 2003, Dec. 2010)
Sol. (i) Let tan–1 (x + iy) = u + iv …(1)
then tan–1 (x – iy) = u – iv …(2)
Adding (1) and (2), we have
( x + iy ) + ( x - iy ) 2x
2u = tan–1 (x + iy) + tan–1 (x – iy) = tan–1 = tan–1
1 - ( x + iy) ( x - iy ) 1 - x2 - y 2
1 2x
∴ Real part u= tan–1
2 1 - x2 - y 2
Subtracting (2) from (1), we have
2iv = tan–1 (x + iy) – tan–1 (x – iy)
( x + iy ) - ( x - iy ) 2iy
= tan–1 = tan–1
1 + ( x + iy ) ( x - iy ) 1 + x2 + y2
2iy 2iy
⇒ tan 2iv = ⇒ i tanh 2v =
1+ x + y
2 2
1 + x2 + y2
1 2y
⇒ Imaginary part v= tanh–1 .
2 1 + x2 + y 2
1 2x i 2y
Hence, tan–1 (x + iy) = tan -1 + tan -1
2 1 - x2 - y 2 2 1 + x2 + y 2
(ii) Let cos–1 (eiθ) = x + iy

eiθ = cos (x + iy) = cos x cosh y – i sin x sinh y
∴ cos θ + i sin θ = cos x cosh y – i sin x sinh y
Comparing real and imaginary parts, we get
cos x cosh y = cos θ …(1)
sin x sinh y = – sin θ …(2)
Squaring and adding cos2 x cosh2 y+ sin2 x sinh2 y=1
(1 – sin2 x) cosh2 y+ sin2 x sinh2 y= 1
or cosh2 y– sin2 x (cosh2 y– sinh2 y) = 1
or 1+ sinh2 y – sin2 x= 1 ∴ sin2 x = sinh2 y …(3)
Squaring (2), we get sin2 x sinh2 y= sin2 θ
sin2 x. sin2 x= sin2 θ [From (3)]
(sin2 x)2 = sin2 θ ∴ sin2 x = sin θ [+ve sign only 3 θ is acute]
∴ sin x = sin q ∴ x = sin–1 ( sin q )
From (2) sin x sinh y = – sin θ
sin q sinh y = – sin θ ∴ sinh y = – sin q ∴ y = sinh–1 (– sin q )
∴ y = log [– sin θ + 1 + sin q ] = log [ 1 + sin q – sin q ]
∴ real part = sin–1 ( sin q )
Imaginary part = log [ 1 + sin q - sin q ].
Hence cos–1 (eiθ) = sin–1 ( sin q ) + i log ( 1 + sin q - sin q ) .

Example 12. If sin–1 (u + iv) = α + iβ, prove that sin2 α and cosh2 β are the roots of the equation
x2 – (1 + u2 + v2) x + u2 = 0. (P.T.U., May 2004)
Sol. sin–1 (u + iv) = α + iβ
u + iv = sin (α + iβ) = sin α cos (iβ) + cos α sin (iβ) = sin α cosh β + i cos α sinh β
Comparing real and imaginary parts,
sin α cosh β = u …(1)
cos α sinh β = v …(2)
1 + u2 + v2 = 1 + sin2 α cosh2 β + cos2 α sinh2 β
= 1 + sin2 α cosh2 β + (1 – sin2 α) (cosh2 β – 1)
= 1 + sin2 α cosh2 β + cosh2 β – 1 – sin2 α cosh2 β + sin2 α
= cosh2 β + sin2 α …(3)
Equation whose roots are sin2 α, cosh2 β is
x2 – x (sin2 α + cosh2 β) + sin2 α cosh2 β = 0 [Using x2 – 5x + P = 0]
or x2 – x(1 + u2 + v2) + u2 = 0 | 3 of (1) and (3)
Hence sin α, cosh β are the roots of
2 2
x2 – x(1 + u2 + v2) + u2 = 0.
Example 13. Find all the values of sin–1 2 treating 2 as a complex number. (P.T.U., Dec. 2004)
Sol. We have
sin–1 z = – i log (iz + 1 - z 2 )
For z = 2 ; sin–1 2 = – i log (2i + 1 - 4 )
∴ sin–1 2 = – i log (2i + 3i ) = – i log (2 + 3 )i = – i {log (2 + 3 ) + log i}

We know that
log i = log | i | + i [2nπ + arg i], where n is an integer
é pù é 1ù
= log 1 + i ê 2np + ú = i ê2n + π
ë 2 û ë 2 úû
ì 4n + 1 ü
∴ sin–1 2 = – i ílog (2 + 3) + pi ý
î 2 þ
4n + 1 2
= – i log (2 + 3)– πi
2
4n + 1
= – i cosh–1 2 + π | 3 cosh–1 2 = log [2 + 22 - 1 ] = log (2 + 3)
2
by def.
4n + 1
Hence sin–1 2 = p – i cosh–1 2.
2
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. Prove that
(i) (cosh x + sinh x)n = cosh nx + sinh nx ; n being a positive integer.
3
æ 1 + tanh x ö
(ii) ç = cosh 6x + sinh 6x.
è 1 - tanh x ÷ø
1
2. If y = log tan x, show that sinh ny = (tann x – cotn x).
2
3. If tan y = tan α tanh β and tan z = cot α tanh β, prove that tan (y + z) = sinh 2β cosec 2α.
sin 2q cosh 2 x + cos 2 y
4. If tan θ = tanh x cot y and tan φ = tanh x tan y, prove that = .
sin 2f cosh 2 x - cos 2 y
5. If c cosh (θ + iφ) = x + iy, prove that
(i) x2 sech2 θ + y2 cosech2 θ = c2 (ii) x2 sec2 φ – y2 cosec2 φ = c2.
A sin 2 x
6. If tan (x + iy) = A + iB, show that = .
B sinh 2 y
7. If sin (θ + iφ) = ρ(cos α + i sin α), prove that
1
(i) ρ 2 = (cosh 2φ – cos 2θ) (ii) tan α = tanh φ cot θ.
2
8. If sin (θ + iφ) = cos α + i sin α, prove that cos2 θ = ± sin α.
9. If cos (θ + iφ) = cos α + i sin α, prove that
(i) sin2 θ = ± sin α (ii) cos 2θ + cosh 2φ = 2.
10. If sin (θ + iφ) = tan α + i sec α, show that cos 2θ cosh 2φ = 3.
sin (q - a)
11. If cos (θ + iφ) = R(cos α + i sin α), prove that e2φ = .
sin (q + a)
α æ 1ö
12. If tan (θ + iφ) = tan α + i sec α, show that e2φ = ± cot and 2θ = çè n + 2 ÷ø π + α.
2
u + i v sin u + i sinh v
13. Prove that: tan = .
2 cos u + cosh v
14. If tan (x + iy) = cosh (α + iβ), prove that tanh α tan β = cosec 2x sinh 2y.
2CA
15. If C tan (x + iy) = A + iB, prove that tan 2x = 2 .
C - A 2 - B2
xæ nx nx ö
16. Prove that (1 + cosh x + sinh x)n= 2n coshn ç cos + sinh ÷ .
2 è 2 2ø
17. If cosh x = sec θ, prove that
x q æ p qö
(i) tanh2 = tan2 (ii) x = log tan ç + ÷ .
2 2 è 4 2ø
x u
18. If tan = tanh , prove that
2 2
æ p xö
(i) cos x cosh u = 1 (ii) tan x = sinh u (iii) u = log tan ç + ÷ .
è 4 4ø
[Hint: see S.E. 3 (i), (ii), (iv) parts].
4x
19. If x = 2 cos α cosh β, y = 2 sin α sinh β, prove that sec (α + iβ) + sec (α – iβ) = .
x2 + y2
x2 y2
20. If sin [log (A + iB)] = x + iy, show that - = 1, where A2 + B2 = e2u.
sin u cos2 u
2
21. Separate into real and imaginary parts :

(i) ecosh (x + iy) (ii) sin2 (x + iy) (iii) log cos (x + iy).
cosh y - cos x
2 2
22. If tan (x + iy) = θ + iφ, prove that θ 2 + φ2 = .
cosh 2 y - sin 2 x
23. If x + iy = cos (u + iv), show that
(i) (1 + x)2 + y2 = (cosh v + cos u)2 (ii) (1 – x)2 + y2 = (cosh v – cos u)2.
24. If cos (u + iv) = α + iβ, prove that cos α and cosh2 β are the roots of the equation
–1 2
x2 – (1 + u2 + v2) x + u2 = 0.
np p i æ p qö
25. Prove that (i) tan–1 (eiθ ) = + - log tan ç - ÷ .
2 4 2 è 4 2ø
p
(ii) sin–1 (cos θ + i sin θ) = cos–1 ( sin q ) + i log ( sin q + 1 + sin q ) ; 0 < q <
2
(P.T.U., Dec. 2006, 2012, May 2014)
[Hint: sin–1 (cos θ + i sin θ) = sin–1 (eiθ ) ; consult S.E. 11(ii)]
26. Find tanh x if 5 sinh x – cosh x = 5.
[Hint: Divide both sides by cosh x, square, replace sech2 x by (1 – tanh2 x) and solve for tanh x]
27. If cos–1 (x + iy) = α + iβ, show that
(i) x2 sec2 α – y2 cosec2 α = 1 (ii) x2 sech2 β + y2 cosech2 β = 1.
ANSWERS
21. (i) ecosh x cos y
[cos (sinh x sin y) + i sin (sinh x sin y)]
1
(ii) [(1 – cos 2x cosh 2y) + i sin 2x sinh 2y]
2
1 é1 ù
(iii) log ê (cos 2 x + cosh 2 y )] - i tan -1 (tan x tanh y )ú .
2 ë2 û
4 3
26. ,– .
5 5
6.18. C +iS METHOD OF SUMMATION
This method can be applied in finding out the sums of the series of the form
a0 cos α + a1 cos (α + β) + a2 cos (α + 2β) + ......
and a0 sin α + a1 sin (α + β) + a2 sin (α + 2β) + ......
only when the sum of the series a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ...... is known. The above series may be finite or infinite.
Method. Let C = a0 cos α + a1 cos (α + β) + a2 cos (α + 2β) + ......
and S = a0 sin α + a1 sin (α + β) + a2 sin (α + 2β) + ......
If we want to find the sum of the sine series, the series of cosines is called the companion or auxiliary
series. In case, the sum of the cosine series is required, the series of sines is called the companion or auxiliary
series.
Multiplying the series of sines by i and adding to the sum of cosines, we get the series of complex numbers as
C + iS = a0 (cos α + i sin α) + a1 [cos (α + β) + i sin (α + β)] + a2 [cos (α + 2β) + i sin (α + 2β)] + ...
= a0 eiα + a1ei(α + β) + a2ei(α + 2β) + ...... [3 cos θ + i sin θ = eiθ]
iα iβ i2β
= e [a0 + a1 e + a2 e + ......]
= eiα [a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ......], where x = eiβ
= eiα . f(x)
The series represented by f(x) can be summed up if it is in any one of the following forms :
(i) series in G.P. or its modification.
(ii) Binomial series or one which can be reduced to it.
(iii) exponential series, i.e., depending on the expansion of ex or e–x
(iv) series which take the form of the expansions of either sin x, cos x, cosh x or sinh x.
(v) logarithmic series depending on the expansion of log (1 + x) or log (1 – x).
(vi) Gregory’s series.
The sum so obtained can be expressed in the form X + iY, where X and Y are real. Equating the real and
imaginary parts, we get C and S.
The following results will be frequently used:
1. Sum to n terms of an A.P.
n
a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + ...... + [a + (n – 1)d] = [2a + (n – 1)d].
2
a(1 - r n )
2. Sum to n terms of a G.P. a + ar + ar2 + ...... + arn–1 =
1- r
a
Sum to infinity of a G.P. (when r < 1 numerically) = .
1- r
3. eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ 4. e–iθ = cos θ – i sin θ
x 2 x3 x 2 x3
5. ex = 1 + x + + + ...... • 6. e–x = 1 – x + - + ...... •
2! 3! 2! 3!
x3 x5 x2 x4
7. sin x = x – + – ...... • 8. cos x = 1 – + – ...... •
3! 5! 2! 4!
x3 x5 x2 x4
9. sinh x = x + + + ...... • 10. cosh x = 1 + + + ...... •
3! 5 ! 2! 4!
x 2 x3 x 4 æ x 2 x3 x 4 ö
11. log (1 + x) = x – + - + ...... • 12. log (1 – x) = – ç x + + + + ...... ¥÷
2 3 4 è 2 3 4 ø
x3 x5 x 7
13. tan–1 x = x – + - + ...... •
3 5 7
x3 x5 x 7 1 1+ x
14. tanh–1 x = x + + + + ...... • = log
3 5 7 2 1- x
n( n - 1) 2 n( n - 1) ( n - 2) 3
15. (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ...... + xn when n is a +ve integer.
2! 3!
n( n - 1) 2 n( n - 1) ( n - 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ...... • when n is a negative integer or a fraction and | x | < 1
2! 3!
n( n + 1) 2 n( n + 1) ( n + 2) 3
(1 + x)–n = 1 – nx + x – x + ......
2! 3!
n( n + 1) 2 n( n + 1) ( n + 2) 3
(1 – x)–n = 1 + nx + x + x + ......
2! 3!
(1 – x)–1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ......
Note. The students should bear in mind that in forming auxiliary series, sines or cosines of multiple angles (i.e.,
of the form sin nθ, cos nθ) should be replaced by cosines or sines respectively whereas sines or cosines with powers, if
any, will remain the same.
1. Series depending on expansion of ex, e–x
cos a cos 2a cos 3a
Example 1. Sum the following series 1 + + + + ...... •.
cos a 2 ! cos 2 a 3 ! cos 3 a
cos a cos 2a cos 3a
Sol. Let C= 1 + + + + ...... •
cos a 2 ! cos a 3 ! cos3 a
2
sin a sin 2a sin 3a

∴ S= 0+ + + + ...... • (See Note above)
cos a 2 ! cos 2 a 3 ! cos3 a
1 1
∴ C + iS = 1 + (cos α + i sin α) + × (cos 2α + i sin 2α)
cos a 2 ! cos 2 a
1
+ (cos 3α + i sin 3α) + ...... •
3 ! cos3 a
1 1 1
= 1+ . eiα + e2iα + e3iα + ...... • [3 cos θ + i sin θ = eiθ]
cos a 2 ! cos a
2
3 ! cos3 a
1 1
= 1 + sec α eiα + sec2 α . e2iα + sec3 α . e3iα + ...... •
2! 3!
1 1
= 1 + (sec α . eiα) + (sec α . eiα)2 + (sec α . eiα)3 + ...... •
2! 3!
z2 z3
= 1+z+ + + ....... •, where z = sec α . eiα
2 ! 3!
iα sec α (cos α + i sin α )
sec α . e
= ez = e =e
= e1 + i tan α = e . ei . tan α = e [cos (tan α) + i sin (tan α)] [3 eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ]
Equating real parts, we get C = e cos (tan α).
Example 2. Sum to infinity
x2
(i) sin α + x sin (α + β) + sin (α + 2β) + .....
2!
x2
(ii) cos α + x cos (α + β) + cos (α + 2β) + ......
2!
x 2 cos 2q x 3 cos 3q
(iii) 1 + x cos θ + + + ...... (P.T.U., Dec. 2003)
2! 3!
sin2 q
(iv) cos θ + sin θ cos 2θ + cos 3θ + ...... (P.T.U., Dec. 2002)
1.2
x2
Sol. Let S = sin α + x sin (α + β) + sin (α + 2β) + .....
2!
x2
and C = cos α + x cos (α + β) + cos (α + 2β) + ......
2!
x2
∴ C + iS = (cos α + i sin α) + x [cos (α + β) + i sin (α + β)] + [cos (α + 2β) + i sin (α + 2β)] + .....
2!
x 2 i( α + 2β) é ib x 2 2ib ù
= eiα + xei(α + β) + e + ....... = eiα ê1 + x . e + e + ......ú
2! êë 2! úû
é z2 ù
= eiα ê1 + z + + ..........ú , where z = xeiβ
ëê 2! ûú
iβ
= eiα . ez = eiα . e xe = eiα . ex (cos β + i sin β)
= eiα + x cos β + ix sin β = ex cos β . ei(α + x sin β)
= ex cos β[cos (α + x sin β) + i sin (α + x sin β)]
Equating imaginary parts S = ex cos β . sin (α + x sin β) …(1)
Equating real parts C = ee cos β . cos (α + x sin β).
(i) and (ii) parts are proved.
(iii) Let C = 1 + x cos θ + + + ...... •
2! 3!
x 2 sin 2q x3 sin 3q
S = x sin θ + + + ...... •
2! 3!
x2 x3
C + iS = 1 + x (cos θ + i sin θ) + (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) + (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ) + .....
2! 3!
x 2 i2θ x 3 i3θ
= 1 + x eiθ + e + e + ..... •
2! 3!
t 2 t3
= 1+t+ + + ..... •, where xeiθ = t
2! 3!
iθ
= et = e xe = ex(cos θ + i sin θ) = ex cos θ . eix sin θ
= ex cos θ [cos (x sin θ) + i sin (x sin θ)]
Equating real part, we get C = ex cos θ cos (x sin θ).
sin 2 q cos 3q
(iv) Let C = cos θ + sin θ cos 2θ + + ..... •
1× 2
sin 2 q sin 3q
S = sin θ + sin θ sin 2θ + + ...... • (See Note art. 6.18)
1× 2
sin 2 q
C + iS = (cos θ + i sin θ) + sin θ (cos 2θ + i sin θ) + (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ) + ..... ∞
2!
sin 2 q i 3θ
= eiθ + sin θ . ei 2θ + e + ...... •
2!
é sin 2 q ei 2q ù
= eiθ ê1 + sin q eiq + + ....... ¥ ú
êë 2! úû
æ t2 ö
= eiθ ç 1 + t + + ...... ¥÷ , where t = sin θeiθ
è 2! ø
iθ
= eiθ . et = e iθ + sin θ e
2
sin θ cos θ
. e i (θ + sin θ)
2
sin θ cos θ + i (θ + sin θ )
= eiθ + sin θ (cos θ + i sin θ) = e =e
= esin θ cos θ [cos (θ + sin2 θ) + i sin (θ + sin2 θ)]
Comparing real parts on both sides
C = esin θ cos θ cos (θ + sin2 θ).
2. Series depending on expansion of sin x, cos x and sinh x, cosh x
sin ( a + 2b ) sin ( a + 4b )
Example 3. Sum the series sin α – + – ..... • . (P.T.U., May 2004)
2! 4!
sin (a + 2b) sin (a + 4b)
Sol. Let S = sin α – + – ......
2! 4!
cos (a + 2b) cos (a + 4b)

C = cos α – + – .....
2! 4!
1
∴ C + iS = (cos α + i sin α) – [cos (α + 2β) + i sin (α + 2β)]
2!
1
+ [cos (α + 4β) + i sin (α + 4β)] – .......
4!
1 α + 2β) + 1
= eiα – . ei( . ei(α + 4β) .....
2! 4!
é e2 ib e4 ib ù é x2 x4 ù
= eiα ê1 - + - .........ú = eiα ê1 - + - .........ú , where x = eiβ
ëê 2! 4! ûú ëê 2! 4! ûú
iα
= e . cos x = (cos α + i sin α) . cos (e ) iβ
= (cos α + i sin α) cos (cos β + i sin β)

= (cos α + i sin α)[cos (cos β) cos (i sin β) – sin (cos β) sin (i sin β)]
[3 cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B]
= (cos α + i sin α)[cos (cos β) cosh (sin β) – sin (cos β) . i sinh (sin β)]
= [cos α cos (cos β) cosh (sin β) + sin α sin (cos β) sinh (sin β)]
+ i[sin α cos (cos β) cosh (sin β) – cos α sin (cos β) sinh (sin β)]
Equating imaginary parts
S = sin α cos (cos β) cosh (sin β) – cos α sin (cos β) sinh (sin β).
x 2 cos 2θ x 4 cos 4θ
Example 4. Find the sum to infinity of the following series 1 + + + .....
2! 4!
Sol. Let C= 1+ + + ..... ;
2! 4!
x 2 sin 2q x 4 sin 4q
S= + + ......
2! 4!
x2 x4
C + iS = 1 + (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) + (cos 4θ + i sin 4θ) + ......
2! 4!
x 2 2iθ x 4 4iθ y2 y4
= 1+ e + . e + ..... = 1 + + + ....., where y = xeiθ
2! 4! 2! 4!
= cosh y = cosh (xeiθ) = cosh [x (cos θ + i sin θ)]
= cos i [x (cos θ + i sin θ)] = cos [i x cos θ – x sin θ]
= cos (i x cos θ) cos (x sin θ) + sin (i x cos θ) sin (x sin θ)
= cosh (x cos θ) cos (x sin θ) + i sinh (x cos θ) sin (x sin θ)
Equating real parts C = cosh (x cos θ) cos (x sin θ).
3. Series depending upon Binomial Series
1 1.3 1.3 .5
Example 5. Sum the series 1 – cos θ + cos 2θ – cos 3θ + ..... •.
2 2 .4 2 .4 .6
(P.T.U., Dec. 2011, May 2012)
1 1× 3 1× 3× 5
Sol. Let C= 1 – cos θ + cos 2θ – cos 3θ + .....
2 2× 4 2× 4× 6
1 1× 3 1× 3 × 5
S= – sin θ + sin 2θ – sin 3θ + .......
2 2× 4 2× 4× 6
1 1× 3 1× 3× 5
∴ C + iS = 1 – (cos θ + i sin θ) + (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) – (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ) + .....
2 2× 4 2× 4× 6
1 iθ 1 × 3 1 × 3 × 5 3iθ
=1– e + . e2iθ – e + .....
2 2× 4 2× 4× 6
1 1× 3 2 1 × 3 × 5 3
=1– x+ x – x + ........, where x = eiθ
2 2× 4 2× 4× 6
= (1 + x)–1/2 = (1 + eiθ)– 1/2 = (1 + cos θ + i sin θ )– 1/2
æ q q q ö -1/2 æ q ö -1/2 æ q q ö -1/2
= ç 2 cos 2 + i × 2 sin cos ÷ = ç 2 cos ÷ø ´ ç cos + i sin ÷
è 2 2 2ø è 2 è 2 2ø
æ q ö -1/2 æ q qö
= ç 2 cos
è ÷ø çè cos - i sin ÷ [De-Moivre’s Theorem.]
2 4 4ø
q
cos
Equating real parts, C = 4 .
q
2 cos
2
n(n + 1) n(n + 1) (n + 2)
Example 6. Sum the following series n sin α + sin 2α + sin 3α + ....... •.
1.2 1.2 .3
(P.T.U., Dec. 2004, 2013)
n(n + 1) n(n + 1) (n + 2)
Sol. Let S = n sin α + sin 2α + sin 3α + ........ •
1× 2 1× 2 × 3
n(n + 1) n(n + 1) (n + 2)
Let C = 1 + n cos α + cos 2α + cos 3α + ....... •
1× 2 1× 2 × 3
n(n + 1) i2α n(n + 1) (n + 2) i3α
C + iS = 1 + n eiα + e + e + ...... •
1. 2 1. 2 . 3
1 (1 − e − i α ) n
= (1 – eiα)–n = iα n
×
(1 − e ) (1 − e − i α ) n
[1 - (cos a - i sin a )]n [(1 - cos a ) + i sin a ]n
= =
(1 - eia - e - ia + 1)n (2 - 2 cos a )n
[2 sin 2 a/2 + 2i sin a/2 cos a/2]n
=
2n (2 sin 2 a/2)n
2n . sin n a/2 [sin a/2 + i cos a/2]n
=
(2n sin n a/2) (2 sin a/2)n
n
écos (p/2 - a/2 ) + i sin ( p/2 - a/2) ùû
= ë
2 n sin n a/2
é1 æ p - aö æ n(p - a) ö ù
= n êcos n çè
n ÷ø + i sin çè ÷ø ú
2 sin a/2 ë 2 2 û
Comparing imaginary parts on both sides
n(p - a)
sin
S= n 2 .
2 sin n a/2
4. Series depending on G.P.
Example 7. Sum the series 1 + x cos α + x2 cos 2α + x3 cos 3α + .... to n terms where x is less than unity. Also
find the sum to infinity.
Sol. Let C = 1 + x cos α + x2 cos 2α + .... + xn–1 cos (n – 1) α
S = 0 + x sin α + x2 sin 2α + ...... + xn–1 sin (n–1)α
∴ C + iS = 1 + x(cos α + i sin α) + x2 (cos 2α + i sin 2α) + .....
...... + xn–1 [cos (n – 1)α + i sin (n – 1) α]
iα
= 1 + xe + x e + ...... + x . e
2 2iα n–1 i(n–1)α
= 1 + y + y2 + ...... + yn–1 , where y = xeiα

1 × (1 - y n ) 1 - xn enia 1 - xn × enia 1 - xe -ia
= = = ×
1- y 1 - xeia 1 - xeia 1 - xe -ia
1 - xe -ia - x n enia + xn + 1 × ei (n -1) a
=
1 - x(eia + e-ia ) + x 2 × eia × e-ia
1 - x(cos a - i sin a) - xn (cos na + i sin na) + x n+1[cos ( n - 1)a + i sin ( n - 1)a ]
=
1 - x × 2 cos a + x2
1 - x cos a - x n cos na + x n + 1 cos ( n - 1)a
Equating real parts C =
1 - 2 x cos a + x 2
3 x is numerically less than 1
∴ xn, xn+1 →0 as n →•,
1 - x (cos a - i sin a )
∴ For sum to infinity C + iS =
1 - 2 x cos a + x 2
1 - x cos a
Equating real parts, C= .
1 - 2 x cos a + x 2
Example 8. Solve the series : sin α + sin (α + β) + sin (α + 2β) + sin (α + 3β) + ... sin (α + n - 1 β)
(P.T.U., May 2008, Jan. 2010)
Sol. Let S = sin α + sin (α + β) + sin (α + 2β) + ... sin (α + n - 1 β)
C = cos α + cos (α + β) + cos (α + 2β) + ... cos (α + n - 1 β)

C + iS = (cos α + i sin α) + [cos (α + β) + i sin (α + β)] + [cos (α + 2β) + i sin (α + 2β)]
+ ... [cos (α + n - 1 β) + i sin (α + n - 1 β)]
= eiα + ei (α + β) + ei (α + 2β) + ... ei (a + n - 1b)
= eiα éë1 + eib + ei 2b + ... ei ( n - 1) b ùû
which is a G.P series with first term 1, common ratio eiβ and number of terms = n
1 (1 - einb ) é a (1 - r n ) ù
∴ C + iS = eia êUsing Sn = ú
1 - eib êë 1 - r úû
Multiply and divide by 1 – e–iβ
eia (1 - einb ) (1 - e - ib ) eia é1 - e - ib - einb + ei ( n - 1) b ù

C + iS = = ë û
(1 - eib ) (1 - e - ib ) 1 - eib - e- ib + 1
eia - ei (a - b ) - ei (a + nb ) + ei (a + n - 1 b )
=
2 - 2 cos b
cos a + i sin a - cos (a - b) - i sin (a - b) - cos (a + nb) - i sin (a + nb)
+ cos (a + n - 1b) + i sin (a + n - 1b)
=
4 sin 2 b /2
Comparing imaginary parts
sin a - sin (a - b) - sin (a + nb) + sin (a + n - 1b)
S=
4 sin 2 b /2
æ 2a - b ö b 2a + (2n - 1) b
2 cos ç sin - 2 cos sin b /2
è 2 ÷ø 2 2
=
4 sin 2 b /2
bé æ bö æ 2n - 1 ö ù
2 sin ê cos ç a - ÷ - cos ç a + b÷ ú
2ë è 2 ø è 2 øû
=
4 sin 2 b /2
æ n -1 ö n æ n -1 ö nb
2 sin ç a + b÷ sin b sin ç a + b÷ sin
è 2 ø 2 è 2 ø 2
= =
2 sin b /2 b
sin
2
5. Series depending upon the expansion of log (1 + x) or log (1 – x) or tan–1 x.
Example 9. Sum the series
1 1 1 1
(a) cos θ – 2
cos 2θ + 3
cos 3θ – ...... ∞(b) sin θ – 2
sin 2θ + 3
sin 3θ – ...... •
Sol. Let C = cos θ – 1

2
cos 2θ + 1
3
cos 3θ – ...... •
S = sin θ – 1
2
sin 2θ + 1
3
sin 3θ – ...... •
C + iS = (cos θ + i sin θ) – 1
2
(cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) + 1
3
(cos 3θ + i sin 3θ) – ..... •
x 2 x3
= eiθ – 1
2
e2iθ + 1
3
e3iθ – ...... • = x – + – ...... •, where x = eiθ
2 3
= log (1 + x) = log (1 + eiθ) = log (1 + cos θ + i sin θ)
1 sin q
= log [(1 + cos θ)2 + sin2 θ] + i sin–1
2 1 + cos q
é y ù
ê3 log ( x + iy ) =
1
log ( x 2 + y 2 ) + i tan -1 . Here x = 1 + cos q ; y = sin qú
ë
2
x û
q q
2 sin cos
1 2 2
= log [1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ + sin2 θ] + i tan–1
2 2 q
2 cos
2
1 æ qö
= log 2(1 + cos θ) + i tan–1 çè tan
2 2 ÷ø
1 æ qö θ æ qö q
= log ç 2 × 2 cos 2 ÷ + i = log çè 2 cos 2 ÷ø + i
2 è 2ø 2 2
æ qö q
C = log ç 2 cos ÷ ...(1) S= …(2)
è 2ø 2
1 1
Example 10. Sum the series sin α cos β – 2
sin2 α cos 2β + 3
sin3 α cos 3β – ..... • (P.T.U., May 2003)
Sol. Let C = sin α cos β – 1
2
sin2 α cos 2β + 1
3
sin3 α cos 3β – ......
S = sin α sin β – 1
2
sin2 α sin 2β + 1
3
sin3 α sin 3β – .......
C + iS = sin α . eiβ – 1
2
sin2 α . e2iβ + 1
3
sin3 α. e3iβ – ......
x 2 x3
= x– + – ..... where x = sin α . eiβ
2 3
= log (1 + x) = log (1 + sin α . eiβ) = log [1 + sin α (cos β + i sin β)]
= log (1 + sin α cos β + i sin α sin β)
1 æ sin a sin b ö
= log [(1 + sin α cos β)2 + sin2 α sin2 β] + i tan–1 ç
2 è 1 + sin a cos b ÷ø
1 æ sin a sin b ö
= log [1 + 2 sin α cos β + sin2 α (cos2 β + sin2 β)] + i tan–1 ç
1 æ sin a sin b ö
= log (1 + 2 sin α cos β + sin2 α) + i tan–1 ç
1
Equating real parts C = log (1 + 2 sin α cos β + sin2 α).
2
1 1
Example 11. If C = cos2 θ – cos3 θ cos 3θ + cos5 θ cos 5θ – ..... • show that tan 2C = 2 cot2 θ.
3 5
1 1
Sol. C = cos θ . cos θ – cos3 θ cos 3θ + cos5 θ cos 5θ – .....
3 5
1 1
Let S = cos θ . sin θ – cos3 θ . sin 3θ + cos5 θ . sin 5θ – .....
3 5
1 1 x3 x5
C + iS = cos θ . eiθ – cos3 θ . e3iθ + cos5 θ . e5iθ – ........... = x – + – ..........
3 5 3 5
where x = cos θ . eiθ
= tan–1 x = tan–1 (cos θ . eiθ)
∴ C + iS = tan–1 [cos θ (cos θ + i sin θ)] …(1)
Changing i into – i,
C – iS = tan–1 [cos θ (cos θ – i sin θ)] …(2)
Adding (1) and (2)
2C = tan–1 [cos θ (cos θ + i sin θ)] + tan–1 [cos θ (cos θ – i sin θ)]
cos q (cos q + i sin q) + cos q(cos q - i sin q)
= tan–1
1 - cos q (cos q + i sin q ) . cos q(cos q - i sin q)
æ 2 cos 2 q ö
–1 2 cos q
2
= tan–1 ç ÷ = tan
è 1 - cos 2 q(cos2 q + sin 2 q) ø 1 - cos 2 q
æ 2 cos 2 q ö
= tan–1 ç ÷ = tan (2 cot θ)
–1 2
è sin 2 q ø
Hence tan 2C = 2 cot2 θ.
e 3a e5a
Example 12. Sum the series : eα cos β – cos 3β + cos 5β ....... • (P.T.U., Dec. 2005)
3 5
e3 a e 5a
Sol. Let C = eα cos β – cos 3β + cos 5β....... •
3 5
e 3α e5 a
S = eα sin β – sin 3β + sin 5β ....... •
3 5
e3 a e 5a
C + iS = eα (cos β + i sin β) – (cos 3β + i sin 3β) + (cos 5β + i sin 5β) ....... •
3 5
e3 a e 5a i5β
= eα . eiβ – ei3β + e .......•
3 5
e3(a + ib ) e5(a + ib )
= e(α + iβ) – + ....... •
3 5
x3 x5
= x– + ........ ∞, where x = eα + iβ
3 5
= tan–1 x = tan–1 (eα + iβ) = tan–1 [eα (cos β + i sin β)]
= tan–1 (eα cos β + i eα sin β)
1 2x 1 2y
We know that tan–1 (x + iy) = tan–1 + i tanh–1
2 1 - x2 - y2 2 1 + x2 + y 2
[Proved in example 11 (i) art. 6.17]
1 2ea cos b 1 2ea sin b

= tan–1 + i tanh–1
2 1 - e 2a cos 2 b - e 2a sin 2 b 2 1 + e 2a (cos 2 b + sin 2 b)
1 2ea cos b 1 2ea sin b
= tan –1
2a +i◊ tanh–1
2 1- e 2 1 + e 2a
1 2ea cos b
Comparing real part C = tan–1
2 1 - e2 a
1 2 cos b
or C= tan–1 -a
2 e - ea
1 cos b 1 cos b
=– tan–1 a -a
=– tan–1
2 e -e 2 sinh a
2
1
=– tan–1 (cosech α cos β).
2
6. Method of Hyperbolic Series
In Hyperbolic series, C + iS method is not applied. To sum up a series of hyperbolic sines or cosines.
e x - e- x e x + e- x
(i) Replace sinh x by and cosh x by .
2 2
(ii) Separate the series in ex and e–x.
(iii) Sum up each of these series by using results of standard series.
(iv) Put the result in terms of hyperbolic sines or cosines.
Example 13. Sum the series
1 1
(a) sinh α – 2
sinh 2α + 3
sinh 3α – ..... •
(b) 1 + x cosh α + x2 cosh 2α + x3 cosh 3α + ...... to n terms.
1 1
Sol. (a) sinh α – 2 sinh 2α + 2 sinh 3α ........ •
ea - e -a 1 e 2a - e -2a 1 e 3a - e - 3a
= - . + . ....... •
2 2 2 3 2
= 1
2
(eα – 1
2
e2α + 1
3
e3α ...... •) – 1
2
(e–α – 1
2
e–2α + 1
3
e–3α ...... •)
= 1
2
log (1 + eα) – 1
2
log (1 + e–α)
a æ a aö
-
e2 çe 2 + e2 ÷
1 1 + ea 1 è ø a
= log = log a a = 1
log eα = .
2 1 + e -a 2 - æ -
aö 2
2
e 2 çe2 + e 2 ÷
è ø
(b) 1 + x cosh α + x2 cosh 2α + x3 cosh 3α + ...... to n terms.
æ ea + e -a ö æ 2 a + e-2 a ö
2 e
æ 3a + e -3a ö
3 e
=1+x ç ÷ + x ç ÷ + x ç ÷ + ...... to n terms.
è 2 ø è 2 ø è 2 ø
1
= 2
. [2 + x(eα + e–α) + x2(e2α + e –2α) + x3(e3α + e–3α) + ..... to n terms]
1
= 2
[(1 + xeα + x2e 2α + ..... to n terms) + (1 + ex–α + x2e–2α + ...... to n terms)]
1 é1(1 - x n e na ) 1(1 - x n e - na ) ù
= ê + ú (each series being a G.P.)
2 ëê 1 - xe a 1 - xe -a ûú
1 (1 - x n ena )(1 - xe-a ) + (1 - x n e- na )(1 - xea )

= .
2 (1 - xea )(1 - xe-a )
1 2 - x (ea + e -a ) - x n (e na + e - na ) + x n + 1[e ( n - 1)a + e - ( n - 1)a ]

= .
2 1 - x(ea + e -a ) + x 2
1 2 - x . 2 cosh a - x n . 2 cosh na + x n + 1 . 2 cosh (n - 1)a

= .
2 1 - x . 2 cosh a + x 2
1 - x cosh a - x n cosh na + x n + 1 cosh (n - 1)a

= .
1 - 2 x cosh a + x 2
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Sum of the following series :
sin 2a sin 3a
1. sin a + + + ..... •.
2! 3!
cos a cos 2 a cos 3 a

2. cos a + cos 2 a + cos 3a + cos 4a + ..... •.
1! 2! 3!
sin q sin 2 q cos (a + 2b) cos (a + 4b)

3. cos q + cos 2q + cos 3q + ..... •. 4. cos a – + – ...... •.
1! 2! 3! 5!
cos 2q cos 4q sin 3q sin 5q

5. 1+ + + ..... •. 6. sin q – + – ..... •.
2! 4! 3! 5!
1 1× 3 1× 3 × 5
7. sin a + sin 2a + sin 3a + ...... •.
2 2× 4 2× 4× 6
8. x sin a + x2 sin 2a + x3 sin 3a + ...... •, | x | < 1.
9. cos2 a + cos2 a cos 2a + cos3a cos 3a + ..... •.
10. sin a cos a + sin2 a cos 2a + sin3 a cos 3a + ...... •.
11. sin a sin b + sin 2a sin2 b + sin 3a sin3 b + ...... •.
1 1 1
12. sin a + sin 2a + 2 sin 3a + 3 sin 4a + ..... •.
2 2 2
c2 c3
13. c cos q + cos 2q + cos 3q + ...... •.
2 3
c2 c3
14. c sin a – sin 2a + sin 3a – ...... •.
2 3
1 1
15. cos2 a – cos2 a cos 2a + cos3 a cos 3a – ...... •.
2 3
1 1
16. sin2 q – sin 2q sin2 q + sin 3q sin3 q – ..... •.
2 3
c3 c5
17. c cos a + cos 3a + cos 5a + ..... •.
3 5
c3 c5
18. c sin a + sin 3a + sin 5a + ..... •.
3 5
e3 a e5 a
19. ea cos b – cos 3b + cos 5b – ...... •.
3 5
1 1
20. cosh a – cosh 2a + cosh 3a + ...... •.
2 3
21. x sinh a + x 2 sinh 2a + x 3 sinh 3a + ...... •.
ANSWERS
2
a
1. ecos a sin (sin a) 2. ecos cos (a + sin a cos a) 3. esin q cos q cos (q + sin2 q)
4. cos (a – b) sin (cos b) cosh (sin b) – sin (a – b) cos (cos b) sinh (sin b) 5. cosh (cos q) cos (sin q)
p-a
sin x sin a
6. cos (cos q) sinh (sin q) 7. 4 8.
a 1 - 2 x cos a + x 2
2 sin
2
sin a (cos a - sin a) sin a sin b
9. 0 10. 11.
1 - 2 sin a cos a + sin 2 a 1 - 2 cos a sin b + sin 2 b
4 sin a 1 æ c sin a ö
12. 13. – log (1 – 2 c cos q + c2) 14. tan–1 ç
5 - 4 cos a 2 è 1 + c cos a ÷ø
1 æ sin 2 q ö 1 æ 1 + 2c cos a + c 2 ö
15. log (1 + 3 cos2 a) 16. tan–1 ç ÷ 17. log ç 2÷
2 è 1 + sin q cos q ø 4 è 1 - 2c cos a + c ø
1 æ 2c sin a ö 1 æ aö
18. tan–1 ç 19. – tan–1 (cosech a cos b) 20. log ç 2 cosh ÷
2 è 1 - c 2 ÷ø 2 è 2ø
x sinh a
21. .
1 - 2 x cosh a + x2
REVIEW OF THE CHAPTER

1. De-Moivre’s theorem: (i) If n is any integer, positive or negative, then (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
and (ii) if n is a fraction +ve or –ve, then one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)n is cos nθ + i sin nθ
Note: (i) cos θ + i sin θ is represented by cis θ
(ii) (sin θ + i cos θ)n ≠ sin nθ + i cos n θ
(iii) (cis θ 1) (cis θ2) … (cis θ n) = cis (θ 1 + θ 2 + … + θ n)
2. (cos θ + i sin θ)p/q, where (p, q) = 1 has q and only q distinct values and the q values form a G.P. whose
sum is zero (p, q being integers).
3. To express cosn θ in terms of cosines of multiples of θ, take x = cos θ + i sin θ ;
n n
1 1 æ 1ö
1ö æ
= cos θ – i sin θ, x + = 2 cos θ ∴ (2 cos θ)n = ç x + ÷ ; Expand
÷ by Binomial çè x +
x x è xø
xø
1
Theorem and collect the terms equidistant from beginning and end and use x n + n = 2 cos nq .
x
4. To express sinn θ in terms of cosines or sines of the multiples of θ
1
Take x = cos θ + i sin θ, = cos θ – i cos θ
x
n n
1 æ 1ö æ 1ö
x– = 2 i sin θ and (2 i sin θ)n = ç x - ÷ø . Expand çè x - ÷ø by Binomial theorem and collect the
x è x x
1
terms equidistant from beginning and end. Also use xn – n = 2 i sin nθ.
x
5. To express cos nθ and sin nθ in terms of powers of sin θ and cos θ use De-Moivre’s theorem cos nθ + i sin nθ
= (cos θ + i sin θ)n ; Expand by Binomial theorem and compare real and imaginary parts, we get cos
nθ and sin nθ.
n
c1 tan q - n c3 tan3 q + n c5 tan5 q ¼
6. (i) tan nθ =
1 - n c2 tan 2 q + n c4 tan 4 q ¼
s1 - s3 + s5 ¼
(ii) tan (θ1 + θ 2 + … + θn) = , where sr denotes the sum of the products of the tangents
1 - s2 + s4 ¼
of the angles θ 1, θ 2, …, θ n taken r at a time.
7. Exponential function of a complex number: Exp z = ez = e x + i y = ex.eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y) = ex cis y.
Period of ez is 2π i .
8. Circular functions of a complex number: If z = x + iy, then circular functions of z are:
eiz + e - iz eiz - e - iz eiz - e - iz sin z
cos z = , sin z = , tan z = iz - iz
=
2 2i i (e + e ) cos z
cos z i (eiz + e- iz ) 1 2
cot z = = iz - iz
, sec z = = iz
sin z e -e cos z e + e - iz
1 2i
cosec z = = .
sin z eiz - e - iz
9. Euler’s theorem: ∀ θ, real or complex eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
Period of sin z and cos z is 2π
Period of tan z is π.
10. Logarithms of complex numbers: (i) If w = ez, where z and w are complex numbers, then z is called
logarithm of ω i.e., z = loge w. It is many valued function. The general value of loge w is z + 2nπi and
is denoted by loge w. Thus loge w = 2nπi + log w.
1
(ii) loge (α + iβ) = log (α2 + β2) + i [2nπ + tan–1 β/α].
2
11. General exponential function: The general exponential function a z is defined by az = ez log a, where a
and z are any numbers real or complex.
∴ az = ez(2nπ i + log a).
12. Hyperbolic functions: For all values of x, real or complex ;
e x - e- x e x + e- x
sinh x = , cosh x =
2 2
sinh x e x - e- x cosh x e x + e - x
tanh x = = , coth x = =
cosh x e x + e - x sinh x e x - e - x
1 2 2
sech x = = , cosech x =
cosh x e x + e - x e - e- x
x
Period of sinh x and cosh x is 2πi

Period of tanh x is πi
13. Relation between hyperbolic and circular functions:
sin (ix) = i sinh x sinh (ix) = i sin x
cos (ix) = cosh x cosh (ix) = cos x
tan (ix) = i tanh x tanh (ix) = i tan x
cot (ix) = – i coth x coth (ix) = – i cot x
sec (ix) = sech x sech (ix) = sec x
cosec (ix) = – i cosech x cosech (ix) = – i cosec x.
14. Inverse trigonometrical functions:
If z is a complex number, then

sin–1 z =– i log i z + 1 - z 2 cot–1 z = tan–1
i
z
i
= - log
2
z+i
z-i
z ¹ ±i
æ 1 + 1 - z2 ö

cos–1 z = – i log z + 1 - z 2 sec–1 z = cos–1
1
z
= - i log ç
çè z
÷;zπ0
÷ø
æ i + z2 - 1 ö
i 1+i z i i+z 1
tan–1 z = – log = log ;zπ ±i cosec–1 z = sin–1 = – i log ç ÷ , z π 0.
2 1 - iz 2 i-z z çè z ÷ø
15. Inverse hyperbolic functions: If z is a complex number, then

sinh–1 z = log z + z 2 + 1 cosech–1 z = sinh–1
1
z
= log
1 + 1 + z2
z
;zπ0
z = log z + - 1
1 1 + 1 - z2
cosh–1 z2 sech–1 z = cosh–1 = log ;zπ0
z z
1 1+ 2 1 1 z +1
tanh–1 z = log ;zπ ±1 coth–1 z = tanh–1 = log ; z π ± 1.
2 1- 2 z 2 z -1
16. Summation of series:

To find sum of the series of the form
a0 cos α + a1 cos (α + β) + a2 cos (α + 2 β) + …
and a0 sin α + a1 sin (α + β) + a2 sin (α + 2 β) + …
Take C = a0 cos α + a1 cos (α + β) + a2 cos (α + 2 β) + …
S = a0 sin α + a1 sin (α + β) + a2 sin (α + 2 b) + …
Write C + i S = a0 ei α + a1 ei (α+β) + a2 ei (α + 2β) + …
= eiα [ a0 + a1 eiβ + a2 ei 2β + …]
= eiα [a0 + a1x + a2x2 + …], where x = e iβ
= e iα f (x)
The series f(x) can be summed up by following methods (i) G.P. series, (ii) Binomial series, (iii) Exponential
series, (iv) expansions of sin x, cos x, tan x, sinh x, cosh, (v) logarithmic series, and (vi) Gregory’s
series.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. (a) State De-Moivre’s theorem and prove it for the most fundamental case.
[Hint: See Art. 6.3] (P.T.U., May 2004, Dec. 2005, May 2014)
x- y q-f
(b) If x = cis q, y = cis f, show that = i tan (P.T.U., Dec 2012)
x+ y 2
[Hint: S.E . 3(i) art 6.3]
n
+1 np
2. Prove that (1 + i)n + (1 – i)n = 2 2 cos . (P.T.U., May 2003)
4
[Hint: (i) S.E. 13 (iii) art. 6.3]
3. Solve the following equations using De-Moivre’s theorem
(i) x4 – x3 + x2 – x + 1 = 0 (P.T.U., Dec. 2002, May 2003, 2005)
[Hint: Solved Example 8 (b) art. 6.4]
(ii) x7 + x4 + x3 + 1 = 0
[Hint: S.E. 8 (c) art. 6.4]
(iii) x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 = 0
[Hint: Solved Example 2 (a) art. 6.4]
4. If sin a + sin b + sin g = 0 = cos a + cos b + cos g, then prove that
(i) cos2 a + cos2 b + cos2 g = 3/2 (P.T.U., May 2003)
[Hint: Solved Example 5 (ix) art. 6.3]
(ii) cos 3a + cos 3b + cos 3g = 3 cos (a + b + g) (P.T.U., Dec. 2002)
[Hint: Solved Example 5 (i) art. 6.3]
+ np
n n
n +1
5. Prove that 3+i 3 -i =2 cos (P.T.U., May 2004)
6
[Hint: Solved Example 13 (ii) art. 6.3]
6. Use De-Moivre’s Theorem to find roots of z5 + 1 = 0.
2n + 1
[Hint: z 5 = – 1 = cis p = cis (2np + p), z = cis p, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
5
1 x2 n + 1 cos nq
7. If 2 cos q = x + , prove that 2 n -1 = .
x x + x cos (n - 1) q
[Hint: Solved Example 10 (a) art. 6.3]
p p ép æ 1 öù ép æ 1 öù
8. If xr = cos r
+ i sin r show that x1 x2 x3 … xn = cos ê çè1 - n ÷ø ú + i sin ê 2 çè1 - n ÷ø ú
3 3 ë2 3 û ë 3 û
Hence show that x1 x2 x3 … • = i. (P.T.U., May 2003)
[Hint:Solved Example 8 (b) art. 6.3]
q nq
9. Prove that (1 + cos q + i sin q)n + (1 + cos q – i sin q)n = 2n+1 cosn cos .
2 2
[Hint: Consult Solved Example 10 art. 6.3]
10. If w is the complex cube root of unity prove that 1 + w + w2 = 0. (P.T.U., May 2011)
1
11. Find all the values of (i) (1 + i) 4 (P.T.U., Dec. 2010)
1
(ii) (- 8i ) .
3 (P.T.U., May 2012)
[Hint: Consult Solved Examples 4, 5 art. 6.4]
3
æ1 3 ö 4
(iii) ç + i (P.T.U., Dec. 2011, 2012)
è2 2 ÷ø
[Hint: S.E. 3 art. 6.4]
12. (a) Find nth roots of unity and prove that these form a G.P. Also show that the sum of these n roots is zero and
their product is (– 1)n–1.
[Hint: Solved Example 1(a) art. 6.4]
rp
(b) If (3 + x)3 – (3 – x)3 = 0; Prove that x = 3i tan ; r = 0, 1, 2 (P.T.U., May 2010)
3
[Hint: S.E. 10(a) art. 6.4]
1
13. Find all the values of (- 1) 4 . (P.T.U., May 2003)
[Hint: Consult Solved Example 2 art. 6.4]
14. Find all the values of (– 1 + i)2/5.
3p
[Hint: – 1 + i = r sin q + i r sin q \ r= 2 ,q=
4
2/5
é æ 3p ö ù
(– 1 + i)2/5 = r2/5 (cos q + i sin q)2/5 = 21/5 êcis ç 2np + ú
ë è 4 ÷ø û
2 æ 3p ö
= 21/5 cis
5 è
ç 2 np + 4 ÷ø , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
15. (a) Prove that (cos7 q =

1
64
[cos 7 q + 7cos5 q + 21 cos 3q + 35 cos 5q] (P.T.U., Dec. 2011)
(b) Express cos8 q in terms of cosines of multiples of q (P.T.U., May 2006, 2014)
[Hint: Solved Example 1 (ii) art. 6.5]
16. (a) Prove that cos 6q = 32 cos6 q – 48 cos4 q + 18 cos2 q – 1. (P.T.U., May 2012)
(b) Expand sin 7q is powers of sin q. [Hint: S.E. 1 (b) art. 6.6] (P.T.U., Dec. 2013)
æ p qö u q
17. If u = log tan ç + ÷ ; prove that (i) tanh = tan (P.T.U., May 2006)
è 4 2ø 2 2
[Hint: Solved Example 3 (i) art. 6.15]
æp uö
(ii) q = – i log tan ç + i ÷ (P.T.U., May 2003)
è4 2ø
[Hint: Solved Example 3(v) art. 6.15]
18. (a) Find the general value of ( - 1 + i 3) (P.T.U., May 2012)

[Hint: S.E. 2(a) art. 6.12]
(b) Prove that Log (– 4) = 2 log 2 + (2n + 1) pi. (P.T.U., May 2007)
[Hint: Solved Example 2(b) art. 6.12]
19. Solve the equation e2z–1 = 1 + i (P.T.U., Dec. 2012)
é p 1 1 pù
ê Hint: 2z - 1 = log (1 + i) = log 2 + i 4 \ z = 2 log 2 + 2 + i 8 ú
ë û
20. Prove that (cosh x + sinh x)n = cosh nx + sinh nx (P.T.U., May 2007)
n
é æ e x e- x e x - e- x ö ù
ê Hint: LHS cosh x + sinh x n = ç + + ÷ = e nx ú
ê è 2 2 ø ú
ê nx - nx nx - nx
ú
ê e +e e -e nx ú
ê RHS cosh nx + sinh nx = + =e ú
ë 2 2 û
21. i
(a) What is i ? (P.T.U., May 2010, Dec. 2013)
[Hint: S.E. 7(a) art. 6.13]
(b) Find the value of logi i (P.T.U., Dec. 2002)
[Hint: Solved Example 16 art. 6.12]
22. Find all the roots of sinh z = i (P.T.U., May 2003)
[Hint: Solved Example 9(b) art. 6.15]
23. Find all values of sin–1 2 treating 2 as complex number (P.T.U., Dec 2004)
24. Separate real and Imaginary parts of the following :
2
(i) e3 xy + 4 iy [Hint: Solved Example 1(ii) art. 6.9] (P.T.U., May 2014)
(ii) log [log i] [Hint: Solved Example 5 art. 6.12]
(iii) sec (x + i y) (P.T.U., May 2004)
(iv) cos (x + i y) [Hint: Solved Example 1 art. 6.15] (P.T.U., Dec. 2004)
(v) sin (x + i y)
(vi) sinh (x + i y)
(vii) cosech (x + i y) [Hint: Solved Example 2 art. 6.15]
(viii) log sin (x + i y)
(ix) cos–1 (eiq) [Hint: Solved Example 8 art. 6.15] (P.T.U., May 2003)
(x) tan–1 (x + i y) [Hint: Solved Example 11 art. 6.17] (P.T.U., May 2006)
(xi) log(4 + 3 i) (P.T.U., Dec. 2010)
(xii) sin–1 (eiq), where q is acute. (P.T.U., Dec. 2006, 2012, May 2014)
25. Prove that the following:

(i) sinh–1 z = log z + z 2 + 1 [Hint: Solved Example art. 6.17] (P.T.U., Dec. 2002)
1 1+ z
(ii) tanh–1 z = log ; z π ± 1 [Hint: Solved Example art. 6.17]
2 1- z

(iii) sin–1 z = – i log iz + 1 - z 2 (iv) tan–1 z =
i
2
log
i+z
i-z
; z π ± i. [Hint: See art. 6.15]
26. Find modulus and argument of (1 + i)1–i

27. (i) Prove that ez is periodic function, z is complex number. (P.T.U., May 2008)
[Hint: Consult art. 6.9]
(ii) Prove that sin z, cos z, tan z are periodic functions and hence find their respective periods.
[Hint: See art. 6.10]
ANSWERS
p p 3p 3p 1± i -1± i 1± i 3
3. (i) cos ± i sin , cos ± i sin (ii) – 1, , ,
5 5 5 5 2 2 2
rp rp
(iii) 1, cos ± i sin ; r = 2, 4, 6
7 7
p p 3p 3p
6. – 1, cos ± i sin , cos ± i sin
5 5 5 5
1
rp 1± i -1± i
11. (i) ± 2 8 cis ; r = 1, 9 (ii) 2i , ± 3 - i (iii) ,
16 2 2
2( r - 1) p 1± i -1± i
12. cis ; r = 1, 2, 3, ..., n 13. ,
n 2 2
1
(4n + 3) p 1
14. 2 5 cis ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 15. (b) [cos 8q + 8 cos 6q + 28 cos 4q + 56 cos 2q + 35]
10 128
16. (b) 7 sin q – 56 sin3 q + 112 sin5 q – 64 sin7 q]
2(3n + 1) 1 1 p
18. (a) log 2 + i p 19. + log 2 + i
3 2 4 8
4n+ 1
- p 4m + 1
21. (a) e 2 (b) ; m, n are integers
4n + 1
2n + 1 4n + 1
22. z = pi if n is even 23. p - i cosh -1 2
2 2
2n - 1
= pi if n is odd.
2
24. (i) R = e3xy cos 4y2; Img = e3xy sin 4y2
p p
(ii) R = log (4n + 1) ; Img = (4n + 1)
2 2
2 cos x cosh y 2 sin x sinh y
(iii) R = ; Img =
cos 2 x + cosh 2 y cos 2 x + cosh 2 y
(iv) R = cos x cosh y ; Img = – sin x sinh y
(v) R = sin x cosh y ; Img = cos x sinh y
(vi) R = sinh x cos y ; Img = cosh x sin y
2 sinh x cos y - 2 cosh x sin y
(vii) R = ; Img =
1 æ1 -1 ö
(viii) R = log ç cosh 2 y cos 2 x÷ ; Img = tan–1 (cot x tanh y)
2 è2 2 ø
(ix) R = sin–1 sin q ; Img = log éë 1 + sin q - sin q ùû
1 2x 1 2y
(x) R = tan -1 2 2
; Img = tanh -1
2 1- x - y 2 1 + x2 + y
3
(xi) R = log 5; I = 2np + tan–1
4
(xii) R = cos–1 sin q; Img = log ( sin q + 1 + sin q)
p
p 1
26. 2 e4 ; - log 2 .
4 2

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6

Complex Numbers and Elementary

6.1. RECAPITULATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

6.2. COMPLEX NUMBERS

(i) Definition of a Complex Number

(iii) Properties of Complex Numbers

(iv) Polar-form of a Complex Number

6.3. DE-MOIVRES THEOREM

Statement. (i) If n is any integer, positive or negative, then

Let us suppose the theorem is true for n = m

= cos mθ – i sin mθ = cos (– m)θ + i sin (– m)θ

(cos q + i sin q)15 (cos q + i sin q) -3

(cos q + i sin q) 4 (cos q + i sin q) 4

1 + cos 2a 1 + cos 2b 1 + cos 2 g

(cos α + i sin α)3 + 8 (cos β+i sin β)3 + 27 (cosγ +i sin γ )3

xm (cos q + i sin q)m cos mq + i sin mq

2 cos 2 nq + 2i sin nq cos nq

= cos nθ + i sin nθ + cos nθ – i sin nθ = 2 cos nθ

Squaring and adding, r 2 = a2 + b2 ∴ r= a2 + b2

(ii) Let 3 = r cos θ and 1 = r sin θ

(iii) Put 1 = r cos θ and 1 = r sin θ.

Squaring and adding 2 = r2 ∴ r = 2

b+c æ b c ö é cis b cis g ù

2. If a = cis α, b = cis β and c = cis γ , prove that

6.4. ROOTS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

6.4(a). SHOW THAT THERE ARE G AND ONLY G DISTINCT VALUES OF

Putting n = 0, 1, 2, ......, q – 1 in succession, we obtain the following q values of (cos q + i sin q) q

(cos q + i sin q) q = [(cos q + i sin q) p ] q

following q values of (cos q + i sin q) q

This value is the same as the one obtained by putting n = 0.

2np + pq 2np + pq æ pq 2np ö æ pq 2np ö

Proceeding as in 6.4(b), the sum of q values of (cos q + i sin q)p/q is

ç2 + 2 ÷ = êç cos + i sin ÷ ú = (cos π + i sin π)1/4

Squaring and adding, a2 + b2 = r2 ∴ r= a 2 + b2

Taking the nth root of both sides

Sol. Given (3 + x)3 – (3 – x)3 = 0

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

[Hint: Consult S.E. 9] (P.T.U., May 2012)

6.5(a). EXPRESS COSn θ IN TERMS OF COSINES OF MULTIPLES OF θ (n BEING A

6.5(b). EXPRESS SINn θ IN A SERIES OF COSINES OR SINES OF MULTIPLES OF

Example 2. Express sin8 θ in a series of cosines of multiples of θ.

4. 26 sin7 θ = 35 sin θ – 21 sin 3θ + 7 sin 5θ – sin 7θ.

6.6. EXPANSION OF COS nθ AND SIN nθ (n BEING A +ve INTEGER)

and sin 3θ = 3 sin θ – 4 sin3 θ

6.7(a). EXPANSION OF TAN nθ

sin nq n C1 cos n -1 q sin q - n C3 cos n - 3 q sin 3 q + n C5 cos n - 5 q sin 5 q ...

6.7(b). EXPANSION OF TAN (θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + ...... + θn)

Given equation is x3 + px2 + qx + p = 0

Sol. Let tan–1 α = θ1 , tan–1 β = θ2 , tan–1 γ = θ3 , tan–1 δ = θ4

2 tan q tan q + tan a

⇒ 2 tan θ(1 – tan θ tan α) = λ(1 – tan2 θ) (tan θ + tan α)

(2 - l ) tan a - l tan a 2 (1 - l) tan a

Multiplying both sides by 2t(1 – t2)

2ah + 2a 2 - 2b 2 2ah - 2a 2 + 2b2 4b2 - 4a 2

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

6.8. FORMATION OF EQUATIONS

We explain this method by examples given below :

or t4 + 144t2 + 256 – 24t3 – 384t + 32t2 =t(16t2 – 64t + 64)

or 2 [2 cos2 q – 1]2 – 1 = – 4 cos3 q + 3 cos q

or t3 – 24t2 + 80t – 64 = 0 …(3)

6.3. DE-MOIVRES THEOREM

6.18. C +iS METHOD OF SUMMATION