CRIMINAL

INV ESTIGATION
Ninth Edition

Michael D. Lyman
Columbia College of Missouri

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

To come

1  18

ISBN 10:      0-13-518621-8

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-518621-3

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 Dedication
This book is the direct result of over 40 years of my involvement with the field of criminal investigation, from my many
years as a criminal investigator in the field, my time as a full-time, certified police academy instructor, to my 28 years as a
college professor, teaching both under graduate and graduate students. Also contributing to this work is my 30-year pub-
lishing record and my experience reviewing over 400 cases involving police incidents and investigations throughout the
nation where I have provided written analysis and/or sworn testimony in federal court as an expert in police procedures.

All of these learning experiences have led to the latest edition of this book. Of course, I must mention that without
the love and support of my wife, Julie, and my daughter, Kelsey, I couldn’t have endeavored to complete such a
considerable project nor could I have done so without the continued support of the dedicated men and women
working within our nation’s law enforcement community. I sincerely hope you enjoy this new edition.

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A01_LYMA6213_09_SE_FM.indd 4 09/11/18 3:07 PM
 BRIEF CONTENTS
PART 1 Essentials of Criminal Investigation   2
Chapter 1 Foundations and History of Criminal Investigation   2
Chapter 2 The Crime Scene: Identification and Collection of Evidence   28
Chapter 3 The Crime Scene: Field Notes, Documenting, and Reporting   62

PART 2 Follow-Up Investigative Processes   90

Chapter 4 Identification of Criminal Suspects: Field and Laboratory Services   90
Chapter 5 Legal Issues in Criminal Investigation   128

PART 3 Information Gathering   162

Chapter 6 Interviews and Interrogations   162
Chapter 7 Criminal Intelligence and Surveillance Operations   188
Chapter 8 Undercover Operations and Informant Management   224

PART 4 Crimes against Persons   246

Chapter 9 Death Investigations   246
Chapter 10 Robbery   284
Chapter 11 Assault and Related Offenses   304
Chapter 12 Missing and Abducted Persons   332
Chapter 13 Crimes against Children: Child Abuse, Child Fatalities, and
Exploitation   352

PART 5 Crimes against Property   388

Chapter 14 Theft-Related Offenses   388
Chapter 15 Arson, Bombings, and Terrorism   426

PART 6 Special Investigations: Drug Trafficking, White-Collar Crime,

and Police Shooting Investigations   454
Chapter 16 Special Investigations: Drug Trafficking and Gangs   454
Chapter 17 Special Investigations: White-Collar, Corporate, and Computer-Related
Crimes   484
Chapter 18 Investigations of Officer-Involved Shootings   510

PART 7 Prosecution   528

Chapter 19 Preparation for Court   528
Appendix A Collection and Preservation of Physical Evidence   544
Appendix B Cases   552
Glossary   554
Index   567
v

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A01_LYMA6213_09_SE_FM.indd 6 09/11/18 3:07 PM
 CONTENTS
Preface   xxvii

Acknowledgments   xxxi

About the Author   xxxiii

PART 1 Essentials of Criminal Investigation   2

Chapter 1 FOUNDATIONS AND HISTORY OF CRIMINAL
INVESTIGATION   2
Introduction   3
The Romance and Reality of Crime Solving   5
The “CSI Effect”   6
The Historical Context of Criminal Investigation   7
Criminal Investigation and Our English Heritage   7
Criminal Investigation in America   11
Criminal Investigation Research   14
The RAND Corporation Study   14
The PERF Study   15
The National Institute of Justice: New Perspectives in Policing Study   15
The Increase of Research and Science in Crime Detection   16
The Objectives of Criminal Investigation   16
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning   17
Investigative Dangers: Bias and Intuition   17
Critical Thinking and Scientific Methodology   18
Modes of Investigation   19
Types of Investigations   19
Crime Scene Investigators   19
The Emergence of the Police Specialist   20
The Role of the Criminal Investigator   20
Characteristics of the Investigator   20
Gathering Information   20
Field Operations   21
Arrests   21
The Patrol Officer as an Investigator   21
Solvability Factors   22
Summary Checklist  24  Key Terms  26  Discussion
Questions  26  Endnotes  27

vii

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 viii CONTE N TS

Chapter  2 THE CRIME SCENE: IDENTIFICATION AND COLLECTION

OF EVIDENCE   28
Introduction   29
The Preliminary Investigation   30
Crime Scene Evidence   31
Types of Evidence   32
Legal Considerations   32
The First Officer’s Responsibilities   34
Broadcasting a Flash Description   36
Managing Emergency Situations   36
Securing the Scene   36
Handling Special Situations at the Scene   39
Dead Body   39
Hanging Victim   39
Firearms   39
Discovery of Human Remains   40
Aquatic Body Recovery   40
Collecting Electronic Evidence   40
Biohazardous Materials   41
Chemical and Other Hazardous Wastes   43
Assessing the Crime Scene   43
Conducting the Crime Scene “Walkthrough”   43
Beginning the Search   44
Search Patterns   44
The Crime Scene Search   45
Collecting Evidence   46
Special Cases in Evidence Handling   48
Infected Evidence   48
Firearms   48
Bullets, Cartridges, and Empty Shell Casings   49
Blood Spatter   49
Human Hair   50
Broken Glass   50
Impressions   51
Soil Evidence   51
Botanical Evidence   52
Bite-Mark Evidence   52
Drugs   53
Concealed Evidence: Strip Searches   53
Concealed Evidence: Body Cavity Searches   53
Interviewing Witnesses   54

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 C ONT ENT S ix

Contacting the Medical Examiner   54

The Neighborhood Canvass   54
Conducting the Canvass   54
Performing the Follow-Up Investigation   56
Summary Checklist   58   Key Terms   59   Discussion
Questions   60   Endnotes   60

Chapter  3 THE CRIME SCENE: FIELD NOTES, DOCUMENTING,

AND REPORTING   62
Introduction   63
Field Notes and Reports   64
The Role of Field Notes   64
When to Take Notes   64
What to Write Down   64
Developing a Note-Taking System   66
Field Interview Cards   66
Putting Field Notes to Work   66
Storage of Field Notes   67
Using a Digital Recorder   67
Using Field Notes in the Courtroom   67
General Crime Scene Documentation   67
Writing the Official Police Report   73
Factuality   74
Thoroughness   74
Getting to the Point   74
Accuracy and Objectivity   74
Word Choice   74
The Structure of the Report   75
Documenting Interviews   75
The Initial Complaint   76
Supplemental Reports   76
Capturing the Crime Scene on Digital Video   76
Photographing the Crime Scene   77
Digital Imaging   77
Photographs as Evidence   77
Preserving Digital Images   78
What to Photograph   78
Other Hints   79
Admissibility of Photographic Evidence   80
Identification of Photographs   80
Surveillance Photographs   80

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 x CONTE N TS

The Crime Scene Sketch   81

Putting It Together   81
Measurement   82
Rough and Finished Sketches   82
Choosing the Best Method   82
Summary Checklist   86   Key Terms   89   Discussion
Questions   89   Endnotes   89

PART 2 Follow-Up Investigative Processes   90

Chapter  4 IDENTIFICATION OF CRIMINAL SUSPECTS: FIELD
AND LABORATORY SERVICES   90
Introduction   91
The Role of the Crime Laboratory   92
Trace Evidence   92
Questioned Documents   92
Forensic Chemistry   93
DNA Analysis   93
Ballistics   94
Latent Prints   95
Forensic Photography   95
Specialized Laboratory Equipment   96
Fingerprints as Evidence   96
The History of Fingerprinting   96
Types of Prints   97
Types of Patterns   97
Searching for Prints   98
Developing Latent Fingerprints   99
Preservation of Fingerprints   103
Prints from Gloves   103
The Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System   103
DNA: The Genetic Fingerprint   104
What Is DNA?   104
The History of DNA   105
Analyzing DNA   106
Transportation and Storage   107
Elimination Samples   107
Admissibility of DNA as Evidence   108
The Daubert Standard   108
Other Uses of DNA   108
Handwriting Analysis   109
Collection of Exemplars   109

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The Writing Medium   109

The Writing Area   110
Facial Composites   111
Criminal Investigative Analysis   111
Investigative Psychology   112
Geographic Profiling   113
Eyewitness Identifications   114
Identification Procedures   114
The Right to Counsel at Eyewitness Identifications   119
Summary Checklist   123   Key Terms   125   Discussion
Questions   125   Endnotes   125

Chapter  5 LEGAL ISSUES IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION   128

Introduction   129
The Constitution and Due Process   130
Conducting Lawful Searches   131
The Probable Cause Requirement   131
The Exclusionary Rule   131
Search Incident to Lawful Arrest   132
Searches of Motor Vehicle Compartments under “Gant”   132
Searching for “Cloud-Based” Digital Evidence   133
“Digital” Search Warrants   134
Exceptions to the Exclusionary Rule   135
The Good Faith Exception   135
The Inevitable Discovery Doctrine   135
The Computer Errors Exception   136
Searches with a Warrant   136
When Are Search Warrants Necessary?   136
When Search Warrants Aren’t Required   136
Advantages of Searching with a Search Warrant   136
The Probable Cause Statement   137
Structuring the Warrant   137
Execution of the Warrant   139
Anticipatory Search Warrants   140
The Triggering Condition   141
Warrantless Searches   142
Search by Consent   142
Emergency Searches   144
Searches Incident to Arrest   144
Stop-and-Frisk Searches   144
Plain-View Searches   147

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 xii CONT E N TS

Automobile Searches   148

Open-Field Searches   149
Making an Arrest   150
Defining Arrest   150
What Is an Arrest?   150
The Legal Arrest   150
Detention versus Arrest   151
Investigatory Stops   151
When Is a Person under Arrest?   152
Use of Force   153
Levels of Force   154
Deadly Force   155
The Fleeing-Felon Rule   157
Summary Checklist   158   Key Terms   160   Discussion
Questions   160   Endnotes   161

PART 3 Information Gathering   162

Chapter  6 INTERVIEWS AND INTERROGATIONS   162
Introduction   163
Distinguishing between Interviews and Interrogations   163
The Interview Process   163
Interview Techniques: Witnesses, Citizens, and Victims   164
The Interrogation   165
Goals of the Interrogation   165
The Legal Requirements of Interview and Interrogation   166
Safeguarding against Police Misconduct   166
Avoiding the Coercive Interrogation   166
Unreasonable Delay in Arraignments   167
The Suspect’s Right to Legal Counsel   167
Preparation for the Interrogation   169
The Interrogation Setting   169
The Interrogation Process and Understanding Deception   170
Interrogation Styles   170
False Cues about Lying   171
Behavioral Indicators   171
How Lying and Deception Are Detected   171
Why Suspects Confess   174
Searching for Information   174
Closing the Communication Gap   174
Admission versus Confession   175
False Confessions   175

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The Cognitive Interview   176

“Think-Aloud” Interviewing   176
Verbal Probing Techniques   176
Written Statements   176
Structuring the Written Statement   177
How to Properly Document Statements   177
The Recording Procedure   177
Videotaped Confessions   177
Recap Bias   178
Framing the Tapes   178
Use of the Polygraph   178
The Computer Voice Stress Analyzer (CVSA)   180
Summary Checklist   182   Key Terms   185   Discussion
Questions   185   Endnotes   185

Chapter  7 CRIMINAL INTELLIGENCE AND SURVEILLANCE

OPERATIONS   188
Introduction   189
The History of Intelligence Collection   190
Pitfalls of Intelligence Gathering   191
The Usefulness of Intelligence   191
Overt and Covert Intelligence Collection   192
Criminal Intelligence versus Criminal Investigation   192
Defining Criminal Intelligence   192
Types of Intelligence   192
Procedures for Intelligence Gathering   194
Phase 1: Target Selection   194
Phase 2: Data Collection   194
Phase 3: Data Collation and Analysis   196
Phase 4: Dissemination   196
Analyzing the Information   196
Link Analysis   196
Flowcharting   198
Auditing and Purging Files   199
The Riss Projects   199
Surveillance and Tracking Operations   200
Police License Plate Readers   201
Facial Recognition Technology   202
Tracking Social Media   203
Satellite-Assisted Surveillance   204
Tracking Cellular Phones   206

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 xiv CONTE N TS

Wiretaps and Electronic Eavesdropping   206

Minimization Requirements for Electronic Surveillance   207
The Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986   207
The Telecommunications Act of 1996   208
Thermal Imaging   208
Physical Surveillance Operations   208
Preparing for the Surveillance   209
Foot Surveillance   211
Difficulties in Surveillance Operations   213
Vehicle Surveillance   213
Stakeouts, or “Stationary Surveillance”   217
Briefings   217
Investigative Procedures   218
Post-Stakeout Procedures   219
Summary Checklist   220   Key Terms   222   Discussion
Questions   222   Endnotes   222

Chapter  8 UNDERCOVER OPERATIONS AND INFORMANT

MANAGEMENT   224
Introduction   225
Undercover Operations   225
Perspectives of Undercover Work   226
Recruitment   227
Danger in Undercover Operations   228
Stress in Undercover Work   228
Training Issues   229
Pitfalls of Undercover Work   229
Preparing for Undercover Assignments   229
Cyber-Undercover: Investigating Online Predators   231
Informant Management   232
Who Are Informants?   233
Using Informants   234
Informant Motivations   234
Documenting Your “Source”   236
Maintaining Control   237
Protecting the Informant’s Identity   237
Legal Considerations   237
Concerned Citizens as Informants   238
Anonymous Tips   238
Jailhouse Informants   239
Other Problems with Informants   239

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Federal Protection of the Informant   240

Summary Checklist   241   Key Terms   243   Discussion
Questions   243   Endnotes   244

PART 4 Crimes against Persons   246

Chapter  9 DEATH INVESTIGATIONS   246
Introduction   247
The Extent of Violent Crime   248
The Extent of Murder   248
Modes of Death   249
Serial, Mass, Sensational, and Spree Murders   249
The Extent of Homicide   251
Legal Characteristics of Homicide   252
Elements of Homicide   252
The Preliminary Death Investigation   253
Protecting the Crime Scene   254
Taking Notes at the Scene   254
Identifying the Victim   254
The Deceased Victim   255
The Victim Who Is Still Alive   255
Dying Declaration   255
The Forensic Autopsy   255
Estimating the Time of Death   256
Changes in the Body: Decomposition   256
The Forensics of Decomposition   257
Factors Affecting Decomposition   258
Other Visual Evidence of Decomposition   258
Gunshot Wounds as Evidence   260
Assessing the Severity of Gunshot Wounds   260
Estimating the Distance of the Shooter from the Victim   260
Entry/Exit Wounds and Distance of Fire   261
Entrance Wounds   262
Exit Wounds   262
Determining Whether or Not the Victim Was Alive before the Shooting   263
Establishing the Type of Gun Used in the Shooting   263
Identifying a Suspect Bullet   263
Smudging   263
Tattooing   264
Understanding GSR   264
Why Analyze for GSR?   265
Suffocation and Smothering   265

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Ligature Marks as Evidence   266

Blunt Force Trauma   267
The Shotgun as a Weapon of Murder   267
Wounds as Evidence   269
Drowning Deaths   270
National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime   270
Autoerotic Death   270
Suicide   272
Evidence of Suicide   272
The Suicide Note   272
Reconstructing the Death   273
Motives for Suicide   273
Cold Case Investigations   273
Pitfalls in Homicide Investigations   274
Summary Checklist   279   Key Terms   281   Discussion
Questions   282   Endnotes   282

Chapter  10 ROBBERY   284

Introduction   285
Robbery Offenses   286
Understanding Robbery   286
Defining Robbery   286
Robbery Trends   286
Consequences of Robbery   287
Elements of Robbery   287
Types of Robbery   287
Commercial Robberies   287
Convenience Stores   290
Robberies at ATM Machines   292
Street Robberies   293
Vehicle Robberies   294
Carjacking   294
Home Invasions   295
Robberies in Schools   296
Types of Robbers   297
Careers in Robbery   297
Motivations for Robbery   297
Planning an Armed Robbery   297
The First Officer on the Scene   298
The Preliminary Robbery Investigation   298

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The Neighborhood Canvass   298

The Robber’s Method of Operation   299
Physical Evidence   300
The Role of Witnesses   300
Summary Checklist   301   Key Terms   302   Discussion
Questions   302   Endnotes   302

Chapter  11 ASSAULT AND RELATED OFFENSES   304

Introduction   305
Aggravated Assault Trends   306
Legal Classifications of Assault   306
Simple Assault   306
Aggravated Assault   307
Self-Defense   307
The Preliminary Assault Investigation   307
Documenting the Elements of Assault   308
Protecting the Crime Scene   308
Initial Questioning   308
Searching the Crime Scene   308
Domestic Violence   309
The Investigative Response to Domestic Violence   309
Legal Approaches to Domestic Violence   310
Stalking   312
Who Stalks Whom?   312
Forms of Stalking   313
Occurrence of Stalking   313
The Investigative Response to Stalking   314
Assaults in Taverns and Bars   314
Sexual Assault   315
The Role of the Sex Crime Investigator   315
Forcible Rape   316
Forcible Rape Trends   317
Legal Aspects of Rape   317
Corroboration   318
Date Rape   318
Evidence in Rape Cases   319
Actual versus False Complaints   325
Profiling the Rapist   325
The Rapist’s Approach   327
Methods of Control   328
Summary Checklist   328   Key Terms   330   Discussion
Questions   330   Endnotes   331

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Chapter  12 MISSING AND ABDUCTED PERSONS   332

Introduction   333
A Look at the “Big Picture”   334
Profiling the Abductor   335
Types of Missing Children Cases   338
Legislative History of Child Abduction   338
AMBER Alerts   339
Code Adam   341
The Investigative Response   342
When a Child Doesn’t Come Home . . .   343
The Initial Call for Assistance   343
Radio Broadcasts (Alerts)   344
First-Responder Duties   344
Getting to the Scene   344
On-Scene Activities   344
The Initial Assessment   344
Abductions via the Internet   345
How Cyber-Predators Work   346
Interviewing Suspects in Abductions   346
Summary Checklist   348   Key Terms   350   Discussion
Questions   350   Endnotes   351

Chapter  13 CRIMES AGAINST CHILDREN: CHILD ABUSE,

CHILD FATALITIES, AND EXPLOITATION   352
Introduction   353
The Abuse of Children   353
The Scope of the Problem   354
Types of Child Abuse and Neglect   354
Changing Views of Child Abuse and Maltreatment   355
The Problem of Acquaintance Molestation   357
Reporting Mechanisms   357
Child Abuser Profiles   358
The Role of the Investigator   359
Child Fatalities   359
Acute Maltreatment   359
Chronic Maltreatment   360
How Child Fatalities Differ from Other Types of Homicide   360
The Role of Child Protective Services and the Police   361
The Need for Proper “Child Abuse” Training   361
Child Physical Abuse   362

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Investigative Resources   362

Emergency Room Personnel and Medical Examiners   362
Battered Child Syndrome   363
Recognizing Abuse   364
Taking the Initial Report   364
The Initial Police Response to Child Abuse   364
Steps in Investigating Battered Child Syndrome   364
Interviews with Medical Personnel   364
Other Important Sources of Information   365
Consultation with Experts   365
Interviews with Caretakers   365
The Crime Scene Investigation   365
Shaken Baby Syndrome   366
Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy   367
Indications of Munchausen Syndrome   367
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome   368
Sexual Abuse of Children   369
Child Sexual Exploitation   371
Child Pornography on the Internet   371
Defining Internet Child Pornography   372
Components of the Problem   372
Pedophilia   373
The Preliminary Investigation for Crimes against Children   373
Interviewing the Initial Reporter—Building Rapport   373
Collecting Evidence   374
Interviewing Witnesses   374
Evidence from the Autopsy   375
Documentation of the Case   375
Interrogating Suspects   375
The Forensic Interview   376
Why Are Forensic Interviews Needed?   376
The Initial Interview   376
The Secondary Forensic Interview   377
Multidisciplinary Investigations   377
Techniques of Forensic Interviewing   377
The Stepwise Interview   377
Children as Witnesses   378
Child Molester Profiles   379
Investigating the Molester   380
Premeditation and Intent   380
Summary Checklist   381   Key Terms   384   Discussion
Questions   384   Endnotes   385

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PART 5 Crimes against Property   388

Chapter  14 THEFT-RELATED OFFENSES   388
Introduction   389
Property Crime Trends   389
Overview   389
Burglary   390
Burglary Trends   390
Burglary versus Robbery   390
Why Criminals Burglarize   391
Elements of Burglary   391
How a Thief Works   391
Types of Burglaries   391
Residential Burglaries   392
Retail Burglaries   394
ATM Burglaries   395
Types of Burglars   395
The Preliminary Burglary Investigation   395
Indications of Burglary   395
Approach with Caution!   396
Physical Evidence   396
Possession of Burglary Tools   396
Tracing Stolen Property   396
The Fence   396
Proving the Receipt of Stolen Property   397
Circumstantial Evidence   398
Larceny–Theft   398
Larceny–Theft Offenses   399
Larceny–Theft Trends   399
Check Fraud   399
Investigating Check Forgery   400
Embezzlement   401
Investigating Embezzlement   402
Categories of Embezzlement   402
Shoplifting   403
Investigating Shoplifting   404
Advance Fee Schemes   406
Credit Card Fraud   406
Obtaining Credit Cards   406
Using Stolen Credit Cards   406
Investigating Credit Card Theft   406

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Identity Theft   407

Financial Losses   408
Personal Costs   408
The Role of the Federal Trade Commission   409
Types of Identity Theft and Identity Theft Operations   409
How Stolen Information Is Used   410
The Investigative Response   411
Reports of Identity Theft   412
Motor Vehicle Fraud   413
Methods of Fraud   413
Motor Vehicle Theft   414
Motor Vehicle Theft Trends   415
Overview   415
The National Insurance Crime Bureau   416
Motivations for Motor Vehicle Theft   416
The Preliminary Investigation   417
Motor Vehicle Theft and the Investigative Traffic Stop   417
The Vehicle Identification Number   418
Disguising the Stolen Vehicle   419
The Rip-Off   420
Tools of the Trade   420
Summary Checklist   421   Key Terms   424   Discussion
Questions   424   Endnotes   424

Chapter  15 ARSON, BOMBINGS, AND TERRORISM   426

Introduction   427
Arson: A Brief Overview   428
Arson Offenses   429
Trends   429
Elements of Arson   430
The Police and Fire Relationship   430
Arson Investigative Techniques   431
The Preliminary Investigation of Arson   431
Motivations of the Arsonist   433
Serial Fire Setters   434
Profiling the Fire Starter   434
The Role of the Insurance Industry   435
Prosecution of Arson Cases   435
Bombing Incidents   436
What Is a Bomb?   437
Bombings by Teens   437

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 xxii CON TE N TS

Investigating Bomb Threats   438

Bomb Search Techniques   439
When a Bomb Is Found   441
Handling the Media   442
Terrorism and National Security   442
Terrorism Defined   442
Identifying the Terrorists   443
Criteria Describing Terrorists   443
Forms of Terrorism   444
Recent Terrorist Threats   445
Domestic Terrorism   446
Tactics to Destabilize Terrorist Organizations   446
U.S. Efforts in Combating Terrorism   448
Summary Checklist   449   Key Terms   451   Discussion
Questions   451   Endnotes   451

PART 6 Special Investigations: Drug Trafficking, White-Collar

Crime, and Police Shooting Investigations   454
Chapter  16 SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS: DRUG TRAFFICKING
AND GANGS   454
Introduction   455
Today’s Drug Problem   456
Distribution of Illegal Drugs   458
Gangs and the Drug Trade   458
Understanding the Extent of Gangs   458
Gang-Related Trends   460
Gang Membership and Expansion   460
Gang Identifiers   461
Drug-Related Offenses   470
The General Structure of Drug Laws   471
The 1970 Controlled Substances Act   472
Tools and Techniques in Drug Investigations   472
Confidential Informants   473
Case Planning   473
The Investigation of Illicit Drug Laboratories   473
Reverse Drug Sting Operations   474
Extraordinary Drug Enforcement Techniques   478
Drug Courier Profiling   479
Asset Forfeiture   479

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 C ONT ENT S xxiii

Summary Checklist   481   Key Terms   482   Discussion

Questions   482   Endnotes   483

Chapter  17 SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS: WHITE-COLLAR, CORPORATE,

AND COMPUTER-RELATED CRIMES   484
Introduction   485
Defining White-Collar Crime   486
Corporate Crime   486
Confidence Games   487
The Pigeon Drop   487
The Bank Examiner Scheme   488
The Pyramid “Get Rich Quick” Scheme   488
Travel Scams   488
Home Repair Scams   489
Contest Cons   489
The Magazine Subscription Scam   489
Check and Credit Card Fraud   489
Money Laundering   490
The History of Money Laundering   491
Examples of Money Laundering   491
Combating the Money Laundering Problem   492
Techniques of Money Laundering   492
Money Laundering Using Money Orders   495
Computer Crime   495
Photoshot   495
Defining Computer Crime   497
The Nature of the Crime   498
Computer Crime Investigations   499
Classification of Computer Crimes   499
Typical Forms of Computer Crimes   499
Photo-Sharing Scams   501
Automatic Teller Machine Frauds   502
Investigating Computer Crimes   502
The Preliminary Investigation of Computer Crimes   502
Evidence Considerations   502
Profile of the Computer Criminal   503
Interviewing the Computer Crime Suspect   504
Summary Checklist   505   Key Terms   507   Discussion
Questions   508   Endnotes   508

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 xxiv CON TE N TS

Chapter  18 INVESTIGATIONS OF OFFICER-INVOLVED

SHOOTINGS   510
Introduction   511
The Extent of Officer-Involved Shootings   511
Perspectives on the Investigative Process   511
The Importance of Investigating Officer-Involved Shootings   515
Involved Officers’ Responsibilities   516
Safety First   516
Assistance to Locate/Arrest Suspects   516
Notify Emergency Medical Services (EMS)   516
Secure Firearms   516
Secure the Scene   516
Identify Witnesses   517
Supervisor Responsibilities   517
Witness Accounts   517
Making a Public Statement   517
Assigning a “Companion Officer”   518
Advising Next-of-Kin   519
Ongoing Duties   519
Establish a Command Post and Recorder   519
Dealing with the Media   520
Investigators’ Responsibilities   520
Parallel Investigations   520
Experienced Officers Are Essential   520
Investigators Take over the Scene   520
Digital Camera   520
Reliability of Witness Statements   521
Delaying the Formal Officer Statement   523
Officer Interviews and Perceptual Distortions   523
Claims That the Suspect Was Armed   524
In Summary   525
The Force Review Board   525
Summary Checklist   525   Key Terms   527   Discussion
Questions   527   Endnotes   527

PART 7 Prosecution   528

Chapter  19 PREPARATION FOR COURT   528
Introduction   529
Types of Witnesses and Testimony   529
Preparing for Trial   529

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 C ONT ENT S xxv

Going to Court   532

The Investigator as a Witness   533
Preparing for Court   533
Reviewing Evidence and Reports   533
Credibility as a Witness   533
Appearance in Court   534
Courtroom Demeanor   535
Testifying in Court   535
Tell the Truth   536
What Is Lying?   536
Cautions Regarding the Brady Decision   536
Safeguarding against Lying   537
Pitfalls When Testifying in Court   539
The Role of the Expert Witness   539
Summary Checklist   540   Key Terms   542   Discussion
Questions   542   Endnotes   543
Appendix A Collection and Preservation of Physical Evidence   544
Appendix B Cases   552
Glossary   554
Index   567

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A01_LYMA6213_09_SE_FM.indd 26 09/11/18 3:07 PM
 PREFACE
Criminal investigation represents a timeless and dynamic field of dd Expanded information on new intelligence gathering
scientific study. This book, now in its ninth edition, was written technology including police license plate readers and
with the perception that crime detection is a field that relies heav- facial recognition technology
ily on the past experiences of investigators as well as recent prac- dd Expanded discussion on tracking social media for
tical, forensic, and technological innovations. The investigator’s investigative leads
success in crime detection can be influenced by several exter-
nal variables. For example, increased pressure by public interest
groups and courts of law has caused police supervisors to place
greater emphasis on case management and investigator account- NEW AND UPDATED GRAPHICS
ability. In addition, because of increased social problems asso- Figures have been updated throughout the text, and more
ciated with the use of cellular and computer technology along illustrations have been added to support key information,
with cloud storage of information and GPS technology, the public especially regarding the surveillance of criminal suspects in
spotlight has focused more than ever before on methods of crime Chapter 7.
detection and the successful prosecution of offenders. Finally, due
to the ongoing incidence of active shooter events and soaring
violent crime rates, the public is now more insistent that criminal
investigations are conducted quickly and with thoroughness. UPDATED CASE STUDIES
New case study examples have been added, The shooting of
Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri; The shooting of Laquan
NEW AND UPDATED McDonald in Chicago, Illinois; and The shooting of Walter Scott
in Charleston, South Carolina.
INFORMATION
dd Updated and enhanced case studies, photographs, charts
and graphics
NEW CHAPTER: INVESTIGATION
dd New “closer look” vignettes OF OFFICER-INVOLVED
dd Enhanced “history of policing” material
SHOOTINGS (CHAPTER 18)
dd Expanded information on crime scene walkthrough and

neighborhood canvass Refreshing overview of an ongoing investigative challenge—

dd New sections on social media and criminal investigations investigating officer-involved shootings. Timely introduction for
students who wish to understand the importance of conducting
dd Enhanced information on identifying suspects
one of the profession’s most thought-provoking types of inves-
dd New section on cross-racial witness identification
tigation. Topics include:
dd Expanded discussion on the history of criminal

investigation containing biographical vignettes on dd The Extent of Officer-Involved Shootings

pioneers in criminal investigation dd Perspectives on the Investigative Process
dd New case studies of: The shooting of Michael Brown in dd Case Studies

Ferguson, Missouri; The shooting of Laquan McDonald dd Description of the Shooting Scene

in Chicago, Illinois; The shooting of Walter Scott in dd Evidence at the Shooting Scene
Charleston, South Carolina. dd DNA Evidence
dd Expanded section on “tunnel vision” and “anchoring” in
dd Evidence from the Medical Examiner
the investigative thought process dd Importance of Investigating Officer-Involved Shootings
dd Updated samples of investigative forms including: Crime
dd Involved Officer(s’) Responsibilities
scene work sheet form; Victim information form; Crime
dd Supervisor Responsibilities
scene checklist form and Crime scene security log form
dd The Investigator’s Responsibilities
dd Updated section on “Cloud-based” searches for digital
dd Officer Interviews and Perceptual Distortions
evidence and digital search warrants
dd Updated section on investigative detentions and dd Claims That the Suspect Was Armed

consensual encounters dd The Force Review Board

xxvii

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 xxviii PRE FA CE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Most boxes conclude with one or more Thematic Questions
that ask students to consider the ethical choices, legal implica-
The learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter (“This tions, and other issues involved in the investigation.
chapter will enable you to:”) have been rewritten in streamlined
language to provide a concise overview of what readers can
expect to learn from each chapter. SUMMARY CHECKLIST
This book is intended to meet the needs of students and oth- At the end of each chapter, this checklist offers review ques-
ers interested in criminal justice by presenting information in a tions followed by bulleted responses to test students’ knowl-
logical flow, paralleling the steps and considerations observed edge of the main Chapter concepts and serves as a study tool
in an actual criminal investigation. Additionally, it is designed for review. A list of Key Terms and Discussion Questions are
to fulfill an ongoing need for a book that explains clearly and also included at the end of each chapter.
thoughtfully the fundamentals of criminal investigation as prac- In summary, I am hopeful that this will prove to be an engag-
ticed by police investigators on the job in communities across ing textbook that is descriptive of the duties of modern-day crime
the nation. detection and police professionalism. Accordingly, each chapter
The book is written with several observations in mind. First, contains key terms and discussion questions that also aid in the
as its title indicates, it is designed to blend scientific theories of instructional process. Finally, as a learning aid, this text is accom-
crime detection with a practical approach to criminal investigation. panied by a companion website that offers videos and test items
Its underlying assumption is that sound criminal investigations as well as many other learning tools. I know this book will pro-
depend on an understanding of the science of crime detection vide you with what you need to understand the art of criminal
procedures and the art of anticipating human behavior. There is investigation as well as the many new forms of scientific innova-
yet another critical observation made in the book: It recognizes tions that modern investigators now use to catch perpetrators of
that both the uniformed officer and the criminal investigator play some of the nation’s most heinous crimes. Read and enjoy!
important roles in the field of criminal investigation. The duties of
each are outlined throughout the book, recognizing that there is a
fundamental need for both to work in tandem throughout many INSTRUCTOR SUPPLEMENTS
aspects of the criminal investigation process. The following supplementary materials are available to support
One underlying theme of the book is that, as with all po- instructors’ use of the main text:
lice endeavors, criminal investigation is a law enforcement re-
sponsibility that must be conducted within the framework of dd Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank.  Includes
the U.S. Constitution and the practices of a democratic soci- content outlines for classroom discussion, teaching
ety. Consequently, court decisions and case studies have been suggestions, and answers to selected end-of-chapter
quoted extensively for clarifications of issues and general reader questions from the text. This also contains a Word
information. document version of the test bank.
dd TestGen.  This computerized test generation system

gives you maximum flexibility in creating and

INSTRUCTOR-FRIENDLY administering tests on paper, electronically, or online. It
provides state-of-the-art features for viewing and editing
ORGANIZATION test bank questions, dragging a selected question into a
test you are creating, and printing sleek, formatted tests
For more efficient use, this book has been designed to follow
in a variety of layouts. Select test items from test banks
closely to a standard curriculum format. The 18 Chapter orga-
included with TestGen for quick test creation, or write
nization is designed to make it easier for instructors to align
your own questions from scratch. TestGen’s random
their coverage of the text’s material with the class schedule and
generator provides the option to display different text or
academic term.
calculated number values each time questions are used.
dd PowerPoint Presentations.  Our presentations offer

A CLOSER LOOK clear, straightforward outlines and notes to use for

class lectures or study materials. Photos, illustrations,
In most chapters, this box addresses selected chapter topics in charts, and tables from the book are included in the
depth, such as technology, careers, tools and techniques, and presentations when applicable.
issues in criminal investigation.
To access supplementary materials online, instructors need to
request an instructor access code. Go to www.pearsonhigh-
CASE IN POINT ered.com/irc, where you can register for an instructor access
code. Within 48 hours after registering, you will receive a con-
Near the end of most chapters, this box presents case examples firming email, including an instructor access code. Once you
of the types of crime discussed in the chapters, and the proce- have received your code, go to the site and log on for full in-
dures and techniques that were used to investigate each case. structions on downloading the materials you wish to use.

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 P REF AC E xxix

ALTERNATE VERSIONS For more information, visit your favorite online eBook reseller
or visit www.mypearsonstore.com.
eBooks This text is also available in multiple eBook formats. REVEL™ is Pearson’s newest way of delivering our respected
These are an exciting new choice for students looking to save content. Fully digital and highly engaging, REVEL replaces the
money. As an alternative to purchasing the printed textbook, textbook and gives students everything they need for the course.
students can purchase an electronic version of the same con- Seamlessly blending text narrative, media, and assessment,
tent. With an eTextbook, students can search the text, make REVEL enables students to read, practice, and study in one con-
notes online, print out reading assignments that incorporate lec- tinuous experience—for less than the cost of a traditional text-
ture notes, and bookmark important passages for later review. book. Learn more at pearsonhighered.com/revel.

REVEL CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION: THE ART AND SCIENCE,

9TH EDITION BY LYMAN
Designed for how you want to teach—and how your
students want to learn
Revel is an interactive learning environment that engages students and helps them
prepare for your class. Reimagining their content, our authors integrate media and
assessment throughout the narrative so students can read, explore, and practice, all
at the same time. Thanks to this dynamic reading experience, students come to class
prepared to discuss, apply, and learn about criminal justice—from you and from each
other.
Revel seamlessly combines the full content of Pearson’s bestselling criminal justice
titles with multimedia learning tools. You assign the topics your students cover. Author
Explanatory Videos, application exercises, survey questions, and short quizzes engage Author Explanatory Videos
students and enhance their understanding of core topics as they progress through the
content. Through its engaging learning experience, Revel helps students better under-
stand course material while preparing them to meaningfully participate in class.

Author Explanatory Videos

Short 2–3 minute Author Explanatory Videos, embedded in the narrative, provide stu-
dents with a verbal explanation of an important topic or concept and illuminating the
concept with additional examples.
Point/CounterPoint Videos
Point/CounterPoint Videos
Instead of simply reading about criminal justice, students are empowered to think criti-
cally about key topics through Point/Counterpoint videos that explore different views
on controversial issues such as the effectiveness of the fourth amendment, privacy,
search and seizure, Miranda, prisoner rights, death penalty, and many other topics.

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 xxx PREFA CE

New Student Survey Questions

Student Survey Questions appear within the narrative
asking students to respond to questions about contro-
versial topics and important concepts. Students then
see their response versus the responses of all other
students who have answered the question in the form
of a bar chart. We provide the instructor with a Power-
Point deck with links to each survey and map, making
it easy to pull these items up in class for discussion.

Track Time-on-Task throughout the Course

The Performance Dashboard allows you to see how much time the class or individual
students have spent reading a section or doing an assignment, as well as points earned
per assignment. This data helps correlate study time with performance and provides a
window into where students may be having difficulty with the material.

Learning Management System Integration

Pearson provides Blackboard Learn™, Canvas™, Brightspace by D2L, and Moodle in-
tegration, giving institutions, instructors, and students easy access to Revel. Our Revel
integration delivers streamlined access to everything your students need for the course
in these learning management system (LMS) environments.

The Revel App

The Revel mobile app lets students read, practice, and study—anywhere, anytime,
on any device. Content is available both online and offline, and the app syncs work
across all registered devices automatically, giving students great flexibility to toggle
between phone, tablet, and laptop as they move through their day. The app also lets
students set assignment notifications to stay on top of all due dates. Available for down-
load from the App Store or Google Play. Visit www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/to
learn more.

A01_LYMA6213_09_SE_FM.indd 30 09/11/18 3:07 PM

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
No book can be written entirely as a solo effort, and this project is a number of crime scene and laboratory photos for this new
no exception. The preparation of this book represents hundreds edition. Without the cooperation and guidance of these persons
of painstaking hours maintaining continuous contact with criminal and organizations, this book would not have been possible.
justice agencies, federal information clearinghouses, police practitio- A special thank you is also well deserved for Acquisitions
ners, and colleagues in the field of criminal justice. In addition, to Editor Gary Bauer, along with the many other dedicated pub-
offer the reader the most up-to-date and relevant information, it was lishing professionals at Pearson for their hard work and sup-
important to consult libraries, police journals, periodicals, newspa- port for the ninth edition of this text. Finally, I would like to
pers, government publications, and other sources of literature ger- extend special thanks to those criminal justice academics and
mane to the field of crime detection on an ongoing basis. practitioners who painstakingly reviewed the manuscript of this
Many persons were helpful in the preparation of this book, book. These persons include Kim Hammett, Davidson County
including practitioners in the field as well as experts in academe. Community College; Jeffrey Majewski, Bristol Community
Among these, the contributions of certain persons deserve special College; J. Gayle Mericle, Western Illinois University; Marshall
recognition. Included are the men and women of the Columbia Roache, Chemeketa Community College; Louis Shepard, West
Police Department, the Missouri State Highway Patrol, agents Georgia Technical College; Bryan Wanke, Honolulu Community
from the Federal Bureau of Investigation and Drug Enforcement College; and Ehsan Zaffar, George Mason University.
Administration, contributors from the Department of Homeland Without the support and assistance of all these people and
Security, and the International Association of Chiefs of Police. many more, this book would not have become a reality. Thank
A special debt of gratitude goes to Brian Hoey of the you all.
Missouri State Highway Patrol Crime Laboratory, who provided Michael D. Lyman

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A01_LYMA6213_09_SE_FM.indd 32 09/11/18 3:07 PM
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Michael D. Lyman organized crime, drug enforcement, and drug trafficking. He
Michael D. Lyman is Professor of Criminal Justice at Columbia received both his bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Wichita
College of Missouri, located in Columbia, MO. In addition to State University and his Ph.D. from the University of Missouri,
being a teaching faculty member, he serves as the program co- Columbia. Over the last 20 years, as an expert witness, he has
ordinator for the Master of Science of Criminal Justice Program been called upon on an estimated 450 occasions by law en-
and the founder of the college’s Bachelor of Science in Forensic forcement and the legal community to review and evaluate
Science Program. Before entering the field of college teaching, criminal investigations and testify in federal court proceeding
he was employed as a criminal investigator for state police or- nationwide as to the results of his evaluations and his opinions.
ganizations in Kansas and Oklahoma and has taught literally Textbooks such as this are an ongoing work in progress,
thousands of law enforcement officers in the proper police and the author welcomes communication and correspondence
techniques and methods of professional criminal investiga- about his work. Dr. Lyman can be contacted at Columbia
tion. Dr. Lyman has authored eight textbooks in criminal jus- College, 1001 Rogers Street, Columbia, MO 65216 or at mly-
tice dealing with the areas of criminal investigation, policing, [email protected]. Thank you for using this textbook.

xxxiii

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