FINDING THE MAIN IDEA

The main idea of a paragraph is the author's message about the topic. It is often expressed
directly or it can be implied.
WHERE ARE MAIN IDEAS FOUND?
 It is easy to identify a main idea that is directly expressed in the text.
o Main ideas are often found at the beginning of paragraphs. The first sentence
often explains the subject being discussed in the passage.
o Main ideas are also found in the concluding sentences of a paragraph. The
main idea can be expressed as a summation of the information in the paragraph
as well as a link to the information in the next paragraph.
 The main idea is not always clearly stated. It is more difficult to identify a main idea
when it is inferred or implied. It can be implied through other words in the paragraph.
An implied main idea can be found in several ways.
o Several sentences in a paragraph can imply the main idea by introducing facts
about the topic before actually stating the topic.
o Implied ideas can be drawn from facts, reasons, or examples that give hints or
suggestions concerning the main idea. These hints will be clues leading you to
discover the main idea in the selected text.
o Try the passage below to see if you can pick out the main idea.
To many parents, the infant's crying may be mainly an irritation, especially if it
continues for long periods. But crying serves important functions for the child
as well as for the parents. For the child, crying helps improve lung capacity and
the respiratory system. Perhaps more important, the cry serves as a signal of
distress. When babies cry, they indicate that they are hungry or in pain, and this
is important information for parents.
 Use the hints below to determine the correct main idea of this paragraph.
o After reading a paragraph ask, "What point is the author making in this
passage?"
o Ask the following questions:

Who - Does this passage discuss a person or group of people?

When - Does the information contain a reference to time?
Where - Does the text name a place?
Why - Do you find a reason or explanation for something that
happened?
How - Does this information indicate a method or a theory?

Identifying Topics, Main Ideas, and Supporting Details

Understanding the topic, the gist, or the larger conceptual framework of a textbook chapter, an
article, a paragraph, a sentence or a passage is a sophisticated reading task. Being able to draw

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conclusions, evaluate, and critically interpret articles or chapters is important for overall
comprehension in college reading. Textbook chapters, articles, paragraphs, sentences, or
passages all have topics and main ideas. The topic is the broad, general theme or message. It
is what some call the subject. The main idea is the "key concept" being expressed. Details,
major and minor, support the main idea by telling how, what, when, where, why, how much,
or how many. Locating the topic, main idea, and supporting details helps you understand the
point(s) the writer is attempting to express. Identifying the relationship between these will
increase your comprehension.

Applying Strategy
The successful communication of any author's topic is only as good as the organization the
author uses to build and define his/her subject matter.

Grasping the Main Idea:

A paragraph is a group of sentences related to a particular topic, or central theme. Every
paragraph has a key concept or main idea. The main idea is the most important piece of
information the author wants you to know about the concept of that paragraph.

When authors write they have an idea in mind that they are trying to get across. This is
especially true as authors compose paragraphs. An author organizes each paragraph's main
idea and supporting details in support of the topic or central theme, and each paragraph
supports the paragraph preceding it.

A writer will state his/her main idea explicitly somewhere in the paragraph. That main idea
may be stated at the beginning of the paragraph, in the middle, or at the end. The sentence in
which the main idea is stated is the topic sentence of that paragraph.

The topic sentence announces the general theme ( or portion of the theme) to be dealt with in
the paragraph. Although the topic sentence may appear anywhere in the paragraph, it is
usually first - and for a very good reason. This sentence provides the focus for the writer
while writing and for the reader while reading. When you find the topic sentence, be sure to
underline it so that it will stand out not only now, but also later when you review.

Identifying the Topic:

The first thing you must be able to do to get at the main idea of a paragraph is to identify the
topic - the subject of the paragraph. Think of the paragraph as a wheel with the topic being the
hub - the central core around which the whole wheel (or paragraph) spins. Your strategy for
topic identification is simply to ask yourself the question, "What is this about?" Keep asking
yourself that question as you read a paragraph, until the answer to your question becomes
clear. Sometimes you can spot the topic by looking for a word or two that repeat. Usually you
can state the topic in a few words.

Let us try this topic-finding strategy. Reread the first paragraph on this page - the first
paragraph under the heading Grasping the Main Idea. Ask yourself the question, "What is
this paragraph about?" To answer, say to yourself in your mind, "The author keeps talking
about paragraphs and the way they are designed. This must be the topic - paragraph

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organization." Reread the second paragraph of the same section. Ask yourself "What is this
paragraph about?" Did you say to yourself, "This paragraph is about different ways to
organize a paragraph"? That is the topic. Next, reread the third paragraph and see if you can
find the topic of the paragraph. How? Write the topic in the margin next to this paragraph.
Remember, getting the main idea of a paragraph is crucial to reading.

The bulk of an expository paragraph is made up of supporting sentences (major and minor
details), which help to explain or prove the main idea. These sentences present facts, reasons,
examples, definitions, comparison, contrasts, and other pertinent details. They are most
important because they sell the main idea.

The last sentence of a paragraph is likely to be a concluding sentence. It is used to sum up a

discussion, to emphasize a point, or to restate all or part of the topic sentence so as to bring
the paragraph to a close. The last sentence may also be a transitional sentence leading to the
next paragraph.

Of course, the paragraphs you'll be reading will be part of some longer piece of writing - a
textbook chapter, a section of a chapter, or a newspaper or magazine article. Besides
expository paragraphs, in which new information is presented and discussed, these longer
writings contain three types of paragraphs: introductory, transitional, and summarizing.

Introductory paragraphs tell you, in advance, such things as (1) the main ideas of the chapter
or section; (2) the extent or limits of the coverage; (3) how the topic is developed; and (4) the
writer's attitude toward the topic. Transitional paragraphs are usually short; their sole
function is to tie together what you have read so far and what is to come - to set the stage for
succeeding ideas of the chapter or section. Summarizing paragraphs are used to restate briefly
the main ideas of the chapter or section. The writer may also draw some conclusion from
these ideas, or speculate on some conclusion based on the evidence he/she has presented.

All three types should alert you: the introductory paragraph of things to come; the transitional
paragraph of a new topic; and the summarizing paragraph of main ideas that you should have
gotten.

Exercise:
Read the following paragraph and underline the stated main idea. Write down in your own
words what you are able to conclude from the information.

The rules of conduct during an examination are clear. No books, calculators or papers are
allowed in the test room. Proctors will not allow anyone with such items to take the test.
Anyone caught cheating will be asked to leave the room. His or her test sheet will be taken.
The incident will be reported to the proper authority. At the end of the test period, all
materials will be returned to the proctor. Failure to abide by these rules will result in a failing
grade for this test.

Answer:

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You should have underlined the first sentence in the paragraph - this is the stated main idea.
What can be concluded from the information is: If you do not follow the rules, you will
automatically fail the test. This concluding information is found in the last sentence.

Making Inferences and Drawing Conclusions

Read with purpose and meaning

Drawing conclusions refers to information that is implied or inferred. This means that the
information is never clearly stated.

Writers often tell you more than they say directly. They give you hints or clues that help you
"read between the lines." Using these clues to give you a deeper understanding of your
reading is called inferring. When you infer, you go beyond the surface details to see other
meanings that the details suggest or imply (not stated). When the meanings of words are not
stated clearly in the context of the text, they may be implied - that is, suggested or hinted at.
When meanings are implied, you may infer them.

Inference is just a big word that means a conclusion or judgement. If you infer that
something has happened, you do not see, hear, feel, smell, or taste the actual event. But from
what you know, it makes sense to think that it has happened. You make inferences everyday.
Most of the time you do so without thinking about it. Suppose you are sitting in your car
stopped at a red signal light. You hear screeching tires, then a loud crash and breaking glass.
You see nothing, but you infer that there has been a car accident. We all know the sounds of
screeching tires and a crash. We know that these sounds almost always mean a car accident.
But there could be some other reason, and therefore another explanation, for the sounds.
Perhaps it was not an accident involving two moving vehicles. Maybe an angry driver
rammed a parked car. Or maybe someone played the sound of a car crash from a recording.
Making inferences means choosing the most likely explanation from the facts at hand.

There are several ways to help you draw conclusions from what an author may be implying.
The following are descriptions of the various ways to aid you in reaching a conclusion.

If you answered that they are locked up in jail, prison, or a penitentiary, you correctly inferred
the meaning of incarcerated.

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Term: Main Idea

The main idea of a passage or reading is the central thought or message. In

contrast to the term topic, which refers to the subject under discussion, the
term main idea refers to the point or thought being expressed. The
difference between a topic and a main idea will become clearer to you if
you imagine yourself overhearing a conversation in which your name is
repeatedly mentioned. When you ask your friends what they were discussing,
they say they were talking about you. At that point, you have the topic but
not the main idea. Undoubtedly, you wouldn’t be satisfied until you learned
what your friends were saying about this particular topic. You would probably
pester them until you knew the main idea, until you knew, that is, exactly
what they were saying about your personality, appearance, or behavior. The
same principle applies to reading. The topic is seldom enough. You also
need to discover the main idea.

Reading Tips:

1. As soon as you can define the topic, ask yourself.What general point
does the author want to make about this topic? Once you can answer that
question, you have more than likely found the main idea.

2. Most main ideas are stated or suggested early on in a reading; pay

special attention to the first third of any passage, article, or chapter. That’s
where you are likely to get the best statement or clearest expression of the
main idea.

3. Pay attention to any idea that is repeated in different ways. If an author

returns to the same thought in several different sentences or paragraphs,
that idea is the main or central thought under discussion.

4. Once you feel sure you have found the main idea, test it. Ask yourself if
the examples, reasons, statistics, studies, and facts included in the reading
lend themselves as evidence or explanation in support of the main idea you
have in mind. If they do, your comprehension is right on target. If they don’t,
you might want to revise your first notion about the author’s main idea.

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5. The main idea of a passage can be expressed any number of ways. For
example, you and your roommate might come up with the same main idea
for a reading, but the language in which that idea is expressed would
probably be different. When, however, you are asked to find the topic
sentence, you are being asked to find the statement that expresses the main
idea in the author’s words. Any number of people can come up with the
main idea for a passage, but only the author of the passage can create the
topic sentence.

6. If you are taking a test that asks you to find the thesis or theme of a
reading, don’t let the terms confuse you, you are still looking for the main
idea.

Exercise 1

Directions: Read each passage. Then circle the letter of the statement that
effectively sums up the main idea.

1. A number of recent books with titles like Raising Cain, Real Boys, and Lost
Boys all focus on the same issue: Today’s teenaged boys are feeling more anxiety
than ever before about their physical appearance. Bombarded by advertising
featuring well-muscled, semi-clad young men, teenage boys are experiencing what
teenage girls have been coping with for years. They are afraid that they cannot
possibly live up to the media�s idealized image of their gender. Young boys below
the average in height, weight, or both suffer the most. Often, they are brutally
teased by their brawnier peers. Some react to the ridicule by heading for the gym
and lifting weights. Yet even those who successfully bulk up don’t like feeling that
they are considered worthless if they lose their hard-won muscle tone. Others,
convinced that no amount of body building can help, often withdraw from social
contact with their peers. This is their way of avoiding taunts about their size or
shape. Still, they are understandably angry at being badly treated because of their
body type. Although school psychologists generally recognize that boys today are
having severe body image problems, they are at a loss about what to do to solve
those problems.

Main Idea:

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a. More than in previous generations, teenaged boys are getting into body building.

b. Teenaged boys today are showing more anxiety about their physical appearance
than did boys of previous generations.

2. In 1997, the U.S. Consumer Products Safety Commission reported that

skateboarding injuries were up by 33 percent. Mountain climbing injuries were also
up by 20 percent. Similarly, snowboarding injuries showed an increase of thirty-one
percent. By all accounts, many Americans are having a love affair with risky sports;
as a result, they are injuring themselves in ever greater numbers. One reason for
the growing participation in risky, or extreme, sports has been put forth by Dan
Cady, a professor of popular culture at California State University. According to
Cady, previous generations didn’t need to seek out risk. It was all around them in
the form of disease epidemics, economic instability, and global wars. At one time,
just managing to stay alive was risky, but that feeling has all but disappeared, at
least for members of the privileged classes. To a degree Cady’s theory is confirmed
in the words of adventure racer Joy Marr. Marr says that risk has been minimized
in everyday life, forcing people to seek out challenges in order to prove themselves.
(Source: Karl Taro Greenfield. Life on the Edge. Time. September 6, 1999, p.29).

Main Idea:

a. According to Professor Dan Cady if California State, many Americans yearn for
the days when just staying alive was a difficult task.

b. More and more Americans are taking up high-risk sports; as a result, injuries
from these sports are increasing.

Exercise 2

Directions: Read each passage. Then complete the main idea statement begun on
the blanks that follow the paragraph.

1. In several states across the nation, there has been successful drive to end social
promotion. In other words, children who do not achieve the required score on a
standardized test will no longer be promoted to the next grade. Instead, they will

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have to repeat the grade they have finished. Yet despite the calls for ending social
promotion--many of them from politicians looking for a crowd-pleasing issue--there is
little evidence that making children repeat a grade has a positive effect. If anything,
research suggests that forcing children to repeat a grade hurts rather than helps
their academic performance. In 1989, University of Georgia Professor Thomas
Holms surveyed sixty-three studies that compared the performance of kids who had
repeated a grade with those who had received a social promotion. Holms found that
most of the children who had repeated a grade had a poorer record of academic
performance than the children who had been promoted despite poor test scores. A
similar study of New York City children in the 1980s revealed that the children who
repeated a grade were more likely to drop out upon reaching high school. The call
to end social promotion may have a nice ring to it in political speeches. Yet there
is little indication that it does students any real good.

Main Idea:

2. During World War I, a number of severe shortages alerted the world’s scientists
to the need for synthetic, or man-made materials. Thus by 1934, a research team
headed by Wallace H.Carothers had developed the first synthetic fiber, called nylon.
As it turned out, the development of nylon had a surprisingly profound effect on
world affairs. True, it’s first use was in fashion, and in 1939, the Dupont company
began marketing sheer nylon hose for women. Nylons were a spectacular hit and
sold off the shelves almost immediately. But they disappeared with the coming of
World War II, as nylon became essential to the war effort. It was used in everything
from parachutes and ropes, to insulation and coat linings. Sadly Carothers never
witnessed the impact of his creation. He committed suicide two years before the
first pair of nylons ever went on sale.

Main Idea:

Exercise 3

Directions: Each paragraph is followed by a statement of the main idea that is not
quite accurate or precise enough. In other words, it almost—but not completely—sums
up the main idea. Revise each statement to make it more effectively express the
main idea.

1. Over the last two centuries, America’s soldiers have been given several
nicknames, among them yanks, grunts,doughboys, and Johnny Reb. However,

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 none of those nicknames has had the staying power of the nickname G.I.
Derived from the words Government Issue, the term G.I. emerged in World
War II and gave birth to its own masculine and feminine forms, G.I. Joe and
G.I. Jane. It was even attached to one of the most famous educational bills
in American history, the G.I. Bill. At one point, the military tried to rid itself of
the name G.I. claiming that it dehumanized the people to whom it referred.
Military manuals and pamphlets began substituting the supposedly more
favorable term service members. But the public would have none of it.
Newspapers, radio, television, and most importantly, World War II veterans
themselves clung to the nickname. Particularly for the veterans of World War
II, being a G.I. was a badge of honor, and they were not about to give up
the name.

2. While she lived, the Mexican painter Frida Kahlo was known mainly as the wife
of the famed muralist Diego Rivera. Yet in the decades since her death, Kahlo has
become hugely famous in her own right and is probably now better known than her
husband. In 1990, Kahlo became the first Mexican artist to break the one million
mark at an auction. The portraits that Kahlo created in the thirties and forties
continue to be widely sought after by collectors willing to pay high prices for her
paintings. Although Kahlo is often described as a painter intent on exploring her
own personal reality, many of her paintings include references to Mexico’s political
and social history. It’s not surprising, then, that in 1985, the Mexican government
publicly proclaimed her work a national treasure.

Imprecise Main Idea:

Revised Main Idea:

Exercise 4

Directions: In the blanks that follow each paragraph, write out what you think is the
main idea.

1. In the 1870s, the Welsh explorer Henry Morton Stanley navigated the Congo
river under the sponsorship of King Leopold of Belgium. Wherever he stopped, he
made treaties with the African chiefs he encountered. As a result, when Stanley
returned to Europe, King Leopold was able to take possession of an area eighty
times the size of Belgium. Leopold promptly called the area the Belgium Congo and
turned it into his own private goldmine, almost destroying the Congo in the process.

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Under Leopold�s rule, the Congolese were faced with impossibly high taxes and
forced into slave labor. Agents of the Belgian government would give each
Congolese family a basket to fill with rubber. If members of the family did not
return the basket with the required number of pounds of rubber, their home would
be burned to the ground. Anyone who rebelled would be put in prison. Meanwhile,
Leopold grew enormously rich, squandering his blood money on yachts, mansions,
and mistresses. To keep the Belgian people quiet, he also expended enormous
sums on public works. Nevertheless, vivid, self- public opinion against Leopold and
his vicious ways grew stronger. Ultimately he was forced to give up his stranglehold
on the Congo, but not before millions of people had been imprisoned and
thousands had died.

Main Idea:

2. Computerized axial tomography, also known as the CAT scan, was developed in
1971. In its importance, the development of the CAT scan ranks with Roentgen�s
discovery of X-Rays. The word �tomography� comes from the Greek word
�tomos� meaning section or slice. In effect, the CAT scan allowed doctors to see
into the body almost as if layers of it had been sliced away for better viewing. For
the first time, it was possible to view soft tissue inside the skull, chest and
abdomen without resorting to surgery. Thanks to the CAT scan, radiologists could
now distinguish normal from clotted blood. They could also examine the ventricles
of the heart without inflicting pain. Prior to the creation of the CAT scan, it had
been necessary to pump air into the ventricles of the heart, causing the person
undergoing the procedure intense pain.

Main Idea:

Main Idea: Answer Key

Exercise 1

1.b; 2.b

Exercise 2

1. Across the country, many states have abolished the policy of �social promotion,� even
though there is no hard evidence that making children repeat a grade has a positive effect.

2. In 1932, Wallace H. Carothers developed nylon, the first synthetic fiber, which had a
dramatic effect on world events.

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Exercise 3

1. No nicknames for soldiers of previous generations have earned the popularity of the term
GI.

2. Since her death, Frida Kahlo�s reputation has overtaken her husband�s.

Imprecise Main Idea: Throughout the last two centuries, America�s soldiers have been
given many different nicknames

Exercise 4

1. King Leopold of Belgium exploited the Congo for personal gain and all but ruined the
country.

2. The invention of the CAT scan was as important a discovery as the development of X-
Rays.

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Although we have scientific evidence that women should not smoke when they are
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pregnant, many future mothers ignore this danger. Not only are these mothers
endangering the physical health of their babies, but they also could be contributing
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to even more problems in the future. In addition to the known problems, recent
studies have linked mothers' smoking during pregnancy with sons who go on to
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become criminals. Researchers in Finland followed over 5,000 males and their
mothers from the time the mothers were six months pregnant until the young men
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were 28 years old. Compared to sons whose mothers did not smoke during
pregnancy, those young men whose birth mothers did smoke were more than twice
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as likely to commit criminal acts. The researchers theorized that smoking during
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pregnancy may alter the chemical balance in the baby's brain. This recent
information, added to the body of evidence available for years, should be a warning
to pregnant women to give up smoking.

1
It is common knowledge that The Titanic, that unsinkable ship launched in
2
1912, did indeed sink. The horror of what the passengers experienced has been
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explored in books, on film, and on the stage. Some did live to recount that
dreadful day when the queen of the seas hit an iceberg near Newfoundland and a
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hole was sliced in the hull of the magnificent craft. Could the accident have been
5
prevented? Could the lives of the passengers and crew who were lost have been
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saved by having a more watchful first mate? Recent diving explorations to the

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remains of the ship revealed some startling news: the ship was not destined to sink
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despite hitting the iceberg. The findings suggest the real cause of the sinking of
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The Titanic was due to faulty rivets, or bolts, holding the sea doors shut. When the
ship hit the iceberg, the rivets loosened and permitted water to enter the hull, very
likely causing the ship to sink.

1For many years, researchers have examined possible reasons for the overall
poor educational achievement of students from America's working-class families.
2 3
The language in the home environment of these families may be a factor. The
home environment often differs from the school environment which the children must
4
later enter. The manner in which language is used in working-class homes affects
5
how children write and respond to questions in school. Children from poorer homes
often do not use complex sentences to communicate; instead, they use short, direct
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sentences and responses and a simple vocabulary. Some families are more
authoritarian in nature, and children in these homes are not encouraged to speak
7
freely or express their ideas through language. To do so would be to challenge the
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authority of the parents. Therefore, when these children are encouraged to speak
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and to write freely in school, they are not comfortable. They have been conditioned
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to believe their ideas are not important. Conversation and language use are quite
different in schools, and even if children do engage in more elaborate language
use, they may have little opportunity to practice their new language skills in their
home environment.

1 2
Making the decision to purchase a car is an important one. There are many
factors to consider, and it is wise to follow some important steps to insure that you
3
are buying the car that is right for you. The first step in the car-buying process is
to decide how much you want to spend and what types of cars you can afford.
4
Remember that even after the initial cost, maintenance and gas are expensive, so
5
be sure to consider all additional costs in your budget. Make a plan for yourself
based on your income, loans you might need, and how much you can afford for
6
monthly payments. After you have a budget, decide what type of car is right for
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you: the model, make, features, and color you prefer. To help make these
8
decisions, use car-buying guides, study safety reports, and visit dealerships. After
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you have narrowed your choices, start shopping. Newspaper ads are a great place
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to look for new and used vehicles, as is visiting selected dealerships. The Internet
is one of the best places to look since it provides listings from dealers and
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individual sellers. The last step is actually buying the car you have found. Buying
your own car, especially if it is your first one, can be an exciting and rewarding

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experience. However, it can also be an expensive one; so it is smart to give
careful thought to what buying a car involves before actually making your purchase.

Implied Main Idea Practice

 Directions: Write out the implied main idea for each paragraph. Remember that a
statement of the main idea MUST be worded as a complete sentence.

 Paragraph 1.  Always warm up before attempting any strength training exercises. 
Failure to warm up can cause injuries to cold muscles.  Remember to use proper
lifting procedures for safety sake.  In addition, to avoid harm, make sure that you
have a spotter with you if you are using free weights.  You can also avoid injury
by working within your limits and avoiding the need to show off. (Adapted from
Hahn and Payne, Focus on Health) 

Paragraph 2.  One technique to manage stress is self-hypnosis.  Another relaxation

technique is the “relaxation response.”  In this technique, one learns how to quiet
the body and mind.  Still another way to manage stress is progressive muscular
relaxation.  This is a procedure in which muscles are contracted and relaxed
systematically.  Other techniques include yoga, quieting, and diaphragmatic
breathing. (Adapted from Hahn and Payne, Focus on Health

 Paragraph 3.  People who are obese are likely to develop type II, non-insulin
dependent diabetes.    In fact, 90% of obese people develop this disease.  Seventy
percent of obese people will develop heart disease, and 33% will develop

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hypertension.  Colon and breast cancers are also linked to obesity. (Adapted from
Hahn and Payne, Focus on Health) 

  

 Paragraph 4.  Eliminating cigarette and tobacco use can reduce one’s risk for
cardiovascular disease.  Increasing physical activity is another lifestyle change that
will reduce one’s chances of developing heart disease.  Another controllable risk
factor for heart disease is blood cholesterol level.  If we change our eating habits,
we can lower the level of cholesterol in the blood, thus reducing our risk of
disease.  The last controllable risk factor is high blood pressure, a risk factor than
can be reduced through changes in lifestyle.

 Paragraph 5.  Shortly after a loved one has died, grieving people often experience
physical discomfort such as shortness of breath and tightness of the throat. 
Grieving people may also experience a sense of numbness.   Another common
emotion of the bereaved is feelings of detachment from others.  Still other bereaved
people are preoccupied with the image of the deceased.  Some may not be able to
complete everyday tasks without thinking of their lost loved one.  Still other
survivors may be overcome with feelings of guilt, feeling that they somehow
neglected or ignored their departed loved one. (Adapted from Hahn and Payne,
Focus on Health) 

Paragraph 6.  Denial is typically the first stage that dying people experience.  Many
patients refuse to believe that they will really die.  After experiencing the denial
stage, many patients experience anger.  They may feel they have been cheated. 
This stage is typically followed by the bargaining stage.  Some patients feel that if
they make a bargain with God, they will be healed.  When these patients realize
that bargaining will not work, they may enter the next phase, depression,
withdrawing from close relatives and friends.  The final stage is acceptance, a
phase which ensures a sense of peace. (Adapted from Hahn and Payne)

  Paragraph 7.  According to Leming and Dickinson (1990), grief peaks in the
week after a loved one's funeral.  To help the bereaved, friends and family should
try not to make demands on the grieving individual.  Instead, they should allow the

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bereaved time to grieve.  The bereaved can also be helped by assisting them with
daily household chores.  It is likewise helpful to talk with the bereaved person about
the deceased and to express one’s own feelings of sadness and loss but without
pity.  Friends and family can also help the bereaved by keeping regular contact
with them, inviting them to dinner or to movies or just offering a friendly call or a
visit. (Adapted from Hahn and Payne, Focus on Health)

Paragraph 8.  When you register for a math class, try to select a teacher who can
explain concepts clearly.  Also, find a math teacher who is willing to answer
students' questions in class.  Not all are willing to do so.  Try to choose a math
teacher who is willing to help students after class, preferable one who keeps his or
her office hours and one who does not frown at the sight of a student at the office
door.  When choosing a math instructor, try to find one who gives fair tests and
who provides useful handouts that complement class notes. (Adapted from Richard
Smith, Mastering Mathematics)

Paragraph 9.  If you have a weak background in mathematics, begin each course
with the mindset that you will take the course seriously whether or not the grade
will count toward your degree requirements.  To makeup for a weak background, try
to find a teacher who enjoys teaching learning support mathematics classes.  If
your background is weak, make a point to attend every class and do all of the
assigned homework regularly, even if that homework is not collected by the
instructor.  Also, go to the Math Lab; students who use the math lab generally
perform better than students who don't.  (Adapted from Richard Smith, Mastering
Mathematics)

Paragraph 10.  If you are having trouble with your math instructor, do not use this
problem as an excuse of not doing well in the class.  If you cannot understand
your instructor, ask the teacher to slow down his or her pace and review the
textbook's concepts before the teacher presents them in class.  If you cannot follow
the teacher's notes, work with other students in your class or refer to the math
text's study guide to make sense of your notes.  If your math teacher will not make

15
time to answer your questions, go to the Math Lab, ask another teacher, or get
help from an A student.  (Adapted from Richard Smith, Mastering Mathematics)

Implied Main Idea Practice 2  Answer Key

Paragraph 1.  Always warm up before attempting any strength training exercises. 
Failure to warm up can cause injuries to cold muscles.  Remember to use proper
lifting procedures for safety sake.  In addition, to avoid harm, make sure that you
have a spotter with you if you are using free weights.  You can also avoid injury
by working within your limits and avoiding the need to show off. (Adapted from
Hahn and Payne, Focus on Health)

 Implied Main Idea Paragraph 1:  To avoid injury during strength or weight
training, observe several safety precautions.  (Adapted from Hahn and Payne,
Focus on Health)

 Paragraph 2.  One technique to manage stress is self-hypnosis.  Another

relaxation technique is the “relaxation response.”  In this technique, one learns how
to quiet the body and mind.  Still another way to manage stress is progressive
muscular relaxation.  This is a procedure in which muscles are contracted and
relaxed systematically.  Other techniques include yoga, quieting, and diaphragmatic
breathing. (Adapted from Hahn and Payne, Focus on Health)

 Implied Main Idea Paragraph 2: There are a number of stress management

techniques. 

  Paragraph 3.  People who are obese are likely to develop type II, non-insulin
dependent diabetes.    In fact, 90% of obese people develop this disease.  Seventy
percent of obese people will develop heart disease, and 33% will develop

16
hypertension.  Colon and breast cancers are also linked to obesity. (Adapted from
Hahn and Payne, Focus on Health)

  Implied Main Idea Paragraph 3.  Many diseases are related to obesity.

  Paragraph 4.  Eliminating cigarette and tobacco use can reduce one’s risk for
cardiovascular disease.  Increasing physical activity is another lifestyle change that
will reduce one’s chances of developing heart disease.  Another controllable risk
factor for heart disease is blood cholesterol level.  If we change our eating habits,
we can lower the level of cholesterol in the blood, thus reducing our risk of
disease.  The last controllable risk factor is high blood pressure, a risk factor than
can be reduced through changes in lifestyle.

Implied Main Idea Paragraph 4.  There are four  risk factors for heart disease
(cardiovascular disease) that can be reduced by lifestyle changes and choices.

  Paragraph 5.  Shortly after a loved one has died, grieving people often
experience physical discomfort such as shortness of breath and tightness of the
throat.  Grieving people may also experience a sense of numbness.   Another
common emotion of the bereaved is feelings of detachment from others.  Still other
bereaved people are preoccupied with the image of the deceased.  Some may not
be able to complete everyday tasks without thinking of their lost loved one.  Still
other survivors may be overcome with feelings of guilt, feeling that they somehow
neglected or ignored their departed loved one. (Adapted from Hahn and Payne,
Focus on Health)

 Implied Main Idea Paragraph 5.  Most  people who experience the death of a
loved one experience a number of sensations and emotions.

  Paragraph 6.  Denial is typically the first stage that dying people experience. 
Many patients refuse to believe that they will really die.  After experiencing the
denial stage, many patients experience anger.  They may feel they have been
cheated.  This stage is typically followed by the bargaining stage.  Some patients
feel that if they make a bargain with God, they will be healed.  When these
patients realize that bargaining will not work, they may enter the next phase,

17
depression, withdrawing from close relatives and friends.  The final stage is
acceptance, a phase which ensures a sense of peace. (Adapted from Hahn and
Payne, Focus on Health) Implied Main Idea Paragraph 6.  Dying people often go
through five psychological stages.

 Paragraph 7.  According to Leming and Dickinson (1990), grief peaks in the week
after a loved one's funeral.  To help the bereaved, friends and family should try not
to make demands on the grieving individual.  Instead, they should allow the
bereaved time to grieve.  The bereaved can also be helped by assisting them with
daily household chores.  It is likewise helpful to talk with the bereaved person about
the deceased and to express one’s own feelings of sadness and loss but without
pity.  Friends and family can also help the bereaved by keeping regular contact
with them, inviting them to dinner or to movies or just offering a friendly call or a
visit. (Adapted from Hahn and Payne, Focus on Health)  Implied Main Idea
Paragraph 7.  Friends and family can do a variety of things to help the bereaved
cope with grief.

 Paragraph 8.  When you register for a math class, try to select a teacher who
can explain concepts clearly.  Also, find a math teacher who is willing to answer
students' questions in class.  Not all are willing to do so.  Try to choose a math
teacher who is willing to help students after class, preferable one who keeps his or
her office hours and one who does not frown at the sight of a student at the office
door.  When choosing a math instructor, try to find one who gives fair tests and
who provides useful handouts that complement class notes. (Adapted from Richard
Smith, Mastering Mathematics) Implied Main Idea Paragraph 8: There are several
important things to consider when you choose a math teacher.

 Paragraph 9.  If you have a weak background in mathematics, begin each course
with the mindset that you will take the course seriously whether or not the grade
will count toward your degree requirements.  To makeup for a weak background, try
to find a teacher who enjoys teaching learning support mathematics classes.  If
your background is weak, make a point to attend every class and do all of the
assigned homework regularly, even if that homework is not collected by the
instructor.  Also, go to the Math Lab; students who use the math lab generally
perform better than students who don't.  (Adapted from Richard Smith, Mastering
Mathematics)Implied Main Idea Paragraph 9: There are several ways that
students can overcome a weak background in mathematics.

18
 Paragraph 10.  If you are having trouble with your math instructor, do not use this
problem as an excuse of not doing well in the class.  If you cannot understand
your instructor, ask the teacher to slow down his or her pace and review the
textbook's concepts before the teacher presents them in class.  If you cannot follow
the teacher's notes, work with other students in your class or refer to the math
text's study guide to make sense of your notes.  If your math teacher will not make
time to answer your questions, go to the Math Lab, ask another teacher, or get
help from an A student.  (Adapted from Richard Smith, Mastering Mathematics) 

Implied Main Idea Paragraph 10.  There are a number of way to overcome a
poor math instructor or Bad math instructors can be overcome using a variety of
strategies.

  WHAT IS CRITICAL READINGWHAT IS CRITICAL

THINKING? TICAL THINKING?

Consider several definitions:

Critical thinkers: distinguish between fact and opinion; ask questions;

make detailed observations; uncover assumptions and define their
terms; and make assertions based on sound logic and solid evidence.

Critical thinking is best understood as the ability of thinkers to take

charge of their own thinking. This requires that they develop sound
criteria and standards for analyzing and assessing their own thinking
and routinely use those criteria and standards to improve its quality

Attributes of Critical Thinker

 asks pertinent questions 

 assesses statements and arguments 
 is able to admit a lack of understanding or information 
 has a sense of curiosity 
 is interested in finding new solutions 
 is able to clearly define a set of criteria for analyzing ideas

19
  is willing to examine beliefs, assumptions, and opinions and
weigh them against facts 
 listens carefully to others and is able to give feedback 
 sees that critical thinking is a lifelong process of self-
assessment 
 suspends judgment until all facts have been gathered and
considered 
 looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs 
 is able to adjust opinions when new facts are found 
 looks for proof 
 examines problems closely
 is able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant 

CRITICAL READING STRATEGIES

These seven critical reading strategies can be learned readily and

then applied not only to reading selections in a Literature class, but
also to your other college reading. Mastering these strategies will
help you handle difficult material with confidence. 

 Annotating: Fundamental to each of these strategies is

annotating directly on the page: underlining key words, phrases,
or sentences; writing comments or questions in the margins;
bracketing important sections of the text; constructing ideas
with lines or arrows; numbering related points in sequence; and
making note of anything that strikes you as interesting,
important, or questionable. 
o Most readers annotate in layers, adding further
annotations on second and third readings.
o Annotations can be light or heavy, depending on the
reader's purpose and the difficulty of the material.
 
 Previewing: Learning about a text before really reading it.
Previewing enables readers to get a sense of what the text is

20
 about and how it is organized before reading it closely. This
simple strategy includes seeing what you can learn from the
headnotes or other introductory material, skimming to get an
overview of the content and organization, and identifying the
rhetorical situation.
 Contextualizing: Placing a text in its historical, biographical,
and cultural contexts. When you read a text, you read it
through the lens of your own experience.
o Your understanding of the words on the page and their
significance is informed by what you have come to know
and value from living in a particular time and place. But
the texts you read were all written in the past, sometimes
in a radically different time and place.
o To read critically, you need to contextualize, to recognize
the differences between your contemporary values and
attitudes and those represented in the text.
 
 Questioning to understand and remember: Asking questions
about the content. As students, you are accustomed to
teachers asking you questions about your reading.
o Questions are designed to help you understand a reading
and respond to it more fully, and often this technique
works.
o When you need to understand and use new information
though it is most beneficial if you write the questions, as
you read the text for the first time.
o With this strategy, you can write questions any time, but
in difficult academic readings, you will understand the
material better and remember it longer if you write a
question for every paragraph or brief section.
o Each question should focus on a main idea, not on
illustrations or details, and each should be expressed in
your own words, not just copied from parts of the
paragraph.
 

21
 Reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and values: Examining
your personal responses. The reading that you do for this class
might challenge your attitudes, your unconsciously held beliefs,
or your positions on current issues.
o As you read a text for the first time, mark an X in the
margin at each point where you fell a personal challenge
to your attitudes, beliefs, or status.
o Make a brief note in the margin about what you feel or
about what in the text created the challenge.
o Now look again at the places you marked in the text
where you felt personally challenged.
o What patterns do you see?
 
 Outlining and summarizing: Identifying the main ideas and
restating them in your own words.
o Outlining and summarizing are especially helpful
strategies for understanding the content and structure
of a reading selection.
o Whereas outlining reveals the basic structure of the
text, summarizing synopsizes a selection's main argument
in brief.
o Outlining may be part of the annotating process, or it may
be done separately (as it is in this class).
o The key to both outlining and summarizing is being able to
distinguish between the main ideas and the supporting
ideas and examples.
o The main ideas form the backbone, the strand that hold
the various parts and pieces of the text together.
o Outlining the main ideas helps you to discover this
structure.
o When you make an outline, don't use the text's exact
words.
 
 Summarizing begins with outlining, but instead of merely listing
the main ideas, a summary recomposes them to form a new

22
 text. Whereas outlining depends on a close analysis of each
paragraph, summarizing also requires creative synthesis.
Putting ideas together again -- in your own words and in a
condensed form -- shows how reading critically can lead to
deeper understanding of any text. 
 Evaluating an argument means testing the logic of a text as
well as its credibility and emotional impact. All writers make
assertions that want you to accept as true.
o As a critical reader, you should not accept anything on
face value but to recognize every assertion as an
argument that must be carefully evaluated.
o An argument has two essential parts: a claim and support.
o The claim asserts a conclusion -- an idea, an opinion, a
judgment, or a point of view - that the writer wants you
to accept.
o The support includes reasons (shared beliefs,
assumptions, and values) and evidence (facts, examples,
statistics, and authorities) that give readers the basis
for accepting the conclusion.
o When you assess an argument, you are concerned with the
process of reasoning as well as its truthfulness (these are
not the same thing).
o At the most basic level, in order for an argument to be
acceptable, the support must be appropriate to the claim
and the statements must be consistent with one another.
 
 Comparing and contrasting related readings: Exploring
likenesses and differences between texts to understand them
better. 

Many of the authors on the subject of thinking critically approach

the topic in different ways. Fitting a text into an ongoing dialectic
helps increase understanding of why an author approached a
particular issue or question in the way he or she did.

23
What is critical thinking and why is it important?

Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally. It

includes the ability to engage in reflective and independent
thinking. Someone with critical thinking skills is able to do the
following :

 understand the logical connections between ideas

 identify, construct and evaluate arguments
 detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in reasoning
 solve problems systematically
 identify the relevance and importance of ideas
 reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and values

Critical thinking is not a matter of accumulating information. A

person with a good memory and who knows a lot of facts is not
necessarily good at critical thinking. A critical thinker is able to
deduce consequences from what he knows, and he knows how to make
use of information to solve problems, and to seek relevant sources of
information to inform himself.

Critical thinking should not be confused with being argumentative or

being critical of other people. Although critical thinking skills can be

24
used in exposing fallacies and bad reasoning, critical thinking can also
play an important tole in cooperative reasoning and constructive
tasks. Critical thinking can help us acquire knowledge, improve our
theories, and strengthen arguments. We can use critical thinking to
enhance work processes and improve social institutions.

Good critical thinking might be seen as the foundation of science and

a liberal democratic society. Science requires the critical use of
reason in experimentation and theory confirmation. The proper
functioning of a liberal democracy requires citizens who can think
critically about social issues to inform their judgments about proper
governance and to overcome biases and prejudice.

Why study critical thinking?

Critical thinking is a domain-general thinking skill. The

ability to think clearly and rationally is important whatever we
choose to do. If you work in education, research, finance,
management or the legal profession, then critical thinking is
obviously important. But critical thinking skills are not
restricted to a particular subject area. Being able to think well
and solve problems systematically is an asset for any career.

Critical thinking is very important in the new knowledge

economy. The global knowledge economy is driven by
information and technology. One has to be able to deal with
changes quickly and effectively. The new economy places
increasing demands on flexible intellectual skills, and the
ability to analyse information and integrate diverse sources of
knowledge in solving problems. Good critical thinking promotes
such thinking skills, and is very important in the fast-changing
workplace.

Critical thinking enhances language and presentation skills.

Thinking clearly and systematically can improve the way we
express our ideas. In learning how to analyse the logical
structure of texts, critical thinking also improves

25
 comprehension abilities.

Critical thinking promotes creativity. To come up with a

creative solution to a problem involves not just having new
ideas. It must also be the case that the new ideas being
generated are useful and relevant to the task at hand. Critical
thinking plays a crucial role in evaluating new ideas, selecting
the best ones and modifying them if necessary.

Critical thinking is crucial for self-reflection. In order to

live a meaningful life and to structure our lives accordingly, we
need to justify and reflect on our values and decisions. Critical
thinking provides the tools for this process of self-evaluation.
Although most people would agree that critical thinking is an
important thinking skill, most people also do not know how to improve
their own thinking. This is because critical thinking is a meta-
thinking skill. It requires careful reflection on the good principles of
reasoning and making a conscious effort to internalize them and
apply them in daily life. This is notoriously hard to do and often
requires a long period of training.
C01.3 Other definitions of critical thinking

The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal is a well-known

psychological test of critical thinking ability. The authors of this
test define critical thinking as :

... a composite of attitudes, knowledge and skills. This

composite includes: (1) attitudes of inquiry that involve an
ability to recognize the existence of problems and an
acceptance of the general need for evidence in support of
what is asserted to be true; (2) knowledge of the nature
of valid inferences, abstractions, and generalizations in
which the weight or accuracy of different kinds of
evidence are logically determined; and (3) skills in
employing and applying the above attitudes and knowledge.

26
The following excerpt comes from Dr. Peter A. Facione (1990)
"Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of
Educational Assessment and Instruction", a report for the American
Philosophical Association.

"We understand critical thinking to be purposeful, self-

regulatory judgment which results in interpretation,
analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation
of the evidential, conceptual, methodological,
criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which
that judgment is based. CT is essential as a tool of inquiry.
As such, CT is a liberating force in education and a powerful
resource in one's personal and civic life. While not synonymous with
good thinking, CT is a pervasive and self-rectifying human
phenomenon. The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-
informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fairminded in
evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making
judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in
complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information,
reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and
persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject
and the circumstances of inquiry permit. Thus, educating good
critical thinkers means working toward this ideal. It combines
developing CT skills with nurturing those dispositions which
consistently yield useful insights and which are the basis of a
rational and democratic society."

The last excerpt comes from a statement written by Michael Scriven and
Richard Paul, National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, an organization
promoting critical thinking in the US.

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively

and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing,
and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by,
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as
a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on
universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter
divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound
evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. It entails the
examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in

27
 all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue, assumptions,
concepts, empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions,
implications and consequences, objections from alternative
viewpoints, and frame of reference.

TUTORIAL C02: How to improve critical thinking

Good critical thinking involves the mastery of a set of thinking skill.

Like the acquisition of many other skills, there are three
components: theory, practice, and attitude.

C02.1 Theory

If we want to think correctly, we need to follow the correct rules of

reasoning. Knowledge of theory includes knowledge of these rules.
These are the basic principles of critical thinking, such as the laws
of logic, and the methods of scientific reasoning, etc.

Also, it would be useful to know something about what not to do if we

want to reason correctly. This means we should have some basic
knowledge of the mistakes that people make. First, this requires
some knowledge of typical fallacies. Second, psychologists have
discovered persistent biases and limitations in human reasoning. An
awareness of these empirical findings will alert us to potential
problems.

C02.2 Practice

However, merely knowing the principles that distinguish good and bad
reasoning is not enough. We might study in the classroom about how

28
to swim, and learn about the basic theory, such as the fact that one
should not breathe under water. But unless we can apply such
theoretical knowledge through constant practice, we might not
actually be able to swim.

Similarly, to be good at critical thinking skills it is necessary to

internalize the theoretical principles so that we can actually apply
them in daily life. There are at least two ways.

 One is to do lots of good-quality exercises. Exercises include

not just exercises in classrooms and tutorials. They also include
exercises in the form of discussion and debates with other
people in our daily life.
 The other method is to think more deeply about the principles
that we have acquired. In the human mind, memory and
understanding are acquired through making connections
between ideas.

C02.3 Attitudes

Good critical thinking skills require not just knowledge and practice.
Persistent practice can bring about improvements only if one has the
right kind of motivation and attitude. The following attitudes are not
uncommon, but they will not help you improve your thinking :

 I prefer being given the correct answers rather than figuring

them out myself.
 I don't like to think a lot about my decisions as I rely only on
gut feelings.
 I don't usually review the mistakes I have made.
 I don't like to be criticized.

To improve one's thinking one must recognize that the importance of

reflecting on the reasons for belief and action. One must also be
willing to engage in debate, to make mistakes, to break old habits,
and to deal with linguistic complexities and abstract concepts.

29
C02.4 Further discussion

Traditionally, critical thinking is usually associated with general

education or philosophy in various educational institutions. However,
the best way to teach and and improve critical thinking ultimately is
a matter for the investigation of psychology and cognitive science.
The design of a sutiable curriculum should take into account
empirical findings on cognitive development and learning.

. Critical Reading v. Critical Thinking

We can distinguish between critical reading

and critical thinking in the following way:
 Critical reading is a technique for
discovering information and ideas within
a text.
 Critical thinking is a technique for
evaluating information and ideas, for
deciding what to accept and believe.

Critical reading refers to a careful, active,

reflective, analytic reading. Critical thinking
involves reflecting on the validity of what you
have read in light of our prior knowledge and
understanding of the world. 

For example, consider the following (somewhat

humorous) sentence from a student essay:

Parents are buying expensive cars

for their kids to destroy them.

30
As the terms are used here, critical reading is
concerned with figuring out whether, within
the context of the text as a whole, "them"
refers to the parents, the kids, or the cars,
and whether the text supports that practice.
Critical thinking would come into play when
deciding whether the chosen meaning was
indeed true, and whether or not you, as the
reader, should support that practice.

By these definitions, critical reading would

appear to come before critical thinking: Only
once we have fully understood a text (critical
reading) can we truly evaluate its assertions
(critical thinking). 

The Two Together in Harmony

In actual practice, critical reading and critical
thinking work together. 

Critical thinking allows us to monitor our

understanding as we read.  If we sense that
assertions are ridiculous or irresponsible
(critical thinking), we examine the text more
closely to test our understanding (critical
reading). 

Conversely,  critical thinking depends on

critical reading.  You can think critically about
a text (critical thinking), after all, only if you
have understood it (critical reading).  We may
choose to accept or reject a presentation, but
we must know why. We have a responsibility to
ourselves, as well as to others, to isolate the
real issues of agreement or disagreement. Only
then can we understand and respect other

31
people�s views.  To recognize and understand
those views, we must read critically.

The Usefulness of the Distinction

If critical thinking and critical reading are so
closely linked, why is this still a useful
distinction?

The usefulness of the distinction lies in its

reminder that we must read each text on its
own merits, not imposing our prior knowledge
or views on it. While we must evaluate ideas as
we read, we must not distort the meaning
within a text. We must not allow ourselves to
force a text to say what we would otherwise
like it to say�or we will never learn anything
new!

Reading Critically:  How Well Does The Text

Do What It Does
We can think of a writer as having taken on a
job.  No matter what the topic, certain tasks
must be done: 
 a specific topic must be addressed
 terms must be clearly defined
 evidence must be presented
 common knowledge must be accounted
for
 exceptions must be explained
 causes must be shown to precede effects
and to be capable of the effect
 conclusions must be shown to follow
logically from earlier arguments and
evidence

As critical readers and writers, we want to

32
assure ourselves that these tasks have been
completed in a complete, comprehensive, and
consistent manner. Only once we have
determined that a text is consistent and
coherent can we then begin to evaluate
whether or not to accept the assertions and
conclusions. 
Thinking Critically: Evaluating The Evidence
Reading to see what a text says may suffice
when the goal is to learn specific information
or to understand someone else's ideas. But we
usually read with other purposes. We need to
solve problems, build roads, write legislation,
or design an advertising campaign.  We must
evaluate what we have read and integrate that
understanding with our prior understanding of
the world.  We must decide what to accept as
true and useful.   

As readers, we want to accept as fact only

that which is actually true.  To evaluate
a conclusion, we must evaluate the evidence
upon which that conclusion is based.  We do
not want just any information; we want reliable
information.  To assess the validity of remarks
within a text, we must go outside a text and
bring to bear outside knowledge and standards.
What Is Critical Reading?

Note: These remarks are primarily directed

at non-fictional texts.

Facts v. Interpretation
To non -critical readers, texts provide facts. 
Readers gain knowledge by memorizing the
statements within a text.

33
To the critical reader, any single text provides
but one portrayal of the facts, one
individual�s �take� on the subject matter.
Critical readers thus recognize not only what a
text says, but also how that text portrays the
subject matter.  They recognize the various
ways in which each and every text is the unique
creation of a unique author.

A non-critical reader might read a history book

to learn the facts of the situation or to
discover an accepted interpretation of those
events. A critical reader might read the same
work to appreciate how a particular
perspective on the events and a particular
selection of facts can lead to particular
understanding.

What a Text Says, Does, and Means:

Reaching for an Interpretation
Non-critical reading is satisfied with
recognizing what a text says and restating the
key remarks.

Critical reading goes two steps further.  Having

recognized what a text  says , it reflects on
what the text  does  by making such remarks. 
Is it offering examples?  Arguing?  Appealing
for sympathy?  Making a contrast to clarify a
point? Finally, critical readers then infer what
the text, as a whole,   means , based on the
earlier analysis.

These three steps or modes of analysis are

reflected in three types of reading and

34
discussion:

 What a text says  is    restatement

 What a text does  is   description
 What a text means is interpretation .

You can distinguish each mode of analysis by

the subject matter of the discussion:
 What a text says restatement � talks
about the same topic as the original text
 What a text does � description �
discusses aspects of the discussion itself
 What a text means � interpretation �
analyzes the text and asserts a meaning
for the text as a whole

Goals of Critical Reading

Textbooks on critical reading commonly ask
students to accomplish certain goals:
 to recognize an author�s purpose           
 to understand tone and persuasive
elements
 to recognize bias

Notice that none of these goals actually refers

to something on the page. Each requires
inferences from evidence within the text:
 recognizing purpose involves inferring a
basis for choices of content and language
 recognizing tone and persuasive elements
involves classifying the nature of language
choices
 recognizing bias involves classifying the
nature of patterns of choice of content
and language 

35
Critical reading is not simply close and careful
reading. To read critically, one must actively
recognize and analyze evidence upon the page.
Analysis and Inference: The Tools of Critical
Reading
These web pages are designed to take the
mystery out of critical reading. They are
designed to show you what to look for
( analysis ) and how to think about what you
find ( inference ) .

The first part �what to look for� involves

recognizing those aspects of a discussion that
control the meaning.

The second part �how to think about what you

find� involves the processes of inference, the
interpretation of data from within the text.

Recall that critical reading assumes that each

author offers a portrayal of the topic. Critical
reading thus relies on an examination of those
choices that any and all authors must make
when framing a presentation: choices of
content, language, and structure. Readers
examine each of the three areas of choice, and
consider their effect on the meaning.

36
 What is Critical Thinking?

No one always acts purely objectively and rationally. We

connive for selfish interests.  We gossip, boast,
exaggerate, and equivocate. It is "only human" to wish
to validate our prior knowledge, to vindicate our prior
decisions, or to sustain our earlier beliefs. In the
process of satisfying our ego, however, we can often
deny ourselves intellectual growth and opportunity. We
may not always want to apply critical thinking skills, but
we should have those skills available to be employed
when needed.

Critical thinking includes a complex combination of

skills.  Among the main characteristics are the
following:

Rationality

We are thinking critically when we

 rely on reason rather than emotion,
 require evidence, ignore no known evidence, and
follow evidence where it leads, and
 are concerned more with finding the best
explanation than being right analyzing apparent

37
 confusion and asking questions.

Self-awareness

We are thinking critically when we

weigh the influences of motives and bias, and

recognize our own assumptions, prejudices, biases, or

point of view.

Honesty

We are thinking critically when we recognize emotional

impulses, selfish motives, nefarious purposes, or other
modes of self-deception.

Open-mindedness

We are thinking critically when we

 evaluate all reasonable inferences
 consider a variety of possible viewpoints or
perspectives,
 remain open to alternative interpretations
 accept a new explanation, model, or paradigm
because it explains the evidence better, is simpler,
or has fewer inconsistencies or covers more data
 accept new priorities in response to a reevaluation
of the evidence or reassessment of our real
interests, and
 do not reject unpopular views out of hand.

Discipline

We are thinking critically when we

 are precise, meticulous, comprehensive, and
exhaustive
 resist manipulation and irrational appeals, and

38
  avoid snap judgments.

Judgment

We are thinking critically when we

 recognize the relevance and/or merit of
alternative assumptions and perspectives
 recognize the extent and weight of evidence

In sum,
 Critical thinkers are by natureskeptical. They
approach texts with the same skepticism and
suspicion as they approach spoken remarks.
 Critical thinkers areactive, not passive.  They ask 
questions and analyze. They consciously apply
tactics and strategies to uncover meaning or
assure their understanding. 
 Critical thinkers do not take an egotistical view of
the world. They areopento new ideas and
perspectives.  They are willing to challenge their
beliefs and investigate competing evidence.

Critical thinking enables us to recognize a wide range of

subjective analyses of otherwise objective data, and to
evaluate how well each analysis might meet our needs.
Facts may be facts, but how we interpret them may
vary.

By contrast, passive, non-critical thinkers take a simplistic view

of the world.

 They see things in black and white, as either-or, rather

than recognizing a variety of possible understanding.
 They see questions as yes or no with no
 subtleties.

39
Reading Critically:  How Well Does The
Text Do What It Does
We can think of a writer as having taken on
a job.  No matter what the topic, certain
tasks must be done: 
 a specific topic must be addressed
 terms must be clearly defined
 evidence must be presented
 common knowledge must be accounted
for
 exceptions must be explained
 causes must be shown to precede
effects and to be capable of the
effect
 conclusions must be shown to follow
logically from earlier arguments and
evidence

As critical readers and writers, we want to

assure ourselves that these tasks have been
completed in a complete, comprehensive, and
consistent manner. Only once we have
determined that a text is consistent and
coherent can we then begin to evaluate
whether or not to accept the assertions and

40
 conclusions. 
Thinking Critically: Evaluating The
Evidence
Reading to see what a text says may suffice
when the goal is to learn specific
information or to understand someone else's
ideas. But we usually read with other
purposes. We need to solve problems, build
roads, write legislation, or design an
advertising campaign.  We must evaluate
what we have read and integrate that
understanding with our prior understanding
of the world.  We must decide what to
accept as true and useful.   

As readers, we want to accept as fact only

that which is actually true.  To evaluate
a conclusion, we must evaluate the evidence
upon which that conclusion is based.  We do
not want just any information; we want
reliable information.  To assess the validity
of remarks within a text, we must go
outside a text and bring to bear outside
knowledge and standards.

Example 2

41
(1) At a party, there were two guys in tuxedos
standing on the porch. One was slim and had
dark hair and a mustache, and the other was
fat and his hair and mustache were white. Mr.
Slim had a glass of champagne in his right
hand. Mr. Fat had a glass of wine in his right
hand and a bottle of wine in his left hand. Mr.
Slim approached Mr. Fat and asked if there
was anything new happening in his life. Mr. Fat
answered that he had given up smoking.
(2) Mr. Slim expressed surprise and wanted
to know when Mr. Fat had quit. Mr. Fat put
his glass and bottle aside and answered that
it was a week ago. He raised his right hand as
if he had a cigarette and added that he was
craving for one. His right hand was trembling.
(3) Mr. Slim stopped drinking and took out a
cigar. As he lit the cigar, he said that he had
heard that the first week was the most
difficult period. Mr. Fat heard the sound of a
lighter and turned to Mr. Slim angrily as he
replied that he hoped so. Mr. Fat then said
that he could not continue under so much
stress for long without going crazy.
(4) Mr. Slim then asked Mr. Fat if he had
tried eating popcorn or chewing gum. Mr. Slim
was still smoking and didn't look like he cared
a bit that Mr. Fat was suffering from not
smoking, so Mr. Fat became mad at him. Mr.
Fat snatched the cigar from Mr. Slim's hand,
saying that he had not tried popcorn or
chewing gum, but that he would. He continued
by saying that anything was better than being
a chain smoker.

42
 (5) Mr. Slim didn't complain about losing his
cigar, but he tried to look calm and said that
he was happy to hear what Mr. Fat had said.
He even cheered Mr. Fat up by telling him not
to give up trying to stop smoking. Mr. Fat
became so mad that he threw Mr. Slim's cigar
on the ground, stomped on it three times, and
shouted that he would not give up trying to
stop smoking. Mr. Slim, with his arms crossed,
could only smile and say "Good!"

Tetsu Shimada

Example 1 Example 2
  ~~ Critical Thinking and Reading  
Literature ~~
 
Responding to literature with a critical
temperament means always being willing
to analyze, interpret, question,
synthesize, and evaluate. Instead of
reading for entertainment, you perform
the function of critic as you read….

ANALYZE: What does the

passage mean, literally?
INTERPRET: What does it
mean figuratively? Are there
symbolic overtones? Can it
mean more than one thing?
How do you prefer to read it,
and what passages in the text
lead you to believe this is a
valid interpretation?

43
 QUESTION: What problems
are suggested by the reading?
What's confusing? If you had
the author here, what would
you ask? What philosophical
question(s) does the reading
inspire?
SYNTHESIZE: How does this
reading compare or contrast
what you've read previously?
How does it fit into your
scheme, either thematically or
formally?
EVALUATE: Is it a first rate
piece of writing or fifth rate
piece of writing? What
criteria do you use to establish
this judgment? If you are
evaluating a poem, for
instance, what defines a first
rate poem? How does this
particular poem match up to
that standard? Can you point
to the exact places in the text
to support your reading?

Lets practice a few of these aims using

the following excerpt from The Elder
Edda, "Words of the High One" (P.B.
Taylor & W.H. Auden, trans.)

The coward believes he will

live forever
If he holds back in the battle.
But in old age he shall have no

44
 peace
Though spears have spared his
limbs.

Cattle die, kindred die,

Every man is mortal:
But I know one thing that
never dies,The glory of
thegreat deed.

ANALYZE
LITERAL MEANING: This brief excerpt
tells us that only cowards would think to
save their own skins rather than fight the
battle to the end. Even if he survives, the
coward will not have piece of mind; he'll
be tormented right into old age. It's
better to die, since every man is mortal
anyhow. The great deed is immortal. It's
better to die in battle, and possibly
achieve great deeds, than to save your
skin. Nothing ventured, nothing gained.

INTERPRET
SYMBOLIC MEANING: The battle may
be symbolic of life itself. Sometimes just
living your life is a battle. It's a battle to
get up, go to work, get fired (laid off),
fall in love, get burned…but, this poet
tells us, only cowards choose to turn their
back on the battle. If we let up now, if we
let life pass us by, if we refuse to seize
the moment (carpe diem!) then we'll reach
old age with nothing but a pile of regrets.
Better to risk it, take chances, LIVE life

45
to its hilt, gather the "great deeds" while
we can. Not only will we reach old age in
peace, but we'll glory in our
accomplishments, and others will too. We
can be an inspiration.

QUESTION
The writer mentions "great deeds." So I
assume we're not talking about just any
old ordinary deed. If I wake up tomorrow
morning and manage to brush my teeth,
wash my face, eat breakfast, and make it
out of the house in time to get to class, I
may be performing responsible deeds, but
not GREAT deeds. Several questions
occur to me. Assuming this writer has a
point-our great deeds are immortal-then
my first question is, what ranks as a
"great deed"? Would the writer define a
great deed the same way I would? How
would I define a great deed? What's an
example of a great deed in my own mind?
(I'm reflecting on my own lifetime and
whatever I can conjure up from my
knowledge of history, at this point.) Then
I might turn philosopher and ask: how do
we define the GREAT DEED for our
times, in our culture?

Other questions:
Assuming this writer considers great
deeds to be extreme valor in battle? Who
is great then, the Iraqis, the Americans,
both, neither?

46
Has there been anyone to perform a
great deed in 1998?

SYNTHESIZE
Here's a neat little contrast to the
sentiment described above. This passage
is by Homer from the Illiad (Book IX),
the famous ancient Greek epic of the
Trojan War:

Of possessions cattle and fat

sheep are things to be had for
the lifting,
and tripods can be won, and
the tawny high heads of
horses,
but a man's life cannot come
back again, it cannot be lifted
nor captured again by force,
once it has crossed the
teeth's barrier.
For my mother Thetis the
goddess of the silver feet tells
me
I carry two sorts of destiny
toward the day of my death.
Either,
if I stay here and fight beside

47
 the city of the Trojans,
my return home is gone, but
my glory shall be everlasting;
but if I return home to the
beloved land of my fathers,
the excellence of my glory is
gone, but there will be a long
life
left for me, and my end in
death will not come to me
quickly.
And this would be my counsel
to others also, to sail back
home again…

The Iliad, Book IX

(Lattimore, trans.)

This passage contradicts the first. How

can I reconcile them? Does my knowledge
of their contradiction help deepen my
understanding of each? If I read the
first passage with an awareness of the
second, I probably have to form a mental
argument in order to go along with the
writer's proposition. I either agree or
disagree and attempt to formulate why.
All people are mortal; when they die they
are utterly forgotten over time. The only
way to live on beyond one's lifespan is to
accomplish something valuable, something
that will inspire others who come after.
Great deeds are inspiring; they are the
only path to immortality. Therefore,
accomplishing great deeds is valuable at

48
all costs, even the supreme cost, one's
life. Or, I may say-this life is all we have;
it's precious. To lose one's life for the
sake of everlasting glory is a waste. We
cannot be there to partake of the
sweetness of that glory once we're dead.
It's better to enjoy the simple things in
life while we have life; we should not
throw our lives away for vainglorious
purposes.

Or, I may not choose to engage the

readings on that kind of personal level.
Maybe I merely create separate mental
files to accommodate their differences.
Perhaps I mentally file one poem as "pro-
war" and the other as "anti-war" poetry.
These are categories that may be useful
later as I read other poems, or other
literature.

EVALUATE
Until you read a LOT of literature, you
probably won't have a clear sense about
what makes "great" literature and what
makes average literature, or worse, poor
literature. You may feel that since you
find it hard to understand any of it, it's
all bad. But that would be a mistake. Like
anything, learning to read literature takes
time and practice. And developing an
appreciation for great literature comes
with exposure to the good and the bad.
You may be tempted to say that you don't
like Shakespeare, for instance, because

49
 his language isn't exactly the same as
yours and you have to do a bit of work to
piece out the meaning…but if you dismiss
him, you are dismissing what most literary
critics agree is one of the greatest-if not
THE GREATEST-writers our language has
ever known. To some extent you need to
be willing to work as you read, and extend
the benefit of the doubt until you are
really sure you are evaluating a piece of
writing on objective grounds, and not just
on the basis of whether you personally
struggled to comprehend it. In this
course, you're being "introduced" to
literature…that means you're being
introduced to a new set of critical tools
for thinking about literature and
becoming a more thoughtful, more
effective reader of literature. And
hopefully, as you get more practice and
become a more sophisticated reader,
you'll be able to judge whether a work of
literature is first or fifth rate. You'll be
able to sense whether it's on the level of
Shakespeare-truly original,
multidimensional, moving, evocative,
thought-provoking-or whether it's on the
level of formula fiction: a dimestore novel
or a Harlequin romance.
     
   
  ~~ Notes on "Story of an Hour," "A  
Sorrowful Woman," "A & P," and
"Eveline" ~~  

50
Your responses to the questions below
were various and interesting. I realize
my views are not always the same as
yours—so much the better! It gives us a
chance to expand each other's
perspectives. I would hope that if you
think something different than what you
hear in class you'd offer your own
perspective in the same spirit.

"The Story of an Hour" and "A

Sorrowful Woman" are alike in that
they both present portraits of women
who seem trapped in their marriages,
trapped in their roles. They have both
become "sick." And they both die at
the end of the story. What do you
think is at the root of their illness?

Mrs. Louise Mallard's weak heart can be

understood literally or more
symbolically. Although she's young,
she's lived a "repressed" life, seemingly
devoid of joy. She seems like someone
Henry David Thoreau might describe as
living a life of "quiet desperation,"
keeping up appearances, meeting her
obligations, but slowly dying on the
inside, rotting away from boredom in a
marriage that's not intimate enough.
Her husband doesn't seem to know the
real Louise. Maybe because she's kept
herself hidden from him, afraid to make
waves. She's been dishonest, repressing
herself, maybe out of self-preservation,

51
maybe needlessly-we don't fully know.
She may have made herself sick in the
effort. The stress and tension of
keeping up appearances in an unhappy
marriage has perhaps given her heart
disease. We see pretty clearly that Mrs.
Mallard is heartsick in a broad sense
when we witness her uncanny reaction to
her husband's death and try to make
sense of her feelings of liberation, of
her joy at the prospect of her
husband's death granting her, finally,
the "possession of self-assertion." It's
as if she's never experienced freedom
before, and it's her first taste. Who
doesn't crave freedom? Who wouldn't
see freedom as the one necessary
condition for the pursuit of happiness?
But it's this taste of freedom that
ultimately kills her. She can't go back in
the cage. Mrs. Mallard's death might be
ironic in that no one but the reader
seems to understand why she died, but
her death is also pathetic in that she
died for the same reason the Sorrowful
Woman died: both women lacked the
imagination that might have granted
them more choices. They didn't need to
remain in their cages, but they could
imagine no way out. And so they shut
themselves in, imagined no alternatives.
But there's always some alternative if
you use your imagination and stop
depending on others to do your thinking
for you-whether those "others" be

52
social convention, your husband, mother,
father, friend, whoever. No one should
ever do your thinking for you. Both
women should have been brave enough
to say, "I'm unhappy. I need to make a
change." But neither would allow
themselves to imagine any kind of
significant change for the better, and
so I think a lack of imagination is one of
the root causes of illness in both cases.

Along these lines, some of the

immediately relevant questions this
story raises are--
 How do I want to define a good
marriage (or a good relationship)?
A bad relationship? (And how do
the Mallard's compare to my
standard?)
 Is it "normal" to feel like you've
lost your freedom once you're
married (or committed to
someone)? If you think it is, how
much loss is too much loss? What
can you do about it?
 When a partner is unhappy in a
marriage (or any relationship), who
is responsible for making that
person happy?

Most readers sympathize strongly

with the husbands in "The Story of an
Hour" and "A Sorrowful Woman." Did
you? Why or why not?

53
We don't know much about Brently
Mallard, Louise Mallard's husband, but
what we do know creates a positive
impression. Mrs. Mallard immediately
erupts in a fierce storm of physically
exhausting tears at the news of his
death, so we know that she had strong
feelings for him. And even later, after
she realizes that his death has become
liberating in a way she hadn't expected
and cannot deny, even after she
experiences the joy of that liberation,
she still knows she will grieve again
seeing "the kind, tender hands folded in
death; the face that had never looked
save with love upon her." We can infer
from these and other small details
("She had loved him -- sometimes.") that
the Mallards must have had what would
have been called a good, happy marriage,
and Brently Mallard seems to have been
a "good husband," a good provider,
taking the train to work day after day,
paying the bills. And for that, he usually
gains readers' sympathy. Is there
another way to look at Brently Mallard
that might hold him partly responsible
for his wife's unhappiness? Some
readers go between the lines to ask why
Louise was so repressed and whether
her husband had anything to do with
that. What kind of expectations did he
set for his wife? Did he view her as an
equal partner in their marriage, a human

54
being with a will, ideas, ambitions of her
own? Did he notice that she was bored
and unhappy in their marriage? Would
he have been willing to do much about it
if he did notice? Can you imagine what
his reaction might have been if Louise
had complained to him? Since he's such
a lightly drawn character, it's only
possible to answer these kinds of
questions imaginatively, not definitively.
But readers who have less sympathy for
Mr. Mallard tend to imagine him as
someone overly conventional, repressive,
and out of tune with his wife's true
feelings.

The husband in "A Sorrowful Woman" is

far more visible than Brently Mallard;
his intentions are a lot clearer as we see
him in action throughout the story. And
he elicits great sympathy from most
readers as he tries in vain to help his
wife overcome her illness. Nothing he
tries helps; in fact, his best efforts only
serve to make her more and more ill.
There's a terrible irony in that the
harder he tries, the more he fails.
That's just not fair, and most readers
(even sympathetic ones) get disgusted
with the woman's "ungratefulness" and
"selfishness." The sacrifices the man
makes seem more and more "heroic" as
the story progresses. First, he reads
their child his bedtime story, and the
next night he puts his ailing wife to bed.

55
The next day, he plays with the child all
day in the park, comes home and cooks
supper. But the wife doesn't get any
better. She's frightened when the boy
tries to play with her. She locks herself
away, which is the beginning of a
progressive isolation leading to complete
withdrawal. Throughout this ordeal, the
husband keeps trying to comfort her,
maintaining that he "understands these
things" and can fix them. He hires help.
He dismisses the help. He indulges her
withdrawal every which way and serves
her up the "sleeping droughts" that give
her the oblivion she's craving, but all
the while her condition worsens and her
self-absorbed isolation persists.
There's no other word for it but that
he fails. We feel sorry for him in his
failure. Of course, the woman fails, too,
but that's another issue, evoking a
different tangle of emotions and
questions. The husband's failure gets
the better part of most peoples'
sympathy because the perception is that
he's trying so hard. But some readers
(me) go between the lines to ask why,
for instance, the husband keeps
insisting he "understands these things"
when obviously he hasn't got a clue? It
seems as if he's as trapped in his role as
"husband" as the woman is in her role as
"wife and mother." As the "husband,"
he's supposed to be in control of
everything, on top of every problem, the

56
Fixer. He can do the man's work and the
woman's work if he has to. Whatever
the crisis, he can handle it. He never
once questions whether he's doing the
right thing, whether his efforts are
hurting or helping. Those sleeping
droughts he gives his wife anesthetize
her symptoms but don't address the
root of the problem. He's drugging her
(without a license), but she's not
comfortably numb. She's still sick.
What is her sickness? She seems
severely depressed. She hasn't just got
the blues. She's got full blown, not-
going-away-anytime-soon-without-
treatment depression, a pretty serious
illness that can lead to suicide. And her
husband is trying to treat it himself.
It's not working. Why can't he admit
defeat? What is that blind spot in him,
that fatal flaw?

"A & P" and "Eveline" both present

portraits of teenagers (19 yr-olds) at
a defining moment when they have the
opportunity to "grow up." In your
reading of the two stories, are they
successful? Why or why not?

This is such an open question, there's

can't be any definitive answer. In fact,
answers just lead to more questions.
What does it mean to "grow up"?
There's a lot of room for different
definitions here. Deciding whether

57
Sammy and Eveline seize their
opportunities or not would seem to
depend on one's definition of what it
means to grow up. So here's one
interpretation, based on one possible
definition.

If we agree that maturity means self-

reliance, independence, and a healthy
amount of self-confidence to stand by
one's decisions and choices, then it's
just possible that Sammy in "A & P" is
finally growing up. He may not be there
yet, but he's taken the first step. I
know a lot of readers see him in a far
less positive light, but it's also possible
to interpret his decision to quit as the
first important decision, the first
existentially authentic decision, he's
made for himself. Until now, he's made
no waves, though he's obviously really
bored working this job his parents have
approved for him (maybe they even
arranged it for him). He's putting in his
time, amusing himself by making fun of
the customers. But if you look closely at
that "fun," you notice it has a lot of bite
to it. It's a pretty thin veneer for the
total contempt he has for everyone
around him; beneath all the patter he
amuses himself with, he hates this job
and even the town he's in. He even
somewhat hates the girls he's been
ogling in his cheerful, wiseguy way.
Sammy knows this job is going nowhere.

58
He has no intention of making a career
out of the A&P, unlike his friend
Stoksie. He's impatient, like most 19
year olds, for some kind of real life to
begin, and it isn't happening at the A&P.
So he seizes his opportunity to quit. He
goes out valiantly, gallantly, a hero in his
own eyes. But the growing pain
associated with this grown-up decision
comes immediately: "…my stomach kind
of fell as I felt how hard the world was
going to be to me hereafter." For a
moment it felt good to be a "man of
principle," but how long will Sammy be
able to maintain it? How many people
stand up for their principles when their
jobs are on the line? Sammy knows he's
setting himself a high standard here,
and how things turn out for him is so
open to interpretation that it's difficult
to settle on just one reading. Maybe he
realizes how tough it will be to explain
everything to his shocked, disappointed
parents, and he goes back in to ask for
his job back. Maybe his parents talk him
into asking for his job back, and he
postpones growing up indefinitely (some
people do). Or maybe he leaves town and
moves to Greenwich Village and writes
beat poetry for a few years before
going to NYU? This is a small moment
but a defining one. He takes a step into
unknown territory -- his parents'
disapproval. (How harsh will the
consequences of that disapproval be?

59
Sammy risks it for the sake of making
his own decisions.) Was Sammy acting
childishly or maturely? Now that he's
quit, should he move on or go back? A lot
of readers thought he should have kept
his job because quitting represented
shirking his responsibilities. That raises
a great question, though. Properly
speaking, how should we define Sammy's
responsibilities? What should be his
first priority?

The same questions could be asked of

Eveline. What are her proper
responsibilities? What should be her
first priority? The portrait Joyce paints
of her at the end of the story is not one
most nineteen year olds would jump to
emulate: "She set her white face to him,
passive, like a helpless animal. Her eyes
gave him no sign of love or farewell or
recognition." She drained, emptied,
devoid of life, emotionally crippled,
paralyzed at the story's end. Whether
you agree with him or not, it seems that
Joyce is implying she made the wrong
decision; she should have gone with her
lover and pursued a new life unburdened
by the threat of violence and by
responsibilities that weren't rightfully
hers. But her ability to make the right
decision for herself has been
irreparably destroyed by her upbringing.
She hasn't received the nurturing care
Sammy has, and now it shows. She can't

60
 take the necessary step away. Although
she's in love with a wonderful man who
is in love with her, she can't break free.
The moment goes away, leaving Eveline a
"helpless animal." "Eveline" is such a sad
story, compared to "A & P."
     
   

61
Readi
ng
Main
Idea
Reco
gnitio
n

   

   

   

1
Americans have always been interested in their
Presidents� wives.  Many First Ladies have been
remembered because of the ways they have
influenced their husbands.  Other First Ladies have
made the history books on their own.

At least two First Ladies,  Bess Truman and Lady

Bird Johnson, made it their business to send signals
during their husbands� speeches.  When Lady Bird
Johnson thought her husband was talking too long,
she wrote a note and sent it up to the platform.  It
read, �It�s time to stop!�  And he did.  Once Bess
Truman didn�t like what her husband was saying on
television, so she phoned him and said,�  If you
can�t talk more politely than that in public, you
come right home.�

Abigail Fillmore and Eliza Johnson actually taught

their husbands, Millard Fillmore and Andrew

62
Johnson, the thirteenth and seventeenth
Presidents.  A schoolteacher, Abigail eventually
married her pupil, Millard.  When Eliza Johnson
married Andrew, he could not read or write, so she
taught him herself.

It was First Lady Helen Taft�s idea to plant the

famous cherry trees in Washington, D. C.  Each
spring these blossoming trees attract thousands of
visitors to the nation�s capital.  Mrs. Taft also
influenced the male members of her family and the
White House staff in a strange way: she convinced
them to shave off their beards!

Shortly after President Wilson suffered a stroke,

Edith Wilson unofficially took over most of the
duties of the Presidency until the end of her
husband�s term. Earlier, during World War I, Mrs.
Wilson had had sheep brought onto the White House
lawn to eat the grass.  The sheep not only kept the
lawn mowed but provided wool for an auction
sponsored by the First Lady.  Almost $100,000 was
raised for the Red Cross.

Dolly Madison saw to it that a magnificent painting

of George Washington was not destroyed during the
War of 1812.  As the British marched toward
Washington, D. C., she remained behind to rescue
the painting, even after the guards had left.  The
painting is the only object from the original White
House that was not burned.

One of the most famous First Ladies was Eleanor

Roosevelt, the wife of President Franklin D.
Roosevelt.  She was active in political and social

63
causes throughout her husband�s tenure in office. 
After his death, she became famous for her
humanitarian work in the United Nations.  She made
life better for thousands of needy people around the
world.

What is the main idea of this passage?

The Humanitarian work of the First Ladies is

critical in American government.
Dolly Madison was the most influential
president�s wife.
Eleanor Roosevelt transformed the First Lady
image.
The First Ladies are important in American
culture.
The First Ladies are key supporters of the
Presidents.

2
Of the many kinds of vegetables grown all over the
world, which remains the favorite of young and old
alike?  Why, the potato, of course.

Perhaps you know them as �taters,� �spuds,� or

�Kennebees,� or as �chips,� �Idahoes,� or
even �shoestrings.�  No matter, a potato by any
other name is still a potato- the world�s most

64
widely grown vegetable.  As a matter of fact, if you
are an average potato eater, you will put away at
least a hundred pounds of them each year.

That�s only a tiny portion of the amount grown

every year, however.  Worldwide, the annual potato
harvest is over six billion bags- each bag containing a
hundred pounds of spuds, some of them as large as
four pounds each.  Here in the United States,
farmers fill about four hundred million bags a year. 
That may seem like a lot of �taters,� but it leaves
us a distant third among  world potato growers. 
Polish farmers dig up just over 800 million bags a
year, while the Russians lead the world with nearly
1.5 billion bags.

The first potatoes were grown by the Incas of

South America, more than four hundred years ago. 
Their descendants in Ecuador and Chile continue to
grow the vegetable as high as fourteen thousand
feet up in the Andes Mountains. ( That�s higher
than any other food will grow.)  Early Spanish and
English explorers shipped potatoes to Europe, and
they found their way to North America in the early
1600s.

People eat potatoes in many ways-baked, mashed,

and roasted, to name just three.  However, in the
United States most potatoes are devoured in the
form of French fries.  One fast-food chain alone
sells more than $1 billion worth of fries each year. 
No wonder, then, that the company pays particular
attention to the way its fries are prepared.

Before any fry makes it to the people who eat at

65
these popular restaurants, it must pass many
separate tests.  Fail any one and the spud is
rejected.  To start with, only russet Burbank
potatoes are used.  These Idaho potatoes have less
water content than other kinds, which can have as
much as eighty percent water. Once cut into
�shoestrings� shapes, the potatoes are partly
fried in a secret blend of oils, sprayed with liquid
sugar to brown them, steam dried at high heat, then
flash frozen for shipment to individual restaurants.

Before shipping, though, every shoestring is

measured.  Forty percent of a batch must be
between two and three inches long.  Another forty
percent has to be over three inches.  What about
the twenty percent that are left in the batch? Well,
a few short fries in a bag are okay, it seems.

So, now that you realize the enormous size and value
of the potato crop, you can understand why most
people agree that this part of the food industry is
no �small potatoes.�

What is the main idea of this passage?

Potatoes from Ireland started the Potato

Revolution.
The average American eats 50 lbs of potatoes a
year.
French fries are made from potatoes.
Potatoes are a key vegetable in America.
The various terms for potatoes have a long
history.

66
 3
What does the word patent mean to you?  Does it
strike you as being something rather remote from
your interests?  If it does, stop and think a moment
about some of the commonplace things that you use
every day, objects that you take for granted  as
part of the world around you.  The telephone, radio,
television, the automobile, and the thousand and one
other things (even the humble safety pin) that
enrich our lives today once existed only as ideas in
the minds of men.  If it had not been possible to
patent their ideas and thus protect them against
copying by others, these inventions might never have
been fully developed to serve mankind.

If there were no patent protection there would be

little incentive to invent and innovate, for once the
details of an invention became known, hordes of
imitators who did not share the inventor�s risks
and expenses might well flood the market with their
copies of his product and reap much of the benefit
of his efforts.  The technological progress that has
made America great would wither rapidly under
conditions such as these.

The fundamental principles in the U. S. patent

structure came from England. During the glorious
reign of Queen Elizabeth I in England, the expanding
technology was furthered by the granting of
exclusive manufacturing and selling privileges to
citizens who had invented new processes or tools- a
step that did much to encourage creativity.  Later,

67
when critics argued that giving monopoly rights to
one person infringed on the rights of others, an
important principle was added to the patent
structure:  The Lord Chief Justice of England 
stated that society had everything to gain and
nothing to lose by granting exclusive privileges to an
inventor, because a patent for an invention was
granted for something new that society never had
before.

Another basic principle was brought into law because

certain influential people in England had managed to
obtain monopoly control over such age-old products
as salt, and had begun charging as much as the
traffic would bear.  The public outcry became so
great that the government was forced to decree
that monopoly rights could be awarded only to those
who created or introduced something really unique. 
These principles are the mainstays of our modern
patent system in the United States.

In colonial times patent law was left up to the

separate states.  The inconsistency, confusion, and
unfairness that resulted clearly indicated the need
for a uniform patent law, and the men who drew up
the Constitution incorporated one.  George
Washington signed the first patent law on April
10,1790, and less than four months later the first
patent was issued to a man named Samuel Hopkins
for a chemical process, an improved method of
making potash for use in soapmaking.

In 1936 the Patent Office was established as a

separate bureau.  From the staff of eight that it
maintained during its first year of operation it has

68
grown into an organization of over 2500 people
handling more than 1600 patent applications and
granting over 1000 every week.

The Patent Office in Washington, D. C., is the

world�s largest library of scientific and technical
data, and this treasure trove of information is open
for public inspection.  In addition to more than 3
million U. S. patents, it houses more than 7 million
foreign patents and thousands of volumes of
technical literature. Abraham Lincoln patented a
device to lift steam vessels over river shoals, Mark
Twain developed a self-pasting scrapbook, and
millionaire Cornelius Vanderbilt invented a shoe-
shine kit.

A patent may be granted for any new and useful

process, machine, article of manufacture, or
composition of matter ( a chemical compound or
combinations of chemical compounds), or any distinct
and new variety; of plant, including certain mutants
and hybrids.

The patent system has also helped to boost the

wages of the American worker to an unprecedented
level; he can produce more and earn more with the
computer, adding machines, drill press or lathe. 
Patented inventions also help keep prices down by
increasing manufacturing efficiency and by
stimulating the competition that is the foundation of
our free enterprise system.

The decades of history have disclosed little need for

modification of the patent structure.  Our patent
laws, like the Constitution from which they grew,

69
have stood the test of time well.  They encouraged
the creative processes, brought untold benefits to
society as a whole, and enabled American technology
to outstrip that of the rest of the civilized world.

What is the main idea of this passage?

The patent system encourages free enterprise.

The Constitution protects the patent system.
The patent system in England has been influential
in American patent development.
Patents are important tools for inventors.
Patented inventions protect the inventor, free
enterprise, and the creative process.

4
Most people think it�s fine to be �busy as a
beaver.�  Little do they know. Beavers may work
hard, but often they don�t get much done.

Beavers are supposed to be great tree cutters.  It is

true that a beaver can gnaw through a tree very
quickly.  (A six-inch birch takes about ten minutes.) 
But then what?  Often the beaver does not make use
of the tree.  One expert says that beavers waste
one out of every five trees they cut.

For one thing, they do not choose their trees wisely. 

One bunch of beavers cut down a cottonwood tree
more than one hundred feet tall.  Then they found
that they could not move it.

70
In thick woods a tree sometimes won�t fall down. 
It gets stuck in the other trees. Of course,
doesn�t think to cut down the trees that are in the
way.  So a good tree goes to waste.

Some people think that beavers can make a tree fall

the way they want it to.  Not true. (In fact, a beaver
sometimes gets pinned under a falling tree.)  When
beavers cut a tree near a stream, it usually falls into
the water.  But they do not plan it that way.  The
fact is that most trees lean toward the water to
start with.

Now what about dam building?  Most beaver dams

are wonders of engineering. The best ones are
strongly built of trees, stones, and mud.  They are
wide at the bottom and narrow at the top.

Beavers think nothing of building a dam more than

two hundred feet long.  One dam, in Montana, was
more than two thousand feet long.  The largest one
ever seen was in New Hampshire.  It stretched four
thousand feet.  It made a lake large enough to hold
forty beaver homes.

So beavers do build good dams.  But they don�t

always build them in the right places.  They just
don�t plan.  They will build a dam across the widest
part of the stream.  They don�t try to find a place
where the stream is narrow.  So a lot of their hard
work is wasted.

Beavers should learn that it�s not enough to be

busy.  You have to know what you�re doing, too.  For

71
example, there was one Oregon beaver that really
was a worker.  It decided to fix a leak in a man-made
dam.  After five days of work it gave up.  The leak it
was trying to block was the lock that boats go
through.

What is the main idea of this passage?

Beaver�s may be hard working animals, but they

don�t always choose the most efficient
mechanisms.
Beavers are excellent dam builders.
New Hampshire was the site of the largest
beaver dam.
Beavers are well developed tree cutters.
Beavers are poor surveyors of aquatic
environments in some cases.

5
The raisin business in America was born by accident. 
It happened in 1873 in the San Joaquin Valley of
California.  Many farmers raised grapes in this
valley. That year, just before the grape harvest,
there was a heat wave.  It was one of the worst heat
waves ever known.  It was so hot the grapes dried on
the vines. When they were picked, California had its
first raisin crop.

People were surprised to find how good raisins were. 

Everybody wanted more. So the San Joaquin farmers
went into the raisin business.  Today, of course, they

72
do not let the grapes dry on the vines.  They treat
them with much more care. 

In late August the grapes start to ripen.  They are

tested often for sweetness. The growers wait until
the sugar content is twenty-one percent.  Then they
know the grapes are ripe enough to be picked.

Skilled workers come to the vineyards.  They pick

the bunches of grapes by hand.  The workers fill
their flat pans with grapes.  They gently empty the
pans onto squares of paper.  These squares lie
between the long rows of vines.  They sit in the sun.

Here the grapes stay while the sun does its work.  It
may take two weeks or longer. The grapes are first
dried on one side.  When they have reached the
right color, they are turned to dry on the other
side.  The grapes are dried until only fifteen percent
of the moisture is left.  Then they have turned into
raisins.

The raisins are rolled up in the paper on which they

have dried.  Trucks take them from the fields.  They
are poured into big boxes called sweatboxes.  Each
box holds one hundred and sixty pounds of raisins. 
Here, any raisins that are a bit too dry take
moisture from those that have a bit too much. 
After a while they are all just moist enough.

The big boxes are trucked next to the packaging

plant.  They are emptied onto a conveyor belt that
shakes the raisins gently.  This knocks them from
their stems. A blast of air whisks the stems away. 
The water bath is next.  Then the plump brown

73
raisins have a last inspection.  They are again
checked for moisture and sugar.  Then they go on a
belt to packing machines.  Here they are poured into
packages, which are automatically weighed and
sealed.  The raisins are now ready for market.

What is the main idea of this passage?

The creation of raisins in America was an

accident.
The process of raisin development requires
multiple steps.
Raisins on the grocery store shelf undergo a
brief fermentation process.
Raisins are cleaned thoroughly at the packing
plant.
California has been the leader in American raisin
development.

6
In 1976, Sichan Siv was crawling through the jungle,
trying to escape from Cambodia.  By 1989, however,
Siv was working in the White House, in Washington
D. C., as an advisor to the President of the United
States.  How did this strange journey come about?

Like millions of Cambodians, Siv was a victim of a

bloody civil war.  One of the sides in this war was
the Cambodian government.  The other was a group
called the Khmer Rouge.  When the Khmer Rouge won
the war, the situation in Cambodia got worse.  Many

74
people were killed, while others were forced into
hard labor.  Sometimes entire families were wiped
out.

Siv came from a large family that lived in the capital

of Cambodia.  After finishing high school, Siv worked
for a while with a Cambodian airline company.  Later,
he taught English.  After that, he took a job with
CARE, an American group that was helping victims of
the war.

Siv had hope to leave Cambodia before the Khmer

Rouge took over the country. Unfortunately, he was
delayed.  As a result, he and his family were taken
from their homes and forced to labor in rice fields. 
After a while, Siv managed to escape.  He rode an
old bicycle for miles, trying to reach Thailand where
he would be free and safe.  For three weeks he slept
on the ground and tried to hide from the soldiers
who were looking for him.  Caught at last, he was
afraid he would be killed.  Instead, he was put into a
labor camp, where he worked eighteen hours each
day without rest.  After several months, he escaped
again; this time he made it.  The journey, however,
was a terrifying one.  After three days of staggering
on foot through mile after mile of thick bamboo, Siv
finally made his way to Thailand.

Because he had worked for an American charity

group, Siv quickly found work in a refugee camp. 
Soon he was on his way to the states.  He arrived in
June of 1976 and got a job-first picking apples and
then cooking in a fast-food restaurant.  Siv,
however, wanted more than this; he wanted to work
with people who, like himself, had suffered the

75
hardship of leaving their own countries behind.  Siv
decided that the best way to prepare for this kind
of work was to go to college.  He wrote letters to
many colleges and universities.  They were impressed
with his school records from Cambodia, and they
were impressed with his bravery.  Finally, in 1980, he
was able to study at Columbia University in New York
City.  After finishing his studies at Columbia, Siv
took a job with the United Nations.  He married an
American woman and became a citizen.  After
several more years, he felt that he was very much a
part of his new country.

In 1988, Siv was offered a job in the White House

working for President Reagan�s closest advisors.  It
was a difficult job, and he often had to work long
hours. However the long hard work was worth it,
because Siv got the opportunity to help refugees in
his work.

What is the main idea of this passage?

Persistence and courage are global ideas.

Siv covered a large area during his life.
Siv persevered to become an American citizen
Siv overcame numerous challenges to come to
American and help others.
Siv persevered to become an American citizen.

7
When you want to hang the American flag over

76
the middle of a street, suspend it vertically with
the blue field, called the union, to the north and
east-west street. When the flag is displayed with
another banner from crossed staffs, the
American flag is on the right.  Place the staff of
the American flag in front of the other staff. 
Raise the flag quickly and lower it slowly and
respectfully.  When flying the flag at half-mast,
hoist it to the top of the pole for a moment
before lowering it to mid-pole.  When flying the
American flag with banners from states or cities,
raise the nation�s banner first and lower it
last.  Never allow the flag to touch the ground.

What is the main idea of this passage?

The American flag is the symbol of American

freedom.
The American flag has fifty stars.
Placing the American flag inappropriately will
draw government intervention.
American flag should be flown differently in
certain situations.
The flag should be lowered quickly and
respectfully.

8
What if someone told you about a kind of grass that
grows as tall as the tallest trees?  A grass that can
be made as strong as steel?  A grass from which
houses, furniture, boats, and hundreds of other

77
useful things can be made?  A grass that you would
even enjoy eating?  Would you believe that person? 
You should, for that grass is bamboo, the �wood�
of 1,001 uses.

Bamboo may look like wood, but it is part of the

family of plants that includes wheat, oats, and
barley.  It is a kind of grass.  This grass is not just a
material for making useful products.  Young bamboo
is eaten, often mixed with other vegetables, in many
Asian foods.

Bamboo grows in many parts of the world.  In the

United States it grows in an area from Virginia west
to Indiana and south to Florida, Louisiana, and Texas.
Most bamboo, however, is found in warm, wet
climates, especially in Asia and on the islands of the
South Pacific Ocean.

In most Asian countries, bamboo is nearly as

important as rice.  Many Asians live in bamboo
houses.  They sit on bamboo chairs and sleep on
bamboo mats. They fence their land with bamboo and
use the wood for cages for chickens and pigs.

Bamboo is used to build large buildings as well as

homes.  When it is glued in layers, it becomes as
strong as steel.  On some islands in the South
Pacific, bamboo is even used for water pipes. This
extraordinary material has many other uses.  It is
used to make musical instruments, such as flutes and
recorders.  Paper made from bamboo has been highly
prized by artists for thousands of years.

Bamboo is light and strong, and it bends without

78
breaking.  It is cheap, floats on water, almost never
wears out, and is easy to grow. Nothing else on earth
grows quite so fast as bamboo.  At times you can
even see it grow!  Botanists have recorded growths
of more than three feet in just twenty-four hours! 
Bamboo is hollow and has a strong root system that
almost never stops growing and spreading.  In fact,
only after it flowers, an event that may happen only
once every thirty years, will bamboo die.

There are more than a thousand kinds of bamboo. 

The smallest is only three inches tall and one-tenth
of an inch across.  The largest reaches more than
two hundred feet in height and seven inches in
diameter. No wonder, then, that the lives of nearly
half the people on earth would change enormously if
there were no longer any bamboo.  No wonder, too,
that to many people bamboo is a symbol of happiness
and good fortune.

What is the main idea of this passage?

Bamboo has at least 2,000 uses.

Bamboo grows at an amazing rate and is found
primarily in Asia.
Bamboo is an amazing grass that can be used in
multiple ways.
There are at least a 1,000 types of bamboo.
Bamboo could be considered a flower in some
cases.

79
 9
Every year since 1986, some of the world�s most
daring runners have gathered in the desert of
Morocco.  They are there to take part in one of the
most difficult races in the world.  The Marathon of
the Sands, as it is called, covers over 125 miles of
desert and mountain wilderness.  The runners
complete the course in fewer than seven days, and
they run with their food, clothing, and sleeping bags
on their backs.

The Marathon of the Sands was founded in 1986 by

Patrick Bauer.  His idea was to give the runners, who
come from all over the world, a special kind of
adventure.  Most of the runners in this race have
found that they form deep friendships with the
other runners during their days and nights in the
desert. Facing terrible heat and complete
exhaustion, they learn much about themselves and
each other.

For most of the runners, though, the challenge of

the race is the main reason for coming.  On the first
day, for example, they run fifteen miles across a
desert of sand, rocks, and thorny bushes.  Few
runners finish the day without blistered and raw
feet.  They also suffer from a lack of water.  (They
are allowed less than nine quarts of water during
each day of the race.)  Most of all, they are
exhausted when they arrive at the campsite for the
night.

The second day, the runners are up at 6:00 A. M. 

Within a few hours, it is 100 degrees F, but the
runners do not hesitate.  They must cover eighteen

80
miles that day.  That night, they rest.  They must be
ready for the next day�s run.

On the third day, the runners must climb giant sand

dunes- the first they have faced.  Dust and sand mix
with the runners� sweat.  Soon their faces are
caked with mud.  After fifteen miles of these
conditions, the runners finally reach their next
camp.

The race continues like this for four more days.  The
fourth and fifth days are the worst.  On the fourth
day, the runners pass through a level stretch and a
beautiful, tree-filled oasis, but then, on this and on
the next day, they cross more than twenty-one miles
of rocks and sand dunes.  The temperature soars to
125 degrees F, and many runners cannot make it. 
Helicopters rush fallen runners to medical help. 
Runners who make it to the end of the fifth day
know that the worst is over.

On the sixth day, heat and rocks punish the racers

terribly.  In the Valley of Dra, the wind picks up and,
as the desert heat is thrust against them with great
force, they grow more and more exhausted.

The seventh day is the last, with only twelve miles to

be covered.  The dusty, tired, blistered runners set
out at daybreak.  Near the finish line, children race
along with the runners, for everybody has caught
the excitement.  The ones who have run the whole
marathon know they have accomplished what most
people could not even dream of.  �During the hard
moments,� says one contestant who has raced here
twice, �I�d think, �Why am I here?�  Then I�d

81
realize I was there to find my limits.�

What is the main idea of this passage?

The Marathon of the Sands race tests the limits

of human endurance.
The runners run at their own pace.
The race causes the strong to stumble and the
weak to not finish.
The seventh day is the hardest day of the race.
Every runner runs the race to find their human
limits.

10
High in the Andes Mountains in Peru stands the
ancient city of Machu Picchu. No one knows why this
great city was built, nor is it likely that we will ever
know. Nevertheless, the deserted city of Machu
Picchu is important for what it reveals about the
ancient Inca people of South America.

The Incas once ruled a great empire that covered a

large part of the South American continent.  The
empire was more than five hundred years old when
the first Spanish explorers, looking for gold, went to
that continent in the sixteenth century.

The Incas were an advanced people.  They were

skillful engineers who paved their roads and built
sturdy bridges.  They plowed the land in such a way
that rains would not wash away valuable soil.  They

82
dug ditches to carry water into dry areas for
farming.

Even though they did not know about the wheel, the
Incas were able to move huge stone blocks- some as
heavy as ten tons- up the sides of mountains to build
walls.  The blocks were fitted so tightly, without
cement of any kind, that it would be impossible to
slip a knife blade between them!  The walls have
stood firm through great storms and earthquakes
that have destroyed many modern buildings.

The Incas were great artists, too.  Today, Incan

dishes and other kinds of pottery are prized for
their wonderful designs.  Since both gold and silver
were in great supply, the Incas created splendid
objects from these precious metals.

While it is true that the Incas had no written

language, they kept their accounts by using a system
of knotted strings of various lengths and colors. 
The sizes of the knots and the distances between
them represented numbers.

At its height, the Incan empire included as many as

thirty million people.  The emperor ruled them with
an iron hand.  He told his subjects where to live,
what to plant, how long they should work-even whom
they could marry.  Since he owned everything, the
emperor gave what he wished when he wished- and in
the amount he wished -to his people.

In 1533 Spanish explorers led by Francisco Pizarro

murdered the emperor of the Incas.  Earlier, the
heir to the Incan empire had also been killed.  The

83
 Incas, who had always been entirely dependent on
their emperor, now had no recognized leader.  The
Spaniards easily conquered the empire and plundered
its riches.

Have the Incas disappeared from South America? 

Not at all.  In Peru alone, once the center of that
great empire, eighty percent of the twenty million
people are descendants of the Inca people.  Evidence
of the Incan empire can be found in many other
places in South America as well.  You can even visit
Machu Picchu.  The remains of this ancient city still
stand high in the mountains of Peru, an awesome
tribute to this once powerful empire.

What is the main idea of this passage?

The Incas once inhabited the ancient city of

Machu Picchu.
Peru was the primary country of the Incas.
The Incan empire can be found in ancient cities
and was plundered by the Spanish.
Spanish conquerors destroyed the Incan empire
in the thirteenth century.
Machu Picchu was the capital of the Incan
empire.

   

84
85