#2 Canale and Swain

Canale and Swain's Model of Communicative Competence
In "Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing"

(Applied Linguistics, 1980), Michael Canale and Merrill Swain identified these four components of
communicative competence:
(i) Grammatical competence includes knowledge of phonology, orthography, vocabulary,
word formation and sentence formation.
(ii) Sociolinguistic competence includes knowledge of sociocultural rules of use. It is
concerned with the learners' ability to handle for example settings, topics and communicative
functions in different sociolinguistic contexts. In addition, it deals with the use of appropriate
grammatical forms for different communicative functions in different sociolinguistic
contexts.
(iii) Discourse competence is related to the learners' mastery of understanding and producing
texts in the modes of listening, speaking, reading and writing. It deals
with cohesion and coherence in different types of texts.
(iv) Strategic competence refers to compensatory strategies in case of grammatical or
sociolinguistic or discourse difficulties, such as the use of reference sources, grammatical and
lexical paraphrase, requests for repetition, clarification, slower speech, or problems in
addressing strangers when unsure of their social status or in finding the right cohesion
devices. It is also concerned with such performance factors as coping with the nuisance of
background noise or using gap fillers.
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What is Content-Based Instruction (CBI)?
Content-Based Instruction is an approach to language teaching that focuses not on the language itself, but
rather on what is being taught through the language; that is, the language becomes the medium through
which something new is learned. IN the CBI approach the student learns the TL by using it to learn sme
other new content. For example by studying the French Revolution while using the French langauge. The
language being learned and used is taught within the context of the content. The theory behind CBI is that
when students are engaged with more content, it will promote intrinsic motivation. Students will be able
to use more advanced thinking skills when learning new information and will focus less on the structure
of the language. This approach is very student-centered as it depends entirely on the students’ ability to
use the language.
What can be considered ‘content’?
There are many things that can be considered ‘content’; what is important is that what is being taught or
discussed through the language not be language instruction related. Aspects of the curriculum, discussions
about current events and world cultures or even general topics of interest are all valid ‘content’ options.
How can CBI be used in the language classroom?
It is not enough to simply integrate content into the language classroom, it must be done effectively.
Stoller (2002) lists eight practices that allow for natural content integration:
1. Extended input, meaningful output, and feedback on language and grasp of content
2. Information gathering, processing, and reporting
3. Integrated skills (using reading, writing, speaking and listening in natural classroom activities)
4. Task-based activities and project work, enhanced by cooperative learning principles
5. Strategy training (to produce more metacognitively aware strategic learners)
6. Visual support (ie. Images, graphic organizers, language ladders etc.)
7. Contextualized grammar instruction
8. Culminating synthesis activities (knowledge is displayed in writing and orally)
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What is Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)?

Communicative language teaching emerged in the 1980s as a response to the growing
demand for a language curriculum that would enable learners to use the second
language in real-life situations. Previously, foreign language teaching has predominantly
had its emphasis on grammatical competence, rather than actually focusing
on developing students’ communication and interaction skills.
At the end of the day, language does principally exist to make communication possible.
CLT methods primarily focus on the interaction during a classroom-based foreign
language class or online language learning session, in which students actually produce
speech and conversation for most of the classroom time using the target language.
The main purpose behind communicative language teaching methods is to prepare
students to be confident communicators for different real-life contexts, through
repetitive oral practices and student-student cooperation. In CLT, communication is the
end and the means of the teaching method.
“One can master the rules of sentence formation in a language and still not be very
successful at being able to use the language for meaningful communication.”
Each student in a language classroom or language lab has individual needs, levels of abilities,
and interests. Therefore, having different tasks designed to meet the needs and skills of
different students is essential in CLT. Also, providing a supportive learning environment makes
participation easier for students, especially those who easily feel shy about active participation.
5 practical tips towards applying the communicative language teaching

method:
 Have plenty of communicative student-student activities (pair discussions, role-playing,
puzzle-solving, and other collaborative tasks) so that each student is constantly exposed
to the target language.
 Communicative activities should include a clear situation or context, the roles of the
speakers, and a communicative purpose.
 Practice different formal and informal interactions through games, role-play, and
problem-solving tasks.
 Teachers should concentrate on providing a supportive learning atmosphere and
selecting personalized tasks for students in terms of their individual level, needs, and
interests.
 Use the right tools for creating and assigning speaking-based language learning
activities. For example, you can use modern language teaching software tools
like Sanako Connect that allow recording each students' individual speaking practices
and group work. This also enables important self-evaluation by allowing students to
listen back to their own speech and recordings.
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10 CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE A GOOD LANGUAGE TEACHER
1. COMPETENCE AND PATIENCE
The requirement of any teacher is to know his or her subject well. However, in most cases, it is
vital to remember that, as a teacher, you are guiding a learner to new knowledge and helping
them discover the subject you are teaching. Doing is learning.
This is especially important in language teaching as many students may enter the course as
complete beginners, false beginners, or have little knowledge of the language but lack
confidence. As a teacher, recognizing what the learner knows and doesn’t know is paramount.
The learning doesn’t always happen quickly. Give it space and time to happen. Patience with the
learning process is one of the greatest qualities of a good teacher. Patience inspires confidence in
the learner. Vulnerability is a hindrance to the learner. Having patience gives the learner the
courage to learn.
2. PERSONALIZED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Every individual learns differently. Changing the classroom environment in a manner to

customize learning can be extremely beneficial to students and lead to increased
motivation. Language learning can be a taxing task in itself – imagine trying to learn when the
activities used to learn are not exciting or not personalized. Connecting with your students to
figure out what manner of learning – whether it is visual, audio, or even kinesthetic – works best
for them will undoubtedly help.
3. HOPEFULNESS
The best way to accomplish this is to remain hopeful and encouraging yourself. Your level of
hopefulness is contagious and inspires students to learn and believe that they can pick up the
language. In addition to using appreciative or constructive cues in the classroom (“Nice job!”;
“Great point, can you further clarify?”; “Stick with it!”; “You’ll get it!”; “You learned that fast!”;
“Well said!”), effective language teachers are sensitive to the learners’ discouragement and
readily appease and validate learners’ feelings.
A learner noticing your hopefulness is crucial as it propels further learning, even when they feel
demotivated themselves.
4. BE PASSIONATE AND GENERATE PASSION
You are obviously passionate about learning the language and communicating in it – it is
important however that you bring this passion in full force when teaching it as well. If classes are
drab and uninspiring they leave students in the same state. Sparking an interest in the language is
imperative and this can be done by understanding motivations for learning the language in the
first place or even communicating the benefits of learning the language. Every language or
culture is super exciting. Highlight this!
5. CONNECT
The division between your knowledge of the language and your teaching skills is the ability to
connect and form relationships with your students. Many of our least memorable teachers are
usually those with whom we had no personal connection or not felt understood or appreciated by
them.
As a good language teacher, your job is to put aside the specialized language and learn to explain
key language concepts, patterns, and ideas in ways that students can relate to, enjoy, and apply in
real-life situations. You can try using apps/websites that have learner-friendly activities that
connect personally. It’s important to take the time to understand why a student wants to learn the
language and try to cater to that purpose.
6. MISTAKES = LEARNING HAPPENING

Studies have shown that stimulating student participation directly leads to more successful
language acquisition. Passive, quiet students most likely aren’t learning as much as those who
participate actively and regularly. However, a more reserved student need not be a cause for
concern – implementing a more collaborative approach of asking, understanding, and
encouraging can be enough. Again, the importance of being relatable cannot be stressed enough,
as students will participate more when they feel respected by you, and that it’s safe to make
mistakes. They will quickly realize that they learn the most from their own mistakes.
7. LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ DEVELOPMENT STAGES
Language learning environments are unique in that different learning stages will look very
different from one another. Younger students, for example, will need more visual tools and
playful activities rather than written ones. Language learning is challenging and can result in a
lot of frustration during certain frustrating stages. Understanding the language development
stages of your learners, therefore, offers you a better idea to customize teaching to suit the
individual needs effectively.
8. EXPLORE DIFFERENT TEACHING METHODS
With technology permeating all aspects of life and the incorporation of eLearning in classrooms
(blended classrooms) methods of language teaching have changed considerably. As an effective
teacher, including the use of technology in your lesson plans, is invaluable to create an enhanced,
more relatable, and a multimedia classroom.
9. TEACHER TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
To be the best teacher you can, you also need to be a learner. One cannot stress enough the
importance of teachers continuously improving their own teaching and language abilities. Ways
to do so include analyzing one’s own practices, learning from peers, staying current with the
latest teaching methodologies. Teachers ultimately also remain lifelong students, and effective
tutors share what they are learning as well as show what it looks like to be a learner.
10. HOLD STUDENTS ACCOUNTABLE
Finally, it is essential to remember that everyone can learn anything. It is innate in all of us. The
teacher’s responsibility is to find all the ways to facilitate that learning. Also, a good teacher
would make sure that all learners take responsibility for their learning right from the start.
A learner can only learn so much through teaching. Bringing a positive attitude and having the
motivation to learn themselves is just as crucial to their learning process.

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Canale and Swain's Model of Communicative Competence

In "Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing"

What is Content-Based Instruction (CBI)?

What can be considered ‘content’?

How can CBI be used in the language classroom?

What is Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)?

5 practical tips towards applying the communicative language teaching

1. COMPETENCE AND PATIENCE

Every individual learns differently. Changing the classroom environment in a manner to

4. BE PASSIONATE AND GENERATE PASSION

6. MISTAKES = LEARNING HAPPENING

7. LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ DEVELOPMENT STAGES

8. EXPLORE DIFFERENT TEACHING METHODS

9. TEACHER TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

10. HOLD STUDENTS ACCOUNTABLE

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