Measuring Resistance - JALT Article
Measuring Resistance - JALT Article
Measuring Resistance - JALT Article
Nagasaki University
Sumiko Miyafusa H uman behavior is complex and often cannot be explained in simple binary terms. It
is not uncommon, for example, to hear teachers describe students as being either
“motivated” or “unmotivated.” Educators know, however, that feelings about learning
Toyo Gakuen University are more involved than this. A student may do homework regularly, yet always wait
until the last minute and turn in sloppy work. Is that student motivated? In the sense
that they have taken action, they are motivated. Yet such “motivation” seems more like
Reference Data: obligation or avoidance of punishment, rather than engagement with learning. Or,
Shaules, J., Fritz, R., & Miyafusa, S. (2020). Measuring resistance and engagement: The learners may want to speak a foreign language, yet find learning it unpleasant and give
Linguaculture Motivation Profiler. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & R. Gentry (Eds.), Teacher efficacy, up. They may pay for language lessons but stop attending class. Does positive intention
learner agency. Tokyo: JALT. https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTPCP2019-12 count as motivation? How can one interpret such contradictory and conflicted states?
This suggests that, as will be argued in this paper, simple binary descriptions do not fully
This paper is a report on a research project examining psychological resistance to foreign capture the psychological complexity of the language learning experience.
language learning and describes the development of a psychometric instrument—the This article reports on a research project exploring contradictory motivational states
Linguaculture Motivation Profiler (LMP). The authors argue that in SLA, motivation is often
conceptualized in binary terms—motivated vs. unmotivated. They indicate that, in fact, humans like these, and the psychometric instrument that resulted. The researchers point out
have two neurocognitive motivational systems—approach motivation and avoidance motivation. that in terms of neurocognitive structures, humans have not one, but two motivational
Borrowing from intercultural adjustment theory, the researchers argue that negative reactions to systems—approach motivation and avoidance motivation (Elliot & Covington, 2001).
the psychological challenges of language learning are a normal part of the learning process. The It will be argued that motivation research in the field of second language acquisition
LMP conceptualizes motivation in terms of engagement (approach motivation) and resistance (SLA) focuses primarily on approach motivation—the “enthusiasm, commitment
(avoidance motivation). It also measures mixed states, a complex psychological state in which
learners both engage and resist at the same time. The authors discuss how the LMP is being used and persistence” that leads to learner success (Hadfield & Dörnyei, 2013, p. 1). As
in the classroom, and implications for an enriched, more complex understanding of motivation. we will argue, negative reactions to learning are often discussed in terms that imply
This can encourage learner self-understanding and improved learning outcomes. psychological disfunction, such as demotivation, learner anxiety, and (lack of) willingness
Shaules, Fritz, & Miyafusa: Measuring Resistance and Engagement: The Linguaculture Motivation Profiler
to communicate. Borrowing from intercultural adjustment theory, the researchers (falling in love), attractive yet dangerous (motorcycles), desirable yet arduous (mountain
argue that negative reactions to language learning are a sign of resistance—an avoidance climbing). Mediating these competing desires is a process of value expectancy—an
response to the foreignness of a new language or culture (Shaules, 2007). Shaules intuitive sense of whether the things being sought are worth the effort or possible
(2017) has also argued that resistance is a normal part of the learning process, and negative consequences (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). This research takes as a premise that
that motivation can be better understood with the dual axes of engagement (approach these dual systems need to be taken into account when attempting to understand
motivation) and resistance (avoidance motivation). language learning motivation.
To gain insight into these motivational states, a psychometric instrument—the
Linguaculture Motivation Profiler (LMP)—was developed. The term linguaculture Approach and Avoidance in SLA
emphasizes the integrated nature of language and culture, and the idea that language
The notion of avoidance motivation has received relatively little attention in SLA
is integral to one’s experience of the world and self (Risager, 2015). The LMP is a
(Shaules, 2017). Negative feelings are often discussed in terms of demotivation—which
questionnaire that uses a quantitative approach to measuring motivation in terms of
implies a lack of motivation, rather than a competing motivation system (Agawa et
resistance and engagement, as well as mixed states—a psychologically complex state of
al., 2011; Kikuchi, 2013). There is often an implicit assumption that unmotivated or
engaging and resisting at the same time. The constructs that the LMP measures are
demotivated learners lack something, as in research that associates a lack of interest in
described, as well as the process of creating the LMP, and ways in which the LMP is being
internationalism with low language-learning motivation (Agawa et al., 2011; Yashima,
used by teachers.
2013). Negative feelings are sometimes treated almost as a form of psychological
disfunction, as with the notion of language anxiety (Trang et al., 2013), or as a
Approach and Avoidance Motivation psychological state that interferes with learning, such as Krashen’s notion of the affective
The term motivation is easy to understand yet hard to define clearly. Dörnyei (1998) filter (Krashen, 1982). Gardner (2005) argues for the notion of integrative motivation—
notes that there is broad general agreement that “motivation is responsible for an affinity or desire to associate with the people who speak a foreign language, without
determining human behaviour by energising it and giving it direction” yet also remarks exploring the opposite notion; an aversion to foreign peoples or cultures. Research such
on “how little agreement there is in the literature with regard to the exact meaning of as this is representative of the broad tendency in SLA research to focus on approach
this concept” (p. 117). An implicit assumption of this view is that motivation pertains motivation, without giving avoidance motivation parallel treatment.
to action towards desirable goals—people are motivated towards something. This There are exceptions to this. Drawing on a neurobiological perspective Schumann
downplays the reality that humans are also motivated to avoid unpleasant or dangerous (2004) describes language-learning motivation in terms of preference and aversion. This
phenomena. In psychology, this distinction is referred to in terms of approach motivation view assumes that aversion is not simply a lack of positive motivation, but a normal
and avoidance motivation (Elliot & Covington, 2001), with positive valenced stimuli element of neurocognitive function, and by extension, of learning processes. That is
leading to approach, and negatively valenced stimuli leading to avoidance. This is more to say, having negative reactions to learning challenges is natural, and perhaps even
than a psychological construct—it represents two distinct motivational systems in the unavoidable. This view is concordant with a sociocultural view of learning, which sees
nervous system (Rutherford & Lindell, 2011). These dual systems are a basic component language learning in terms of taking on the features of another cultural community
of people’s evolutionary biology, motivating them to seek rewards and avoid danger. (Gardner, 1985; Lantolf, 2000). Such a view is also reflected in humanistic approaches
Both approach motivation and avoidance motivation can be activated simultaneously, to understanding motivation. Stevick (1980) argues that learning a language can be
and thus be in conflict. For example, one may want something (an apple on a branch), stressful—and hence, something to avoid—because it may threaten a person’s identity,
yet at the same time be afraid to reach for it (because it’s so far out on the limb). or sense of self, since it is “imposed on us from the outside” (p. 10). Drawing on self-
Furthermore, because humans have competing interests and priorities, they may have determination theory, Ryan and Deci (2002) argue that negative reactions to language
complex reactions to the same stimulus—I may desire a third piece of chocolate cake, learning are not uncommon and can lead to a “passive, reactive, or alienated self” (p. 5).
even as I seek to avoid eating too much. One can find something both appealing yet scary Overall, although there is scholarship that is sympathetic to the stresses of learning and
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the notion of aversion does exist in SLA literature, avoidance motivation has not been resist at the same time. These mixed states can be seen in learners who may say they want
explored in great detail. to learn (engagement), yet not want to practice or study (resistance).
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Shaules, Fritz, & Miyafusa: Measuring Resistance and Engagement: The Linguaculture Motivation Profiler
was created in English using statements similar to those found in the exploratory study the learner—the ways that they experience and explain their feelings towards learning. It
and that were consistent with the constructs of engagement and resistance and mixed can help to explore motivational dynamics from the perspective of learners’ subjectivities
states (Shaules, 2017). Using these items as a starting point, an initial Japanese version and intersubjectivities. In this way, the LMP results can provide teachers with insights
of the LMP was created. In order to test construct validity, a total of 596 responses into the inner motivational states of learners. Results can also be used as a reflection tool,
were collected from university students in the Kanto region. The sample included both helping learners gain awareness of their inner motivational dynamics.
foreign language majors and non-majors taking required English or German as a foreign One use of the LMP is as a kind of diagnostic assessment. It can identify learner
language. All of the item testing was done with the Japanese version of the LMP. All needs, inform curricula and help with syllabi design or lesson planning. Therefore, it
of the participants gave informed consent, and data gathering followed institutional can be used at the start of a learning period to shed light on student attitudes, beliefs
guidelines. and perceptions of linguaculture learning. This can be particularly useful for teachers
Construct validity was tested by carrying out factor analysis (principal factor analysis who have no prior knowledge or experience of teaching a new group of students, or
using promax rotation), and three factors were extracted. The loading of the items where remediation is necessary for teachers to improve an existing syllabus. Students
included in the final version is shown in Appendix A. These three factors corresponded to can complete the LMP at the start of a study period, or it can be emailed to prospective
the constructs predicted by the LMP: resistance, mixed states, and engagement. The first students before the study period occurs.
factor, resistance, involves items associated with demotivation such as My English has not A second use of the LMP is as a means of formative assessment that teachers carry out
improved although I study hard. The second factor, mixed states, has items that involve a at one or multiple times, during a learning period. Formative assessment helps teachers
mix of approach motivation (engagement), and avoidance motivation (resistance), such meet diverse student needs through frequent and interactive assessment of progress,
as I like English, but I don’t study. The last factor, engagement, contains items that reflect thus allowing teachers to accordingly modify their context (OECD/CERI, 2008). Using
approach motivation, such as Studying English is fun. the LMP for formative assessment allows teachers to identify factors causing students to
The final version of the LMP was created with six rounds of factor analysis. Items engage or resist at a given time. It can be used to create learner profiles that incorporate
with a correlation of 0.39 or less were considered too weak and were eliminated. After data such as learners’ skills, strengths, potential barriers to learning, and attitudes toward
deleting poorly correlated items, and testing new items, the final version of the LMP learning, and thus to assist students in developing personal learning objectives. The end
was created. Among the validated items, there were some that were quite similar. These result is that a dialogue is created between teachers and students, or among students,
were eliminated, and a final version resulted with a total of 30 items—14 corresponding which can help raise awareness of attitudes and beliefs towards learning among class
to resistance, nine to mixed states, and seven to engagement. This final version can be members.
found in Appendix B; the English translation of the items is in Appendix A. The Japanese A third way to employ the LMP is to promote learner reflexivity. Reflexivity involves
version of the LMP can be taken online and takes less than 10 minutes to complete. questioning one’s own attitudes, thought process, values, assumptions, and striving to
Anyone interested in using the LMP can contact the authors and be given access to the understand our roles in relation to others (Bolton, 2009). Scarino, Kohler, and Benedetti
instrument. (2016), point out that intercultural reflection involves “reflecting on how experiences
and perspectives are expressed and represented and how our perspectives are embedded
Use of the LMP in a Teaching Context in the linguistic choices we make in the language we use” (p. 47). Therefore, at points
of time during a learning period, teachers can encourage students to reflect on the
The LMP measures motivation in terms of resistance, mixed states, and engagement. It
things that may be causing them to resist or engage in the process of linguaculture
is not intended to quantify learner motivation in an absolute sense, since it is assumed
learning at the time the LMP is carried out. To continue the reflection process after the
that motivation is dynamic and changes due to many factors. It can, however, provide a
class has finished, teachers can set journaling or written homework and give writing
snapshot of motivational dynamics for individual learners at a particular point of time.
prompts based on LMP findings. Also, as LMP results can be anonymously shared with
With this in mind, in this section the authors discuss four ways in which the LMP can
class members immediately after collecting the data, classroom tasks such as group
be used in teaching contexts. The LMP approaches motivation from the perspective of
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discussions can be implemented in order for students to share their thoughts on the surface engagement, a conscious desire to learn, while at the same time experiencing deep
results and to reflect on what factors have been causing them to engage or resist in the resistance—an intuitive or unconscious distaste for the experience of learning. This puts
process of linguaculture learning. them at odds with themselves, and may lead to self-criticism and loss of self-efficacy.
Finally, for teachers attempting to improve teaching practices, curricula, or syllabi, the Motivation is a complex phenomenon, and cannot be captured with any single
LMP can be used as a data collection tool for action research. The cyclic process of action conceptual model. It is hoped, however, that viewing motivation in terms of engagement
research involves identifying problems, evaluating changes, starting a systematic enquiry and resistance, and having an instrument that can measure these reactions, will enrich
to gather findings, and taking further action to instigate changes in practice (Descombe, teachers’ approaches to understanding motivation and provide learners with an
2014). Action research benefits practitioners who want to continually improve their additional tool of self-understanding that will ultimately help lead to positive learning
practice in tune with student attitudes, perceptions and experiences of learning. experiences.
Moreover, although the LMP is not a rating tool—it is not intended to give a motivation
“score”—it could be used, for example, in mixed-methods studies. For instance, an
Notes
explanatory sequential design could consist of the LMP as a quantitative first phase of
data collection, to identify general patterns—such as high overall levels of resistance. 1. The LMP was created thanks to a grant from the Japanese Ministry of Education, for
A second qualitative phase could gain insights into these results through interviews, which the researchers are deeply appreciative. This support has enabled an online
narrative methods and so on. Creswell (2012) points out that by collecting data in two version to be made freely available to the public. Please contact the authors for access
phases, each data set can enhance, elaborate and compliment the final interpretation of and more information.
the results.
Bio Data
Conclusion Joseph Shaules (PhD) has worked in intercultural education in Japan, Mexico, and
In addition to practical classroom applications, there are important implications to Europe for 25+ years. He is a specially appointed professor at Keio University. He is also
seeing motivation in terms of resistance and engagement. The notion of demotivation the director of the Japan Intercultural Institute. Books include Deep Culture (Multilingual
implies lack or failure. Resistance, on the other hand, is seen as a natural part of the Matters), The Intercultural Mind (Intercultural Press), and Language, Culture and the
learning process. This can help learners identify sources of resistance and strategies Embodied Mind (Springer).
for more fully engaging with learning, with less need for feelings of failure and self-
Robinson Fritz is an assistant professor at Nagasaki University Faculty of Economics.
recrimination. The notion of mixed states highlights the psychological complexity of
He has over 15 years of experience teaching students of all ages in Japan and is currently
language learning. It sheds light on how students can have a sincere desire to learn, yet
pursuing a doctoral degree related to intercultural education. His academic interests
still have psychological resistance to the learning process. Such insights can help learners
include intercultural education, communication, motivation and learner psychology.
better understand their own motivational dynamics.
This approach provides a fresh way to look at many behaviours commonly seen in Sumiko Miyafusa (PhD) is a lecturer at Toyo Gakuen University, Faculty of Global
language classrooms. Learners who turn in homework that is done poorly and at the last Communication. She is currently teaching English and intercultural communication
minute are avoiding the punishment and embarrassment of not doing it. This avoidance classes. Her research interests are intercultural communication and sociolinguistics. She
motivation is a form of resistance. It is assumed that deeper levels of language learning is researching how the study-abroad experiences of undergraduate students influence
require engagement—positive forms of motivation that reflect a psychological openness their language skills and intercultural communicative competence.
to foreign linguaculture patterns. Learners who profess a desire to learn, but seem to
not actually practice or study, can be seen as having a form of mixed reaction. They have
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The 4th place of the decimal point is rounded Factors Mixed States
up 1. もっと英語を使いたいけど,自信がない。
List of Items Resistance Mixed states Engagement 2. 英語を長く勉強してきたが,ほとんど上達していない。
Q 41. I’d like to learn English and be an -0.117 0.216 -0.566 3. 英語をもっと勉強すべきだと思うが,実際にはしていない
international person. 4. 英語をもっと話せたらいいけど,恥ずかしい。
Q 20. I look forward to studying English. -0.219 -0.095 -0.526 5. 英語を流暢に話したいが,練習することは好きではない。
Q 37. It’s interesting to learn English using -0.078 0.049 -0.475 6. もっと努力しないといけないと分かっているがしていない。
foreign films and music. 7. 英語がペラペラになりたいけど,練習がめんどくさい。
Q 36. The time I spend studying English is -0.200 -0.085 -0.445 8. 学校での英語の勉強は嫌いだが,実際に英語を使うことは好きだ。
time well spent. 9. もっと英語を上手に話したいが,やる気が出ない。
Note. Factor extraction method: principal factor method; rotation method: promax, Kaiser. Engagement
1. 英語を学ぶとワクワクする。
Appendix B 2. 英語を使って自分の考えを表現することは楽しい。
LMP Original Items in Japanese 3. 英語を実際の場で使っている人を知っているので英語習得に興味がある。
Resistance 4. 英語を学び,国際人になりたい。
1. 英語は一生懸命勉強してもできないので,努力しない。 5. 英語を勉強することは楽しみだ。
2. 日本人が英語の習得を強制されるのは不公平だ。 6. 海外の映画や音楽により英語を学ぶことに興味がわく。
3. 英語を学ぶことは皆が言うほど重要ではない。 7. 英語の勉強は自分にとって良い時間の使い方である。
4. ここは日本なので英語を学ぶ必要はない。
5. 英語が自分に役立つことはないとは思う。
6. 英語を勉強することは努力に見合わない。
7. 英語教育のやり方のせいで英語が嫌いになった。
8. 海外で英語を使いたいが,英語のクラスで英語を使うことは好きではない。
9. 将来英語を使うことはないので,勉強する気にならない。
10. 英語を学ぶことは,トラウマになっている。
11. 英語の習得をあきらめようとよく思う。
12.英語を学ばなくてはいけないことがとても嫌だ。
13. 日本の学校では英語の授業が多すぎる。
14. なぜ英語を勉強しなくてはならないか分からない。
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