UNIT - V

LANDSCAPING OF FUNCTIONAL
AREAS
Urban open spaces and principle of urban landscape. Street landscaping,
landscape design for waterfront areas and functional areas in urban centres.
Green infrastructure including green roofs and walls.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 URBAN OPEN SPACES
In land-use planning, urban open space is open-space areas reserved for
parks, "green spaces", and other open areas. The landscape of urban open
spaces can range from playing fields to highly maintained environments to
relatively natural landscapes. Generally considered open to the public, urban
open spaces are sometimes privately owned, such as higher education
campuses, neighborhood/community parks/gardens, and institutional or
corporate grounds. Areas outside city boundaries, such as state and national
parks as well as open space in the countryside, are not considered urban
open space. Streets, piazzas, plazas and urban squares are not always
defined as urban open space in land use planning.

The terms "urban open space" can describe many types of open areas. One
definition holds that, "As the counterpart of development, urban open space
is a natural and cultural resource, synonymous with neither 'unused land'
nor 'park and recreation areas." Another is "Open space is land and/or water
area with its surface open to the sky, consciously acquired or publicly
regulated to serve conservation and urban shaping function in addition to
providing recreational opportunities." In almost all instances, the space
referred to by the term is, in fact, green space. However, there are examples
of urban green space which, though not publicly owned/regulated, are still
considered urban open space.

BENEFITS

The benefits that urban open space provides to citizens can be broken into
four basic forms; recreation, ecology, aesthetic value, and positive health
impacts. Psychological benefits gained by visitors to urban green spaces
increased with their biodiversity, indicating that 'green' alone is not
sufficient; the quality of that green is important as well.

Recreational

Urban open space is often appreciated for the recreational opportunities it

provides. Recreation in urban open space may include active recreation
(such as organized sports and individual exercise) or passive recreation,
which may simply entail being in the open space. Research shows that when
open spaces are attractive and accessible, people are more likely to engage
in physical activity. spent in an urban open space for recreation offers a
reprieve from the urban environment and a break from over-stimulation.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 Studies done on physically active adults middle aged and older show there
are amplified benefits when the physical activities are coupled with green
space environments. Such coupling leads to decreased levels of stress,
lowers the risk for depression as well as increase the frequency of
participation in exercise. Casual group walks in a green environment (nature
walks) increase one's positive attitude and lower stress levels as well as risk
of depression.

Ecological

The conservation of nature in an urban environment has direct impact on

people for another reason as well. A Toronto civic affairs bulletin entitled
Urban Open Space: Luxury or Necessity makes the claim that "popular
awareness of the balance of nature, of natural processes and of man's place
in and effect on nature – i.e., "ecological awareness" – is important. As
humans live more and more in man-made surroundings – i.e., cities – he
risks harming himself by building and acting in ignorance of natural
processes." Beyond this man-nature benefit, urban open spaces also serve
as islands of nature, promoting biodiversity and providing a home for natural
species in environments that are otherwise uninhabitable due to city
development.

Aesthetic

The aesthetic value of urban open spaces is self-evident. People enjoy

viewing nature, especially when it is otherwise extensively deprived, as is
the case in urban environments. Therefore, open space offers the value of
"substituting gray infrastructure." One researcher states how attractive
neighborhoods contribute to positive attitudes and social norms that
encourage walking and community values. Properties near urban open space
tend to have a higher value. One study was able to demonstrate that, "a
pleasant view can lead to a considerable increase in house price, particularly
if the house overlooks water (8–10%) or open space (6–12%)."[10] Certain
benefits may be derived from exposure to virtual versions of the natural
environment, too. For example, people who were shown pictures of scenic,
natural environments had increased brain activity in the region associated
with recalling happy memories, compared to people that were shown
pictures of urban landscapes.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 Impact on health

The World Health Organization considers urban green spaces as important to

human health. These areas have a positive impact on mental and physical
health. Urban open spaces often include trees or other shrubbery that
contribute to moderating temperatures and decreasing air pollution.
Perceived general health is higher in populations with a higher percentage of
green space in their environments. Urban open space access has also been
directly related to reductions in the prevalence and severity of chronic
diseases resulting from sedentary lifestyles, to improvements in mental well-
being, and to reductions in population-wide health impacts from climate
change.

 Reductions in Chronic Disease Rates

 Reductions in Mental Illness rates / Improved Social Cohesion

Impacts on high temperatures

Urban areas tend to have higher temperatures than their surrounding

undeveloped areas because of Urban Heat Islands, UHIs. Urban heat islands
are areas with man-made infrastructure that contribute to the increased
temperatures. The average temperature during the day in cities can be 18-
27 degrees Fahrenheit higher than in the surrounding rural regions. This is
an example of one type of UHI, surface heat islands. Surface heat islands
encompass the area from the ground to the top of the tree-line. It is usually
higher during the day when direct sunlight reaches urban structures (often
with darker materials than natural areas) including the main contributor,
pavement. The other type of UHI, atmospheric heat islands, are from above
the tree-line to the level in the atmosphere where the urban area no longer
has an effect. This type of heat island has increased heat at night due to the
release of heat from infrastructure that built up throughout the day.

Green spaces within urban areas can help reduce these increased
temperatures through shading and evapotranspiration. Shading comes from
the taller plants, such as trees, planted in green spaces that can contribute
to lowering the surface heat island effect. The shade provides protection
from the sun for vulnerable populations, such as children, during periods of
increased temperature, during the summer months or during a heat wave.
Tree cover prevents some solar radiation from reaching the ground with its
leaves and branches. This reduces the effect of surface urban heat islands.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 Open spaces that include any type of vegetation help offset the high
temperatures through the natural process of evapotranspiration.
Evapotranspiration releases water into the air therefore dissipating heat.
There are many elements of an urban open space that can contribute to the
mitigation of urban heat islands including the type of open space (park or
nature reserve), type of plant species, and the density of vegetation. Green
spaces contribute to the reduction of local heat, decreasing the overall effect
of UHIs. The larger the distribution of green spaces, the bigger the area of
heat reduction. Green spaces that are clustered together will have an
additive heat reduction resulting in a greater decrease in temperature in the
local area compared to surrounding areas.

Impacts on air quality

Human activity has increased air pollution in the earth's atmosphere and
trees play an essential role in removing human-made pollutants from the air,
aka particulate matter (PM). Trees produce oxygen and absorb CO2. In
urban green spaces, trees filter out man-made pollutants. Air quality data
collected on cities with and without urban green space has shown that areas
with an abundance of trees have considerably less air pollutants, i.e. O3,
PM10, NO2, SO2, and CO. As air pollutants accumulate in the atmosphere,
vulnerable populations, such as children, may suffer from increased
incidences of respiratory disease[39]. Particulate matter or particle pollution
with a diameter of 10 microns (PM10) or 2.5 microns (PM2.5) is associated
with heart diseases and respiratory diseases including lung cancer.

THE URBAN LANDSCAPE

The Urban Landscape term is an old concept that has always existed for
many years with the origin and development of cities, but as a specialized
term in the late nineteenth century, with the design and actions of Frederick
Olmsted (1863), the father of landscape architecture in relation to American
cities was raised. As can be seen, the urban landscape is composed of two
controversial words with a wide range of meanings. Hence, to clarify the
concept of urban landscape, it is better to first check some of the views on
the concept of the city. Comillo sitte (1945) in his book, " City Planning
According to Artistic Principles" describes the city as a great artistic
exhibition .Generally, in this viewpoint, viewing at the city is an objective
view and the main emphasis is on the ornament and some quality such as
plurality and variety, proportion, naturalism and organic system in form

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 and colour combinations (Keshtkaran et al., 2017). In fact, a city is a
physical object and consideration of experts merely is on visual aspects of
the city. Regarding this view, Gibberd (1970) as one of the followers of
artistic view, introduces texture, colour, mass and lines as the most
important elements of the urban landscape.

In another view, Le Corbusier (1920) defines four essential areas for the city
included residential, industrial, commercial, and a transportation
infrastructure. Therefore, the city of Le Corbusier is a functional city. Versus
the artistic vision, He believed that simplicity in architecture is the best-
known aesthetic answer to human needs. Some scientist such as Lynch
(1960), considered the city as more than individuals and social facilities. In
their view, the city is more of a state of thought. The coherence of organized
habits and traditions and attitudes. The city is not merely a physical
mechanism but is involved in the social process of the people who formed it.
The more recent group of theorists consider the city as a product of nature
and is considered and evaluated as part of an ecosystem with a powerful
human presence (Council of Europe, 2000; Leopold, 1942; McHarg and
Mumford, 1969; Steiner and Steiner, 2002; Wu et al., 2013).

As previously mentioned, the urban landscape has always existed as a fact

related to the city, but it has not been conveyed as a scientific discipline or
academic concept, hence, the evolutionary of the urban landscape concept is
an issue that can be understood by investigation and study on urbanism,
urban design, architecture and landscape. Therefore, Depending on the
various definitions and interpretations on two controversial concepts of "city"
and "landscape", and whether the individual's view is objective or subjective,
the urban landscape definitions are different and sometimes contradictory.
Some of these definitions are given below. According to Raskin (1974), the
urban landscape encompasses many issues such as urban design, urban
planning, urban management, as well as recognizing the goals and
responsibilities of individuals (Golkar, 2003). Gordon Cullen by emphasizing
on the combination of buildings next to each other and the concept of "serial
vision" describes the urban landscape as the art of proportions (Cullen,
1961). Lingfeng and Xilong (2009) state the urban landscape is a kind of
man-made environment on the natural environment which has own
physical and spiritual aspects. Y. Zhang (2014) expresses the urban
landscape as an image of the city's socio-cultural environment. A
physical space consisting of materials and forms that leads to the creation

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 of an integrated artistic space. In this space urban landscape as a
comprehensive art is inherently related to other forms of art. Thus various
forms of art play an important role in the formation of urban landscape. It
can be said the contemporary urban landscape includes dynamic and flexible
relationships; layering, congestion and the landscapes interpenetration make
an unbounded and undefined spatial- temporal urban continuity which is
difficult to distinguish (de Wit, 2016). In fact, the urban landscape includes
all areas and functions such as residential, institutional, commercial,
industrial, cultural land uses (Kalaiarasan, 2016).

Urban landscape evolution

According to the above, it can be seen that the concept of the urban
landscape as a medium that provides the ability to read urban text is very
controversial .In the meantime, by studying the history of the urban
landscape, the development of this concept can be traced over the last
decades.

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 In fact, the urban landscape can be considered as a paradigm, which has a
set of concepts, theories, rules, patterns, measurement tools, and executive
practices. By investigating the history of urban change and study of the
different viewpoint of theorists in urban studies and related major such as
architecture, urban design and urbanism, four main approaches (Golkar,
2008) can be proposed for the urban landscape: Artistic approach,
Functional approach, Perceptual/ contextual approach, Sustainable
approach.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 It is true that the urban landscape has undergone an evolutionary process
and has a wider dimension, but it should be considered that some
governments and designers continue to use their past approaches and
designs and by neglecting the new approaches, continue to follow the path
that has led to project failures and urban problems. According to Table 1,
each of the design approaches has set some criteria as their primary goal
and put them at the head designs and researches. Basis on table 1,
generally, it can be stated that the factors of "aesthetics", "function",
"identity" and "ecology" are the four main goals of the urban landscape
which are obvious in the work of designers and theorists from past decades
until now and as it is seen, due to these goals, different movement and style
have been created. These goals have been extracted after studying the
evolution of urban landscape approaches, which include four approaches;
Artistic approach, Functional approach, Perceptual/ contextual approach,
Sustainable approach (Table1).

Figure 2 Indicates approaches, main purposes and transition of urban

landscape concept from a two-dimensional view to sustainable socio-spatial
view. It should be noted that the purposes mentioned above have several
subsets, which are referred to in more detail below.

URBAN LANDSCAPE PRINCIPLES

1.AESTHETICS
For the first time, the term of aesthetics in the Aristotle era was used to
some extent to its current meaning. In this period, the term of aesthetics
was used as aesthesis. This term implies sensation and sensory perception
and generally makes perception through senses. In fact, there is a special
sensory perception that was at that time against rational perception.

But the concept of aesthetics as an independent concept was introduced for

the first time by Alexander Baumgarten, the 17th-century German
rationalist philosopher. He describes that the domain of AESTHETICA word as
a Latin root of aesthetics is related to «sensory perception» and knowledge
of cognitive sense. In Greek also the etymology of the term of aesthetics
refers to feeling, sensitivity and sensory perception.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 Today's conception of aesthetics is the result of the successive meanings of
philosophers like Kant and Hegel. But the discussion of the meanings of
aesthetics in our time continues and, from the view of many philosophers, in
particular, analytic philosophers, should not confuse aesthetics with the
philosophy of art. Aesthetics, more than anything, relates to sensory
experience, in the general sense; for example, it can be an experience of
beautiful artistic or natural beauty.

Urban landscape aesthetics - The cities with their powerful context which
can create an opportunity to stimulate our imagination are important
sources for an active aesthetic life. Urban Landscape aesthetics and people’s
daily life are closely related to each other and a large number of researches
has been done to comprehend the public’s landscape preferences. In fact,
people’s perception of their everyday environment is affected by Landscape
patterns and to understand landscape preferences, landscape aesthetic
theories suggest applying the landscape patterns. Hence, the landscape
aesthetics value has converted to one of the most significant socio-ecological
research issues and also has gained important regard in public perception.

Nassauer (1995) states that human landscape perception, cognition, and

values are closely related processes, all of which act in human aesthetic
experience. Study and research on landscape aesthetics and specifically
landscape preference have been started since the 1960s and currently, there
have been proposed various approaches for studying urban landscape
aesthetics.

Aesthetic approaches in urban landscape - Among the existing

approaches related to the nature of aesthetics, the two general objective
and subjective approaches have been more attending than other approaches
.In relation to these two approaches in the urban landscape, at first, the
objective approach and then the subjective approaches have been proposed.

Picturesque is a good sample of objective aesthetics by the emphasis on

visual-artistic quality of urban landscape such as plurality and variety,

proportion, naturalism and an organic system in form and colour

combinations. This view has been promoted by some theorists such as
Sitte (1945), Halprin (1966) and Gibberd (1970). However, urban
aesthetics concepts have gradually been transferred from the
objective/emotional approach and emphasis on visual qualities to the

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 subjective/perceptual studies of the urban environment Kaplan studies
show that aesthetic preferences cannot be separated from the examination
of the mental concepts of individuals relative to the place. Because the
perception of beauty is related to personal emotions and the person's mental
background.

According to the objective explanation of aesthetic quality, beauty must be

found in the features of that thing and, based on the mental explanation, is
the focal point of aesthetics in the human mind (observer's sight). The
following is a brief overview of these approaches.

Objective aesthetics approach - As mentioned, in this approach, beauty

is the intrinsic quality of the landscape. This approach is often used for
management purposes and is looking for physical features. Evaluations in
this approach are done by trained experts or observers. Ecological and
formal, are two main approaches of objective view to study urban landscape
aesthetics (Lothian, 1999).

Ecological approach: The basis for this approach is based on naturalness.

In fact, this approach tends to define the quality of aesthetics based on
biological conditions such as ground topography, hydrology, vegetation and
animal life .Measurement of aesthetic values is done by considering the
amount of disruption and incompatibility that management and development
of areas with natural environment have created.

Formal aesthetics: This approach is based on the belief that aesthetic

values exist in abstract aspects of the landscape .These properties are based
on formal properties that incorporate base components such as lines, forms,
colours, and shapes. Experts' judgments about diversity, harmony, unity and
contrast are among the basic elements of the fundamentals of aesthetic
values in this approach.

Subjective aesthetics approach - Beauty is a quality in the eyes of the

viewer. This approach usually has a theoretical framework and aims to
assess the preference of humans in facing or participating in a landscape. In
assessing the preferences of people who have a mental trend, approaches
such as phenomenology, psychology, psycho-physical, cognitive, and
empirical have been introduced.

Psychophysical approach: In this way, people's opinions about landscape

beauty or landscape properties are being examined by visual questionnaire

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 by landscape architects or environmental psychologists. The dominant
methodology in this study is widely used in behavioural approaches .

Psychological approach: This approach looks for human meanings related

to the landscape and its creatures, which is done by environmental
psychologists. Behavioural approaches to this study are considered as a
main aspect of the study. In fact, data from observers is gathered in relation
to past experiences or future expectations or socio-cultural conditions.
regarding this, geographer Natalie Blanc emphasizes on shared sensibility as
a fundamental factor of aesthetics of nature.

Phenomenological approach: The purpose of this research approach is to

explore on mental experiences with interpreting paintings, pictures and
poetry and expressing their stories by phenomenologists and
psychologists, In fact, such studies have taken the human approach with a
landscape phenomenon.

Experiential approach: This approach is the result of the interaction

between human and landscape, and the shaping of the landscape is created
in an interactive process. Indeed, the active participation of observers in the
environment leading to landscape assessment is described in a way that is
due to the development of a person's personal sense of interaction with the
environment.

In general, in the twentieth century, the objective approach was widely used
in urban management and versus, major research projects were conducted
with a subjective approach based on public judgments.

2.FUNCTION
Urban Landscape function is changed to the significant concept in
policymaking. One of the most important challenges at the landscape is
deciding on the optimal allotment and management of different land use
alternatives and services which encounter different groups of experts such
as policymakers, urban planner, urban manager and landscape architect to
the complex problem. Land use management and adopting the best decision
and applying the maximum potential of urban spaces is one of the main
challenges facing the different groups of experts such as policymakers,
urban planners, urban managers and landscape architects.

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 Generally, different and sometimes conflicting criteria and selecting a
suitable alternative, convert the urban landscape policy to the kind of Multi-
Criteria decision making (MCDM) problem. The correct and proper
understanding of the concept of urban landscape function requires a series
of preparations, which are referred to below.

Types of activities - Quality and quantity of Activities in an urban

environment can influence the people to stop and interact in these spaces.
Public spaces provide the situation for the widest range of daily activities to
periodic celebrations, individual or collective, active and passive (Gehl,
1987).

Based on the classification of Activities can be divided into three categories,

depending on whether they are compulsory or optional: Necessary activities
(such as shopping, going to school or work, etc.). Optional activities (such as
going to the park or cinema, swimming, etc.) And social activities (such as
watching others, talking, catching attention, etc.). Necessary activities are
carried out without being related to the physical environment, while the
Optional activities depend on qualities which have been provided by space
for the people and also activities which they are persuaded to do. To the
extent that space is more desirable, more optional activities are carried out
and the duration of the necessary activities increases. Social activities that
involve children's play, listening, talking, Communicating and seeing and
hearing other people are the result of the quality and duration of other types
of activities because they occur when people meet each other in special
circumstances (Figure 3).

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 When all types of activities take place together and complete each other, the
collective spaces of cities become meaningful and attractive.

In this regard, Carr et al (1992) argue that urban spaces in addition to being
meaningful and democratic must meet the needs of "comfort, relaxation,
passive engagement with the environment, active engagement with the
environment and discovery". Good places mostly consider more than one
purposes.

Nature needs which directly related to physical features of the environment

are "contact with nature", "aesthetic preference", and "recreation and play".
Human interaction needs also include the issues of "social interaction and
privacy", "citizen participation in the design process", and "sense of
community identity". He adds that well-being and behaviour of users
intensely are affected by urban landscape design.

Response to human needs According to the last mentions, it can be said

human needs in the environment can be divided into the two groups of
mental and behavioural needs. Therefore, responding to these needs is the
main duty of the urban landscape in the concept of function and can help to
reach good quality of the environment. Based on Figure 4, Consideration of
function as one of the key purposes of the urban landscape and paying
attention to the correct role of that, can make the environment as
responsive space and also increases optional activities in the Environment.
In this situation, presence in the environment and having active
engagement with the urban environment can improve the urban landscape
perception.

Urban quality As previously mentioned, a more favourable space, more

human contact and more interaction .In this situation, human needs are
answered and a good context for behavioural patterns is created. But what
can be done to achieve this quality? On the one hand, diversity in quality
concept, on the other hand, the human hierarchical perception that
perceives quality through both its objective and subjective perception, has
led to a variety of qualities, including the "fact related qualities" and "ego-
related qualities" which address objectivity and subjectivity. In this regard,
many scientists try to achieve the desired quality and meet the needs of
inhabitant in the urban environment by introducing various criteria. Some of
these criteria include: Legibility, Proportions, Imageability, accessibility,
Functional compatibility, liveability, continuity,

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 flexibility, stewardship, diversity, naturalness, safety, enclosure, complexity,
and visual aspect Therefore, urban landscape can apply its proper functional
role by considering these criteria to reach a favourable quality.

3.IDENTITY
―Identitas‖ is the Latin root of ―identity‖ which it means is ―sameness‖. Identity
is "the distinguishing character or personality of an individual" according to
Webster’s Tenth Collegiate Dictionary, (2003). In fact, the identity is the
human beings interpretation from his association with history over the time,
a history related to the various components of the life of "man of today".
Human identity is a multi-dimensional narrative that embraces many of the
subjective and objective arenas of its life; an interpretation of the
interaction of these components. In other definition, defines identity as
"subjective feeling of self-sameness and continuity over time in different
places and social situations". In general, it can be stated Identity is a set of
material and spiritual attachments of a man whose principles have already
been formed, so identity is the issue that can vary in different situations in
different people and societies.

Identity concept in urban and landscape The intrinsic desire of a human

to discover his identity makes the man-made and artificial environments also
valuable. In the book of "Place and Placelessness" written by Relph (1976),

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 need for place identity was highlighted as follows: ―A deep human need
exists for associations with significant places‖ Lynch (1981) also defines
identity as ―the extent to which a person can recognize or recall a place as
being distinct from other places‖. Place identity can be boosted by memory
and hope of communities.

Cities like humans and places have an identity; the dynamic and changing
identity. The city's public identity is intertwined with our imagination of
urban landscapes. The urban landscape indicates the lifestyle of the
residents, their interactions and their activities, the values and beliefs of the
inhabitants, the affiliations of the city to the geographical location, time,
climate, economy, society and politics residents, their interactions and their
activities, the values and beliefs of the inhabitants, the affiliations of the city
to the geographical location, time, climate, economy, society and politics

4.ECOLOGY
Landscape ecology is one of the youngest branches of ecology that has been
developed in Europe since World War II and has been considered as a
distinct science. Although this term has been introduced since the 1930s,
landscape ecology has become a specialized field since the 80's, when
software and computers applied to help the ecologists and geographers.
Today, landscape ecology is a well-known, specialized field of study by
landscape architects, ecological scientist, geographers and researchers of
the social sciences around the world. Landscape ecology is a complex cross-
sectional discipline that integrated urban ecology early on, first as a special
section but later recognized it as science requiring a consolidated theory. In
fact, visions in landscape ecology gradually have evolved and human as
main part of studies is added, according to this, nowadays the landscape is
recognized as a product of the complex relations between humans and
nature. Some of the definitions proposed by scientists and theorists in this
area are shown in Table 2.

Urban Ecology as a subset of a larger and broader complex concept means

landscape ecology become more and more . Actually, urban Ecology has
been introduced as an interdisciplinary subject, which is the location of the
intersection of different fields of social sciences and biophysical processes.
From the landscape ecology view, the city is a set of disrupted ecosystems
and can be studied its structures, functions and processes from this point of
view. "Patches", "corridors" and the "matrix" are the

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 main elements of landscape ecology which Forman and Godron (1986)
introduced to describe the spatial patterns in natural and rural landscapes.
But that was one of the early methods to study and evaluate urban ecology.

Urban landscape ecology It can be said the integration of landscape

ecology and urban ecology lead to the new Proposition which is called
urban landscape ecology. "Cities are spatially extended, complex adaptive
systems—which we call landscapes." Undoubtedly, cities are the main place
of the future of human life, so inevitably, most of the landscape ecological
studies will be on the cities In simple way, that the landscape ecology study
of urban areas is identical with urban landscape ecology. "More specifically,
it is the science of studying and improving the relationship between urban
landscape pattern and Ecological processes for achieving urban
sustainability."

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 STREET LANDSCAPING
 Landscape and streetscape design should unify the different modules
and help establish a distinct identity.
 Develop streets and public spaces that are pedestrian and bicycle
friendly, environmentally responsible and aesthetically pleasing.
 The landscape plan should mimic natural systems to manage water
quantity and quality, reduce heat island effects, respond to seasonal
temperatures and support wildlife habitat.
 All landscape elements should provide for and reinforce the function of
each specific space: vehicular-oriented streets, pedestrian-oriented
streets, other pedestrian spaces, areas that frame views and vistas,
stormwater management, wildlife habitat.

1. PLANTING

 Landscaped areas should be continuous from one lot to another and

should use landscape materials that are compatible with adjacent lots,
streets, drainage corridors, and landscape easements.
 Landscape areas should be an integral part of the site stormwater
management strategy, through rain gardens, bio-swales and street
planters and curb extensions.
 The campus plan and individual building site plans should utilize the
plant palettes of both: Landscaping with Native Plants.
 Trees should be generally grouped to mimic naturally occurring forest
type groups specific to soil, aspect, and water requirements, with a
variety of types, sizes and species.
 Rows of trees should appropriately parallel and reinforce street
corridors. The use of a variety of types, sizes and species, however, is
encouraged to emphasize different micro-climates,building entrances,
roadway intersections, walkway locations, and other functional
variations.
 Shrubs and understory or small flowering trees should be used, along
with flower beds, to provide seasonal color, visual emphasis and a
comfortable scale for human interaction.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 2. SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

 Utilize native and adapted vegetation that are climate-tolerant to

Tennessee and applicable to sustainable design
 Seek to design no less than 50% of site area as highly reflective or
non-absorptive (excluding building footprint).
 Use pervious/open-grid paving materials to promote stormwater water
infiltration and reduce heat island effect.
 Use light colored paving surfaces with a Solar Reflectance Index
greater than 29 to limit heat island effect.
 Design building façade and site lighting with lighting power densities
that promote safety but, minimize light pollution from the building site.
 Design the placement and fixture styles of site lighting to minimize
illumination above the horizontal plane and to minimize light trespass
at the site boundary.
 Use fixture types designed as ―cutoff ‖and ―full-cutoff ‖styles to
minimize fixture lumens emitted at 90 degrees or higher from straight
down.
 Select exterior fixtures and locate them on the site to minimize light
trespass at the site boundary. Document the foot-candle levels at the
site boundary with a site illumination model.
 On previously undeveloped sites, design the stormwater management
for post-development site discharge rate and volume not to exceed
pre-development discharge rate and volume.
 Design to remove 80% of total suspended solids from first inch of rain
for each rainfall event.

2. SIDEWALKS AND PAVEMENT

 Sidewalks should have a minimum width of 5 feet.

 Sidewalks should be brick on a sand base with brick edging.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 4. FURNISHINGS

Amenities such as outdoor seating and plaza areas for meetings and
gatherings are encouraged throughout. Selected furnishings will add
character as well as create environments for community interaction. The
degree to which site furnishings vary among building sites and campus
spaces should be minimal.

 A single style of streetscape and landscape furnishings should be used

to establish a distinct and unified campus.
 High quality, durable material such as metal should be selected to
minimize maintenance.

Benches

 Benches should be located in courtyards and along major

pedestrian paths, associated with landscaping and shading, and
shielded from vehicles.
 Benches with armrests should be 6 feet in length, solid steel frame,
powder coated, finish color to be determined.
 Backless benches with armrests should be positioned at appropriate
locations for multi-directional seating.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 Seat walls

 Seat walls should be used throughout the campus to provide

convenient sitting opportunities and define landscaping, especially
in outdoor gathering spaces and along major pedestrian paths.
 Seat walls should have smooth cut stone, precast or brick caps.
 Seat walls should be consistent with surrounding buildings in
materials, patterns, and colors.
 Seat wall heights should range from 12 to 20 inches, and the width
should be no less than 16 inches.

Table Sets

 Table sets, all steel components with powder coated finish, finish
color to be determined, should be located throughout the campus in
outdoor seating areas and plazas.

Trash Receptacles

 Trash containers should be placed unobtrusively throughout the

campus at logical gathering areas such as building entries, outdoor
seating locations, intersections of walkways, bus stops and parking
lots.
 Receptacles should be setback 3 feet from walkways.
 Use 24 gallon receptacle with dome lid and 10 inch stainless steel
ashtray.
 All steel components should have powder coated finish, color to be
determined. Lid attached via vinyl-coated aircraft cable, high
density plastic. Liner, rubber tipped leveling feet.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 Bicycle Racks

 Recommended bicycle parking guidelines established by the

Association should be referenced when determining appropriate
bicycle racks and rack area design.
 Bicycle rack areas should be immediately adjacent to the
entrance it serves, preferably within 50 feet, and clearly visible,
without impeding pedestrian movement in and out of the
building.
 Rack elements, such as an inverted ―U‖, should support the
bicycle upright by its frame in two places, prevent the wheel of
the bicycle from tipping over, and enable the frame and one or
both wheels to be secured.
 Comb, toast, schoolyard, and other wheel bending racks that
provide no support for the bicycle frame are not recommended.

Bollards

 Bollards should be used to reinforce street curbs in the absence

of planting strips to provide additional pedestrian safety,
especially adjacent to the main lawns.
 Bollards should not interfere with loading areas, including bus
stops.
 Bollards must accommodate emergency fire access.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 5. RETAINING WALLS

•The design and materials for retaining walls should complement the
principal buildings with regard to color, quality, scale and detail.

6. LIGHTING

Lighting is an integral component of the overall campus design, helping to

establish campus identity, support way finding, contributing to safety and
security, and highlighting important nodes, public spaces and building
entries.

 Recommended light level guidelines and uniformity ratios established

by the concerned authorities should be considered when determining
appropriate lighting design solutions.
 Lighting should minimize glare and light trespass, maximize energy
conservation, and maintain dark skies.
 Street lighting should have a uniform height and be a maximum 25
feet high above the street.
 Pedestrian lighting should have a uniform height and be a maximum
15 feet above the walkway.
 Lighting should be coordinated with tree locations, proposed
landscaping, buildings, driveways, on-street parking, street
furnishings, signage, and sub-street structures.
 Step or bollard lighting should be used to clearly illuminate level
changes and handrails for stairs and ramps. Bollard height shall not
exceed 42 inches and should only be used where a pole light fixture is
not appropriate.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 7. STORMWATER

Stormwater management off ers a twofold opportunity: addressing water

quantity and quality from the site while enhancing public spaces and wildlife
habitat.

 Stormwater management elements such as bioswales, rain gardens

and rain harvesting features should be integrated into the campus and
building site design.
 Stormwater management, grading design and planting selection and
location should be fully coordinated to slow the conveyance and
discharge of water from the site, and provide for groundwater
recharge and planting irrigation.
 Plantings should be supported, to the greatest extent possible, by
detained or captured rainwater, and through drought resistant and
native planting principles. Supplemental irrigation should be confined
to building entry areas.
 To minimize erosion, planting designs should be fully coordinated with
the grading of walkways, parking lots/islands, lawns, pedestrian
plazas/terraces and streets.
 Fine surface grading in the archaeological site should slow and reduce
sheet flows. Groupings of trees should be planted to further reduce
run-off.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 WATERFRONT AREAS
The definition of waterfront area The waterfront area is the confluence area
of water and land. It is not only the edge of land but also the edge of water,
and the land should cover some areas.

This concept illustrated in Figure 1. It is with the highest density of elements

and human activities. They affect each other greatly. In Princeton University
online dictionary, it’s explained as the area of a city (such as a harbor or
dockyard) alongside a body of water.

Most of the waterfront lands are like belts along the coastlines. People want
to make use of these areas, so planners begin to think of a way to make it
attractive for people. How to connect traffic, establish different functions,
and how to communicate with inner cities are the main problems.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 In geographical aspect, the urban landscape is a synthesis of climate, soil,
biology and physiognomy. If it is explained in an ecological aspect, it is an
ecosystem of correlative space. The most popular explanation is that it is the
collection of integrated elements in the space of cities, including landscape
elements, functional characters and cultural character, and most importantly,
the activities of people. The essence of a city is to make the city convenient
for people to live. An integrated landscape includes artificial landscape and
natural landscape. The artificial landscapes include architecture, streets,
squares and so on.

THE EXTENT OF WATERFRONT AREAS

The extent of waterfront areas refers to how large area a waterfront area
can be. In different places, this question is answered differently, because it
depends on many things, such as history, culture, city planning, economic
development and climate. In the book titled Landscape Architecture of
Waterfront, the landscape area is defined as a land 100 feet to 5 miles in
front of shoreline. In my opinion, the landscape area can be defined by the
citizens who live in the city, because they are the users in that waterfront
area. After the research I think 200 to 300 meters is the usual range. (Tang
Jian, 2007)

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 THE STRUCTURE OF WATERFRONT LANDSCAPE

The waterfront landscape can be separated into three parts:

1. Landscape water body.

 This includes water plants, life-forms and other things in the

ecosystem.
 There are also some artificial landscapes, such as bridges and lighting.

2. Areas close to water.

 Examples include waterfront squares, footpaths, architecture,

landmarks, lighting and some artificial landscapes. There is usually a
greenbelt to make the water look beautiful.

3.Human activities. People can do some activities on waterfront areas, such

as recreation or having a picnic.

Waterfront landscapes can be separated by artificial and natural

landscapes:

 Natural landscape, such as water and plants.

 Artificial landscape, such as footpath and waterfront square
 Cultural landscape, such as historical heritage and related stories.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERFRONT LANDSCAPE

Urban waterfront landscape plans are the most complex and difficult plans of
all the landscape plans. Generally, it consists of a greenbelt, architecture,
landscape arrangement and shorelines. A waterfront area is closely related
with water, so it has different landscape characteristics from other places. It
has five characteristics:

1. Natural biological aspect

The structure of water system contains atmosphere, hydrosphere, and

biosphere which are made up of soil and geology, of course there are also
some communities which include animals, plants and microbes. Compared
with other parts of the city, waterfront areas have less changes, especially in
Europe where the environment is well protected, they are not polluted much.
In some developing countries, the situation is serious. In Nanjing China,
Green Algae grow rapidly. Suddenly it covered a large face of the water in

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 Xuanwu Lake, and after the investigation, people find out that it was put in
by planners to restrain another plant, but algae did not have any natural
enemies in that lake, so it quickly grew out of control.

2. Public aspect

Waterfront areas are the most public areas. In an ecological aspect, the
nature of waterfront area makes the ecosystem balanced. In the economic
aspect, waterfront areas have high quality spaces, such as green belts,
squares and sometimes sand beaches. These are often established areas for
shopping, taking a walk and relaxing. In China, waterfront landscapes are
usually very important in the cities, and the government often build a
largescale planning as a land mark of the city.

3. Historical cultural aspect

Many years ago in ancient times, many of the urban waterfront areas were
the original places for people to live. It became the first place to be
developed; it greatly affected the development of cities. Water is also the
door to communicate with other cities in transporting, trading, information
and culture, at that time all the transportation was done on water. So the
culture emerged first in the waterfront areas.

4. Diversity characteristic

Diversity characteristic can be seen in three aspects. In physiognomy

aspect, it’s made up of water, field, and superposition. In spatial division
aspect, it includes architecture, city and landscape. In ecosystem aspect, it
is made up of system in water and system on lands. So the natural
landscape in waterfront areas is abundant.

5. Characteristic aspect

In Kevin Lynch’s famous work, The Images of the City published in 1960, he
said that space has five elements:

1. Paths, such as the streets, sidewalks, trails, and some other channels;

2. Edges, perceived boundaries such as walls, buildings, and shorelines;

3.Districts, relatively large sections of the city distinguished by some identity

or character;

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 4. Nodes, such as focal points and intersections;

5.Landmarks, readily identifiable objects which serve as reference points.

Channels are the easiest one among these that people can feel; waterfront
space is the most obvious channel. (Kevin Lynch, 1960)

THE PLANNING OF WATERFRONT LANDSCAPE

The content of waterfront landscape

Waterfront landscape is a mixture of natural and artificial things.

Nowadays, artificial plan and design is the main way that people
usually use.

The main contents in landscape design in waterfront area are:

1. The overall division and programming of functions.

Using the overall division and programming of functions, landscape

architects can make good use of the land well, create reasonable
landscape programming. This is the basic step after researching the
area.

2. Traffic programming

This is how to connect the traffic outside and inside of the waterfront
area together.

3. Shoreline

There are different configurations of the shoreline. Figure 2, 3 and 4

illustrate three configurations of the shoreline:

4.Some details such as pavement and statues can show the history
and culture of this waterfront. The waterfront areas should have six
functions: trade, relaxing recreation, education, environment,
residence and open port.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING

To make the waterfront area more reasonable and comfortable for

citizens, we usually need to follow these principles:

1.When we plan the waterfront area, we need to think about the plan
of the inner city, which needs to base on the overall city planning.
After the overall city planning, planners will know which land will be
used as waterfront land. In traffic aspect, the traffic should be firmly
connected with the traffic in the inner city. Complementarities are also
a way to renew the landscape in the future.

2.Sustainable development principle - Sustainable development

can be explained in four aspects. First, sustainable development in a
biological aspect: How to keep balance of the ecosystem of the
animals, plants, soil and water is the main problem in city planning.
Therefore, how to optimize the ecosystem is a great subject in
planning. Secondly, sustainable development in the economic aspect.
A lot of waterfront areas were previously industrial areas, so some
areas next to the water are polluted. On the other hand, the structure
of architecture. is mixed up. So it is often necessary to change the
structure of economy, by making the area a multi- economic area
which includes culture, residence and sightseeing. Thirdly, sustainable
development in the social culture aspect How to renew the waterfront
area and represent the connotation is the core of planning. Fourth,
sustainable development in the technology aspect Some problems in
planning can be solved with technology such as energy, traffic and
engineering. Planning can be made more systematize and scientific.

3.Diversity principle - ―Diversity‖ can mean many things, such as

diversity in function, diversity in space and diversity of different
classes of people. Diversity in function accelerates the diversity of
people’s level by bringing new life styles to the city. Diversity is based
on people’s needs. Nowadays, people require more and more, so the
planning should be diversity to meet people’s needs. Waterfront land is
a desirable place, so it’s seldom used for some people, such as for
older people or children. However it should be for people of all ages,
so it needs integrated functions.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 4.Pay attention to the mixture of tradition and modernization There is
an adage in China- ―the more traditional the more beautiful‖. There are
two ways to mix the tradition and modernization; one is to use some
traditional details in modern planning, another is to use modern details
in traditional plan. Both of these ways is a basic ways to plan.

5.Keep close with water - People are born to love water. Some
years age, the riverbanks were high and thick, block off people and
water. Now people can handle the water well, so they like to be as
close as possible. According to the demand of the citizens, some big
steps close to water are often designed.

6.Elevation drawing - When we do the planning, we can not just do

the plane planning, but we should also consider the vertical face. It is
just like when we draw the pictures; we need to draw the ichnography,
plan and also the elevation drawings. Elevation planning has many
functions: sometimes it can separate a land as the figure 5 shows. The
Western Harbor also uses this way to separate the land, which will be
explained in the fourth section.

7. Advanced technology principle - As technology develops, people

need something now, something they do not see before. So many new
kind of materials are used, such as water screens and laser light
fountains.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 URBAN CENTRES
A cluster of contiguous grid cells of 1 km² (excluding diagonals) with a
population density of at least 1 500 inhabitants per km² and collectively a
minimum population of 50 000 inhabitants after gap-filling.

An urban area, or built-up area, is a human settlement with a high

population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are
created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as
cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs. In urbanism, the term contrasts to
rural areas such as villages and hamlets; in urban sociology or urban
anthropology it contrasts with natural environment. The creation of early
predecessors of urban areas during the urban revolution led to the creation
of human civilization with modern urban planning, which along with other
human activities such as exploitation of natural resources led to a human
impact on the environment. "Agglomeration effects" are in the list of the
main consequences of increased rates of firm creation since. This is due to
conditions created by a greater level of industrial activity in a given region.
However, a favorable environment for human capital development would
also be generated simultaneously.

Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of

urbanization. Urban areas are measured for various purposes, including
analyzing population density and urban sprawl.

Unlike an urban area, a metropolitan area includes not only the urban area,
but also satellite cities plus intervening rural land that is socio-economically
connected to the urban core city, typically by employment ties through
commuting, with the urban core city being the primary labor market.

The concept of an "urban area" as used in economic statistics should not be

confused with the concept of the "urban area" used in road safety statistics.
The last concept is also known as "built-up area in road safety". According to
the definition by the Office for National Statistics, "Built-up areas are defined
as land which is 'irreversibly urban in character', meaning that they are
characteristic of a town or city. They include areas of built-up land with a
minimum of 20 hectares (200,000 m2; 49 acres). Any areas [separated by]
less than 200 metres [of non-urban space] are linked to become a single
built-up area.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 GREEN ROOF
The green roof will not be a place for people to gather, but rather an
aesthetically pleasing alternative rooftop visible from key areas within the
building. Yet again, maybe the green roof will not be seen by anyone. Green
roof design often requires balancing desire, need, and finances. Establishing
a green roof can be a simultaneously rewarding and exasperating
experience. One can take an otherwise drab and unappealing area atop a
building and transform it into a remarkable green space. One may also
spend several months working on a project only to have the green roof
eliminated due to budgetary constraints. In order to give a green roof
project every chance to succeed, it is important to clearly identify the intent
and limitations specific to the project. The first section of this book will
discuss design options, benefits, and ramifications. Designing a green roof is
not necessarily a linear process. Although it is best to attempt to address
issues in a logical order, one must often revisit earlier portions of the design
to tweak, refine, and on occasion, scrap and start over. The goal is to design
a green roof that will come to fruition, meet the intent of the design, and
become a source of pride for its owner.

WHY GREEN ROOF?

Why is the owner of this structure interested in building this particular green
roof? The answers to this question will give those involved in the project
some direction as they develop their vision of the green roof project. To
obtain the answers needed, one must ask some more specific questions

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 about the green roof he or she wants to build. It’s best to start with the
desired use of the rooftop space. Will people gather and congregate on the
green roof? If the answer is yes, then the green roof is likely a rooftop
garden for the enjoyment of visitors. If the answer is no, the green roof will
be designed to meet visual, environmental, and regulatory goals. Many
design considerations will need to be addressed based on building a rooftop
garden versus a green roof.

WHERE IS THE GREEN ROOF BEING BUILT?

At this point, the general scope of the project has been determined and
some weight and access issues that will affect the final design have been
considered. However, the focus has been limited to the rooftop; next, it will
be expanded to include the area around the building. This section will look at
the project location and the important elements that will impact the green
roof. In this important phase of design, one must consider the conditions
that will shape the plant selection palette. Here the idea of the color and
texture of the rooftop space is fleshed out. The orientation of the roof area
will be considered first.

Hoisting The height of the building section dictates several aspects of the
green roof design. It has been stated that good green roof construction is all
in the material handling. The volume and weight of the green roof material,
especially growth media, makes roof loading a challenge. The taller the
building, the more expensive it will be to get material to the rooftop. The
following categories simplify consideration of height for material hoisting:
rooftops below 20 feet, rooftops between 20 and 120 feet, and rooftops
higher than 120 feet. Rooftops between 20 and 120 feet typically require the
use of a crane to hoist material to the rooftop. Conducting operations at this
height requires a great deal of skill and coordination. Using a crane to hoist
material requires experience in rigging loads for hoisting, the use of hand
signals and radio equipment to communicate with the crane operator,
understanding of point loading capacity of the roof deck, and safety practices
and regulations for rooftop activities and other hoisting procedures. The
typical hoisting operation is conducted by six or more highly paid tradesmen.
Coordination of material delivery times and crane availability is critical to
avoid paying workers to wait on the arrival of hoisting equipment.

Wind Winds are often greater at higher elevations. Consideration of winds

blowing across the rooftop will affect the plant selection and placement.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 Taller, upright plants catch wind and may need to be situated away from the
roof edge where winds are stronger. Supplemental anchoring may be
necessary to allow these taller plants a chance to establish roots capable of
withstanding wind loads. The perimeter of the roof is affected by a
phenomenon known as wind vortex, where wind travels up the wall of the
building and creates negative pressure at the roof surface as it swirls along
the roof edge. It may be necessary to incorporate ―no plant zones‖ in these
areas. Often concrete pavers are used to add additional weight to counter
wind uplift forces along the roof perimeter. Even on the interior regions of
the roof, strong winds can wreak havoc on the green roof surface. Well-
rooted and established plants help hold the growth media to prevent
scouring. The use of wind blankets may be necessary to offer protection
against scouring until plants can be established.

Shadowing Taller structures in close proximity to the green roof may cast
shadows over the green roof. Depending on the orientation, shadows may
fall over the roof surface at various times throughout the day as well as
throughout the year. Care must be taken to match the sunlight requirement
of the selected green roof plant species with the sunlight available on the
also be used to one’s advantage. Plants that are less tolerant of heat can be
positioned to take advantage of the morning sunlight while afternoon
shading provides relief from the heat. Green roofs in constant shade require
careful plant selection. Some plant species may have a distinctly different
appearance when fully shaded than when exposed to direct sunlight. Some
species will not tolerate winter shading in northern climates. It is best to
embark on shaded green roof projects with realistic expectations regarding
the trial and error necessary to develop a plant scheme that will thrive on
the chosen rooftop

Reflection Adjacent vertical walls constructed of glass or reflective metal

cladding reflect and amplify the intensity of sunlight. Sunrays bouncing off
these surfaces can quickly dry out the growth media and dehydrate plants.
These areas require extremely drought- and heat-tolerant plant species and
may require more frequent irrigation. Increasing the growth media depth will
help to buffer the heat gain and retain more water to help keep the plants
hydrated. The radiant heat in these areas may also extend the plant growth
period in northern climates by warming the roof surface.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 Access Adjacent building sections can both enhance and inhibit access to
the rooftop on which the green roof will be built. Doorways and windows
through adjacent building sections provide easy access to the rooftop.
However, adjacent building sections may prohibit crane and forklift access to
the rooftop, requiring material to be conveyed through the building or over
the top of adjacent roofs. This requires double handling of material and can
significantly increase the cost of the green roof. Modular green roof systems
are particularly attractive for these situations as the growth media and
plants are contained in individual modules.

Exposure Taller adjacent building sections can dramatically reduce the wind
and extreme weather exposure for a green roof. Green roofs oriented
downwind of prevailing weather patterns will experience less wind-driven
rain and snow. However, upwind orientation will result in greater snow drifts
against the taller structure and greater accumulation of water along the base
of the adjacent wall.

Taller adjacent building sections can also provide visibility of the green roof
from the interior of the building. Planting strategies for these green roofs
may include evergreen species that provide vibrant foliage during the winter
months. Flowering annuals can be used for adding spring and summertime
color. Green roofs that are visible from the interior of the building become an
amenity allowing interaction with the occupants and adding value to the
property.

Rain water harvesting Taller adjacent buildings afford a unique

opportunity to capture rainwater from higher elevations to use for the
irrigation of a green roof. Strategic location of gutters and downspouts can
allow the use of rain barrels and cisterns to store rainfall while diverting
storm water runoff from overburdened storm water systems. The capacity of
the rain barrels or cisterns, combined with the retention capacity of the
growth media, can play an important role in the overall project storm-water
management plan. It is necessary to consider the point loading of these
rainwater storage strategies to ensure that there is adequate structural
capacity to support the weight of the collection vessel. Ongoing research is
studying the collection of condensation water from rooftop air-conditioning
equipment that may expand the water-harvesting strategy beyond that of
only rainfall. As supplemental irrigation dramatically expands the plant select
options and may also permit a reduction of growth media depth to meet

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 structural limitations, rainwater harvesting is becoming an integral
component of green roof design.

Rooftop equipment Heating, air-conditioning, and ventilation (HVAC)

equipment located on the rooftop can impact the green roof design and vice
versa. Discharge from exhaust fans can contain fumes that are harmful to
the green roof plants. For example, kitchen exhaust fans often require
grease traps, which contain fat drippings that are harmful to plants and roof
membranes. Grease traps typically require routine maintenance so it is
important to plan for providing access to this equipment as well as for larger
HVAC equipment.

Solar equipment Solar and photovoltaic equipment is oftenlocated on

rooftops as part of a sustainable design and construction strategy. This
equipment may require additional roof penetrations that must be sealed into
the roofing or waterproofing. Setting plants back from these areas will allow
for routine inspection of the flashings and for required repairs or
maintenance to be conducted easily. The panels often cast shade over the
roof and should be factored into plant selection for these areas. Studies have
shown that green roofs’ abilities to lower the ambient air temperatures near
the roof surface enhance the efficiency of photovoltaic operation.

ADVANTAGES OF GREEN ROOFS

1. Improve the drainage system

Sustainable drainage is an important component of any building, as a

way to counter flooding in the event of excess rainfall. Traditionally, a
network of pipes connected to the sewage system has helped control
water. However, as a result of increasing urban development, as much
as 75% of water is running off into urban areas.

Global warming isn’t helping the cause either and the risk of flooding is
heightened throughout the UK. To counter this threat, green roofs are
a terrific option. Water is stored in plants and substrate, before being
released back into the environment naturally.

2. Increase the lifespan of the roof

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 A rooftop is continually under attack from the elements and has plenty
to cope with throughout the year. Not only will a roof need to
sufficiently deal with wind and rain, but ultraviolet light and fluctuating
temperatures too. As such, it’s common for both homeowners and
businesses to consider an alternative option for the roof.

Green roofs offer this opportunity and have proved to double or even
triple the life expectancy of your rooftop. The barrier of greenery helps
protect the waterproof membrane underneath and ensure your
rooftop’s life expectancy lasts well for decades.

3. Boosting thermal performance

Without doubt, one of a green roof’s most beneficial advantages is

thermal performance and it’s staggering just how much of a difference
this can make. One of the biggest problems facing a typical roof is
poor insulation, leading to substantial heat loss in winter and
sweltering conditions over the summer months.

This all changes with the aid of a green roof. By implementing a green
roof you can ensure to improve energy efficiency and limit the usage
of air conditioning too. Plants absorb the sun’s energy and therefore
reduce the temperature of the roof in summer, whilst aiding thermal
efficiency in the colder winter by locking heat inside.

4.Helping out the environment

The release of carbon dioxide is one of the key contributing factors to

global warming and as such, the government has been charged with
meeting stringent EU targets by 2020. Green roofs are ideal for doing
exactly this. According to the UKQBC, 44% of total CO2 emissions are
released from buildings.

In a similar vein to the point above, green roofs reduce the need for
air conditioning, whilst also ensuring less heat is required for the
winter. Both air con and the generation of heat create CO2.

5.Supporting wildlife habitats

Green roofs also help support wildlife and in turn, can create a healthy
habitat. Whilst they won’t directly replace ground environments,

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 they’re perfect for attracting birds and other wildlife to create a
thriving eco-friendly habitat.

Each green roof will support varying habitats, dependent largely on the
type of vegetation included. According to a survey in Switzerland, the
study of 11 green rooftops found there to be an incredible 172
separate species.

6.Aiding air quality

Air pollution remains an important issue in the UK and staggeringly

there are some 24,000 who die from this every year. As you would
expect, air pollution is a greater problem in urban areas, especially the
larger cities such as London and Birmingham.

A green roof helps to improve the overall air quality. According to a

study, green roofs help reduce up to:

37% of sulfer dioxide

21% of nitrous acid

0.2kg of dust particles / square metre each year.

DISADVANTAGES OF GREEN ROOFS

A greater expense than traditional roofs

Unfortunately for green roofs, they do tend to be slightly more

expensive than the traditional option. One of the significant reasons
for this being the extra support required to handle the increased load.

However, despite the greater initial setback, over time these green
roofs more than make up for the outlay. When you consider the range
of incredible benefits highlighted earlier, there should be no reason to
allow cost to play a determining role in your decision.

An increase in weight load

There’s no doubt about it, green roofs are heavier and as such, require
more structural support to be implemented. Typically, the addition of a
green roof will add between 50 and 200kg/metre squared to an
existing rooftop. Although some rooftops will need to be retrofitted to

LANDSCAPE DESIGN
 cope with the increase in load, fortunately flat roofs are often able to
handle this capacity.

Require extra maintenance

There seems to be much debate as to the full extent of maintenance

required for a green roof, however what’s clear is you’ll need to do
some work to ensure it remains a thriving atmosphere. You should
treat your green roof as a garden and as such, it will require watering,
feeding and weeding. You could undertake this yourself or even
employ someone to take care of the space. Either way, it’s great to
keep on top of this brilliant green area.

GREEN WALLS/ VERTICAL LANDSCAPING

The lack of vegetation in urbanized areas, as result of human
establishments, directly affects the quality of life, from physical and
aesthetical point of view. The construction of vertical gardens is
recommended both in interiors and especially in the exterior of buildings. By
applying these technologies, any kind of area can be used at its maximum
capacity, obtaining esthetic valences, benefic for environment and human
health. Even if the price of constructing and maintaining the vertical gardens
is higher than a classical landscape it’s compensated by the environmental
benefits, raising the vegetation surfaces, with impact for reducing the
pollution effect. The new modern concepts for landscape development are
keen on using any kind of concrete or glass, turning them in real vertical
gardens, being possible to overcome the development of the urban areas
making a smooth transition for a healthy green urban environment.Vertical
Gardening is a special kind of urban gardening suitable to small spaces,
particularly for decorating the walls and roofs in various styles. This is an
alternative method for gardening by expanding the scope of growing plants
in a vertical space. Intensive urbanization has left hardly any horizontal
space for outdoor gardens. Green walls are not only spectacularly beautiful,
but also helpful in enlivening the ambiance. Green walls can absorb heated
gas in the air, lower both indoor and outdoor temperature, providing a
healthier indoor air quality as well as a more beautiful space.

General considerations:

 Watering: Appropriate time

 Carefull selection for wind prone areas (Succulent and hardy plants)
 Removing the dried leaves
 Keeping the structure clean

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  Disposing the water from drainage system
 Pruning if necessary
 Timely application of fertilizers

Benefits of Vertical gardening:

1. Aesthetic effects
2. Acts as natural insulation for hot and cold air and a save energy
for your building
3. Reduces CO2 levels and increases oxygen and improved air quality
4. Conserves water and watering takes less effort
5. Sound absorption and noise absorption
6. Improves thermal insulation and energy efficiency
7. Provides protection to buildings from adverse temperature and
hence improves the life expectancy of the buildings
8. Mitigate urban island heat effect
9. It holds rain water, providing food and shelter for wildlife

Types of vertical greening system:

i) Green façade
ii) Living/green wall

 Modular green walls

 Vegetated mat wall

 Green facades:

 Green facades are a type of green wall system in which climbing plants
or cascading groundcovers are trained to cover specially designed
supporting structures.
 Plants are either grown in the ground or in the elevated containers
where they are watered and fertilized

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 Green facades are a type of green wall system in which climbing plants or
cascading groundcovers are trained to cover specially designed supporing
structures. Rooted at the base of these structure, in the ground, in
intermediate planters or even on achieving full coverage. Green facades can
be anchored to existing walls or built as freestanding structure, such as
fences or columns.

Green walls / Living walls : Living wall system composed of pre-

vegetated panels, vertical modules or planted blankets that are fixed
vertically to a structural wall or frame. These panels can be made of plastic,
expanded polystyrene, synthetic fabric and support a great diversity of
plants species ( eg: a lush mixture of ferns, ground covers, perennials and
edible plants).

Constructed from pre-vegetated panels, vertical modules or planted blankets

(vegetated mat wall) that are fixed to structural framework or to a wall Made
from steel framework, plastic, expanded polystyrene and synthetic fabric to
support a variety of diversity and density of plant species Tend to require
more maintenance such as fertilizer and water than green facade systems
that are planted into the ground.

Modular green wall : Vertical Garden Modules is made up of recycled poly

propylene material. It has attractive look, highly durable in nature and it can
be easily installed. It provides instant solution for making garden in your
residing place.

Green wall cups:

 Frame/ Supporting panel

 Easily detachable cups/pots

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 Vegetated mat wall :This system, pioneered by Patrick Blanc, is composed
of two layers of synthetic fabric with pockets filled with the plants and
growing media .The fabric walls are supported on a framework and backed
by a waterproof membrane against the building wall Nutrients and water are
delivered through an irrigation system at the top of the wall.

Building and installation of Green walls:

Green wall system vary greatly in their design and construction from DIY
projects to modular green wall systems. This heading provides information
on

 Structures and components for green wall system

 Suitable Plants
 Growing media
 Iirrigation and plant nutrition
 General considerations for green walls

Structures and components for green wall system:

Choosing the plants :

The best plants for vertical gardens are dense, compact and low growing.
Make sure you choose species that suit the aspect of the wall on which
they’ll be growing. A wall drenched in sun, for instance, will need a selection

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 of fairly drought-tolerant plants, whereas a shady spot – perhaps under a
pergola or verandah – will require a selection of shade lovers, such as ferns.
Also bear in mind that the bottom of the unit will hold more moisture than
the top, so consider this when you’re deciding what to plant where.

Apart from aesthetic preferences and the plants ability to grow in a soilless,
vertical location; the selection of plants is based on several factors, for
example: What is the local climate like (minimum temperature especially
important to know)? How much sun exposure is each area of the surface
receiving and how does it change during the year? Is there any particular
micro climate — such as high buildings creating strong winds along a wall?
Understanding the prevailing growing conditions is essential to make the
right decision when choosing plants.

Plants suitable for vertical garden : Outdoor plants Peperomia,

Syngoniums, Philodendron, Epipremnum, Begonia, Anthuriums, Nephrolepis,
Chlorophytum, Lantana, Pilea, Rheo discolor, Cuphea, Fittonia,
Spathiphylum, Schefflera

Growing media:

 Requirements:
 Weightless media
 High Water holding capacity
 High Nutrient holding capacity
 Good Porosity
 Neutral pH

Cocopeat, Perlite, Sphagnum moss, vermiculite, vermicompost, shredded

bark and leaf molds are the common media combinations used. Soil in not
used since it increases the weight of the green walls. There are three types
of growth media used in living walls:

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 Loose medium walls tend to be "soil-on-a-shelf" or "soil-in-a-bag"
type systems. Loose medium systems have their soil packed into a
shelf or bag and then are installed onto the wall. These systems
require their media to be replaced at least once a year on exteriors
and approximately every two years on interiors. Loose soil systems are
not well suited for areas with any seismic activity. Reparations are only
achieved by re-stuffing soil into the holes on the wall, which is both
difficult and messy. Loose-soil systems should not be used in areas
where there will be a lot of public interaction as they are quite messy
and lose their soil little by little over time. Loose-soil systems with
physical media erosion systems are well suited for all green wall
applications.

Mat type systems tend to be either coir fibre or felt mats. Mat media
are quite thin, even in multiple layers, and as such cannot support
vibrant root systems of mature plants for more than three to five years
before the roots overtake the mat and water is not able to adequately
wick through the mats. The method of reparation of these systems is
to replace large sections of the system at a time by cutting the mat
out of the wall and replacing it with new mat. This process
compromises the root structures of the neighbouring plants on the wall
and often kills many surrounding plants in the reparation process.

Structural media are growth medium "blocks" that are not loose,
nor mats, but incorporate the best features of both into a block that
can be manufactured into various sizes, shapes and thicknesses. These
media have the advantage that they do not break down for 10 to 15
years, can be made to have a higher or lower water holding capacity
depending on the plant selection for the wall, can have their pH and
EC's customized to suit the plants, and are easily handled for
maintenance and replacements. They are the most robust option for a
living wall for both exterior applications and for interior applications.
They are also the best choice in areas where high-winds, seismic
activity or heights need to be addressed in the design. Structural
media are superior to the other media for their longevity and high-
level of performance in a variety of circumstances. Depending on the
installation, they do tend to be more expensive to install, but lower
cost to maintain.

Irrigation and plant nutrition:

Green walls cannot be sustained without irrigation. Interruptions to the

water supply are a common cause of plant failure on green walls. Systems
designed with inbuilt irrigation should mitigate plant losses due to

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 inconsistent moisture management, although errors can still occur.
Automated, remotely controllable irrigation systems are used for walls in
high profile locations, or in situations where access is challenging. Note that
the quality, design and costs will vary between different systems. The most
sophisticated systems enable the maintenance supervisor to keep track of
the automated performance of the system, including the volume of irrigation
delivered, its frequency, substrate moisture content, as well as pH and
nutrient levels in the water supply. The settings can be overridden if needed;
for instance, the frequency or duration of irrigation cycles may be increased
on hot days. In hydroponic systems, plant nutrition is delivered by a
fertilizer injection system that releases controlled doses of fertiliser into the
irrigation system (fertigation). Management of fertigation systems and rates
of delivery requires specialist knowledge, as it is more complex than
fertilizing soil or growing media. Hydroponic systems require continual
monitoring of pH, water hardness and total dissolved solids (TDS), and
adjustment of these parameters where necessary.

Irrigation:

The irrigation system is designed to minimize water consumption. It consists

of an automation-unit with equipment for control of nutrient injection and
irrigation cycles. When a surface has a variation of sun exposures, the
irrigation is divided into segments in order to program it specifically for each
part. Within the multi-layered felt surface a drip-tube is integrated. Water
consumption varies with heat and sun exposure, but compared to normal
green spaces or a lawn, the consumption is normally lower.

It averages between 2-5 l/m2/day.

For hydroponic green wall systems, the fertigation system may apply 0.5-20
litres of irrigation solution per square metre perday. Internal green wall
requirements are at the lower end of this range, and external green walls at
the higher end. Irrigation cycles typically last a few minutes and will be
required several times a day. Keeping irrigation volumes low minimises
waste and reduces run-off. Irrigation run-off may be captured in a tank at
the base of the wall and recycled back through the green wall system. Green
walls that use a high quality, water-retentive growing medium, and are not
in an exposed or particularly hot location, may thrive on a weekly watering
regime. In most simple, soil-based systems, including DIY systems,
controlled release fertiliser is mixed in with the growing medium, rather than
using a fertigation system. Irrigation must be available as soon as the plants
are installed in the wall system. The irrigation system requires a water meter
to monitor irrigation volume, and a pressure gauge to monitor the even
application of water. The need for ongoing regular irrigation and the

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 expectation that water will be used sustainably means that stored
(harvested or recycled) water should be used whenever possible, so a pump
is necessary.

Light:

Direct sunlight can deliver over 100.000 lux whereas the average light level
in an office is around 300-500 lux. Even if the least light demanding species
are used, artificial light is normally necessary indoor. A few species will stay
fine at 900 lux, but a slightly increased level at some parts of the surface will
broaden the variation of species that can be used. An artificially illuminated
surface has shifting light levels, due to the fact that light reduces with the
square of the distance from the light source. Some areas might have 3.000
lux and others 900 lux. The plant design is made with this in mind, taking
advantage of the higher levels for more demanding and interesting species.

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