Database Management System: SQL Server 2019 SQL and T-SQL

SQL Server 2019 Page: 1 SQL and T-SQL
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Data Base Management System is defined as collection of Software Program’s used to store the
Data, manage the data, and retrieve the data. Data retrieval is based on three points
 Accuracy – Data Free from Errors.
 Timelines – With in a time
 Relevancy – Related Data
Maintaining of the data can be done in two ways.
 File System
 Data Base
Why Database Management System and why not flat files to maintain the data.
Flat Files has many disadvantages they are
 No Security
 Difficulty in accessing the data
 Redundancy
 Data Inconsistency
 Sequential Search Technique (Time Consuming Process)
 Indexing is not present in file system
 No Identifier (Related Information)
DATABASE: It is defined as Logical Container which contains related objects, Objects Includes Tables,
Views, Synonyms, Stored Procedures, Functions, Triggers Etc.
MODELS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
 Entity Relationship Model
 Object Relation Ship Model
 Record Based Model
 Hierarchical DBMS
 Network DBMS
 Relational DBMS
 Object Relational DBMS
 Info Logical Model
 Semantic Based Model
**SQL Server 2005(9.0) & 2008 (10.0) Includes both RDBMS & ORDBMS Model.
RDBMS = R + DBMS {R Stands for Referential Integrity Constraint}
Relation can be defined as Referential Integrity Constraint, with which we create relationships One
To One & One to Many (Direct Implementation) Many to Many (Indirect Implementation)
DR EF CODD has outlined 12 rules often called as CODD’S rules if any Database Software Satisfies 8
Or 8.5 rules, it can be considered as pure RDBMS Database.
 SQL Server Satisfies 10 CODD’s Rules
 Oracle satisfies all 12 CODD’s Rules
 MySQL Satisfies 10 CODD`s rules
 Sybase (Teradata)
 MS Access is not a pure DBMS, because it satisfies only 6 rules, so it is called as Partial / Semi
Database.
 RDBMS always presents the data in 2 Dimensional formats, i.e. in Rows and Columns, further to
tables.
 Collection of characters “or” we call as IDENTIFIERS /FIELD/ ATTRIBUTE.
 Collection of columns: ROW or RECORD or TUPLE.
 Collection of Rows & Columns: Table or Entity or Objects or Relations.
 RDBMS always represent the data in a Normalized way.
COMPONENETS OF RDBMS:
 Collection of Objects or Relations to store data.

 Set of operators are applied on one or more relations that always produces a new relation.
 Data Accuracy – Data Consistency, Data Integrity.
SQL SERVER:
 It was introduced in the year 1989 by MICROSOFT as SQL SERVER 1.0
 It is GUI based RDBMS.
 It is CLIENT/ SERVER technology.
 It is associated with DATABASE ENGINE (set of compilers)
 It can be installed on specific Operating System (WINDOWS)
 Whereas CLIENTS can be installed on any Operation System.
 SQL SERVER 2005 & 2008 are consisting of RDBMS & ORDBMS.
 SQL SERVER
 SQL-(Different Sub Languages)
 T-SQL-(SQL + Procedural Language)
 Anonymous Block or Name Less Block
 Stored or Named Block
 Stored Procedure
 Stored Functions
 Stored Triggers
 Business Intelligence Tools
Differences between Oracle & SQL Server

ORACLE SQL SERVER
 It was Introduced In 1979 In 1989 It was Introduced
 It Is CUI Based RDBMS It Is GUI Based RDBMS
 It can be Installed on any Platform It Requires Specific OS (Windows)(up to 2014 version)
 Provides High Security It Is Less Security
 It Is High Priced RDBMS It Is Low Priced RDBMS
VERSIONS OF SQL SERVER
Name Version Year of release
SQL SERVER 1.0 1.0 1989
SQL SERVER 1.1 1.1 1991
SQL SERVER 4.0 4.0 1992
SQL SERVER 4.5 4.5 1993
SQL SERVER 6.0 6.0 1995
SQL SERVER 6.5 6.5 1997
SQL SERVER 7.0 7.0 1998
SQL SERVER 2000 8.0 2000
SQL SERVER 2005 9.0 2005
SQL SERVER 2008 10.0 2008
Azure 10.25 2010
SQL SERVER 2008R2 10.50 2010
SQL SERVER 2012 11.0 2012
SQL SERVER 2014 12.0 2014
SQL SERVER 2016 13.0 2016
SQL SERVER 2017 14.0 2017
SQL SERVER 2019 15.0 2019
FEATURES OF SQL SERVER

 GUI based RDBMS( Commands, Wizards)
 Provides High Security
 Provides High Scalability
 Provides High Availability
 Provides High Performance
 Supports XML
NEW FEATURES INTRODUCED IN SQL SERVER 2005:
XML Integration
 XML data type is introduced
 XML indexes are introduced
 FOR XML, OPEN XML
 QUERY (), EXIST ()
CLR INTEGRATION (Common Language Runtime Associated with Database Engine)
T-SQL ENHANCEMENTS
 DDL Triggers {Used To Perform Administration Related Tasks}
 LOGON Triggers.
 Structured Exception Handling [TRY, CATCH]
 Ranking Functions (Window Functions)
 Table Partitioning.
 Synonym as Database Object Is Introduced.
 Recursive Queries.
NEW TOOLS
 SQL SERVER Management Studio
 Query Analyzer (Command Based)
 Enterprise Manager (GUI Based)
 Query Editor (Command Based)
 Object Explorer (GUI Based)
CONFIGURATION TOOLS
 Service Management
 Client Network Utility
 Server
BIDS (BUSSINESS INTELLIGENCE DEVELOPMENT STUDIO)
 SSIS (SQL SERVER INEGRATION SERVICES)
 SSAS (SQL SERVER ANALYTICAL SERVICES)
 SSRS (SQL SERVER REPORTING SERVICES)
 SSNS (SQL SERVER NOTIFICATION SERVICES)
SQL SERVER NEW FEATURES IN 2008
 Intelligence For Query Editing
 Multi Server Query
 Query Editor Regions
 Object Explorer Enhancements
 Activity Monitors
T-SQL ENHANCEMENTS: SQL SERVER 2008 introduces several important new T-SQL Programmability features
and enhancements to some existing ones.
Following are the key Features:
 Declaring and Initializing Variables
 Compound Assignment Operators
 Table Value Constructors(Support Through Values Clause)

 Enhancements to Convert Functions
 New Date and Time Data types & Functions
 Large UDTS(User Defined Types)
 Hierarchy ID Data Type
 Table Type and Table Valued Parameters
 The Merge Statement (Grouping Sets Enhancements)
 DDL Trigger Enhancements
 Sparse Columns
 Filtered Indexes
 Large CLR User Defined Aggregates
 Multi Input CLR User Defined Aggregates
 The Order Option For CLR Table Valued Functions
 Object Dependencies
 Change Data Capture
 Hadoop Integration
 Distributed Replay
 Enhanced PowerShell Support
 Master Data Services
 Power View
 Contained Databases
 Column store indexes
 SQL Server Data Tools
 Always On
 Sequence Objects
 Pagination
 New T-SQL Functions
 Enhanced Execute Keyword with WITH RESULT SETS
 User-Defined Server Roles
 Metadata Discovery Enhancements
 In-Memory OLTP Engine
 AlwaysOn Enhancements
 Buffer Pool Extension
 Updateable Columnstore Indexes
 Storage I/O control
 Power View for Multidimensional Models
 Power BI for Office 365 Integration
 Backup Encryption
 SQL Server Managed Backup to Windows Azure
 Always Encrypted
 Dynamic Data Masking
 Stretch Database
 Real-time Operational Analytics
 Polybase
 Query Store
 Row Level Security

 Enhancements to AlwaysOn
 Revamped SQL Server Data Tools
 JSON Support
 Multiple TempDB
 Temporal Table
 R Introduction
 Live Query Statistics
 TRUNCATE TABLE with PARTITION
 DROP IF EXISTS
 SQL Server on Linux
 Resumable online index rebuild
 SQL Server machine learning services (Python, R)
 Query processing improvements
 Automatic database tuning
 TempDB file size improvements
 Smart differential backup
 Smart transaction log backup
 Improved SELECT INTO statement
 Distributed transaction support
 New availability groups functionality
 New dynamic management views
 In-memory enhancements
 Security enhancement
 High availability and disaster recovery
 Performance improvements

 Big Data Clusters
 UTF-8 Support (CTP 2.2)
 Resumable online index create (CTP 2.0)
 Intelligent query processing (CTP 2.0)
 Always On Availability Groups
 Machine Learning on Linux
EDITIONS OF SQL SERVER:
 ENTERPRISE EDITION – to perform administration related tasks
 STANDARD EDITION - to perform administration related tasks
 DEVELOPERS EDITION
 WORKGROUP EDITION
 EXPRESS EDITION
 MOBILE EDITION
SQL SERVER MANAGEMENT STUDIO
 It is used to perform command based operations and GUI based operations over a database.
 It consists of 2 sub components
 OBJECT EXPLORER – GUI + ADMINISRATION RELATED TASKS
 QUERY EDITIOR – COMMAND BASED OPERATIONS (SESSION)
Invoking SQL Server Management Studio through Run Command
 SQL 2005 Click on Start and Run Type “SQLWB” (WB – WORK BENCH)
 SQL 2008 Click on Start and Run Type “SSMS” (MS – MANAGEMENT STUDIO)
TYPES OF DATABASES
 System Data Bases – (Master, Model, MSDB, TempDB, Resource(from 2008r2-Hidden))
o Master-Records all the system-level information for an instance of SQL Server
o Model-Is used as the template for all databases created on the instance of SQL Server.
Modifications made to the model database, such as database size, collation, recovery
model, and other database options, are applied to any databases created afterward.
o MSDB-Is used by SQL Server Agent for scheduling alerts and jobs.
o TempDB-Is a workspace for holding temporary objects or intermediate result sets.
o Resource-Is a read-only database that contains system objects that are included with
SQL Server. System objects are physically persisted in the Resource database, but they
logically appear in the sys schema of every database.
 Sample Data Bases – 2000(Pubs, Northwind), 2005(Adventures, Adventures DW)
 User Defined Data Bases – Created by Developers
CREATING A USER DEFINED DATABASE:
 Database size in SQL SERVER 2000 was limited – 1048516TeraByte
 Database size in SQL SERVER 2005 was unlimited.
 Every database in SQL will be associated with two files.
 DATA FILES (STORES DATA)
 Primary Data File (.MDF Master Data File)
 Secondary Data File (.NDF Next Data File)
 LOG FILES (.LDF Stores Transaction Details)
 Every database will have at least one primary data file
 Tables will have logical data (ROWS & COLUMNS)
 Primary files have physical data (BLOCKS)
 Each block size will be of 8KB.
 A Database can be connected 32000+ NDF files.
 MDF will hold references of NDF files.
 Having more NDF files will help to make backup process easy.
 A Database can be associated by more than one .NDF & .LDF files.
 The advantage of creating NDF files is to have easy backup of database
CREATING A DATABASE THROUGH – GUI
Step 1: Click on Object Explorer
Step 2: Click on Databases
Step 3: Right click on Database
Step 4: Click on to Create a New Database
Step 5: Enter DATABASE Name and Click Ok
Step 6: Specify the Size as .MDF Initial Size – 2MB Increment – 1MB MAX Size Unlimited
Step 7: Specify the Size as .NDF Initial Size – 1MB Increment – 10% MAX Size Unlimited
CREATING A DATABASE THROUGH QUERY/COMMAND
As Database creation is an administration related task, it should be carried out through MASTER system data
base
Syntax:
Example:
CREATE DATABASE TESTDB
ON (
NAME = TESTDB,
FILENAME = 'C:\SQL Server\MSSQL.1\MSSQL\DATA\TESTDB.MDF' ,
SIZE = 5MB , MAXSIZE = 10MB , FILEGROWTH = 2MB )

LOG ON (
NAME = TESTDBLOG ,
FILENAME = 'C:\SQL Server\MSSQL.1\MSSQL\DATA\TESTDBLOG.LDF' ,
SIZE = 3MB, MAXSIZE = 8MB, FILEGROWTH = 2MB)
MODIFYING EXISTING DATABASE
Existing Database can be modified by using ALTER DATABASE Command, to perform different tasks like
creating secondary files, changing sizes of existing files, removing the files and renaming a database.
Syntax:
ALTER DATABASE < DATABASE_NAME >
ADD FILE = < FILE_SPECIFICATIONS >
ADD LOG FILE = < FILE_SPECIFICATIONS >
MODIFY FILE = < FILE_SPECIFICATIONS >
REMOVE FILE= < LOGICAL_NAME >
MODIFY NAME = < NEW_DATABASE_NAME >
Adding a new NDF File to an existing Database
ALTER DATABASE TESTDB
ADD FILE (
NAME = TESTDB1,
FILENAME ='C:\SQL Server\MSSQL.1\MSSQL\DATA\TESTDB1.NDF' ,
SIZE = 3 MB, MAXSIZE = 7MB, FILEGROWTH = 2MB )
Adding a new LDF file to an existing Data Base
ADD LOG FILE (
NAME = TESTDBLOG1,
FILENAME ='C:\SQL Server\MSSQL.1\MSSQL\DATA\TESTDBLOG1.LDF' ,
SIZE = 3 MB, MAXSIZE = 7MB, FILEGROWTH = 2MB )
CREATE DATABASE < DATABASE_NAME >
ON (
NAME = < LOGICAL_NAME >,
FILE NAME = < FILE_PATH > ,
SIZE = < SIZE >,
MAXSIZE = < SIZE >,
FILEGROWTH = < SIZE > )
LOG ON (
NAME = < LOGICAL_NAME >,
FILE NAME = < FILE_PATH > ,
SIZE = < SIZE >,
MAXSIZE = < SIZE >,
FILEGROWTH = < SIZE >)
Data File
Specifications
Log File
Specifications
Modifying Existing Data & Log Files:
MODIFY FILE (
NAME = TESTDB1, -- Logical Name
SIZE = 10MB, MAXSIZE = 12 MB)
Removing Files:
REMOVE FILE TESTDB1 –- Logical Name
Renaming a Data Base:
MODIFY NAME = DBTEST
Syntax:
SP_RENAMEDB < OLD_DATABASE_NAME >,< NEW_DATABASE_NAME >
SP_RENAMEDB 'TESTDB','DBTEST'
Dropping a Database:
Syntax:
DROP DATABASE < DATABASE_NAME >
DROP DATABASE TESTDB
Command to Use Navigate between Data Base’s
Syntax:
USE < DATABASE_NAME >
USE TESTDB
Command to get the Current Database Name - SELECT DB_NAME()
**SQL SERVER provides 1788 objects for every Database
SP_HELP: It will return list of predefined objects provided by MASTER Data Base to a User Defined
Database.
SP_HELPDB: This predefined Stored Procedure will provide list of database’s available in SQL
SERVER.
SP_HELPDB <DATABASE_NAME> - It will provide the complete information of the database.
STRUCTURE QUERY LANGUAGE – SQL
SQL is a language used to communicate with DATABASE SERVER.
Initially when SQL was introduced it was by name ‘SQUARE’ this language was modified and was
Released by a new name ‘SEQUEL’, later was renamed to SQL by removing all vowels in the SEQUEL.
 SQUARE – SPECIFICATIONS OF QUERY AS RELATIONAL EXPRESSIONS
 SEQUEL – STRUCTURED ENGLISH QUERY LANGUAGE
 SQL – STURCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE
SQL is a product of IBM, later used by different companies and they made SQL available in there
Products according to their standards.
 SQL is a called Common Database Language, since it gets understand by every RDBMS
 SQL is a Command Based Language
 SQL is an Insensitive Language
 SQL is a Non Procedural Language
SQL Consist of following Sub Languages:
DATA QUERY OR RETRIVAL LANGUAGE {DQL OR DRL}
It is used to retrieve the data in different ways using “SELECT” Command.
DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE {DML}
Insertion of new rows, modifications to existing rows, removing unwanted rows, collectively known
As DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE, It includes INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and MERGE (introduced in
2008)
TRANSACTION CONTROL LANGUAGE {TCL}
This language supports to make a transaction permanent in a database or supports to cancel the
Transaction. It includes COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVE commands.
DATA DEFINATION LANGUAGE {DDL}
This language is used to CREATE, ALTER and DROP Database objects like tables, views, indexes,
Synonyms, store procedures, store functions, stored triggers. It includes CREATE, ALTER, TRUNCATE,
DROP Commands.
DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE {DCL}
It is used to give rights on Database objects created by one user to get them access by other users it also
supports to cancel the given rights, It includes GRANT, REVOKE, DENY Commands.
To display list of User Defined Tables
SELECT NAME FROM SYS.TABLES
SELECT NAME FROM SYS.SYSOBJECTS WHERE XTYPE = 'U'
To display list of System Tables
SELECT NAME FROM SYS.SYSOBJECTS WHERE XTYPE = 'S'
To display list of User Defined Views

SELECT NAME FROM SYS.SYSOBJECTS WHERE XTYPE = 'V'
To display STRUCTURE or DEFINITION or METADATA of a Table
SP_HELP < TABLE_NAME >
DEMO TABLES FOR ALL QUERIES IN THIS DOCUMENT
CREATE TABLE EMP (EMPNO INT, ENAME VARCHAR (10), JOB VARCHAR(9),
MGR INT, HIREDATE DATETIME, SAL INT, COMM INT, DEPTNO INT,Email Varchar(30),Gender Char(1),Age
as Datediff(YY,HIREDATE,getdate()) )
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7369,'SMITH','CLERK',7902,'1980-12-17',800, NULL,
20,'SMITH@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7499,'ALLEN','SALESMAN',7698,'1981-02-
20',1600,300,30,'ALLEN@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7521,'WARD','SALESMAN',7698,'1981-02-
22',1250,500,30,'WARD@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7566,'JONES','MANAGER',7839,'1981-04-
02',2975,NULL,20,'JONES@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7654,'MARTIN','SALESMAN',7698,'1981-09-
28',1250,1400,30,'MARTIN@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7698,'BLAKE','MANAGER',7839,'1981-05-
01',2850,NULL,30,'BLAKE@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7782,'CLARK','MANAGER',7839,'1981-06-
09',2450,NULL,10,'CLARK@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7788,'SCOTT','ANALYST',7566,'1982-12-
09',3000,NULL,20,'SCOTT@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7839,'KING','PRESIDENT',NULL,'1981-11-
17',5000,NULL,10,'KING@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7844,'TURNER','SALESMAN',7698,'1981-09-
08',1500,0,30,'TURNER@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7876,'ADAMS','CLERK',7788,'1983-01-12',1100,
NULL,20,'ADAMS@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7900,'JAMES','CLERK',7698,'1981-12-
03',950,NULL,30,'JAMES@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7902,'FORD','ANALYST',7566,'1981-12-
03',3000,NULL,20,'FORD@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7934,'MILLER','CLERK',7782,'1982-01-
23',1300,NULL,10,'MILLER@gmail.com','M')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7934,'Ruben','CLERK',7782,'1982-02-
23',2300,NULL,50,'Ruben@gmail.com','F')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7935,'Janet','CLERK',7782,'1982-03-
23',4300,NULL,50,'Janet@gmail.com','F')
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(7936,'Shannon','CLERK',7782,'1982-06-
23',3300,NULL,50,'Shannon@gmail.com','F')
CREATE TABLE DEPT ( DEPTNO INT, DNAME VARCHAR(14), LOC VARCHAR(13) )

INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES (10,'ACCOUNTING','NEW YORK')
INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES (20,'RESEARCH','DALLAS')
INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES (30,'SALES','CHICAGO')
INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES (40,'OPERATIONS','BOSTON')
CREATE TABLE SALGRADE ( GRADE INT, LOSAL INT, HISAL INT )

INSERT INTO SALGRADE VALUES (1, 700, 1200)
DATA QUERY LANGUAGE

 This language supports to retrieve the data in 3 ways
o SELECTION - retrieves the data of all columns.

o PROJECTION - retrieves required columns.
o JOINS - retrieves from multiple tables which always produce a new table.
 This language includes “SELECT” Command.
Syntax:
SELECT * /LIST_OF_COLS[COL_ALIAS]/LITERALS/MATH EXPRESSIONS/FUNCTIONS/Sub Queries
[ FROM TABLE1 [TABLE_ALIAS, TABLE2 TABLE_ALIAS...]]/Sub
queries/functions/Synonyms/Views
[ WHERE CONDITIONS ]/sub queries/functions/case
[ GROUP BY COLUMN1 [COL2,COL3...] ] [ WITH ROLLUP / CUBE ]/case/functions
[ HAVING CONDITIONS ]/sub queries/function
[ ORDER BY COLUMN1 [COL2,COL3...] ] [ ASC / DESC ]/functions/CASE
[ FOR XML MODES]
Important points to be remembered:
 In a single SELECT statement data can be retrieved of 4096 columns from 255 tables.
 Clauses of SELECT statement should always be used as they are mentioned in the syntax.
 In SQL server selection & project can be done simultaneously.
 SELECT statement always gets executed from left to right top to bottom.
 If at least one column is associated with Aggregate functions, the remaining columns used in the
select need to use in the group by clause
 We can use selection and projection in select clause at a time
Q) Display the entire department’s information.
SELECT * FROM DEPT
Q) Display all the EMPLOYEES information.
SELECT * FROM EMP
Q) Display all the SALGRADE information.
SELECT * FROM SALGRADE
Q) Display ENAME, JOB, SALARY, COMM and DEPTNO of all the EMPLOYEES.
SELECT ENAME,JOB, SAL, COMM, DEPTNO FROM EMP
Q) Display DEPTNO, DNAME of all the departments.
SELECT DEPTNO,DNAME FROM DEPT
SELECT * DNAME, LOC FROM DEPT
CLIENT/SERVER {Query Execution Process}
Step 1: Checks the syntax
Step 2: Compiles the query
Step 3: Generate execution plan
Step 4: Query would be executed
COLUMN ALIAS:
 It is the other name provided for a COLUMN.
 It is a temporary name provided for a COLUMN.
 It provides its effect only in the output of a query.
 It provides its usage till the query is in execution.
 It cannot be used in other clauses of SELECT statement except ORDER BY clause.
 When COLUMN ALIAS is specified directly it does not allow blank spaces and special characters except
underscores.
 In order to have blank spaces and special characters it should be enclosed in Double Quotes ” ” or
Square Brackets [ ]
 It can be specified in two ways:
With using “AS” Key word
Without using “AS” Key word
Examples:
SELECT EMPNO ECODE, ENAME EMPNAME FROM EMP
SELECT EMPNO AS ECODE, ENAME AS EMPNAME FROM EMP

SELECT EMPNO ECODE, SAL MONTHLY_SAL FROM EMP
SELECT EMPNO ECODE, SAL “MONTHLY PAY” FROM EMP
SELECT EMPNO ECODE, SAL [MONTHLY PAY] FROM EMP
USING LITERALS IN A SELECT STATEMENT
 Literals refer to a constraint which means input provided for a query the same is provided in the
output.
 A literal can be of numeric, string and date type data
Examples:
SELECT ENAME FROM EMP
SELECT 'ENAME' FROM EMP
SELECT 'ENAME' L1 FROM EMP
SELECT 'ENAME'
SELECT 'SQL' + 'SERVER' + '2005'
SELECT 'SQL'L1, 'SERVER'L2, '2005' L3
SELECT ENAME + ' WORKING AS ' + JOB RESULT FROM EMP
**In SQL Server “+” acts as a concatenation operator
USING MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION IN SELECT STATEMENT
An expression which is consisting of ARITHMETIC OPERATORS like +, -, *, /, %
Examples:
SELECT 10 + 20 {FOR ADDITION}
SELECT 10 * 20 {FOR MULTIPLICATION}
SELECT 5/2 -- WILL TREAT AS INTEGER
SELECT 5/2.0
SELECT 10 + 5 * 6 M1, (10+5)* 6 M2
Q) Display ENAME, JOB, SAL and ANNUAL SALARY of all EMPLOYEES.
SELECT ENAME,JOB, SAL, SAL *12 ANNUALSAL FROM EMP
Q) Display ENAME, SAL, COMM and TOTAL SALARY of all EMPLOYEES.
SELECT ENAME, SAL, COMM, SAL + COMM TOTALSAL FROM EMP
**The above query calculates TOTAL SALARY of those EMPLOYEES who are earning COMMISSIONS
and all other EMPLOYEES TOTAL SALARY has been displayed as NULL values, since VALUE + NULL
=NULL. It is applicable for all ARITHMETIC OPERATORS.
WHERE CLAUSE:
 This clause will restrict number of rows in the output of a query.
 This clause is used to compare the data by making condition in two ways. Filtering
Conditions and Joining Conditions.
 At Filtering Condition data given by a user will be compared into a column.
 At Joining Condition data of one column will be compared with the data of another column.
 At Filtering Condition Comparison to string type data is not case sensitive and it should be
placed in single query.
 Comparison to Numeric Type Data is direct or it can also be placed in single quotes.
Note: where clause won’t allow filtering rows based on column alias names
You can filter rows with the help of scalar functions as well, except aggregate functions
OPERATORS:
Arithmetic Operators: +,-,*,/,%
Assignment Operator: =
Comparison Operators: >, <, >=, <=, <>, != (Not Equal To),!< (Not Less Than),!> (Not Greater Than)
Bitwise Operators: AND, OR, NOT
Compound Operators: +=,-=,*=,/=,%=,&=,^=,|=
+= - Adds some amount to the original value and sets the original value to the result.
-= - Subtracts some amount from the original value and sets the original value to the result.
*= -Multiplies by an amount and sets the original value to the result.
/= - Divides by an amount and sets the original value to the result.

%= - Divides by an amount and sets the original value to the modulo.
&= - Performs a bitwise AND and sets the original value to the result.
^= - Performs a bitwise exclusive OR and sets the original value to the result.
|= - Performs a bitwise OR and sets the original value to the result.
Logical Operators: ALL, AND, ANY, BETWEEN, EXISTS, IN, LIKE, NOT, OR, SOME
NOT + Logical Operators: NOT IN, NOT BETWEEN, ISNOT, NOT LIKE, NOT EXISTS
Operator Precedence:
Level Operators
1 ~ (Bitwise NOT)
2 * (Multiplication), / (Division), % (Modulus)
3 + (Positive), - (Negative), + (Addition), + (Concatenation), - (Subtraction), & (Bitwise AND),
^ (Bitwise Exclusive OR), | (Bitwise OR)
4 =, >, <, >=, <=, <>, !=, !>, !< (Comparison operators)
5 NOT
6 AND
7 ALL, ANY, BETWEEN, IN, LIKE, OR, SOME
8 = (Assignment)
Examples:
Q) Display all those EMPLOYEES who are working as CLERKS.
SELECT ENAME, JOB FROM EMP WHERE JOB = 'CLERK'
SELECT ENAME, JOB FROM EMP WHERE 'CLERK' =JOB
Q) Display all those EMPLOYEES who are working at Department Number 10
SELECT * FROM DEPT WHERE DEPTNO = 10
or
SELECT * FROM DEPT WHERE DEPTNO = '10'
Q) Display ENAME, JOB of those EMPLOYES who are not working as MANAGER
SELECT ENAME, JOB FROM EMP WHERE JOB != 'MANAGER'
Q) Display ENAME, JOB, and DEPTNO of those EMPLOYEES who are working as CLERK at DEPT NO 20.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE JOB = 'CLERK' AND DEPTNO = 20
Q) Display ENAME, JOB of those EMPLOYEES who are working as CLERK, ANALYST.
SELECT ENAME, JOB FROM EMP WHERE JOB = 'CLERK' OR JOB = 'ANALYST'
SELECT ENAME, JOB FROM EMP WHERE JOB IN ('CLERK','ANALYST')
Q) Display EMPNO, ENAME, DEPTNO of those EMPLOYEES who are working at 10, 30 Departments.
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, DEPTNO FROM EMP WHERE DEPT IN (10,30)
select * From emp where sal<=2000
select * From emp where 2000<=sal
IN:
 This operator compares list of similar type values.
 It works like “OR” Logical operator.
 It can be used for any number of times.
 The list should contain only one column values; multiple columns data is invalid.
Q) Display ENAME, JOB of those EMPLOYEES who are working as CLERK, ANALYST.
SELECT ENAME, JOB FROM EMP WHERE JOB IN ('CLERK','ANALYST')
SELECT ENAME, JOB FROM EMP WHERE ('CLERK','ANALYST') IN JOB
Q) Display EMPNO, ENAME, DEPTNO of those EMPLOYEES who are working at 10, 30 Departments.
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, DEPTNO FROM EMP WHERE DEPT IN (10,30)
Q) Display ENAME, SAL of EMPLOYEE SAL Greater than or equal to 2000 & SAL less than or equal to
3000.
SELECT ENAME, SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL >= 2000 AND SAL <=3000
SELECT ENAME, SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL BETWEEN 2000 AND 3000
BETWEEN:
 It is used to compare range of values (Numbers or dates)
 Compares range of values including the specified data
 It can also be used for any number of times
Q) Display ENAME, JOB, DEPTNO of those Employees who are not working as CLERK, ANALYST.
SELECT ENAME, JOB, DEPTNO FROM EMP WHERE JOB NOT IN ('CLERK','ANALYST')
Q) Display all those Employees whose salary is not in a range of 1000 and 3000.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL NOT BETWEEN 1000 AND 3000
Q) Display all the Employees who are working as CLERK, ANALYST and SAL is greater than 1000.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE JOB = 'CLERK' OR 'ANALYST' AND SAL > 1000
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE JOB IN ('CLERK','ANALYST') AND SAL > 1000
Q) Display ENAME, SAL, ANNUAL SAL of those Employees whose annual salary is in range of 18000
and 36000.
SELECT ENAME, SAL, SAL*12 AS ANNUALSAL FROM EMP
WHERE SAL*12 BETWEEN 18000 AND 36000
Q) Display ENAME, JOB, SAL, COMM and DEPTNO who are working as SALESMAN at DEPTNO 30 and
there commission is > half of their salary.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE JOB = 'SALESMAN' AND DEPTNO = 30 AND COMM > SAL/2
ANSI NULLS:
 Working with IS Operator.
 This operator is exclusively used for comparing NULL values.
 It can be used any number of times.
 SQL server also supports to compare the NULL values using relation operator.
 Following SET Command should be used SET ANSI_NULLS OFF | ON [Default it is ON]
 It should be turned to off when NULL value is compared with relational operator.
Q) Display all those Employees who are not earning commission.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE COMM IS NULL
Q) Display all those Employees whose are earning commission.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE COMM IS NOT NULL
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE NOT COMM IS NULL
Q) Display EMPNO, ENAME & MGR of those Employees who don’t have manager to report.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE MGR IS NULL
Q) Display EMPNO, ENAME & MGR of those Employees who have managers to report.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE MGR IS NOT NULL
Q) Display EMPNO, ENAME, MGR, SAL and COMM of those Employees who have managers to report
and do not earn commission.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE MGR IS NOT NULL AND COMM IS NULL
SET ANSL_NULLS OFF
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE COMM != NULL
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE COMM = NULL
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE MGR = NULL
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE NULL = NULL
WILD CHARACTERS:
These characters are used to provide pattern matching when data is searched into a column
SQL SERVER supports to work with following characters.
 “_” – it is used for single characters
 “%” - it is used for group of characters
 “-“– it is used for range of characters
 “[]”- Escape character
LIKE OPERATOR:
 It is used for comparing the data which is enclosed with wild characters. It can be used for
any number of times.
 This operator when compares the data using wild characters it should be enclosed in single
quotes.
 Comparison to any type data should be placed in single quotes
 If data in a column is enclosed with wild characters to search the data escape option should be
specified
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'J%'
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%S'
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'J%S'
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%A%'
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%A%E%'
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'J[_]%'
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '[a-klm]%'a%,b%,..j%,k%,l%,m%
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '[-aklm]%'-%,a%,k%...m%
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'sm[iabc]'smi,sma,smb,smc
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '[smi]abc'sabc,mabc,iabc
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'sm[ia]bc'smibc,smabc
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'J\_%' ESCAPE '\'
**In ESCAPE we can use any characters except WILD CHARACTERS.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '[A-F]%'
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME NOT LIKE '[A-F]%'
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '[^A-F]%'
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '___'
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%?_%' ESCAPE '?'
DISTINCT OPERATOR:
 Eliminates duplicates.
 Always arranges the data in ASCENDING ORDER.
 It should be used immediately after SELECT command.
 It includes NULL VALUES.
 When multiple columns are used with DISTINCT operator it eliminates only if all the columns
contains duplicates.
 If you are trying to use order by clause with distinct then the columns which you are used in the select
list those only you need use in order by clause
SELECT DISTINCT DEPTNO FROM EMP
SELECT DISTINCT JOB FROM EMP
SELECT DISTINCT COMM FROM EMP
SELECT DISTINCT MGR FROM EMP WHERE MGR IS NOT NULL
SELECT DISTINCT DEPTNO, JOB FROM EMP
SELECT DISTINCT DEPTNO, JOB FROM EMP order by DEPTNO
ORDER BY:
 This clause is used to arrange the data in ASCENDING / DESCENDING order.
 By default it arranges the data in ASCENDING order.
 Order by clause will work after the execution of “SELECT” statement.
 Order by clause will arrange the data in order at buffer location, hence it is temporary.
 It can arrange the data in order based on COLUMN_NAME or COLUMN_ALIAS_NAME or
COLUMN_POSITION {according to query} to specify order type.
ASC ----- ASCENDING & DESC ---- DESCENDING
 When multiple columns are used at ORDER BY clause. First column will be fully arranged in
order and other columns will be arranged based on previous column.
 When multiple columns are used at ORDER BY clause, they can be specified with same order
type or different order type.

 There is no limit to the number of columns in the ORDER BY clause; however, the total size of the
columns specified in an ORDER BY clause cannot exceed 8,060 bytes.
 Columns of type ntext, text, image, geography, geometry, and xml cannot be used in an ORDER BY
clause
 Column names and aliases specified in the ORDER BY clause must be defined in the select list if the
SELECT statement contains one of the following clauses or operators:
1. UNION operator
2. EXCEPT operator
3. INTERSECT operator
4. SELECT DISTINCT
SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY SAL

SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL AS PAY FROM EMP ORDER BY PAY
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL AS PAY FROM EMP ORDER BY 3
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL AS PAY FROM EMP ORDER BY 3,4 DESC
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL AS PAY FROM EMP ORDER BY 3 ASC, 4 DESC
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL AS PAY FROM EMP ORDER BY len(ename)
 New feature of SQL server 2012(OFFSET,FETCH NEXT)
SELECT * FROM EMP Order by EMPNO
Skip the first 5 rows from the sorted result set and return all remaining rows.
SELECT * FROM EMP Order by EMPNO OFFSET 5 ROWS;
Skip 0 rows and return only the first 10 rows from the sorted result set.
SELECT * FROM EMP Order by EMPNO OFFSET 0 ROWS FETCH NEXT 10 ROWS ONLY;
Skip10 rows and return only the first 10 rows from the sorted result set.
SELECT * FROM EMP Order by EMPNO OFFSET 10 ROWS FETCH NEXT 10 ROWS ONLY;
FUNCTIONS:
It is a predefined program which returns one value, returned value can be of numeric, string data,
data type functions can be used for calculations
 Built In Functions Or Predefined Functions

o Single Row Functions Or Individual Functions
o Multiple Row Functions Or Group Functions
 User Defined Functions Or Stored Functions
o Table Valued Functions
o Scalar Functions
SINGLE ROW FUNCTION: This function will process one row at a time and returns one value.
 Mathematical Functions
 String Functions
 Date & Time Functions
 Data Conversion {Type Casting Functions}
 Ranking Functions {Windows Functions}
 Metadata Functions
 Security Functions
 JSON Functions
 Other Functions
MULTIPLE ROW FUNCTION: This function will process multiple rows at a time and returns one value.
 Aggregate Functions
SQL SERVER supports to work with 12 categories of Functions and they are found at following paths
 Click on Object Explorer – Data Bases
 Select the Data Base – TESTDB(your own data base which is used to practice)
 Check under Programmability Functions.
 Check under System Functions.
MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS:
This function will take input as numbers and will return output as numbers
ABS (NUMBER) - returns unsigned value of a given number (Number - Argument or Parameter).
SELECT ABS(-890), ABS(17)
SQRT (NUMBER) - Returns square root of a given positive number.
SQUARE (NUMBER) - Returns square of a given value
POWER (NUMBER(Base), NUMBER(Exponent)) - It will find the power of a given number.
SELECT POWER (2,5)
SIGN ( NUMBER )
Returns 1 if a number is positive
Returns -1 if a number is negative
Returns 0 if a number is zero
PI() - Returns PI value
SIN (NUMBER) –
** By default these trigonometric functions will take input given in radians, hence radians should be
converted to degrees by a standard formula is PI ()/180
SELECT SIN (30* PI()/180)
**Functions used with in other function refers to FUNCTION CASCADING

ROUND ( NUMBER, NUMBER , [NUMBER])
Argument1, Argument2, Argument3 (optional for TRUNCATE)
By default Argument3 is ZERO
ROUND(1234.5678,2,1) --- 1234.5600
ROUND(1234.5678,2) ----- 1234.5700
ROUND(1234.5638,2) ----- 1234.5600
ROUND(1234.5678,1) ----- 1234.6000
ROUND(1234.5678,0) ----- 1235.0000
ROUND(1234.2678,0) ----- 1234.0000
ROUND(1234.5678,-2)----- 1200.0000
ROUND(5678.123,-2) ----- 5700.0000
ROUND(1234.5678,2,1) --- 1234.5600
ROUND(1234.5678,1,1) --- 1234.5000
ROUND(1234.5678,0,1) --- 1234.0000
ROUND(5/2.0,0) --- 3.00
ROUND(5/2.0,0,1) --- 2
This function is used to round a given number with respect to Integer value or Decimal value based
on user required number of digits. If 3rd argument is specified other than zero it works as TRUNCATE.
Note: if Arg2 is –ve number it will round off Numeric part of given number. If it is +ve number it will truncate
decimal part
CEILING(NUMBER) – This function will increment a given number to its nearest integer. Based on
any digit in decimal points is greater than zero.
CEILING (123.000) ---- 123
CEILING (123.010) ---- 124
CEILING (123.456) ---- 124
CEILING (-123.456) ---- -123
FLOOR (NUMBER) – It decreases a nearest integer

FLOOR (-123.456) ---- {-124}
FLOOR (123.456) ---- {123}
DEGREES()-This function returns the corresponding angle, in degrees, for an angle specified in
radians
DEGREES(pi()/2)--90
RAND ( [ seed ] )
Rand()—Returns a random float value from 0 through 1
Rand(1)— 0.713591993212924 (it is a fixed values)
Rand(0)— 0.943597390424144 (it is a fixed values)
Note: If seed is not specified, the SQL Server Database Engine assigns a seed value at random. For a specified
seed value, the result returned is always the same
STRING FUNCTIONS: This are used to perform different operations on STRING DATA TYPE.
LEN(TEXT) - Returns the number of characters of the specified string expression, excluding trailing blanks.
SELECT ENAME, LEN(ENAME) FROM EMP WHERE LEN(ENAME) > 5
LOWER(STRING) – Converts characters to Lower case.
UPPER(STRING) – Converts characters to Upper case.
ASCII(STRING) – returns ASCII code of the given character
ASCII('A')----65
ASCII('P')----80
UNICODE( STRING ) – Returns UNICODE of a given string.
CHAR ( NUMBER ) – Returns character of a given ASCII code
CHAR (65) –- A {Only 0-255 characters are available}
CHAR (-1)—NULL
CHAR (256)--NULL
NCHAR(NUMBER)
NCHAR(256) {1-65535 Characters are available}
NCHAR(65536)--NULL
LEFT(STRING,NUMBER) – Extracts number of characters from left side of a string
LEFT('COMPUTER',3) ---- COM
LEFT('COMPUTER',-1) ---- Error
RIGHT( STRING, NUMBER) – Extracts number of characters from right side of a string
RIGHT('COMPUTER',3)-----TER
RIGHT('COMPUTER',-1)-- Error
SUBSTRING (STRING, STARTPOSITION, NUMBER OF CHAR’S) – It extracts required string
from a given string based on start position and number of characters.
SUBSTRING ('COMPUTER',4,3)—PUT
SUBSTRING ('COMPUTER',0,3)—CO
SUBSTRING ('COMPUTER',-1,3)—C
SUBSTRING ('COMPUTER',0,-3)—ERROR
LTRIM(STRING) - Removes blanks spaces from left side of a string.
RTRIM(STRING)- Removes blank spaces from right side of a string.
REPLICATE(STRING, NUMBER) - Displays a given string for n times.
REPLICATE('COMM',2)
REVERSE(STRING) - It will reverse a given string.
SELECT REVERSE('COMM')--- MMOC
REPLACE (STRING1, STRING2, STRING3)
String1 ---- given string, String2 ---- search string, String3 ---- replace string
REPLACE ('COMPUTER','UT','IR')
It will search for String2 in String1 and replaces with String3 at all occurrences of String 2 in String1
STUFF(STRING1, NUMBER1, NUMBER2, STRING2)
String1 --- Given String, Number 1--- Start Position, Number2 --- Number of Characters
String2 --- Replace
STUFF('COMPUTER',5,2,'IL') -- COMPILER
CHARINDEX(STRING1, STRING2, [NUMBER])
String1 --- Search String, String2 --- Given String, Number --- Position
It will search for string1 in string2 and returns position of string1, if it exists else returns zero, by
default it will search from first character. It also supports to search for character/string after a
specific position
SELECT CHARINDEX('R','COMPUTER',7)
SELECT REPLICATE ('*', GRADE) FROM SALGRADE
PATINDEX ('%pattern%',expression)- Returns the starting position of the first occurrence of a pattern
in a specified expression, or zeros if the pattern is not found, on all valid text and character data types
SPACE ( integer_expression )- Returns a string of repeated spaces.
CONCAT-This function returns a string resulting from the concatenation, or joining, of two or more
string values in an end-to-end manner
SELECT CONCAT ( 'I am', 'not a ','Good Trainer') AS Result;
SELECT CONCAT ('I was born on ',22 ,'/','Dec') AS Result;
CONCAT_WS - This function returns a string resulting from the concatenation, or joining, of two or more string
values in an end-to-end manner. It separates those concatenated string values with the delimiter specified in
the first function argument. (CONCAT_WS indicates concatenate with separator.)
QUOTENAME- Returns a Unicode string with the delimiters added to make the input string a valid SQL Server
delimited identifier.
STR - Returns character data converted from numeric data.
STRING_AGG - Concatenates the values of string expressions and places separator values between them. The
separator is not added at the end of string.
STRING_ESCAPE - Escapes special characters in texts and returns text with escaped characters. STRING_ESCAPE
is a deterministic function.
STRING_SPLIT - A table-valued function that splits a string into rows of substrings, based on a specified
separator character.
TRANSLATE - Returns the string provided as a first argument after some characters specified in the second
argument are translated into a destination set of characters specified in the third argument.
Q) Display all the employees from the EMP table with half of the string in upper case and next string
in lower case
SELECT LEFT (ENAME, CEILING (LEN (ENAME)/2.0)) +
LOWER(RIGHT (ENAME, CEILING (LEN (ENAME)/2))) FROM EMP
Q) Display all Employees whose name contains 3rd Character as ‘L’.
SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE SUBSTRING (ENAME, 3,1)= 'L'
SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE CHARINDEX ('L', ENAME, 3) = 3
Q) Display all Employees whose name contains A at second occurrence.
SELECT ENAME FROM EMP
WHERE CHARINDEX ('A', ENAME, CHARINDEX ('A', ENAME) +1 !=0
DATE & TIME FUNCTIONS:
These functions are used to perform operations on date, time data type. When date type data is
retrieved it will be in the following format.
CENTURY: YEAR: MONTH: DATE: HOURS: MINUTES: SECONDS
GETDATE(): It returns current system DATE & TIME of the Server.
SELECT GETDATE()
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP-- Returns the current database system timestamp as a datetime value without
the database time zone offset. This value is derived from the operating system of the computer on which the
instance of SQL Server is running
GETUTCDATE()--Returns the current database system timestamp as a datetime value. The database
time zone offset is not included. This value represents the current UTC time (Coordinated Universal Time). This
value is derived from the operating system of the computer on which the instance of SQL Server is running
SYSDATETIME ()-Returns a datetime2(7) value that contains the date and time of the computer on
which the instance of SQL Server is running. The time zone offset is not included.
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS on data & time data type “+”, “-“ are the operations which can be used
for performing operations on date type data.
DATE + NUMBER = DATE
DATE – NUMBER = DATE
DATE – DATE = NUMBER [Number of days]
SELECT HIREDATE, HIREDATE+15, HIREDATE-28 FROM EMP
DAY (DATE) -------- extracts days from date
MONTH (DATE) ----- extracts months from date
YEAR (DATE) ------ extracts year from date
SELECT DAY(GETDATE())
SELECT MONTH(GETDATE())
SELECT YEAR(GETDATE())
DATEADD(DATEPART , NUMBER , DATE) - It is used to add number of days, months, years to a
given date.
DATEPART can be specified with this format - DD: MM: YY: HH: MI: SS: DW
SELECT DATEADD(DAY,10,GETDATE())
SELECT DATEADD(DD,10,GETDATE())
SELECT DATEADD(MONTH,10,GETDATE())
SELECT DATEADD(MM,10,GETDATE())
SELECT DATEADD(YEARS,10,GETDATE())
SELECT DATEADD(YY,10,GETDATE())
DATEDIFF( DATEPART, STARTDATE, ENDDATE) - It returns difference between 2 dates in
terms of days, months & years.
SELECT ENAME, DATEDIFF(DD,HIREDATE,GETDATE()) DAYS FROM EMP
DATEPART(DATEPART,DATE)- It extracts individual parts of a table.
DATEPART(DD,GETDATE()) – MM: YY: HH: MI: SS: DW
DATENAME(DATEPART,DATE) - In this function month name, day name will be extracted other
date parts providing same output.
DATENAME(MM,GETDATE()) ---- JUNE(Based on the current server date)
DATENAME(DW,GETDATE()) ---- MON
EOMONTH(<date>)—it will give end day of month
SYSDATETIMEOFFSET() - Returns a datetimeoffset(7) value that contains the date and time of the computer
on which the instance of SQL Server is running. The time zone offset is included.
SYSUTCDATETIME() - Returns a datetime2 value that contains the date and time of the computer on which
the instance of SQL Server is running. The date and time is returned as UTC time (Coordinated Universal Time).
The fractional second precision specification has a range from 1 to 7 digits. The default precision is 7 digits.
DATEFROMPARTS - This function returns a date value that maps to the specified year, month, and day values.
DATETIME2FROMPARTS - This function returns a datetime2 value for the specified date and time arguments.
The returned value has a precision specified by the precision argument.
DATETIMEFROMPARTS - This function returns a datetime value for the specified date and time arguments.
DATETIMEOFFSETFROMPARTS - Returns a datetimeoffset value for the specified date and time arguments.
The returned value has a precision specified by the precision argument, and an offset as specified by the offset
arguments.
SMALLDATETIMEFROMPARTS - Returns a smalldatetime value for the specified date and time.
TIMEFROMPARTS - Returns a time value for the specified time and with the specified precision.
SWITCHOFFSET - Returns a datetimeoffset value that is changed from the stored time zone offset to a
specified new time zone offset.
TODATETIMEOFFSET - Returns a datetimeoffset value that is translated from a datetime2 expression.
Q) Display all those Employees data that have been hired on Sunday.
SELECT ENAME, HIREDATE FROM EMP WHERE DATENAME(DW,HIREDATE) = 'SUNDAY'
Q) Display all those Employees who have been hired in the month of December.
SELECT ENAME,HIREDATE FROM EMP WHERE DATENAME(MM,HIREDATE)= 'DECEMBER'
Q) Display all those Employees who have been hired in second half of the week.
SELECT ENAME, HIREDATE FROM EMP
WHERE DATEPART (DW, HIREDATE) > = ROUND(7/2.0,0)
DATA CONVERSION:
CAST - These functions convert an expression of one data type to another.
CONVERT - These functions convert an expression of one data type to another.
PARSE - Returns the result of an expression, translated to the requested data type in SQL Server.
TRY_CAST - Returns a value cast to the specified data type if the cast succeeds; otherwise, returns null.
TRY_CONVERT - Returns a value cast to the specified data type if the cast succeeds; otherwise, returns null.
TRY_PARSE - Returns the result of an expression, translated to the requested data type, or null if the cast fails
in SQL Server. Use TRY_PARSE only for converting from string to date/time and number types.
 This function will support to convert the data stored with one type to the other type.
 SQL SERVER will convert the data with the support of following two functions.
CAST(SOURCE_DATA AS TARGET_DATA_TYPE)
TRY_CAST ( expression AS data_type [ ( length ) ] )
SET DATEFORMAT dmy;
SELECT TRY_CAST('12/31/2010' AS datetime2) AS Result;
SET DATEFORMAT mdy;
SELECT TRY_CAST('12/31/2010' AS datetime2) AS Result;
CONVERT(TARGET_DATA_TYPE, SOURCE_DATA [NUMBER])
SELECT ENAME + ' WORKING AS ' + JOB + ' IN DEPT ' + CAST(DEPTNO AS
VARCHAR(3)) FROM EMP
** String and String can only be concatenated.
** String and Integer cannot be concatenated.
SELECT 5/ CAST(2 AS FLOAT)
SELECT 5/ CONVERT(FLOAT,2)
SELECT CONVERT(VARCHAR(30), GETDATE(),0)
SELECT CONVERT(VARCHAR(30), GETDATE(),8) for time
** 0 stands for Date formats, there are more than 100 Date formats.
** 8 & 108 are particularly assigned for time format
TRY_CONVERT (data_type [ ( length ) ], expression [, style ] )
 Returns a value cast to the specified data type if the cast succeeds; otherwise, returns null.
select TRY_CONVERT(int,'12345')
FORMAT (value, format [, culture ])
Returns a value formatted with the specified format and optional culture in SQL Server 2017. Use the FORMAT
function for locale-aware formatting of date/time and number values as strings
SELECT FORMAT(getdate(), 'dd/MM/yyyy', 'en-US' )
SELECT PARSE('Monday, 13 December 2010' AS datetime2 USING 'en-US') AS Result;
SELECT PARSE('€345,98' AS money USING 'de-DE') AS Result;
SET LANGUAGE 'English';
SELECT PARSE('12/16/2010' AS datetime2) AS Result;
Select TRY_PARSE ( string_value AS data_type [ USING culture ] )
DECLARE @d DATETIME = '10/01/2011';

SELECT FORMAT ( @d, 'd', 'en-US' ) AS 'US English Result' ,FORMAT ( @d, 'd', 'en-gb' ) AS 'Great Britain English
Result' ,FORMAT ( @d, 'd', 'de-de' ) AS 'German Result' ,FORMAT ( @d, 'd', 'zh-cn' ) AS 'Simplified Chinese (PRC)
Result';
SELECT FORMAT ( @d, 'D', 'en-US' ) AS 'US English Result' ,FORMAT ( @d, 'D', 'en-gb' ) AS 'Great Britain English
Result' ,FORMAT ( @d, 'D', 'de-de' ) AS 'German Result' ,FORMAT ( @d, 'D', 'zh-cn' ) AS 'Chinese (Simplified PRC)
Result';
RANKING OR WINDOW FUNCTIONS

 These functions have been introduced from SQL 2005.
 This are used to calculate ranks on any type of data.
 These functions require a support of OVER clause, which requires a specification of ORDER
BY clause, followed by ORDER type.
 This function cannot be used at WHERE clause.
SQL SERVER will support to work with following Rank functions
ROW_NUMBER() – Provides unique row number for each row

RANK() – It calculates ranks with gaps
DENSE_RANK() – It calculates ranks with out gaps
NTILE(INT) – Provides the data in to groups / blocks. It will group the data based on the user
specified number and number of rows available in a table.
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, ROW_NUMBER() OVER ( ORDER BY EMPNO ASC) RN
FROM EMP
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, ROW_NUMBER() OVER (partition by deptno ORDER BY EMPNO
ASC) RN—it will return row number for each group wise
FROM EMP
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, RANK() OVER(ORDER BY SAL DESC) RNK FROM EMP
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, DENSE_RANK() OVER(ORDER BY SAL DESC) RNK
FROM EMP
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, NTILE(4) OVER( ORDER BY EMPNO) NT FROM EMP
**The data will be grouped into four groups based on given NTILE number.
OTHER FUNCTIONS
ISNULL(EXPRESSION1, EXPRESSION2)
This Function will search for NULL values in Expression1 and Substitutes Expression2 at all the rows
of Expression1 where NULL values are found, Expression2 is depended on data type of Expression1.
SELECT ENAME, SAL, COMM, ISNULL(COMM,0) RS FROM EMP
SELECT ENAME, SAL, COMM, ISNULL(ENAME,'UNKNOWN') UN FROM EMP
SELECT ENAME ,SAL, COMM, ISNULL ( CAST(COMM AS VARCHAR(4),'NC') RS
FROM EMP
SELECT ENAME,SAL,COMM,SAL+ISNULL(COMM,0) RS FROM EMP
COALESCE(EXPRESSION1,EXPRESSION2……EXPRESSIONN) - It will search for NULL values and
Substitutes Expression2 at all rows of Expression1 where NULL values are found. It Substitutes
Expression3 if Expression2 contains NULL values so on it can have any number of expressions.
SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,MGR,SAL,COMM COALESCE(COMM,SAL,MGR,EMPNO,25) RS
FROM EMP
NULLIF( EXPRESSION1, EXPRESSION2) - It is used to compare two expressions of any data
type. If equal it returns NULL, if not equal returns value of Expression1
SELECT NULLIF(10,10) -----NULL
SELECT NULLIF(10,90) -----10
SELECT NULLIF(NULL,90) -----Error
SELECT NULLIF(‘X’,’Y’)--- X
SELECT ENAME,LEN(ENAME)L1,JOB,LEN(JOB)L2 NULLIF(LEN(ENAME),LEN(JOB))RES
FROM EMP
IIF ( boolean_expression, true_value, false_value )
Returns one of two values, depending on whether the Boolean expression evaluates to true or false in SQL
Server.
SELECT IIF(1=1,'TRUE','FALSE')
CHOOSE (index, val_1, val_2 [, val_n ] )
Returns the item at the specified index from a list of values in SQL Server.
SELECT CHOOSE ( 1,'ONE','TWO','THREE')
Cursor Functions
@@CURSOR_ROWS - This returns the number of qualifying rows currently in the last cursor opened on the
connection. To improve performance, SQL Server can populate large keyset and static cursors asynchronously.
@@CURSOR_ROWS can be called to determine that the number of the rows that qualify for a cursor are
retrieved at the time of the @@CURSOR_ROWS call.
-m The cursor populates asynchronously. The value returned (-m) is the number of rows
currently in the keyset.
-1 The cursor is dynamic. Because dynamic cursors reflect all changes, the number of rows that
qualify for the cursor constantly changes. The cursor does not necessarily retrieve all qualified rows.
0 No cursors have been opened, no rows qualified for the last opened cursor, or the last-
opened cursor is closed or deallocated.
n The cursor is fully populated. The value returned (n) is the total number of rows in the cursor.
CURSOR_STATUS - For a given parameter, CURSOR_STATUS shows whether or not a cursor declaration has
returned a cursor and result set.
@@FETCH_STATUS - This function returns the status of the last cursor FETCH statement issued against any
cursor currently opened by the connection.
0 The FETCH statement was successful.
-1 The FETCH statement failed or the row was beyond the result set.
-2 The row fetched is missing.
-9 The cursor is not performing a fetch operation.
Metadata Functions:
@@PROCID - Returns the object identifier (ID) of the current Transact-SQL module. A Transact-SQL module can
be a stored procedure, user-defined function, or trigger. @@PROCID cannot be specified in CLR modules or
the in-process data access provider.
INDEX_COL - Returns the indexed column name. Returns NULL for XML indexes.
APP_NAME - This function returns the application name for the current session, if the application sets that
name value.
INDEXKEY_PROPERTY - Returns information about the index key. Returns NULL for XML indexes.
APPLOCK_MODE - This function returns the lock mode held by the lock owner on a particular application
resource. As an application lock function, APPLOCK_MODE operates on the current database. The database is
the scope of the application locks.
INDEXPROPERTY - Returns the named index or statistics property value of a specified table identification
number, index or statistics name, and property name. Returns NULL for XML indexes.
APPLOCK_TEST - This function returns information as to whether or not a lock can be granted on a particular
application resource, for a specified lock owner, without acquisition of the lock. As an application lock
function, APPLOCK_TEST operates on the current database. The database is the scope of the application locks.
NEXT VALUE FOR - Generates a sequence number from the specified sequence object.
ASSEMBLYPROPERTY - This function returns information about a property of an assembly.
OBJECT_DEFINITION - Returns the Transact-SQL source text of the definition of a specified object.
COL_LENGTH - This function returns the defined length of a column, in bytes.
OBJECT_ID - Returns the database object identification number of a schema-scoped object.
COL_NAME - This function returns the name of a table column, based on the table identification number and
column identification number values of that table column.
OBJECT_NAME - Returns the database object name for schema-scoped objects. For a list of schema-scoped
objects
COLUMNPROPERTY - This function returns column or parameter information
OBJECT_SCHEMA_NAME - Returns the database schema name for schema-scoped objects. For a list of schema-
scoped objects
DATABASE_PRINCIPAL_ID - This function returns the ID number of a principal in the current database
OBJECTPROPERTY - Returns information about schema-scoped objects in the current database. For a list of
schema-scoped objects
DATABASEPROPERTYEX - For a specified database in SQL Server, this function returns the current setting of the
specified database option or property.
OBJECTPROPERTYEX - Returns information about schema-scoped objects in the current database. For a list of
these objects
DB_ID - This function returns the database identification (ID) number of a specified database.
ORIGINAL_DB_NAME - Returns the database name specified by the user in the database connection string. This
database is specified by using the sqlcmd-d option (USE database). It can also be specified with the Open
Database Connectivity (ODBC) data source expression (initial catalog =databasename).
DB_NAME - This function returns the name of a specified database.
PARSENAME - Returns the specified part of an object name. The parts of an object that can be retrieved are the
object name, owner name, database name, and server name.
FILE_ID - For the given logical name for a component file of the current database, this function
returns the file identification (ID) number
SCHEMA_ID - Returns the schema ID associated with a schema name.
FILE_IDEX - This function returns the file identification (ID) number for the specified logical name of a data,
log, or full-text file of the current database.
SCHEMA_NAME - Returns the schema name associated with a schema ID.
FILE_NAME - This function returns the logical file name for a given file identification (ID) number.
SCOPE_IDENTITY - Returns the last identity value inserted into an identity column in the same scope. A scope
is a module: a stored procedure, trigger, function, or batch. Therefore, if two statements are in the same
stored procedure, function, or batch, they are in the same scope.
FILEGROUP_ID - This function returns the filegroup identification (ID) number for a specified filegroup name.
SERVERPROPERTY - Returns property information about the server instance.
FILEGROUP_NAME - This function returns the filegroup name for the specified filegroup identification (ID)
number.
STATS_DATE - Returns the date of the most recent update for statistics on a table or indexed view.
FILEGROUPPROPERTY - This function returns the filegroup property value for a specified name and filegroup
value.
TYPE_ID - Returns the ID for a specified data type name.
FILEPROPERTY - Returns the specified file name property value when a file name in the current database and a
property name are specified. Returns NULL for files that are not in the current database.
TYPE_NAME - Returns the unqualified type name of a specified type ID.
FULLTEXTCATALOGPROPERTY - Returns information about full-text catalog properties in SQL Server 2019 (15.x).
TYPEPROPERTY - Returns information about a data type.
FULLTEXTSERVICEPROPERTY - Returns information related to the properties of the Full-Text Engine. These
properties can be set and retrieved by using sp_fulltext_service.
VERSION - Returns the version of SQL Data Warehouse or Parallel Data Warehouse running on the appliance.
JSON Functions:
 Use the functions described on the pages in this section to validate or change JSON text or to extract
simple or complex values.
 ISJSON -Tests whether a string contains valid JSON.
 JSON_VALUE - Extracts a scalar value from a JSON string.
 JSON_QUERY - Extracts an object or an array from a JSON string.
 JSON_MODIFY - Updates the value of a property in a JSON string and returns the updated JSON string.
Configuration Functions:
These scalar functions return information about current configuration option settings
@@DATEFIRST - This function returns the current value of SET DATEFIRST, for a specific session.
@@OPTIONS - Returns information about the current SET options.
@@DBTS - This function returns the value of the current timestamp data type for the current database.The
current database will have a guaranteed unique timestamp value.
@@REMSERVER (deprecated) - Returns the name of the remote SQL Server database server as it appears in the
login record.
@@LANGID - Returns the local language identifier (ID) of the language that is currently being used.
@@SERVERNAME - Returns the name of the local server that is running SQL Server
@@LANGUAGE - Returns the name of the language currently being used.

@@SERVICENAME - Returns the name of the registry key under which SQL Server is running. @@SERVICENAME
returns 'MSSQLSERVER' if the current instance is the default instance; this function returns the instance name
if the current instance is a named instance.
@@LOCK_TIMEOUT - Returns the current lock time-out setting in milliseconds for the current session.
@@SPID - Returns the session ID of the current user process.
@@MAX_CONNECTIONS - Returns the maximum number of simultaneous user connections allowed on an
instance of SQL Server. The number returned is not necessarily the number currently configured.
@@TEXTSIZE - Returns the current value of the TEXTSIZE option.
@@MAX_PRECISION - Returns the precision level used by decimal and numeric data types as currently set in
the server.
@@VERSION - Returns system and build information for the current installation of SQL Server.
@@NESTLEVEL - Returns the nesting level of the current stored procedure execution (initially 0) on the local
server.
CASE EXPRESSION
It supports to specify multiple conditions provided with their respective results. If no condition is
satisfied then it will provide default result.
Syntax:
M1:
CASE EXPRESSION
WHEN CONDITION1 THEN RESULT1
[ WHEN CONDITION2 THEN RESULT2 ]
ELSE
DEFAULT_RESULT
END [ALIAS_NAME]
M2:
CASE
WHEN Boolean_expression THEN result_expression [ ...n ]
[ ELSE else_result_expression ]
END
Q) Display ENAME, SAL and INCREMENT the salary with difference %’s based on category of JOB.
Manager – 18%, Clerk – 15%, Others – 12%
SELECT ENAME,SAL,JOB,
CASE JOB
WHEN 'MANAGER' THEN SAL*18/100
WHEN 'CLERK' THEN SAL * 15/100
ELSE
SAL*12/100
END INCR
FROM EMP
Q) Display ENAME, DEPTNO, SAL and INCREMENT the Salary with different %’s on category of Dept
No 10 – 20%, Dept no 20 – 18%, Dept no 30 – 15%
SELECT ENAME, DEPTNO, SAL,
CASE DEPTNO
WHEN 10 THEN SAL* 20/100
WHEN 20 THEN SAL * 18/100
WHEN 30 THEN SAL*15/100
END INCR
FROM EMP
Using Case statement in order by clause
select * from emp
order by case DEPTNO
when 10 then EMPNO
when 20 then sal

else mgr end asc/Desc
MULTIROW FUNCTIONS OR GROUP FUNCTIONS
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS:
 This function will process multiple rows at a time and returns one value.
 SQL SERVER supports to work with following functions
 SUM (EXPRESSION) - finds the sum of values in given expression.
 AVG (EXPRESSION) - first finds the sum and then divide with number of values in the
expression.
 MAX (EXPRESSION) - finds the maximum value in the given expression.
 MIN (EXPRESSION) - finds the minimum value in the given expression.
 COUNT (EXPRESSION) --- returns number of values in a expression including duplicates.
 COUNT (DISTINCT (EXPRESSION) - returns number of values in an expression excluding
duplicates.
 COIUNT (*) - returns number of rows.
 COUNT_BIG (EXPRESSION) - returns number of values.
 GROUPING (EXPRESSION) - returns zero or one.
 Returns ZERO if there is no group
 Returns ONE if there is a group data
POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED
 Aggregate Function will exclude NULL values.
 When a SELECT statement is enclosed with Aggregate Functions, along with them writing
expressions that returns multiple rows is invalid.
 Aggregate functions cannot be used in where clause.
 In SQL SERVER Aggregate Functions cannot be cascaded.
SELECT SUM(SAL) FROM EMP
SELECT AVG(SAL) FROM EMP
SELECT SUM(COMM) R1, AVG(COMM) R2, COUNT(COMM)R3 FROM EMP
SELECT SUM(SAL), MAX(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 30
SELECT COUNT(SAL) FROM EMP
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT(SAL) FROM EMP
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMP
To Count the Records
SP_SPACEUSED EMP
SELECT @@ROWCOUNT
SELECT SUM(SAL) , COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE JOB = 'SALESMAN'
SELECT DEPTNO,SUM(SAL),COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO
SELECT DEPTNO, JOB,SUM(SAL), COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB, DEPTNO
GROUP BY: This clause performs two tasks
 Eliminates duplicates and always arranges the data in ascending order.
 The column used in group by clause, the same column can be used for displaying the output.
 When multiple columns are used it will eliminate if all column contains duplicates.
SELECT SUM(SAL), COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO
SELECT DEPTNO, SUM(SAL), COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO
SELECT JOB, SUM(SAL), COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB
SELECT MGR, COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY MGR
SELECT DEPTNO, JOB, SUM(SAL), COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB , DEPTNO
Q) Display DEPTNO, total salary and number of employee’s related to Dept No 20.
SELECT DEPTNO, SUM(SAL), COUNT(*) FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO = 20 GROUP BY DEPTNO
ROLLUP AND CUBE OPERATORS
ROLLUP:
 This operator should be used only at GROUP BY clause.

 It will calculate individual totals, group totals, and additional row is generated for grand
totals.
SELECT DEPTNO, SUM(SAL), COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO WITH ROLLUP
SELECT DEPTNO, JOB, SUM(SAL), COUNT(*) FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO, JOB WITH ROLLUP
SELECT DEPTNO, JOB, SUM(SAL),COUNT(*) , GROUPING(JOB) FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO, JOB WITH ROLLUP
SELECT DEPTNO ,
CASE GROUPING(JOB)
WHEN 0 THEN JOB
WHEN 1 THEN “ALL JOBS” -- Replaces NULLS With The Value
END DEP, SUM(SAL), COUNT(*)
FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO, JOB WITH ROLLUP
CUBE:
 This operator is also used only at GROUP BY clause.
 It will support to perform individual totals, group totals, regroup totals and additional row is
generated for grand totals.
SELECT DEPTNO, JOB, SUM(SAL), COUNT(*) FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO, JOB WITH CUBE
Q) Display total salaries of individual departments in a single row.
SELECT
SUM (CASE DEPTNO WHEN 10 THEN SAL END) “D10”,
SUM (CASE DEPTNO WHEN 30 THEN SAL END) “D30”
FROM EMP
SELECT DISTINCT JOB,
SUM (SAL) “TOTAL SAL”
FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB
**This type of queries is called as CROSS TAB QUERIES or MATRIX FORMAT QUERIES.
HAVING CLAUSE:
 It is used to make conditions on grouped data.
 It also supports to make conditions on columns those columns which are used at group by
clause.
Q) Display Dept No, Total Salary of those departments where total salary is more than 9000.
SELECT DEPTNO,SUM(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO HAVING SUM(SAL) > 9000
Q) Display Dept No, total salary of those departments where total salary is more than 9000 and
belong to dept no 20.
SELECT DEPTNO,SUM(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO
HAVING DEPTNO = 20 AND SUM(SAL) > 9000
Q) Display the departments where more than 3 Employees are working.
SELECT DEPTNO, COUNT(*) FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO HAVING COUNT(*) >= 3
SET JOINS OR SET OPERATORS:
 It is used to Join Rows that are returned by two or more queries.
 Queries can be on same or different tables.
 Columns in queries can be same or different.
 When columns are different, data types should be same.
 When columns are different in output, it will provide that column name which is in first
query.
 To arrange the data in ascending order or in descending order, order by clause should be
associated to last query.

 When columns are different in queries column of first query should be used at order by
clause.
SQL SERVER supports following SET Operators.
UNION ALL
 Does not eliminate duplicates.
 Does not arrange the data in Ascending Order.
SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 10
UNION ALL
UNION ALL
SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 20 ORDER BY JOB
UNION ALL
SELECT DNAME FROM DEPT ORDER BY JOB
UNION
 It always arranges the data in ascending order.
 When multiple columns are used, it will eliminate only if all the columns contain duplicates.
UNION
UNION
SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 20 ORDER BY JOB
UNION
SELECT DNAME FROM DEPT ORDER BY JOB
SELECT JOB, SAL FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO =10
UNION
SELECT JOB,SAL FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 20
INTERSECT
 Extracts common rows from two or more result sets.
 Always arranges in ascending order.
SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE DEPT NO=10
INTERSECT
EXCEPT
 It always produces output from first query, except the rows that are found at the result set
of 2nd query.
 It will eliminate duplicates.
EXCEPT
EXCEPT
SELECT DNAME FROM DEPT
EXCEPT
UNION
** INTERSECT & EXCEPT called as a semi joins
JOINS
Logical Joins
 It is a process of joining columns from 2 or more tables, which always produces a new table
 Joining conditions is must
 To join n tables n-1 join conditions are required
 A joining condition is followed by any number of filtering conditions.
Non-ANSI Joins (With Operators)
Inner Join (=)
Left Join (*=)
Right Join (=*)
Cross Join (,)
ANSI Joins (with Key words)
Inner Join
Equi join(=)
Non Equi (Other then =)
Outer Joins
Left Join
Right Join
Outer Join
Cross Join
Physical joins
 Nested Loop joins
 Merge Joins
 Hash Joins
Non-ANSI joins (These are implemented through operators)
 Inner Join (Equi join, Non Equi Join)
 Outer Join (Left Outer Join, Right Outer Join, Cartesian Join, Self-Join)
ANSI Joins (These are implemented through key words)
 Inner Join or Join, Cross join
 Outer Joins (Left Outer Join, Right Outer Join, Full Outer Join)
NON ANSI JOINS - INNER JOIN
EQUI JOIN:
 This Join concept supports to join the columns from two or more tables by making a joining
condition using “equal to” operator.
 To work with equi join tables should contain at least one common column with respect to
data and data type.
 If tables are containing common column names, to use them in a query they should be
preceded by table name or table alias name.
TABLE ALIAS:
 Table Alias can be used under any clause.
 It is other name provided for a table.
 It can be specified with or without as keyword.
 It is a temporary name provided for a table, which provides its usage till the query is in
execution.
 It is flexible in usage.
 It can be used anywhere in SELECT statement.
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL, E.DEPTNO, DNAME, LOC
FROM EMP, DEPT WHERE DEPTNO = DEPTNO

FROM EMP E, DEPT D WHERE E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO

FROM EMP AS E, DEPT AS D WHERE E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO
To connect two or more Databases and Tables
SELECT TESTDB.DBO.EMP.EMPNO, TESTDB.DBO.EMP.ENAME, TESTDB.DBO.EMP.JOB,
TESTDB.DBO.EMP.SAL, TESTDB.DBO.DEPT.DEPTNO,
TESTDB2.DBO.DEPT.DNAME, TESTDB2.DBO.DEPT.LOC
FROM TESTDB.DBO.EMP, TESTDB2.DBO.DEPT
WHERE TESTDB.DBO.EMP.DEPTNO = TESTDB2.DBO.DEPT.DEPTNO
NON EQUI JOIN: At these joining concept columns from two or more tables can be joined by making
a joining condition other than equal to operator.
SELECT E.*, GRADE FROM EMP E, SALGRADE S
WHERE SAL BETWEEN LOSAL AND HISAL
SELECT E.*, GRADE FROM EMP E, SALGRADE S

WHERE SAL >= LOSAL AND SAL <= HISAL
Q) Display EMPNO, ENAME, DNAME, LOC, and GRADE of all the Employees.
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME,D.DNAME,D.LOC,S.GRADE
FROM EMP E , DEPT D , SALGRADE S
WHERE E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO
AND E.SAL BETWEEN S.LOSAL AND S.HISAL
Q) Display ENAME, JOB, SAL, COMM, DEPTNO, DNAME, LOC & GRADE of all those Employees who
are working at “ACCOUNTING, SALES” and they have managers to report and they don’t earn
commission and their Salary more than 1000, arrange the data in ascending order.
SELECT ENAME,JOB,SAL,COMM,MGR,E.DEPTNO,D.DNAME,D.LOC,S.GRADE
FROM EMP E, DEPT D, SALGRADE S
WHERE E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO
AND E.SAL BETWEEN S.LOSAL AND S.HISAL
AND D.DNAME IN('ACCOUNTING','SALES')
AND E.MGR IS NOT NULL
AND E.COMM IS NULL
AND E.SAL > 1000 ORDER BY E.DEPTNO
SELF JOIN:
 At this joining concept single table will be used for more than once differentiating them with
the Alias Name.
 Data is retrieved and joining condition is made in a single table.
Q) Display EMPNO, ENAME, MGR, MGRNAME for those Employees who have managers to report.
SELECT M.EMPNO,M.ENAME,M.MGR,E.ENAME FROM EMP E , EMP M
WHERE E.EMPNO = M.MGR
CARTESIAN JOINS:
 At this joining concept, Columns from two or more tables can be joined without using any
joining condition.
 It provides multiplication of Rows among the tables used for joins
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, E.DEPTNO, D.DNAME FROM EMP E, DEPT D
OUTER JOINS :
 At this concept of joining, Columns from two or more tables with respect to rows can be
joined that gets matched and unmatched records with the joining condition.
 “*” Operator is used for Outer Joins.
 SQL Server 2005 is restricted with the implementation of Outer joins through operator
 In order to implement outer joins in SQL Server 2005 data base compatibility level should be
used by a predefined procedure called SP_DBCMPTLEVEL.
Syntax :
SP_DBCMPTLEVEL @DBNAME = <'DATABASE_NAME'>
@NEW_CMPTLEVEL = '80'
For SQL SERVER Version 7.00 = 70 should be used
For SQL SERVER Version 2000 = 80 should be used
For SQL SERVER Version 2005 = 90 should be used
SQL Server supports two types of Outer Joins through NON ANSI JOINS
LEFT OUTER JOIN: At this joining concept, Outer Join operator is placed on left side of joining
condition, it will extract matched and unmatched rows from the table which is placed on LEFT side of
Joining condition and substitutes NULL Values for the columns of a table which is on RIGHT side of
the Joining Condition.
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM TABLE1 , TABLE2
WHERE TABLE1.COLUMN1 *= TABLE2.COLUMN2
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL, D.DNAME
FROM EMP E , DEP D WHERE E.DEPTNO *= D.DEPTNO
FROM EMP E , DEP D WHERE D.DEPTNO *= E.DEPTNO
RIGHT OUTER JOIN: At this joining concept, Outer Join operator is placed on RIGHT side of joining
condition, it will extract matched and unmatched rows from the table which is placed on RIGHT side
of Joining condition and substitutes NULL Values for the columns of a table which is on LEFT side of
the Joining Condition.
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM TABLE1 , TABLE2
WHERE TABLE1.COLUMN1 =* TABLE2.COLUMN2
FROM EMP E , DEP D WHERE E.DEPTNO =* D.DEPTNO
FROM EMP E , DEP D WHERE D.DEPTNO =* E.DEPTNO
ANSI JOINS: This are implemented by using key words used at FROM Clause of SELECT STATEMENT.
SELECT TABLE1.COLUMN1,TABLE2.COLUMN2
FROM TABLE1 [ALIAS] < JOIN_TYPE > TABLE2 [ALIAS]
ON <JOIN_TYPE> -- JOINING CONDITION
TABLE3[ALIAS] ON ---- JOINING CONDITION
INNER JOIN OR JOIN: A join that displays only the rows that have a match in both joined tables
EQUI JOIN
SELECT E.*,D.* FROM EMP E INNER JOIN DEPT D ON E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO
NON EQUI JOIN :
SELECT E.*, S.* FROM EMP E INNER JOIN SALGRADE S
ON SAL BETWEEN LOSAL AND HISAL
EQUI & NON EQUI JOIN:
SELECT E.*, D.*, S.* FROM EMP E INNER JOIN DEPT D
ON E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO INNER JOIN SALGRADE S
ON E.SAL BETWEEN S.LOSAL AND S.HISAL
SELF JOIN:
SELECT M.EMPNO,M.ENAME,M.MGR,E.ENAME FROM EMP E INNER JOIN EMP M
ON E.EMPNO = M.MGR
CROSS JOIN: Cartesian product of two tables
SELECT EMP.*, DEPT.* FROM EMP CROSS JOIN DEPT
SELECT EMP.*, DEPT.*, SALGRADE.*
FROM EMP CROSS JOIN DEPT CROSS JOIN SALGRADE
OUTER JOINS
LEFT OUTER JOIN: A join that displays all the rows from left table matched rows from the right table
SELECT E.*, D.* FROM EMP E LEFT OUTER JOIN DEPT D
ON E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO
RIGHT OUTER JOIN: A join that displays all the rows from right table matched rows from the left table
SELECT E.*, D.* FROM EMP E RIGHT OUTER JOIN DEPT D
ON E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO
FULL OUTER JOIN: It is a combination of LEFT and RIGHT Outer joins.
 We can use functions in Joins
 Joining more than two tables
Select a.*, b.*, c.* from EMP
Inn join dept b on a.deptno=b.deptno
Inner join salgrade c on a.sal between c.lowsal and c.highsal
 Using Query result in joins as tables
Select a.*, b.*, c.* from EMP
Inn join (select * from dept) b on a.deptno=b.deptno
Inner join salgrade c on a.sal between c.lowsal and c.highsal
Physical joins
These are the joins that users don’t use/write in their SQL queries. Instead these are implemented inside
SQL Server engine as operators or algorithms to implement the Logical Joins. Their types are Nested Loop,
Merge and Hash.
Nested Loop joins
Merge Joins
Hash Joins
NESTED QUERIES / SUB QUERIES

 A Query which is written with the other Query refers to NESTED Query.
 A Query which allows to write other query is called Outer Query or Main Query.
 A Query which is written in main query is called INNER or SUB-QUERY
NESTED Query always gets executed in the following ways
 First Executes INNER QUERY
 Then Executes OUTER QUERY
**SQL Server supports to write 32 Sub Queries where as in ORACLE it supports up to 255 Sub
Queries.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUB QUERIES
Based on Usage
 Normal Sub Query
 Co-related Sub Query
Based on Execution
 Single Column – Single Row
 Single Column – Multiple Rows
 Multiple Columns – Single Rows (SQL Server Does not supports)
 Multiple Columns – Multiple Rows (SQL Server Does not supports)
A SUB-QUERY can be written
 At WHERE Clause
 At HAVING Clause
 At FROM Clause ----- called as INLINE VIEW
 As an Expression ---- called as SCALAR SUB QUERY
 Under DML Queries
SUB-QUERY AT WHERE CLAUSE
 Select as Sub Query can be written at Where Clause of Outer Query.
 Output of Sub Query igs never displayed
 Output of Sub Query will be given to OUTER Query for Comparison, Based on It OUTER
Query displaces the Output
SELECT * FROM TABLE -- MAIN / OUTER QUERY WHERE EXPRESSION OPERATOR (SELECT
FROM TABLE2 WHERE CONDITION)--INNER/SUBQUERY
Q) Display EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL, DEPTNO of that Employee who is being paid by Max Salary.
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL, DEPTNO
FROM EMP WHERE SAL = ( SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP)
**Single row and Single Column.
Q) Display EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL of those Employees whose salary is more than Average Salary
of all Employees.
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL
FROM EMP WHERE SAL > ( SELECT AVG (SAL) FROM EMP)
Q) Display Ename, Job of those Employees who are working on a same job as of TURNER.
SELECT ENAME, JOB
FROM EMP WHERE JOB = ( SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE ENAME = 'TURNER')
Q) Display ENAME,SAL of those Employees whose salary is more than average salary of Deptno 20.
SELECT ENAME , SAL
FROM EMP WHERE SAL > ( SELECT AVG(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 20)
Q) Display ENAME,JOB,SAL of those Employees who are working on a same job as of “Allen” and
Salary is more than Salary of “Miller”.
SELECT ENAME, JOB, SAL
FROM EMP WHERE JOB = ( SELECT JOB FROM WHERE ENAME = 'ALLEN')
AND SAL > ( SELECT SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME = 'MILLER')
Q) Display Second Max Salary.
SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE SAL < ( SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP)
SELECT ENAME, EMPNO, JOB, SAL , DEPTNO FROM EMP
WHERE SAL = (SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP
WHERE SAL < (SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP))

Q) Write a Query to display First 3 Max Salaries of Employees.
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL >= (SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP)
WHERE SAL < (SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP
WHERE SAL < (SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP)))
Q) Display EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPTNO of those Employees who are working at ACCOUNTING,
SALES Departments.
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DEPTNO FROM EMP WHERE DEPT IN ( SELECT DEPTNO
FROM DEPT WHERE DNAME IN ('ACCOUNTING', 'SALES'))
**Single Column and Multiple rows
Q) Display all those Employees who are managers.
SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL,DEPTNO
FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO IN (SELECT DISTINCT MGR FROM EMP)
Q)Dislay ENAME, JOB, SAL, DEPTNO of those Employees whose salary is more than Max Sal of Sales
Department.
SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL
FROM EMP WHERE SAL > ( SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO = (SELECT DEPTNO FROM DEPT
WHERE DNAME = 'SALES'))
Q) Display Empno,Ename,Job,Sal,Deptno of those Employees who is being paid by Minimum Salary
in Deptno 10.
SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP
WHERE SAL = (SELECT MIN(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO =10) AND DEPTNO =10
SUB-QUERY AT HAVING CLAUSE
 Select as Sub Query can be written at Having Clause of Outer Query.
 Output returned by Sub Query can be used for Comparing the Data at Outer Query, based
on it Outer Query displays the Output.
Q) Display DEPTNO & Average Salary of those departments whose average salary is more than the
average salary of all Employees.
SELECT DEPTNO, AVG(SAL) FROM EMP
HAVING AVG(SAL) > (SELECT AVG(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO)
SUB QUERY AT FROM CLAUSE (IN LINE VIEW)
 Select as Sub Query can be written as FROM Clause of OUTER Query
 Output returns the sub query will be provided as the input for OUTER Query.
 It is must to have an Alias name for the output generated by a sub query
 Column Alias in Sub Query becomes columns for outer query where they can be used at
different clause of outer query.
Syntax:
SELECT ........ FROM ( SELECT ....... FROM TABLE) ALIAS_NAME
SELECT * FROM ( SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, DEPTNO FROM EMP) E
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL
FROM ( SELECT EMP, ENAME, SAL FROM EMP ) E
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME,PAY,DEPTNO FROM ( SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,DEPTNO,SAL PAY
FROM EMP) WHRE PAY > 2500
SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DRNK FROM ( SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL, DENSE_RANK()
OVER (ORDER BY SAL DESC) DRNK FROM EMP) E WHERE DRNK > 3
Q) Write a Query to display First N Maximum Salary earning Employee Details.
OVER (ORDER BY SAL DESC) DRNK FROM EMP) E WHERE DRNK <= 3
Q) Write a Query to display Nth Maximum Salary Earning Employees.
OVER (ORDER BY SAL DESC) DRNK FROM EMP) E WHERE DRNK = 3
Q) Write a query to display first 5 records of EMP Table.
SELECT * FROM ( SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL, ROW_NUMBER()
OVER (ORDER BY EMPNO) RN FROM EMP) E WHERE RN <= 5

Q) Write a query to display all those Employees whose record position at odd Number
OVER (ORDER BY EMPNO) RN FROM EMP) E WHERE RN %2 =1
Q) Write a query to display all those Employees whose record position at even numbers
OVER (ORDER BY EMPNO) RN FROM EMP) E WHERE RN %2 = 0
Q) Write a query to display every Forth Record of EMP Table.
OVER (ORDER BY EMPNO) RN FROM EMP) E WHERE RN %4 =0
SUB-QUERY AS AN EXPRESSION {SCALAR SUB QUERY}
Select as Sub Query can be written as an expression in outer query, where it returns the output of
only one column, Hence it is named as SCALAR SUB QUERY.
Syntax:
SELECT EXPRESSION1, EXPRESSION2.....,(SELECT EXPRESSION .....) [ALIAS
NAME]..... FROM ......
Q) Display Ename, Job, Salary, Dept Name of all the Employees.
SELECT ENAME,JOB,SAL (SELECT DNAME FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO = EMP.DEPTNO) DN FROM EMP
SOME/ANY & ALL OPERATORS
SOME/ANY:
 This Operator will allow a Sub Query to written multiple rows even though in OUTER Query
Condition is made by using relational operators.
 It works like “OR” LOGICAL OPERATOR.
 It Can be used with all RELATIONAL OPERATORS [ > ANY , < ANY, = ANY, !=ANY , >= ANY, <=
ANY ]
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL < ANY (SELECT DISTINCT SAL FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO = 20)
ALL :
 This Operator also allows a sub query to written multiple rows even though in Outer Query
condition is made using relational operators.
 It works like “AND” LOGICAL OPERATOR.
 It can also be used with ALL Relational Operators.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL < ALL (SELECT DISTINCT SAL FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO =20)
CORRELATED SUBQUERIES:
 This Queries provides different execution to Nested Queries i.e First it executes OUTER
Query then executes INNER Query.
 Nested Query is called as UNI-DIRECTIONAL Query
 Correlated Query is called as BI-DIRECTIONAL Query
 Correlated queries gets executed in the following way First executes OUTER query retrieving
only one ROW(called as CANDIDATE ROW) at a time and that ROW is given to INNER Query
for processing after processing INNER Query returns Output and will be given to OUTER
Query for comparison, based on it OUTER Query displays the Output.
 This Queries are identified when outer queries table name is provided with the Alias name
and that alias Name is been used at Sub-Query.
Q) Display EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL,DEPTNO of those Employees whose salary is more than
AVERAGE SALARY of respective Departments.
SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP E
WHERE SAL > ( SELECT AVG(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = E.DEPTNO )
Q) Display the Employee Details of the First N Maximum Salaries
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL , DEPTNO FROM EMP E
WHERE 3 > ( SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT SAL) FROM EMP WHERE SAL > E.SAL)
Q) Display the Employee Details of Nth Maximum Salary.

WHERE 3 = ( SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT SAL) FROM EMP WHERE SAL > E.SAL)
**To find Nth Maximum Salary condition should be (N-1)
Q) Display the Employee Details of Forth Maximum Salary.
WHERE 4 = ( SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT SAL) FROM EMP WHERE SAL > E.SAL)
Q) Display those Employee Details who are being paid by minimum salaries in their respective
Departments.
WHERE SAL = ( SELECT MIN(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = E.DEPTNO)
EXISTS / NOT EXISTS OPERATOR
EXISTS:
 It Returns Boolean value ie., True or False
 If Condition at inner query is satisfied than it will written True else written with False
Q) Display DEPTNO, DNAME of those Department’s where at least one Employee is working.
SELECT DEPTNO, DNAME FROM DEPT D
WHERE EXISTS ( SELECT 1 FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO )
NOT EXISTS:
 This operator also written Boolean Value i.e. TRUE or FALSE
 If Condition at INNER Query is FALSE then it returns TRUE
Q) Display DEPTNO, DNAME of those Department’s where no Employee is working.
SELECT DEPTNO, DNAME FROM DEPT D
WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT 1 FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO)
OR
SELECT DEPTNO,DNAME FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO = (( SELECT DEPTNO FROM DEPT )
EXCEPT (SELECT DISTINCT DEPTNO FROM EMP))
CREATING A NEW TABLE FROM EXISTING TABLE:
 When a new table is created from existing table it will support to copy METADATA + ACTUAL
DATA
 It also supports to copy only Metadata when condition is false
 Column Aliases specified for the Columns of existing table becomes Columns in new tables
 Constraints of an existing table columns are never copied to new table
Syntax :
SELECT * INTO <NEW_TABLE_NAME> FROM < EXISTING_TABLE >
SELECT * INTO EMP1 FROM EMP
SELECT * INTO EMP2 FROM EMP WHERE 1 = 2
SELECT EMPNO ECODE, ENAME EN, SAL PAY, SAL*12 ASAL, DEPTNO
INTO EMP3 FROM EMP
DATA DEFINATION LANGUAGE:

 This language is used to Create, Modify and Drop DATABASE Objects ie. Tables, Views,
Indexes, Synonyms, Stored Procedures, Stored Functions, Stored Triggers.
 This language includes the following Commands CREATE, ALTER, TRUNCATE, DROP
 In SQL Server 2005 if DDL Commands are associated to Transaction then the Operation is
Temporary.
REPRESENTATION OF DATA
Datag in SQL Server gets represented based on three Key Points DATANAME, DATATYPE, and DATA SIZE.
DATA NAME: Often Called Column Name, Identifier or Field or Attribute. It is the one which gives
Identification to Data.
Rules to be followed before using Table Names:
 Table Name can be Minimum of 1 Character and Maximum of 127 Characters.
 schema should contain always Unique Table Names.

 Table Names used in 1 schema the same can be used in other schemas.
 Table Names can’t be enclosed with the Blank Spaces and Special Characters.
 In order to have Blank Spaces and Special Characters then it should be enclosed in Square
Brackets.
Rules to be followed before using Column Names:
 Column Name can be Minimum of 1 Character and Maximum of 127 Characters.
 Table should contain always Unique Column Names.
 Column Names used in 1 Table the same can be used in other tables.
 Column Names can’t be enclosed with the Blank Spaces and Special Characters.
 In order to have Blank Spaces and Special Characters then it should be enclosed in Square
Brackets.
DATA TYPE & DATA SIZE
 Data Type explains regarding type of data to be stored in a column.
 SQL Server 2005 provides the following Data Types for the storage of data with respect to
structured and unstructured data.
 Structured Data refers to the storage of DATA directly.
 Unstructured Data refers to the storage of Data which is external Data.
INTEGER DATA [ EXACT NUMBERS ]
INT 4 BYTES
SMALLINT 2 BYTES [-32768 to 32767]
BIGINT 8 BYTES
TINYINT 1 BYTES [0 to 255 ]
DECIMAL (PREC [SCALE])
NUMERIC (PREC [SCALE])
MONEY 8 BYTES
SMALLMONEY 4 BYTES
REAL NUMBERS: ( APPROXIMATES, NUMBERS )
FLOAT VARIES
REAL 4 BYTES
DATE AND TIME :
DATETIME 8 BYTES { 1ST JAN 1753 to 31ST DEC 9999 }
SMALLDATETIME 4 BYTES { 1ST JAN 1900 to 06TH JUN 2079 }
STRING DATATYPE:
CHAR(SIZE)
 Supports to store any type data.
 Default size it will take as ONE.
 Provides Fixed Memory / Static Memory which leads to wastage of Memory.
 It Stores data using “ASCII” Code Concept.
 Minimum can be 1 BYTE Maximum of 8000 BYTES.-- NCHAR( SIZE )
 Supports to store any type data
 Default size it will take as ONE
 It Stores data using “UNICODE” Concept
 Size can be specified Minimum 1 BYTE Maximum 4000 BYTES-- VARCHAR( SIZE )
 Provides variable Length Memory, Dynamic Memory which results to saving of Memory.
 It Stores data using “ASCII” Code Concept
 Size can be specified Minimum 1 BYTE Maximum 8000 BYTES-- NVARCHAR ( SIZE )
 Provides variable Length Memory, Dynamic Memory which results to saving of Memory.
 It Stores data using “UNICODE” Code Concept
 Size can be specified Minimum 1 BYTE Maximum 8000 BYTES

UNSTURCTURED DATA
BINARY
VARBINARY
IMAGE
XML – Introduced from 2005 to store data in XML Format,
Memory is provided up to 2GB.
CREATING TABLE AS DATABASE OBJECT
Table is a logical Structure which provides data in the form of ROWS & COLUMNS.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE < TABLE_NAME > (
COLUMN1 COLUMN_DEFINATION,
COLUMN2 COLUMN_DEFINATION,
COLUMN3 COLUMN_DEFINATION.....)
Note:
 A DATABASE can contain TWO BLLION Tables.
 A Table can have Minimum of One Column and Maximum of 1024 Columns.
 No Limit for Rows.
 All the DATABASE Objects by default gets associated to predefined Schema i.e “dbo” [DATABASE
OWNER ]
 DATABASE Objects should be unique in Schema.
 Table Name can be of Minimum One Character and Maximum of 127 Characters.
Tables are classified in 3 Types
System Tables -------- Master DB’s -------------------------- 41 Tables
User Defined Tables ------- User Defined Database ----------2Billion Tables
Temporary Tables ------- TEMPDB ----------------------Unlimited
TYPES OF COLUMNS
Column in SQL Server 2005 are classified in following types.
Normal Column: Column Associated by DATA TYPE & DATA SIZE.
RNO INT, SNAME VARCHAR (10)
Computed Column: Column Associated by Mathematical Expression.
AMT AS ( PRICE * QTY ), ASAL AS ( SAL * 12)
Points to be remember:
 This column is introduced from 2005.
 DATA TYPE of computed column is based on Data type of Those Columns which are used in
Mathematical Expression.
 One Computed column cannot be under other Computed Column.
 Explicit data is not allowed for computed columns.
 A Table can have more than ONE Computed Columns.
IDENTITY COLUMN
 A table can have only ONE IDENTITY Column.
 IDENTITY Column will generate sequence of numbers automatically by default starts from
One and increments by one.
 By Default IDENTITY Column will not accept Explicit Values.
 IDENTITY Column can be specified by User Defined Start (SEED) and Increment Value.
Syntax:
IDENTITY (SEED, INCREAMENT )
SNO INT IDENTITY
**By default it starts from 1 and it will increment by 1
SNO INT IDENTITY (101,4)
**It starts from 101 and it will increment by 4
 In order to store explicit values for IDENTITY COLUMN Following SET Command should be
used.
SET IDENTITY_INSERT < TABLE_NAME > ON / OFF [ DEFAULT IS OFF ]
 When Explicit Values are provided for identity Colum it is must to mention that column name
in the Column List.
 IDENTITY COLUMN will allows duplicates.
 When Explicit Values are stored in IDENTITY COLUMN, later when implicit values are stored
it would be generate the sequence of numbers based on the biggest value of that column.
 IDENTITY COLUMN can be associated with the following data types i.e
INT, BIGINT, SMALLINT, TINYINT, DECIMAL OR NUMERIC with SCALE
@@IDENTITY - It returns the Last Value stored into IDENTITY COLUMN (Related to Last Table)
It works at session level.
SCOPE_IDENTITY - It returns the Last Value stored into IDENTITY COLUMN.
SELECT SCOPE_IDENTITY ()
IDENT_CURRENT - This function returns the last IDENTITY COLUMN value which is stores in a
specific table.
SELECT IDENT_CURRENT( < TABLE_NAME > )
SYS.IDENTITY_COLUMNS - This System Table also supports to get the last value of IDENTITY
COLUMN of any table.
SELECT LAST_VALUE FROM SYS.IDENTITY_COLUMNS
WHERE [OBJECT_ID] = OBJECT_ID( < TABLE_NAME > )
IDENT_SEED ( < TABLE_NAME > ) - It returns the start value of the IDENTITY COLUMN
created at table.
SELECT IDENT_SEED ('PRODUCT')
IDENT_INCR ( < TABLE_NAME > ) - It returns the incremented value of the IDENTITY
COLUMN created at table.
SELECT IDENT_INCR ('PRODUCT')
To restart the sequence of Numbers for IDENTITY COLUMN an option called CHECKIDENT of DBCC (
DATABASE CONSISTENCY CHECKER ) Command.
DBCC CHECKIDENT ( <TABLE_NAME>, RESEED , VALUE )
Example:
CREATE TABLE PRODUCT ( SNO INT IDENTITY, PCODE INT, PNAME VARCHAR(10),
QTY INT, PRICE FLOAT, AMT AS (QTY * PRICE) )
INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES (201,'X',10,15)
INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES (202,'Y',10,15)
INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES (203,'Z',10,15)
INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES (204,'A',10,15)
INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES (204,'B',10,15)
SET IDENTITY_INSERT PRODUCT ON
INSERT INTO PRODUCT (SNO,PCODE,PNAME,QTY,PRICE)
VALUES (6,205,'C',10,15)
SELECT @@IDENTITY
SELECT SCOPE_IDENTITY()
SELECT IDENT_CURRENT('PRODUCT')
SELECT LAST_VALUE FROM SYS.IDENTITY_COLUMNS
WHERE [OBJECT_ID] = OBJECT_ID('PRODUCT')
DBCC CHECKIDENT('PRODUCT',RESEED,3)
Q) Create a Table Called STUDENT which contains ROLLNO, NAME, MPC MARKS.
Calculate for total and average marks.
Sequence
CREATE SEQUENCE [schema].[Name_of_Sequence]
[ AS <data type> ]
[ START WITH <value> ]
[ INCREMENT BY <value> ]
[ MINVALUE <value > | NO MINVALUE ]

[ MAXVALUE <value> | NO MAXVALUE ]
[ CYCLE | NO CYCLE ]
[ CACHE value | NO CACHE ];
CREATE SEQUENCE [dbo].[NewCounter]

AS INT
START WITH 5
INCREMENT BY 5
SELECT NEXT VALUE FOR [dbo].[NewCounter]

Altering a Sequence
ALTER SEQUENCE [NewCounter] RESTART WITH 7
Setting the Min and Max Value for Sequence Objects
CREATE SEQUENCE [dbo].[NewCounter4]
AS INT
START WITH 10
INCREMENT BY 10
MINVALUE 10
MAXVALUE 50
Using Computed Column
CREATE TABLE STUDENT ( ROLLNO INT , STNAME VARCHAR(10),
MATHS INT, PHYSICS INT, CHEMISTRY INT,
TOTAL AS MATHS*PHYSICS*CHEMISTRY,
AVGM AS ((MATHS*PHYSICS*CHEMISTRY)/3.0))
Using UPDATE Method
CREATE TABLE STUDENT ( ROLLNO INT , STNAME VARCHAR(10),
MATHS INT, PHYSICS INT, CHEMISTRY INT,
TOTAL INT, AVGM FLOAT)
UPDATE STUDENT
SET TOTAL = MATHS*PHYSICS*CHEMISTRY,
AVGM =((MATHS*PHYSICS*CHEMISTRY)/3.0))
Q) Create a table EMP which contains ECODE, ENAME & GENDER, UPDATE Gender by changing the
data to MALE to FEMALE and FEMALE to MALE.
UPDATE EMP
SET GENDER = CASE GENDER
WHEN 'MALE' THEN 'FEMALE'
WHEN 'FEMAE' THEN 'MALE'
END
MODIFYING EXISTING TABLE
 Existing Table can be modified by using ALTER TABLE Command
 It supports to add new columns, modify data types and data size of existing columns and
supports to drop the columns
 ALTER TABLE Command provides three options ADD, ALTER COLUMN, DROP.
 To add the columns – Normal Columns, Computed Columns, Identity Columns can be added
into an existing table.
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE < TABLE_NAME >
ADD COLUMN1 COLUMN1_DEFINATION, COLUMN2 COLUMN2_DEFINATION .......
ALTER TABLE EMP ADD SNO INT IDENTITY, EXPR INT, ASAL AS ( SAL *12)
Modifying Data Type & Size of existing Table
Data Type and Data Size can be altered in a flexible way if there is no data in a column. It
Supports to modify only independent Columns
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE < TABLE_NAME > ALTER COLUMN COLUMN_NAME COLUMN_DEFINATION
ALTER TABLE EMP ALTER COLUMN EMPNO TINYINT
ALTER TABLE EMP ALTER COLUMN ENAME VARCHAR(20)
DROPPING THE COLUMNS:

 One or more columns can be dropped from a table.
 It drops a column including data
 It will drop only independent columns
 It does not allow to drop all the columns of a table (Minimum 1 Column should be there in a
table )
Syntax :
ALTER TABLE < TABLE_NAME > DROP COLUMN COLUMN_NAME .....
ALTER TABLE EMP DROP COLUMN ENAME, SAL, JOB
SP_RENAME
 This predefined procedure will support to rename columns and table
 It will support to rename only independent columns and tables
Syntax:
SP_RENAME ' < TABLENAME.COLUMNNAME > ', ' < NEW_COLUMN_NAME >'
SP_RENAME 'EMP.EMPNO','ECODE'
SP_RENAME ' < OLD_TABLENAME > ', ' < NEW_TABLENAME >'
TRUNCATE :
This DDL Command is used to delete the rows from a table
Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE < TABLE_NAME >
DELETE TRUNCATE
 It is a DML Command  It is a DDL Command
 Supports to delete the rows on conditional  No Conditional deletion is allowed
basis
 Slow in Execution  Fast in Execution
 Supports to invoke Triggers  Does not support
 Identity Column Value will be in  When a table is truncated Identity Column
continuation even after deleting all rows. Values will resets to start position(SEED
VALUE)
DROP:
This DDL Command is used to drop the DATABASE Objects like tables, views, synonyms, indexes,
Stored Procedures, Functions, Triggers Etc.
Dropping a Table:
When a table is dropped, objects like constraints, indexes, triggers are automatically dropped.
Syntax: DROP TABLE < TABLE_NAME >
WORKING WITH UNSTRUCTURED DATA
Inserting IMAGE
CREATE TABLE EIMG (
ENO INT, ENAME VARCHAR(12) EPIC VARBINARY(MAX) )
INSERT INTO EIMG (ENO,ENAME,EPIC) SELECT 1001,'XYZ', BULK COLUMN
FROM OPENROWSET (BULK 'C:\TEST.JPG',SINGLE_BLOB) AS EIMG
Inserting Word Document
CREATE TABLE EDOC (
ENO INT, ENAME VARCHAR(12) EDOC VARBINARY(MAX) )
INSERT INTO EIMG (ENO,ENAME,EPIC) SELECT 1001,'XYZ', BULK COLUMN
FROM OPENROWSET (BULK 'C:\TEST.DOC',SINGLE_BLOB) AS DOC
WORKING WITH TOP KEYWORD
 This keyword is used to perform operations on TOP rows of a table.
 This keyword in SQL SERVER 2000 was used only with SELECT Command whereas in 2005 it
can be used with SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE Commands
 It can retrieve the data based on specific number or based on Percentage
 It will restrict the result set of a Query.
SELECT TOP (3) * FROM EMP
SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM EMP

SET ROWCOUNT 3
Using with Ties in Top Clause
Select top 3 with ties deptno,job from emp
**To get Top rows without using TOP Keyword or WHERE Clause, we need to use SET ROWCOUNT
Function.
Q) Display maximum salaries
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL IN (
SELECT DISTINCT TOP 3 SAL FROM EMP ORDER BY SAL DESC)
UPDATE TOP(3) FROM EMP SET SAL = SAL + 1000
DELETE TOP (3) FROM EMP
CREATING TEMPORARY TABLES
 This tables will be provided by memory for temporary at TEMPDB(System DB)
 This tables will work like normal tables.
 This tables will be deleted automatically when the session is closed
 This tables are classified in 2 Types.
 Local Temp Table
 Global Temp Table
 Local – It works at Single Connection and it is identified by “ # “
 Global – It works at Multiple Connection and it is identified by “ ## “
CREATE TABLE #T1 (RNO INT, SNAME VARCHAR(10))
INSERT INTO #T1 VALUES (1,'X')
INSERT INTO #T1 VALUES (2,'Y')
INSERT INTO #T1 VALUES (3,'Z')
SELECT * INTO #D1 FROM DEPT
SELECT * INTO TT1 FROM #T1
SELECT * INTO #T1 FROM #TT
CREATE TABLE ##T1 (RNO INT, SNAME VARCHAR(10))
INSERT INTO ##T1 VALUES (1,'X')
INSERT INTO ##T1 VALUES (2,'Y')
INSERT INTO ##T1 VALUES (3,'Z')
**All Temporary Tables are independent.
DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE:
 Insertion of New Rows, Modification to existing Rows, Removing Unwanted Rows
collectively known as DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE.
 It Includes the Following Commands INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, MERGE
INSERT:
 This DML Command is used to Insert a row into an existing table , it provides its working in 3
ways.
 Inserting ONE Row at a time in ONE Table.
 Inserting MULTIPLE Rows at a time in ONE Table.
 Inserting MULTIPLE Rows at a time in MULTIPLE Tables.
INSERT ..... ONE ROW ...... ONE TABLE
 When One Row is inserted at a time in One Table it supports to store data of all Columns or
Partial Columns
 When Data is inserted for required Columns, The Other Columns will be stored by NULL
Values
Syntax:
INSERT [ INTO ] <TABLE_NAME>[ COLUMN_ALIAS ]
VALUES ( LIST_OF_VALUES )
INSERT DEPT VALUES (50,'HR','HYD')
INSERT DEPT VALUES (60,'ADMIN')
INSERT DEPT VALUES (70,'ECE',NULL)
INSERT DEPT (DEPTNO,DNAME)

VALUES (80,'FINANCE'),
VALUES (90,'ARTS'),
VALUES (95,'TEST')
**Using Values in More than once in INSERT Command is valid in 2008 Version of SQL Server.
INSERT ..... MULTIPLE ROWS ...... IN ONE TABLE
Select as Sub-Query can be written under Insert Query, Output returned by Sub Query can be used
by INSERT Query to INSERT the Rows into an Existing Table.
Syntax:
INSERT [ INTO ] <TABLE_NAME> [(COLUMNS_LIST)] < SELECT QUERY >
INSERT EMP2 SELECT * FROM EMP
INSERT EMP2 ( EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL) SELECT (EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL)
FROM EMP
INSERT EMP2 ( EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL) SELECT (EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL)
FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO =10
UPDATE :
This DML Command is used to modify existing Data with User Required new Data.
Syntax:
UPDATE < TABLE_NAME >
SET COLUMN1 = VALUE/EXPRESSION, COLUMN2 = VALUE/EXPRESSION
WHERE = CONDITIONS
Q) Update the Salary of SMITH from 800 to 1800.
UPDATE EMP SET SAL = 1800 WHERE ENAME = 'SMITH'
Q) Update the JOB, SAL of MARTIN from SALESMAN to CLERK and 1250 to 2000.
UPDATE EMP SET JOB = 'CLERK', SAL = 2000 WHERE ENAME = 'MARTIN'
Q) Update The Salary of Department 30 with an increment of 12%.
UPDATE EMP SET SAL = SAL*12 WHERE DEPTNO = 30
Q) Update the Salary of James with an increment of 1000 and provided the Comm as 10% of Salary.
UPDATE EMP SET SAL = SAL+1000, COMM = (SAL+1000)*10/100.0
WHERE ENAME = 'JAMES'
Q) Update the Salary of ALLEN with an increment of 1000, Sal of JAMES with 500 and other
Employees sal should remain unchanged.
UPDATE EMP
SET SAL = CASE ENAME
WHEN 'ALLEN' THEN SAL + 1000
WHEN 'JAMES' THEN SAL + 500
ELSE SAL
END
WHERE ENAME IN( 'ALLEN','JAMES')
 When Multiple Colums are used with Update Command all the Columns get updated at a
time.
 Single column cannot be used for more than once
 When Single Column has modification with different Values we need to use CASE Expression
SUB-QUERY UNDER UPDATE QUERY
SELECT as Sub-Query can be written under update Query OUTPUT returned by Sub-Query
can be used for Updating the Data in Outer Query.
Q) Update the Salary of the SMITH with the salary of MILLER.
UPDATE EMP
SET SAL = ( SELECT SAL FROM EMP WHERE ENAME = 'MILLER' )
WHERE ENAME = 'SMITH'
Q) Update the Salary of 30 Department with the Average Salary of 20 Department
UPDATE EMP
SET SAL = ( SELECT AVG( SAL ) FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO =20 )
WHERE DEPTNO = 30
Using Joins at Update
Update a set a.ename=b.ename

,a.comm=b.comm
From EMP a
Inner join EMP1 b on a.empno=b.empno
Using top clause at Update
Update top (2) emp set comm=isnull(comm,100) where deptno=10
Using Output clause at update
Update top (2) emp set comm=isnull(comm,100)
Output inserted.*,deleted.*
where deptno=10
DELETE :
It is used to Delete One or More rows at a time from an existing table.
Syntax :
DELETE FROM < TABLE_NAME > [ WHERE CONDITIONS ]
Q) Delete all the records of Dept Table.
DELETE FROM DEPT
Q) Delete all the Employees who are working as CLERK.
DELETE FROM EMP WHERE JOB = 'CLERK'
Q) Delete all those Employees who are earning Commission.
DELETE FROM EMP WHERE COMM IS NOT NULL
SUB-QUERY UNDER DELETE QUERY
SELECT as SUB-QUERY can be written under DELETE Query Output returned by SUB-QUERY
can be used for deleting the records through Outer Query.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM < TABLE_NAME > WHERE EXPRESSION OPERATOR ( SELECT QUERY )
Q) Delete all those Employees whose Salary is more than Average Salary of all Employees.
DELETE FROM EMP WHERE SAL > ( SELECT AVG(SAL) FROM EMP )
Q) Delete all those Employees who are working on a same Job as of SMITH.
DELETE FROM EMP WHERE JOB = (SELECT JOB FROM EMP WHERE ENAME = 'SMITH')
Using Joins at delete
delete a From EMP a
Inner join EMP1 b on a.empno=b.empno
Using top clause at delete
delete top (2) * from emp where deptno=10
Using Output clause at delete
Delete * from emp Output inserted.*,deleted.*
where deptno=10
MERGE:
 It is introduced in SQL SERVER 2008
 It is called as an ETL Command ( Extracting, Transformation, Loading)
 It is used to Join the data from 2 Tables into a Single Table
 It is used to Execute INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE commands simultaneously
 It works based on Four Clauses USING, ON , WHEN MATCHED, WHEN NOT MATCHED
 WHEN MATCHED, WHEN NOT MATCHED Clauses are Flexible in usage any number of times
can be used.
 Usage of Semi-Colon at the end of the Query is compulsory.
Syntax:
MERGE INTO < TABLE_1_NAME > [TABLE_1_ALIAS]
USING < TABLE_2_NAME > / < SELECT QUERY > [ TABLE_2_ALIAS ]
ON JOINING CONDITION
WHEN MATCHED [ FILTERING CONDITIONS ] THEN
UPDATE / DELETE COMMANDS
WHEN NOT MATCHED [ FILTERING CONDITIONS ] THEN
INSERT [ COLUMNS_LIST ] VALUES [ LIST_OF_VALUES ] ;

Example:
MERGE INTO EMP E1
USING (SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL, SAL*12 ASAL FROM EMP) E2
ON (E1.EMPNO = E2.EMPNO)
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE SET E1.SAL = E2.SAL
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT VALUES (E2.EMPNO,E2.ENAME,E2.JOB,E2.ASAL);
MERGE INTO EMPB E1
USING (SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL, SAL*12 ASAL FROM EMP)E2
ON (E1.EMPNO = E2.EMPNO)
WHEN MATCHED AND E1.JOB = 'CLERK' THEN
UPDATE SET E1.SAL = E2.SAL
WHEN MATCHED AND E1.JOB = 'SALESMAN' THEN
DELETE
WHEN NOT MATCHED AND E2.JOB = 'ANALYST' THEN
INSERT VALUES( E2.EMPNO,E2.ENAME,E2.JOB,E2.ASAL);
TRANSACTION CONTROL LANGUAGE
 This Language is used to make a transaction either Permanent of Supports to cancel the
Transaction.
 It Includes COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVE Commands
TRANSACTION:
 It is defined as small logical unit which contains set of operations.
 Transaction will works on ACID Properties
 A – Atomicity
 C – Consistency
 I – Isolated
 D – Durability
 In SQL Server 2005 Transaction will start with a Key Word “ BEGIN TRAN / TRANSACTION “ [
NAME ]
 By default set of operations associated to a transaction or temporary.
Syntax :
BEGIN TRANSACTION
< STATEMENTS >
COMMIT :
 This TCL Command is used to Make a transaction ( SET OF OPERATIONS ) Permanent in a
DATABASE.
 When multiple isolate transactions are created requires equal number of COMMITS to make
them permanent in a DATABASE.
ROLLBACK :
 This TCL Command is used to Cancel the Complete Transaction or Partial Transaction
 When isolated Multiple transactions are created in a Single Session.
 A Single ROLLBACK command would cancel all the transactions.
ROLLBACK [ TRAN / TRANSACTION ] NAME
SAVE :
 This TCL Command is used to create a Sub-Transactions under a Main Transaction. The
Created Sub Transaction can be cancelled partially.
 Random Selection from Cancellation of Sub Transaction is not allowed
SAVE [ TRAN / TRANSACTION ] NAME
Example:
BEGIN TRAN
DELETE FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 30
SAVE TRAN F
INSERT DEPT VALUES (.....)
UPDATE DEPT SET COL = VAL WHERE DEPTNO = 10
SAVE TRAN S
DELETE FROM SALGRADE
DELETE FROM EMP
Three Scenarios for above example.
First Second Third
ROLLBACK TRAN S ROLLBANK TRAN F
ROLLBACK TRAN F ROLLBACK
ROLLBACK
When a session contains a transaction it cannot be closed directly , if it is trying closed it confirms for
COMMIT and ROLLBACK of Transactions.
DATABASE CONSTRAINTS:
 Constraints refers to rules or conditions
 Data Constraint will make SQL Server to avoid invalid data entry.
 Every Constraint is provided by a unique name, which can be of predefined or user defined.
 To specify User Defined Constraint Name a Keyword called CONSTRAINT is used.
 Advantage of Constraint Name is found when a constraint is disabled/enabled or when the
constraint is dropped.
 Constraint is created as DATABASE Object.
 Constraint Names should be always provided with unique names Because it will be checked
at Schema Level.
Types of Constraints
 DOMAIN INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS -- NOTNULL, CHECK, DEFAULT
 ENTITY INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS -- PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE
 REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS -- FOREIGN KEY
DOMAIN INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT
These constraints are specified immediately after a Column, It includes NOTNULL, CHECK, DEFAULT.
NOTNULL
 It is not a Constraint.
 It can be provided for any Number of Columns.
 It will not allow to store NULL VALUES, But will allow to store Duplicates
CHECK
 This Constraint is used to specify User Defined Conditions
 Any Number of Columns Can be set with the CHECK Constraint
DEFAULT
 This Constraint is used to specify Default Value for Column.
 When a user does not provide data (INSERT) then it will store Default value.
Example:
CREATE TABLE EMP1(
ENO INT NOT NULL, ENAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
JOB VARCHAR(15) CHECK (JOB IN ('CLERK','MANAGER','OPERATIONS')),
SAL INT CONSTRAINT SAL_CHK CHECK (SAL BETWEEN 15000 AND 20000),
DOJ SMALLDATETIME DEFAULT GETDATE(),
DNO INT CONSTRAINT DF_DNO DEFAULT 20)
ENTITY INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT
These Constraints can be specified in two levels.
 Column Level – Immediately after a Column.
 Table / Entity Level – after all the columns
 It Includes PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE CONSTRAINTS
UNIQUE
 This Constraint will not allow to store duplicate values but can store only ONE NULL Value.
 It Can be used for any number of times
COLUMN LEVEL
CREATE TABLE STUDENT
(RNO INT UNIQUE, SN VARCHAR(10) CONSTRAINT SN_UQ UNIQUE)
TABLE / ENTITY LEVEL
CREATE TABLE STUDENT
(RNO INT , SN VARCHAR(10),UNIQUE(RNO) CONSTRAINT SN_UQ UNIQUE(SN))
COMPOSITE UNIQUE KEY
 Multiple Columns set with One UNIQUE Constraint is called Composite Unique Key.
 It is created only at Entity Level or Table Level.
 Composite Unique will allow to store one column with duplicates only when corresponding
Column contains Unique Data
 Minimum of two Columns and Maximum of 16 Columns.
Example:
CREATE TABLE STUDENT(
RNO INT, SNAME VARCHAR(10), CLASS INT, UNIQUE (RNO,CLASS))
PRIMARY KEY: { NOT NULL + UNIQUE }
 Which means it will not allow NULL values and duplicates.
 A table can have only one Primary Key which can be created at Table or Column Level.
COLUMN LEVEL
CREATE TABLE STUDENT ( RNO INT PRIMARY KEY, SNAME VARCHAR(10))
TABLE LEVEL
CREATE TABLE STUDENT ( RNO INT , SNAME VARCHAR(10) PRIMARY KEY (RNO))
COMPOSITE PRIMARY KEY
 Multiple Columns set with One Primary key refers to Composite Primary Key.
 It can be created only at table level.
 Behavior of Composite Primary Key that it will allow One column Store Duplicates only
when the corresponding column contains Unique Data.
 Composite Primary Key can be created Minimum of 2 and Maximum of 16 Columns
**Difference in Composite Unique Key and Composite Primary Key – Composite Unique Key will
allow NULL Values, Composite Primary Key will not allow NULL Values.
CREATE TABLE STUDENT (
RNO INT, SNAME VARCHAR(10), CLASS INT, PRIMARY KEY (RNO, CLASS))
CREATING MULTIPLE CONSTRAINTS ON A SINGLE COLUMN
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (
ENO INT PRIMARY KEY,
ENAME VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
SAL INT NOT NULL UNIQUE CHECK (SAL BETWEEN 15000 AND 20000))
REFEREINTAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT
 This Constraint is used to create relationships among tables.
 It supports to create following relationships.
ONE to ONE and ONE to MANY { DIRECT IMPLEMENTATION }
MANY to MANY { INDIRECT IMPLEMENTATION }
FOREIGN KEY
 It will allow to store valid values that are present in another Column.
 Foreign Key Column Name and the Column where the data is been checked can be with
same name are different names.
 If column names are different it is must that the Data Types and Data Size should be same.
 When Foreign Key Column data gets referred to another column, on that column there
should be either a PRIMARY KEY or a UNIQUE Constraint.
 Foreign key is a bidirectional key since

 At Insertion it works from PARENT to CHILD
 At Deletion it works from CHILD to PARENT
 Foreign key column and the other column where data is been checked can be in same table
or can be in different tables. If they are in same table it is called as SELF REFERENCED TABLE
or REFLEXIVE RELATION.
 Foreign key allows NULL Values and Duplicates.
 More than One Foreign Key can be created in a single table.
 Microsoft recommends to create max of 253 Foreign Keys in a single table. (Practically it is
possible to create more than 253 Foreign Keys).
 Foreign key in SQL SERVER can be created at column level or table level.(In ORACLE only at Table
Level)
 Foreign Key can be extended by the following options
 ON DELETE CASCADE
 ON UPDATE CASCADE
 ON DELETE SET NULL
 ON UPDATE SET NULL
 ON UPDATE SET NO ACTION(default)
 When ON DELETE CASCADE is specified, it will allow to delete the records from parent table
directly, the same record existing at child table will be deleted automatically.
 When ON UPDATE CASCADE is specified it will allow to modify the records from parent table
directly, the same record existing at child table will be modified automatically.
 When ON DELETE SET NULL is specified, it will allow to delete the records from parent table
directly, the same data existing child table in Foreign key column will be set to NULL.
 When ON UPDATE SET NULL is specified, it will allow to delete the records from parent table
directly, the same data existing child table in Foreign key column will be set to NULL .
 Changes made in One table when they are reflected automatically in other table the process
is known as data consistency.
Creating One to One Relation Ships
CREATE TABLE REGISTER( REGNO INT PRIMARY KEY,
SNAME VARCHAR(10), COURSE VARCHAR(10))
CREATE TABLE RESULT( HTNO INT PRIMARY KEY, MARKS INT, RES VARCHAR(10), RANK
INT, FOREIGN KEY (HTNO) REFERENCES REGISTER(REGNO) ON DELETE CASCADE ON
UPDATE CASCADE)
Foreign Key at Column Level
HTNO PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES REGISTER(REGNO) ON DELETE CASCADE , ON UPDATE
CASCADE
Creating Self Referential Table / Reflexive Relation
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE( ECODE INT PRIMARY KEY, EN VARCHAR(10), MCODE INT
FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES EMPLOYEE(ECODE))
Creating One to Many Relation Ships
CREATE TABLE EMP( EID INT PRIMARY KEY, ENAME VARCHAR(10), JOB VARCHAR(10),
DNO INT FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES DEPT(DNO) ON DELETE SET NULL, ON UPDATE SET
NULL)
CREATE TABLE DEPT(DNO IN PRIMARY KEY, DN VARCHAR UNIQUE)
NORMALIZATION
It is a process of splitting a single table into two or more tables to avoid redundancy and to promote
Integrity.
It is a process of deciding number of tables required columns in each table, relationships among
Tables is known as NORMALIZATION.
The aim of Normalization is to store the data in simple format.

Advantages:
 Minimizes redundancy
 Reduces Complexity
 Easy Maintenance
 Making tables ready to perform JOINS and SUBQUERIES
A table can be normalized in the following ways:
o 1NF – FIRST NORMAL FORM
o 2NF – SECOND NORMAL FORM
o 3NF – THIRD NORMAL FORM
o BCNF - BOYCE CODD NORMAL FORM
o 4NF – FOURTH NORMAL FORM
o 5NF – FIFTH NORMAL FORM
FIRST NORMAL FORM
Tables are said to be in FIRST NORMAL FORM if they satisfy the following rules.
 Isolate repeating groups to other table by adding Common Column.
 Every Column should be Atomic.
UNNORMALIZED TABLE:
OrdNo OrdDate Cid Cname Caddr Cphone items
P10 PENS 100
1 12/7/2011 S12 Sunil Bang 111 B12 BOKS 200
E17 ERSR 200
P10 PENS 100
2 11/7/2011 A13 Shiva Hyd 222
S13 SCLS 200
P10 PENS 300
3 10/7/2011 S12 Sunil Bang 111
S13 SCLS 200
To satisfy the First Normal Form, for the above un-normalized table, the below tables can be created
to normalize the tables.
Customer
CID(Primary Key) Cname Caddr Cphone
Order 1
OrderNo(Primary Key) Ord_Date items CID(Foregin Key)
Order 2
OrderNo Ord_date ItemNo Itemname Qty Cid(Forign key)
SECOND NORMAL FORM

 Tables should be in First Normal Form
 All NON Key Columns should be made dependent on whole Key (i.e Pure Primary Key)
Order 3
OrderNo(Primary Key) Ord_date Cid(Forign key)
Items
ItemNo Itemname Qty OrderNo(Foreign Key)
THIRD NORMAL FORM

 Tables should be in 2NF.
 All the Columns of a table should be made dependent on each other
SYNONYMS
It is introduced from SQL SERVER 2005.
 It is created for tables, views where from they can be referred with that name.
 It is a DATABASE Object which resides in DATABASE Server and provides its working till the
Base Object exists.
 It is a Permanent Alias Name, any modifications are made through SYNONYM will reflect on
Base object and vice versa.
Note: SQL Server does not allow to create recursive Synonym.
Syntax:
CREATE SYNONYM < SYNONYM_NAME > FOR < BASE_OBJECT >
Q) Create a Synonym for SALGRADE Table.
CREATE SYNONYM SL FOR SALGRADE
Q) Display the List of Synonyms in the DATABASE.
SELECT NAME FROM SYS.SYNONYMS
Q) Display the List of Synonyms and Base Object Name’s in the DATABASE.
SELECT NAME, BASE_OBJECT_NAME FROM SYS.SYNONYMS
Q) Display the details about the Synonym.
SP_HELP < SYNONYM_NAME >
SP_HELP SL
Q) Drop a SYNONYM.
DROP SYNONYM < SYNONYM_NAME >
DROP SYNONYM SL
USER DEFINED SCHEMAS
 Schema will work like a folder.
 It is an object which contains set of different objects.
 A DATABASE Object like tables, views, synonyms.... etc. can be made a part of schema.
 When DATABASE Object are made part of schema, to interact with any object schema name
should be used as qualifier.
Syntax: CREATE SCHEMA < SCHEMA_NAME >
Q) Creating a Schema.
CREATE SCHEMA DBSQLTEST
Q) Create a Table under specific Schema.
CREATE TABLE DBSQLTEST.EMP( ENO INT, ENAME VARCHAR(10))
Q) Display the details about the Schema.
SP_HELP 'DBSQLTEST.EMP'
Q) Display the User Defined Schemas available in the Current DATABASE
SELECT NAME FROM SYSOBJECTS WHERE XTYPE = 'U'
Q) Retrieve the data from the table a part of a schema.
SELECT * FROM DBSQLTEST.EMP
Q) Create a Synonym for the Table.
CREATE SYNONYM EM FOR DBSQLTEST.EMP
Transferring ownership of a table
CREATE SCHEMA test
Create table test.emp_sc (id int)
CREATE SCHEMA test2
ALTER SCHEMA test2 TRANSFER test.emp_sc
CREATING INDEX
 Indexing plays a major role when a data is to be searched in bulk records.

 When data is searched in a normal table it uses Sequential Search Technique, which always a
time consuming process or it leads to wastage of time.
 When data is specified with Sequential Search Technique, first it arranges the data in
ASCENDING Order of that column and then start searching, whenever it finds the value, it
stops the searching process.
 Again and again sorting of the data of that column in Ascending order can be overcome by
creating Index.
 In Indexing a separate Index structure is created that includes search key value and address
of a record(ROWID) and Index always stores data in Ascending order for permanent.
 When search operation is made first it searches for the data in a related index and then from
there it will transfer the control to DATABASE.
 In SQL SERVER 2005 a table can be associated with 250 Index’s which One is Clustered Index
and 249 is Non Clustered Index are created
 In SQL SERVER 2008 a table can be associated with 1000 Index’s which One is Clustered
Index and 999 is Non Clustered Index are created
**A table can have more than One Index whereas a column can have only one Index.
CLASSIFIED IN THREE TYPES
 Clustered Index
 Non Clustered Index
 Unique
 Column store Index
Syntax:
CREATE [UNIQUE] / [CLUSTERED] / [NON CLUSTERED]
ON [ TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME…..)]
**When index is created on multiple columns it is called as Composite Index.
CLUSTERED INDEX
 It will Alter the physical representation of rows in a table.
 A table can have only One Clustered Index.
 It will always arrange the data of a table in Ascending order
 Data pages and Index pages will be stored at one level.
 Index should be created for a column where more than one search value is available.
CREATE CLUSTERED INDEX INDX1 ON EMP( EMPNO )
NON CLUSTERED INDEX
 This index will not Alter the physical requirement of rows in a table.
 A table can have 249 Non Clustered Index’s.
 Data is not arranged in Order.
 It is a default index created.
 Data pages & index pages are stored at different level.
CREATE NONCLUSTERED INDEX INDX2 ON EMP(ENAME)
CREATE NONCLUSTERED INDEX INDX3 ON EMP(JOB)
UNIQUE INDEX
 This index can be created only on those columns which contains unique data.
 This index is automatically created when unique constraint is created on a column.
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX INDX4 ON DEPT(DEPTNO)
Column store INDEX
 A columnstore index is a technology for storing, retrieving, and managing data by using a columnar
data format, called a columnstore
CREATE COLUMNSTORE INDEX CSIX_EMP_EMPNO on EMP(EMPNO)
Filter Index
CREATE NONCLUSTERED INDEX INDX2 ON EMP(deptno) where deptno=10
CREATE NONCLUSTERED INDEX INDX2 ON EMP(deptno)

Include (empno,ename)
**SQL SERVER creates an Index automatically for two Constraints Primary Key & Unique key.
TO REBUILD AN INDEX
When a page split occurs for the block which is stored at data page, to provide
fragmentation of that page to compress the memory at that data page, index can be rebuild.
Syntax: ALTER INDEX < INDEX_NAME > ON OBJECT_NAME REBUILD
Example: ALTER INDEX INDX1 ON EMP REBUILD
TO DROP THE INDEX
DROP INDEX < TABLE_NAME >.< INDEX_NAME >
DROP INDEX EMP.INDX1
TO VIEW THE INFORMATION: SP_HELPINDEX < TABLE_NAME >
CREATING VIEWS
 View is a window of virtual table which will allow related users to view and modify related data.
 Any modifications are made through a view will reflect on base table and vice versa, which leads to
data consistency
 A view is a database object which resides in database server and stores only select query in
compiled format hence it is called stored query.
ADVANTAGES
 Provides Security.
 Improves the performance of a query.
 Network traffic gets reduced.

 Shortens SQL queries.
 Supports to perform DML operations on related data.
 Support to generate summarized reports fast
Difference between TABLES and VIEWS
Tables Views
Tables Views
 Contains Data  Contains no data.
 Tables are unlimited  Views are Unlimited
 Independent object  Dependent Object
 Supports to DML operations on any  It supports to only related data.
Data
 It can be associated with any Trigger  It Can be associated with only INSTEAD
OF TRIGGER
TYPES OF VIEWS
 Simple View
 Check Option View
 Complex View
 Indexed View/materialized view
 Encrypted view
 Schema binding
**Simple View, Check Option View & Complex View are called as Standard Views.
SIMPLE VIEW:
 A view which is created on a single table refers to single view and it should not contain
group functions, group by clause, distinct operator, joins and mathematical expressions.
 When a simple view is created it should contain all mandatory columns of base table.
Syntax:
CREATE VIEW < VIEW_NAME >
[ WITH ENCRYPTION ]/ [ WITH SCHEMA BINDING ]
AS
SELECT QUERY
[ WITH CHECK OPTION ]
 In order to store Order by clause through SELECT query into a view, it is must to enclosed
TOP keyword.
 When DDL operations are performed on base object they do not get reflected in view, to
update the view it should get refreshed, using a predefined procedure.
To Refresh the View
Syntax:
SP_REFRESHVIEW < VIEW_NAME >
Example:
CREATE VIEW V1
AS
SELECT * FROM EMP
SP_HELP V1 – to get the information about the View.
DELETE FROM V1 WHERE DEPTNO = 10
UPDATE FROM V1 WHERE ENAME = NULL
INSERT V1 (EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO) VALUES (1001,'X',5000,10)
Example:
ALTER TABLE EMP ADD EXP INT
SP_REFRESHVIEW V1
ALTER TABLE EMP DROP COLUMN HIREDATE
SELECT * FROM V1 -- it would be an error as column is missing.
SP_REFRESHVIEW V1
Example:
CREATE VIEW V2
AS
SELECT TOP(5) EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, DEPTNO, FROM EMP ORDER BY SAL
** For ORDER BY Clause TOP keyword is must.
CREATE VIEW V3
AS
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, DEPTNO FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 10
INSERT V3 VALUES()
Check Option View: When this option is associated with a view then it will check the condition
specified at where clause before data is inserted or updated into base object.
CREATE VIEW V4
AS
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = 10 WITH CHECK OPTION
Complex View: A view is said to be complex view when it is associated with any of the following
 Group By Clause
 Group Functions
 Distinct Operator
 Joins
 Mathematical Expressions
 By Default Complex View is not updatable view(i.e. read only)
CREATE VIEW V5
AS
SELECT DEPTNO, SUM(SAL) TOTSAL FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO
CREATE VIEW V6
AS
SELECT DISTINCT DEPTNO FROM EMP
CREATE VIEW V7
AS
SELECT ENAME, JOB, SAL, SAL*12 FROM EMP
CREATE VIEW V8
AS
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, DNAME, LOC FROM EMP, DEPTNO
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO
To display the Query stored in view SP_HELPTEXT < VIEW_NAME >
To display the metadata of a view SP_HELP < VIEW_NAME >
To display list of views that are dependent on a table
SP_DEPENDS < TABLE_NAME > / < VIEW_NAME >
List of columns, table names that are enclosed in view through SELECT Query
Encrypted View:
 When a view is encrypted it does not support to display the text which is stored in a view.
 SQL Server does not support decryption of view.
 To create this view, it should be associated by with encryption
 The query which is stored in encrypted view can be altered
CREATE VIEW V9 WITH ENCRYPTION
AS
SELECT * FROM EMP
Schema Binding View: Rules to be followed for creating schema binding view.
 Schema binding view will not support to store select query with * Selection operator.
 It is must that table name specified in select query should be preceded by schema name
 The advantage of creating schema binding views is that it will restrict the dropping of the
base objects
CREATE VIEW V10 WITH SCHEMA BINDING
AS
SELECT * FROM EMP
DROP TABLE DEPT --- ERROR
Indexed View:
 These views will provide the improved performance than standard views.
 These views when gets created should be attached with schema binding and there should be
an existing of clustered index.
 These views will provide their importance specially when a query contains aggregate functions
 If a query contains aggregate function it includes following steps for the execution of a query.
SELECT DEPT NO, COUNT (*) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO
1) Checks the syntax
2) Compiles the query
3) Execution plan is generated
4) Query gets executed
i. Takes the rows of database into buffer
ii. Sorts the data
iii. Creates a group on each deptno
iv. Count function will visit to each group to count the number of employees
v. Displays the output
vi. All these steps are avoided by creating indexed views.
COMMON TABLE EXPRESSIONS
 It is often called as temporary view.
 It will create an object to store query at session level i.e. it provides its usage at all the
queries that are connected to Common Table Expressions.
 Table alias column aliases specified in Common Table Expressions should be used at
immediate query which works on that table.
 It does not allow using original columns and original table name.
 Common Table Expressions will support to write a query in 2 ways
 Non recursive
 Recursive
At non recursive query, Common Table Expression will contain a select query on some object and it
gets referred by the other name through a query which provides its execution
Syntax:
WITH TABLE_ALIAS (COLUMN_ALIAS)
AS
( SELECT QUERY) [ SELECT / INSERT / UPDATE / DELETE ]
If non recursive query is enclosed with multiple tables, mathematical expressions, distinct operator
etc is restricted with Data Manipulation Language Operations
WITH E (ENO, EM, PAY, DN)
AS
(SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, DEPTNO FROM EMP)
SELECT ENO, EM, PAY, DN FROM E
WHERE PAY = (SELECT MAX (PAY) FROM E)
UNION ALL
SELECT * FROM E
SELECT E (EMPNO, EN, PAY, DNO)
AS
INSERT E VALUES (1001,’X’, 1000, 10)
AS
DELETE FROM E WHERE DN = 10

AS
(SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, SAL, DEPTNO, LOC FROM EMP, DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO)
Recursive Query: Common Table Expression which is created for the storage of select query and the
query which is used as a statement of execution will provide with temporary view name
WITH V1(I)
AS
(SELECT I = 1
UNION ALL
SELECT I = I + 1 FROM V1 WHERE I <=10)
SELECT I FROM V1
SECURITY
SQL SERVER 2005 provides a connection to a database server in 2 ways;
Windows Authentication: At this authentication a user connects to database server using windows
accounts i.e. users existing at windows operating system. It is called trusted connection.
SQL SERVER Authentication: At this authentication a user connects to database server using the SQL
SERVER accounts. By default SQL SERVER provides a login called SA, for which blank password can’t
be provided in SQL SERVER 2005, whereas in previous versions blank password for SA can be
created.
CREATING A NEW LOGIN
To create a new login, it is essential that user should enter into a database which has got
system administration privileges.
Syntax:
CREATE LOGIN <LOGIN_NAME> WITH PASSWORD='PASSWORD'
CHECKEXPIRATION = OFF, CHECKPOLICY = OFF
CHANGING THE PASSWORD:
To change the password of existing login, the following command is used in that database
which has got Administration privileges.
Syntax: ALTER LOGIN <LOGIN_NAME> WITH PASSWORD='PASSWORD'
DROPING A LOGIN:
To drop a login user should be in a database which has got administration privileges.
Syntax: DROP LOGIN <LOGIN_NAME>
To create a login:
USE MASTER
CREATE LOGIN TESTLOGIN WITH PASSWORD = N 'TEST123'
DEFAULT_DATABASE = [TESTDB]
CHECKEXPIRATION = OFF, CHECKPOLICY = OFF
Granting server roles to login
EXEC MASTER.SP_ADDSRVRROLEMEMBER
@LOGINNAME = 'TESTLOGIN', @ROLENAME= 'SYSADMIN'
To Create a User
CREATE USER KUMAR FOR LOGIN SHIVA
To grant database privileges to user
USE TESTDB
EXEC SP_ADDROLEMEMBER 'DB_DATAREADER','KUMAR'
EXEC SP_ADDROLEMEMBER 'DB_DATAWRITER','KUMAR'
EXEC SP_ADDROLEMEMBER 'DB_DATADDLADMIN','KUMAR'
EXEC SP_ADDROLEMEMBER 'DB_OWNER','KUMAR'
To Change the password:
USE MASTER
ALTER LOGIN TESTLOGIN WITH PASSWORD = 'SAMPLE123'
To Drop the Login:
USE MASTER
DROP LOGIN TESTLOGIN

CREATING A LOGIN WITH GUI:
From view menu click on Object explorer--->Databases-->Security--->Right click on Logins--->click on
new login
Login Name: Infy
Select SQL SERVER Authentication
Password: test123
Confirm Password: test123
Deselect Enforce Password Policy
Default Database: Batch2
From SELECT A PAGE window, select User Mapping, and Select the database, where in that
user it creates a user with the same login name.
Click OK.
Changing the password and properties of Login:
From View menu click on object explorer--->Databases---->Security--->Logins--->Select the login and
right click properties
Change the necessary options and then click ok.
Data Control Language:
 This Language is used to give rights on Database Objects created by one user to get them
access by other users.
 It also supports to cancel those given rights.
 It includes GRANT, REVOKE, DENY Commands.
Grant: This Data Control Language command is used to give rights on database objects created by
one user to get them access by other users
When permissions are granted it can be for multiple users, with multiple permissions but objects will
be only one.
Syntax
GRANT PRIVELLAGES [COLUMN_LIST]/ALL ON OBJECT_NAME TO USER1
[USER2,USER3...] /PUBLIC [WITH GRANT OPTION]
Revoke: it is used to cancel the given rights
REVOKE PRIVILEGES / ALL ON OBJECT NAME FROM USER1 [USER2]/PUBLIC [CASCADE]
Privileges include select INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE etc
All – All Privileges
Object Name – Tables, Views, Synonyms etc
Public refers to All Users.
With Grant Option: refers to privileges granted to one user the same privileges that user can grant
to other users
Cascade under revoke refers to canceling the privileges from the main user to whom the owner
gives the privileges and those privileges will be cancelled from other users
Deny: This Data Control Language command is used to deny privileges on objects that are granted /
not granted
DENY PRIVELLAGES/ALL ON OBJECT NAME TO USER1….. PUBLIC
USE TESTDB
GRANT SELECT ON EMP TO AHMED
GRANT SELECT, DELETE ON DEPT TO AHMED
GRANT ALL ON PROD1 TO KHAN
GRANT SELECT ON SALGRADE TO AHMED WITH GRANT OPTION
GRANT SELECT ON EMP2 TO PUBLIC
REVOKE SELECT ON EMP FROM AHMED
REVOKE SELECT ON SALGRADE FROM AHMED CASCADE
Pivot and Unpivot
It is used to convert rows to columns or columns to rows
Pivot- Converting Result set rows to columns

Ex1:
select * from
(
select deptno,count(*) count from emp
group by DEPTNO
) [data]
Pivot
(
sum(count) for deptno in ([10],[20],[30])
)
Result
Ex2:
select * from
(
select deptno,empno from emp
) [data]
Pivot
(
count(empno) for deptno in ([10],[20],[30])
)
Result
EX3
select * from
(
select b.CalendarYear,a.SalesAmount from AdventureWorksDW2017..FactInternetSales a
Inner join AdventureWorksDW2017..DimDate b on a.OrderDateKey=b.DateKey
)[data]
Pivot
(
sum(SalesAmount) for CalendarYear
in ([2009],[2010],[2011],[2012],[2013],[2014],[2015],[2016])
)
result
Ex4
select * from
(
select d.EnglishCountryRegionName,d.StateProvinceName,
b.CalendarYear,a.SalesAmount from AdventureWorksDW2017..FactInternetSales a
Inner join AdventureWorksDW2017..DimCustomer c on a.CustomerKey=c.CustomerKey
inner join AdventureWorksDW2017..DimGeography d on c.GeographyKey=d.GeographyKey
)[data]
Pivot
(
in ([2009],[2010],[2011],[2012],[2013],[2014],[2015],[2016])
)
result
Unpivot
select * into #salesPivoted from

(
select d.EnglishCountryRegionName,
b.CalendarYear,a.SalesAmount from AdventureWorksDW2017..FactInternetSales a
Inner join AdventureWorksDW2017..DimCustomer c on a.CustomerKey=c.CustomerKey
inner join AdventureWorksDW2017..DimGeography d on c.GeographyKey=d.GeographyKey
)[data]
Pivot
(
in ([2009],[2010],[2011],[2012],[2013],[2014],[2015],[2016])
)
result
select * From #salesPivoted
select * from
(
select * From #salesPivoted
)[data]
Unpivot
(
salesAmount for Years in
([2009],[2010],[2011],[2012],[2013],[2014],[2015],[2016])
)
Result
TRANSACT – SQL
Transact SQL deals with set of statements that are grouped in the form of a block and submitted at
server at once for execution.
Difference between SQL & TSQL
 SQL is a NON PROCEDURAL LANGUAGE since it deals with WHAT data to be extracted.
 T-SQL is a PROCEDURAL LANGUAGE, it deals with WHAT Data to be extracted and HOW it
should be displayed.
T-SQL supports to submit a Block to server for execution in two ways.
 Anonymous block – it supports to store a block in SQL File.
 Stored Block – it stores the blocks in Data Base Server.
 Stored Procedures
 Stored Functions
 Stored Triggers
Global Variables
 These variables are comes with software (SQL Server).
 These variables can’t be used to initialize the values manually.
 These variables will stored with data automatically based on the operations performed by
SQL Statements.
These variables are preceded by “@@”.
SELECT @@VERSION - returns the version of SQL Server
SELECT @@SERVERNAME - returns the name of the server
SELECT @@SERVICENAME - returns name of the service
SELECT @@ROWCOUNT - returns the number of rows effected by last SQL statement (default is 1)
SELECT @@ERROR - return "0" if there is no error in last executed SQL statement or returns error
number.
To display the List of ERROR messages
SELECT * FROM SYS.MESSAGES
LOCAL VARIABLES (SCALAR VARIABLES or BUFFER VARIABLES)
 These variables are created by User.
 These variables are provided memory for temporary; hence they are called as BUFFER variable.
 These variables will allow storing only one value; hence it is called as SCALAR Variable. If more than
one value stored it gives priority to last value.
 These variables should be declared before they are used.
 These variables preceded by “@”.
Syntax:
DECLARE @VARIABLE_NAME DATATYPE [( SIZE )]
** In SQL Server 2008 declaration & Initialization can be carried out simultaneously.
DECLARE @VARIABLE_NAME DATATYPE [( SIZE )] [ =VALUE ]
SET: This command is used to set a value for a variable.
SET @VARIABLE = VALUE/EXPRESSION/FUNCTION
PRINT: It is an Output Statement of T-SQL which performs two tasks Display Messages & Display
Memory Values.
PRINT ' MESSAGE ' / @VARIABLE
Q) Write a program to find the addition of two values.
DECLARE @A INT, @B INT, @C INT
SET @A = 70
SET @B = 80
SET @C = @A + @B
PRINT ' SUM OF TWO VALUES '+ CAST(@C AS VARCHAR(4))
Output: “SUM OF TWO VALUES 150”
Q) Write a program to find Division of two values.
DECLARE @A INT, @B INT, @C FLOAT
SET @A = 10
SET @B = 20
SET @C = @A / @B
PRINT 'QUOTIENT FOR TWO VALUES IS '+ CAST(@C AS VARCHAR(5))
Output: “QUOTIENT FOR TWO VALUES IS 0”
DECLARE @A INT, @B INT, @C FLOAT
SET @A = 20
SET @B = 30
SET @C = @A / (CAST(@B AS FLOAT))
PRINT 'QUOTIENT FOR TWO VALUES IS '+ CAST(@C AS VARCHAR(15))
Output: “QUOTIENT FOR TWO VALUES IS 0.66667”
IF CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
It is used to compare the data provided with the result on Boolean expressions i.e. True or False.
 Simple IF
 IF Else IF
 Nested IF
Simple IF Condition
 This conditional statement is used to compare the data and allow to write a single true or
false statement or block.

 If Multiple statements are to be executed on the basis of conditions then they should be
enclosed in a BEGIN and END Block
Syntax:
IF < CONDITION >
< TRUE STATEMENT >
ELSE
< FALSE STATEMENT >
Or IF < CONDITION >
BEGIN
< STATEMENTS >
END
ELSE
BEGIN
< STATEMENTS >
END
Q) Write a program to check whether a given number has perfect square or not.
DECLARE @N INT, @S INT
SET @N = 16
SET @S = SQRT(@N)
IF @S * @S = @N
PRINT 'YES'
ELSE
PRINT 'NO'
Q) Write a program to check whether a given number is ODD or EVEN without using MOD operator.
DECLARE @N INT, @R INT
SET @N = 7
SET @R = @N / 2
IF @R * 2 = @N
PRINT 'IT IS EVEN NUMBER'
ELSE
PRINT 'IT IS ODD NUMBER'
Q) Write a program to check whether a given String is Palindrome or not.
DECLARE @S VARCHAR(12),@R VARCHAR(12)
SET @S = 'RADAR'
SET @R = REVERSE(@S)
IF @S = @R
PRINT ' IT IS PALINDROME '
ELSE
PRINT ' SORRY '
GOTO STATEMENT:
 It is called branching statement, since it supports to transfer the control from one part of a
program to the other part of a program.
 It works with Label assignment and Label Definition.
Label Assignment: GOTO < Label_Name >
Label Definition: Label_Name
< STATEMENTS >
**Label Defined with no label assignment is valid.
**Label Assigned but no label definition is invalid.
Example: PRINT 'WELCOME'
GOTO X
Y:
PRINT 'THREE'
PRINT 'NINE'
GOTO Z
X:
PRINT 'SEVEN'
GOTO Y
Z:
PRINT 'THANX'
LOOPING CONSTRUCTS
LOOP: Execution of one or more statements repeatedly until a condition is satisfied. SQL Server
supports to work with the following Looping constructs.
WHILE LOOPING CONSTRUCT
WHILE < CONDITION >
BEGIN
< STATEMENTS >
END
Q) Write a program to display first Five Natural Numbers.
DECLARE @I INT
SET @I = 1
WHILE @I<=5
BEGIN
PRINT @I
SET @I = @I+1
END
Q) Write a program to display N Odd Numbers.
DECLARE @N INT,@I INT
SET @N = 10
SET @I = 1
WHILE @I<=@N*2
BEGIN
PRINT @I
SET @I = @I+2
END
Q) Write a program to display reverse of a string without using reverse function.
DECLARE @S VARCHAR(10), @R VARCHAR(10),@L INT
SET @S = 'COMPUTER'
SET @R = SUBSTRING(@S,LEN(@S),1)
SET @L = LEN(@S)-1
WHILE @L>=1
BEGIN
SET @R = @R + SUBSTRING(@S,@L,1)
SET @L = @L-1
END
PRINT 'REVERSE IS ' +@R
Q) Write a program to count number of vowels and consonants in a given string.
DECLARE @S VARCHAR(10),@I INT,@V INT, @C INT
SET @S = 'COMPUTER'
SET @V = 0
SET @C = 0
SET @I = 1
WHILE @I < =LEN(@S)
BEGIN
IF SUBSTRING(@S,@I,1) IN('A','E','I','O','U')
SET @V = @V + 1
ELSE
SET @C = @C + 1
SET @I = @I + 1
END
PRINT 'VOWELS IN THE STRING '+@S+' ARE '+CAST(@V AS VARCHAR(5))
PRINT 'CONSONANTS IN THE STRING '+@S+' ARE '+CAST(@C AS VARCHAR(5))
Q) Write a program to display the given string into substrings eliminating special characters.
DECLARE @W VARCHAR(50),@W1 VARCHAR(50)
DECLARE @I INT
SET @W='XYZ;ABC;PQR;AAA;BBB'
SET @I=CHARINDEX(';',@W)
WHILE @I>0
BEGIN
SET @W1 = LEFT(@W,@I-1)
IF LEN(@W1)!= 0
PRINT @W1
SET @W = SUBSTRING(@W,@I+1,LEN(@W))
SET @I = CHARINDEX(';',@W)
IF @I = 0
PRINT @W
END
BREAK & CONTINUE:
DECLARE @X INT
SET @X=1
WHILE @X<=10
BEGIN
PRINT @X
IF @X%3=0
BREAK
SET @X=@X+1
END
DECLARE @X INT
SET @X=1
WHILE @X<=10
BEGIN
IF @X%3=0
BEGIN
SET @X=@X+1
CONTINUE
END
PRINT @X
SET @X=@X+1
END
Q) Write a program to check whether a given number is perfect or not.
Perfect Number: Sum of factors of a given number excluding itself should be equal to resultant
number.
N = 4, FACTORS: 1, 2 SUM = 1+2 = 3 {NOT PERFECT}
N = 6, FACTORS: 1, 2, 3 SUM = 1+2+3 = 6 {PERFECT NUMBER}
N=28, FACTORS: 1, 2, 4,7,14 SUM = 1+2+4+7+14 = 28 {PERFECT NUMBER}
DECLARE @N INT, @S INT, @I INT
SET @N = 4
SET @S = 0
SET @I = 1
WHILE @I <= @N/2
BEGIN
IF @N%@I = 0
SET @S = @S + @I
SET @I = @I+1
END
IF @S = @N
PRINT ' IT IS A PERFECT NUMBER '
ELSE
PRINT 'IT IS NOT A PERFECT NUMBER'
EXCEPTION HANDLING:
Errors are classified into 3 types:
Complex Time Errors: These errors are often called as Syntax Errors. These errors are occurred when
the statements are written beyond the rule.

Logical Errors: Required output and generated output, when does not get match such type of errors
are called Logical Errors.
Runtime Errors: These errors will occur during the execution of a program. When these errors occur
in a program which is in execution in between gets terminated. In order to have a smooth execution
of program exception handling is used.
 In SQL Server 2000 Exception handling was implemented using global variable @@ERROR
 In order to raise the error with respect to user defined error message, a predefined
statement called RAISERROR is used.
Syntax:
RAISERROR (ARG1,ARG2,ARG3)
ARG1 is Error Message
ARG2 Is Severity, which is an INT type data. It can be in a range of 0 to 25.
0 to 9 - displays error message as user defined message (10 is similar to 0)
11 to 18 - displays user defined error message as predefined error message
19 to 25 - it can be associated with those users who have got sysadmin privileges
ARG3 is State, which is also an INT type data. It can be in a range of 1 to 127.
It provides the identification of error when the same error occurred at different areas
of a program.
DECLARE @A INT,@B INT,@C INT
PRINT 'WELCOME'
SET @A=5
SET @B=0
SET @C=@A/@B
IF @@ERROR <> 0
RAISERROR('CANT DIVIDE THE NUMBER BY 0',19,1)
PRINT 'QUOTIENT IS.....'+CAST(@C AS VARCHAR(10))
PRINT 'THANX'
** The above program is as per SQL Server 2000
Adding User Defined Error Messages into System Table
SP_ADDMESSAGE MESSAGE_ID, SERVERITY_LEVEL,'MESSAGE_TEXT'
SP_ADDMESSAGE 50000,5,'VALUE SHOULD BE BETWEEN 10 AND 15'
DECLARE @A INT
SET @A = 50
IF @A BETWEEN 100 AND 200
RAISERROR (50000,15,16)
ELSE
PRINT @A
SP_DROPMESSAGE MESSAGE_ID
STRUCTURED EXCEPTION HANDLING:
In SQL Server 2005 exception handling is carried out using Structured Exception, which
supports to write two blocks.
TRY: It is used to monitor all those instructions in which run time errors are expected
CATCH: It is used to catch the thrown exceptions. This block is executed only when exception is
raised.
Syntax:
BEGIN TRY
STATEMENTS
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
STATEMENTS
END CATCH
Note:
 Nested Try blocks are valid.
 Multiple Try and Catch blocks are valid.

 Following are the functions are used to display information about errors.
ERROR_SEVERITY()
ERROR_STATE()
ERROR_LINE()
ERROR_MESSAGE()
ERROR_NUMBER()
Q) Write a program to find the division of two values and handle the necessary exception using TRY
& CATCH Blocks.
DECLARE @A INT,@B INT,@C INT
SET @A = 5
SET @B = 0
BEGIN TRY
SET @C = @A/@B
PRINT 'QUOTIENT IS.....'+CAST(@C AS VARCHAR(5))
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
PRINT 'CANT DIVIDE THE NUMBER BY 0'
PRINT ERROR_NUMBER()
PRINT ERROR_LINE()
PRINT ERROR_MESSAGE()
PRINT ERROR_SEVERITY()
PRINT ERROR_STATE()
END CATCH
PRINT 'THANX'
Q) Write a program to find square root of a given number and handle the necessary exceptions.
DECLARE @N INT, @S INT
SET @N = 144
BEGIN TRY
SET @S = SQRT(@N)
PRINT 'SQUARE ROOT IS ' + CAST(@S AS VARCHAR(5))
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
PRINT 'CANT FIND THE SQUARE ROOT '
END CATCH
Q) Write a program illustrating that runtime error which occurs when the data exceeds the capacity
of Data Type.
DECLARE @N TINYINT
BEGIN TRY
SET @N = 200
PRINT @N
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
PRINT 'VALUE EXCEEDS'
END CATCH
Q) Write a program to handle that runtime error which occurs when data stored in child table does
not exist at parent table.
CREATE TABLE REGISTER (REGNO INT CONSTRAINT REGNO_PK PRIMARY KEY)
INSERT INTO REGISTER VALUES(101)
CREATE TABLE RESULTS (HTNO INT CONSTRAINT HTNO_FK FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES
REGISTER(REGNO))
BEGIN TRY
INSERT INTO RESULTS VALUES(201)
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
PRINT 'VALUE DOES NOT EXIST AT PARENT TABLE'
END CATCH
MULTIPLE TRY CATCH BLOCKS
Q) Write a program to Store the run time errors into a table.
CREATE TABLE ERROR_LOG (ERNO INT,ERLI INT,ERMSG VARCHAR(300),ERSEVER INT)
DECLARE @A INT,@B INT,@C INT,@N INT,@S INT
SET @A = 5
SET @B = 0
BEGIN TRY
SET @C = @A/@B
PRINT @C
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
INSERT ERROR_LOG SELECT ERROR_NUMBER(),ERROR_LINE(),
ERROR_MESSAGE(),ERROR_SEVERITY()
END CATCH
BEGIN TRY
SET @N = -8
SET @S = SQRT(@N)
PRINT @S
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
PRINT 'CANT FIND THE SQUARE ROOT OF -VE VALUE'
END CATCH
NESTED TRY CATCH BLOCKS
SET NOCOUNT ON
DECLARE @A INT,@B INT,@C INT,@N INT,@S INT
SET @A = 5
SET @B = 0
BEGIN TRY
SET @C = @A/@B
PRINT @C
BEGIN TRY
SET @N = -8
SET @S = SQRT(@N)
PRINT @S
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
PRINT 'CANT FIND THE SQUARE ROOT OF -VE VALUE'
END CATCH
PRINT 'WE ARE OUT OF INNER TRY AND CATCH BLOCK'
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
END CATCH
Working with EXEC (Execute): This Command is used to execute the queries that are stored in variables.
Syntax: EXEC (VARIABLE)
**The Query stored in a variable can be passed with arguments through variables.
DECLARE @S VARCHAR(200)
SET @S = 'SELECT * FROM EMP'
EXEC (@S)
SET @S = 'SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO =10'
EXEC (@S)
DECLARE @S VARCHAR(200),@DNO INT
SET @DNO = INT
SET @S = 'SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO ='+CAST(@DNO AS VARCHAR(3))
EXEC (@S)
SET @S = 'INSERT EMP(EMPNO,ENAME) VALUES(1001,''XYZ'')'
EXEC (@S)
SUB PROGRAMS:
 It is a process of splitting a large application program into small modules or blocks.
 SQL Server supports to write a sub program based on the following concepts
Stored Procedures, Stored Functions, Stored Triggers
Advantages of Sub Programs:
 Provides security
 It improves performance
 Reduces Network Traffic
 Readability gets increases
 Code Reusability
 Error Detection and modification is quite easy
 Extensibility - It will allow a user to increase or decrease the code
STORED PROCEDURES:
SQL Server Supports to work with the following types of procedures
 Predefined Procedures (SP_HELP, SP_RENAME…….)
 User Defined Stored Procedures
 Extended Stored Procedures (XP_CMDSHELL,XP_READMAIL,XP_SENDMAIL)
USER DEFINED STORED PROCEDURES:
 It is a stored block Data Base Object which resides in Data Base Server and contains SQL
Statements and Procedural Features.
 A procedure in SQL Server 2005 can be made to return value to main program using RETURN
Key Word.
 It can be created with and without arguments.
 Data can be sent to procedures using INPUT Arguments, after processing that input few
values can be taken back to the main program using OUTPUT Arguments.
 A procedure can be set with 1024 INPUT & OUTPUT Arguments.
 When a Procedure is set with OUTPUT arguments then it is essential that at sending
arguments also OUPUT should be specified.
 OUTPUT Arguments at a procedure which gets data the same will be reflected in main
program.
 Procedure Set with INPUT Arguments will work for “call by value” and OUTPUT arguments
will work for “call by reference”
Syntax:
CREATE PROC / PROCEDURE < PROCEDURE_NAME > [(LIST_OF_ARGUMENTS)]
[ WITH ENCRYPTION ]
AS
BEGIN
[ DECLARATION BLOCKS ]
[ EXECUTION BLOCKS ]
[ EXCEPTION HANDLERS]
END
A Procedure can be executed in two ways:
 Using EXEC Command

 Using Anonymous Block / Main Program
Syntax: EXEC < PROCEDURE_NAME > [(LIST_OF_ARGUMENTS)]
**A Procedure can be called for execution in the other Procedure up to 32 Levels.
Q) Create a Procedure called ADDONE that takes two values as input and finds sum of the values.
CREATE PROCEDURE ADDONE( @A INT, @B INT)
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @C INT
SET @C = @A + @B
PRINT 'SUM OF TWO VALUES IS ' + CAST(@C AS VARCHAR(10))
END
EXEC ADDONE 20,50 -- Output: “ SUM OF TWO VALUES IS 70 “
Q) Create a Procedure called DIV that takes two values as input and finds the quotient, handle the
necessary exceptions.
CREATE PROCEDURE DIV( @A INT, @B INT)
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @C FLOAT
BEGIN TRY
SET @C = @A/CAST(@B AS FLOAT)
PRINT ' QUOTIENT OF TWO VALUES IS ' + CAST(@C AS VARCHAR(10))
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
PRINT ' CANT DIVIDE THE NUMBERS BY ZERO '
END CATCH
END
EXEC DIV 20,20 Output: “QUOTIENT OF TWO VALUES IS 1”
Q) Create a Procedure called ADDTWO that take two values as input and returns the result to main
program through output arguments.
CREATE PROCEDURE ADDTWO(@A INT, @B INT, @C INT OUTPUT)
AS
BEGIN
SET @C = @A + @B
END
DECLARE @X INT, @Y INT,@Z INT
SET @X = 18
SET @Y = 20
EXEC ADDTWO @X,@Y,@Z OUTPUT
PRINT 'SUM OF TWO VALUES IS ' +CAST(@Z AS VARCHAR(10))
Output: “SUM OF TWO VALUES IS 38”
Q) Create a Procedure called RET1 that will retrieve all the records of EMP Table, This Procedure will
call RET2 to display all the records of DEPT Table and it calls the other Procedure RET3 that will
display all the records of SALGRADE Table.
CREATE PROCEDURE RET3
AS
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM SALGRADE
END
AS
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM DEPT
EXEC RET3
END
AS
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM EMP
EXEC RET2
END
EXEC RET1 Output: EMP,SALGRADE,DEPT all three tables will get displayed.
** Up to 32 Levels Procedures can be created.
Q) Create a Procedure called ERET1 that takes EMP No as input and displays ENAME, JOB, SAL and
DEPTNO.
CREATE PROCEDURE ERET1 (@ENO INT)
AS
BEGIN
SELECT ENAME,JOB,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO = @ENO
END
EXEC ERET1 7369
Second Method
CREATE PROCEDURE ERET2 (@ENO INT)
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @EN VARCHAR(15), @DES VARCHAR(10), @PAY INT, @DNO INT
SELECT @EN = ENAME, @DES = JOB, @PAY = SAL, @DNO = DEPTNO FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO = @ENO
PRINT @EN
PRINT @DES
PRINT @PAY
PRINT @ENO
PRINT @DNO
END
EXEC ERET2 7369
Third Method
CREATE PROCEDURE ERET3 (@ENO INT ,@EN VARCHAR(15) OUTPUT,
@DES VARCHAR(10) OUTPUT, @PAY INT OUTPUT , @DNO INT OUTPUT)
AS
BEGIN
SELECT @EN = ENAME,@DES = JOB, @PAY = SAL, @DNO = DEPTNO FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO = @ENO
END
DECLARE @EC INT, @N VARCHAR(10), @J VARCHAR(10),@DC INT, @P INT
SET @EC = 7788
EXEC ERET3 @EC,@N OUTPUT, @J OUTPUT, @DC OUTPUT,@P OUTPUT
PRINT @EC
PRINT @N
PRINT @J
PRINT @DC
PRINT @P
Q) Create a Procedure to insert a record in EMP by checking different validations EMPNO, ENAME,
SAL and DEPTNO.
CREATE PROCEDURE INSROW(@ENO INT,@EN VARCHAR(20),@PAY INT, @DNO INT)
AS
BEGIN
SET NOCOUNT ON
DECLARE @I INT, @J INT, @K INT
SELECT @I =COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO =@ENO
SELECT @J =COUNT(*) FROM DEPT WHERE DEPTNO =@DNO
SELECT @K = MIN(SAL) FROM EMP
IF @I > 0
PRINT 'EMPLOYEE DETAILS ALREADY EXISTS'
ELSE
IF @J = 0
PRINT 'DEPARTMENT IS NOT AVAILABLE'
ELSE
IF @PAY < @K
PRINT 'INVALID SALARY'
ELSE
BEGIN
BEGIN TRAN
INSERT EMP(EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO) VALUES(@ENO,@EN,@PAY,@DNO)
COMMIT
PRINT 'DETAILS INSERTED SUCCESSFULLY'
END
END
EXEC INSROW 7369,'test',5000,50 --Employee Details Already Exists
EXEC INSROW 73690,'test',5000,50 --Department Is Not Available
EXEC INSROW 73690,'test',5000,10 --Details Inserted Successfully
Q) Create a procedure to update the salary of employee if it is valid increment of more than 500.
CREATE PROCEDURE UPDROW(@ENO INT,@INCR INT)
AS
BEGIN
SET NOCOUNT ON
DECLARE @I INT
SELECT @I = COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO=@ENO
IF @I = 0
PRINT 'EMPLOYEE DOES NOT EXIST'
ELSE
IF @INCR < 500
PRINT 'INVALID INCREMENT'
ELSE
BEGIN
BEGIN TRAN
UPDATE EMP SET SAL=SAL+@INCR WHERE EMPNO=@ENO
COMMIT
PRINT 'ROW UPDATED SUCCESSFULLY'
END
END
EXEC UPDROW 7788,200 -- Invalid Increment
EXEC UPDROW 2001,1200 -- Employee Does Not Exist
EXEC UPDROW 7788,1000 -- Row Updated Successfully
Q) Create a procedure to delete the rows from a table based on valid deptno.
CREATE PROCEDURE DELROW(@DNO INT)
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @I INT, @J INT
SELECT @I = COUNT(*) FROM DEPT WHERE DEPTNO = @DNO
IF @I = 0
PRINT ' INVALID DEPARTMENT '
ELSE
BEGIN
SELECT @J = COUNT(*) FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO = @DNO
IF @J = 0
PRINT 'NO EMPLOYEES EXISTS'
ELSE
BEGIN
BEGIN TRAN
DELETE FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO =@DNO
PRINT CAST(@J AS VARCHAR(10))+' ROWS DELETED SUCCESSFULLY'
END
END
END
Q) Create a Procedure that performs Bank Transactions provided its implementation on two tables.
CREATE TABLE BANK (ACNO INT,AHN VARCHAR(12),ADDRESS VARCHAR(15),BAL INT)
INSERT BANK VALUES(1001,'HARI','AMRPT',12340)
INSERT BANK VALUES(1007,'KIRAN','BHEL',12900)
INSERT BANK VALUES(1002,'RAJ','ECIL',15400)
INSERT BANK VALUES(1009,'KARAN','AMRPT',23800)
INSERT BANK VALUES(1004,'SUNIL','ABIDS',34900)
CREATE TABLE TRANS (ACNO INT,TT VARCHAR(5),AMOUNT INT,DAT SMALLDATETIME)
CREATE PROC BTRAN(@ACC INT,@TRTY VARCHAR(5),@AMT INT)
AS
BEGIN
SET NOCOUNT ON
DECLARE @I INT,@B INT
SELECT @I = COUNT(*) FROM BANK WHERE ACNO=@ACC
SELECT @B = BAL FROM BANK WHERE ACNO=@ACC
IF @I = 0
PRINT 'INVALID ACCOUNT NUMBER'
ELSE
IF @TRTY = 'D'
BEGIN
BEGIN TRAN
INSERT TRANS VALUES(@ACC,@TRTY,@AMT,GETDATE())
UPDATE BANK SET BAL = BAL+@AMT WHERE ACNO=@ACC
COMMIT
PRINT 'ROW INSERTED AND UPDATED SUCCESSFULLY'
END
ELSE
BEGIN
IF @TRTY = 'W'
BEGIN
IF @AMT > @B
PRINT 'OVER DRAFT OF AMOUNT'
ELSE
IF @AMT > @B-500
PRINT 'INVALID TRANS - MIN BAL SHOULD BE 500'
ELSE
IF @AMT < 100
PRINT 'INVALID AMOUNT'
ELSE
BEGIN
BEGIN TRAN
INSERT TRANS VALUES(@ACC,@TRTY,@AMT,GETDATE())
UPDATE BANK SET BAL=BAL-@AMT WHERE ACNO=@ACC
COMMIT
PRINT 'ROW INSERTED AND UPDATED SUCCESSFULLY'
END
END
ELSE
PRINT 'INVALID TRANSACTION TYPE'
END
END
MODIFYING THE PROCEDURE
ALTER PROC/PROCEDURE < PROCEDURE_NAME >([LIST_OF_ARGS])
[WITH ENCRYPTION]
AS
BEGIN
STATEMENTS
END
DROPING THE PROCEDURE

DROP PROC / PROCEDURE < PROCEDURE_NAME >
To display all the list of procedures: SP_STORED_PROCEDURES
To display all the names of stored procedures:
SELECT NAME FROM SYSOBJECTS WHERE XTYPE='P'
To display information about a specified procedure: SP_HELP 'PROCEDURE_NAME'
To display the code of a stored procedure: SP_HELPTEXT 'PROCEDURE_NAME'
DYNAMIC QUERIES
A query is a block is provided with input at the execution of a program, so that dynamically
changes can be made to the query, and will generate the different output.
Q) Retrieving the data from any table.
CREATE PROC RETTAB(@TN VARCHAR(12))
AS
BEGIN
EXEC ('SELECT * FROM '+@TN )
END
EXEC RETTAB EMP
EXEC RETTAB DEPT
Q) Create a table using procedure with passing table names at runtime:
CREATE PROC CRETAB(@TN VARCHAR(12))
AS
BEGIN
EXEC ('CREATE TABLE '+@TN+'(ENO INT,EN VARCHAR(12))')
END
EXEC CRETAB E1
EXEC CRETAB E2
PROCEDURES RETURNING VALUES
SQL server will allow a procedure to return 1 value of only numeric type.
Syntax:
CREATE PROC / PROCEDURE PROC_NAME(LIST_OF_ARGS)
[WITH ENCRYPTION]
AS
BEGIN
STATEMENTS
RETURN VARIABLE/VALUE
END
TO CALL A PROCEDURE FOR EXECUTION
Syntax:
EXEC @VARIABLE=PROC_NAME LIST_OF_ARGS
Example:
CREATE PROCEDURE ATWO(@A INT,@B INT)
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @C INT
SET @C = @A+@B
RETURN @C
END
DECLARE @X INT,@Y INT,@Z INT
SET @X = 26
SET @Y = 89
EXEC @Z = ATWO @X,@Y
PRINT 'ADDITION IS.......'+CAST(@Z AS VARCHAR(10))
STORED FUNCTIONS (USER DEFINED FUNCTIONS)
 Function is defined as "self contained or predefined program which returns max of 1 value".
 Returned value can be of int, text, datetime.
User defined functions are classified into two types:
 Scalar Valued Functions (which returns 1 value)

 Table Valued Functions (which returns multiple rows)
Scalar Valued Functions: These functions are stored as database objects in a database server and
can return max of 1 value. It takes the input thru arguments and returns 1 value after processing
those arguments.
Syntax:
CREATE FUNCTION FUNC_NAME(LIST_OF_ARGS)
RETURNS DATA_TYPE[(SIZE)]
[WITH ENCRYPTION]
AS
BEGIN
[DECLARATION PART]
[EXECUTION PART]
RETURN VAR/VAL
END
Calling a Function for Execution: User Defined Functions should be called for execution by using
Schema Name preceded to Function Name.
Using SELECT Command -- SELECT DBO.FUNCTION_NAME (ARG_LIST)
Using Anonymous Block -- SET @VAR = DBO.FUNCTION_NAME (ARG_LIST)
Q) Create a function that takes two values as input and returns Product of two values.
CREATE FUNCTION PROD(@A INT,@B INT)
RETURNS INT
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @C INT
SET @C = @A*@B
RETURN @C
END
SELECT DBO.PROD(12,12)
Using Anonymous Block
DECLARE @X INT, @Y INT,@Z INT
SET @X = 5
SET @Y = 8
SET @Z = DBO.PROD(@X,@Y)
PRINT 'PRODUCT OF 2 NUMBERS IS '+ CAST(@Z AS VARCHAR(5))
Q) Create a function called Fact that takes one number as input to a function and returns factorial of
a given number.
CREATE FUNCTION FACT(@N INT)
RETURNS INT
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @F INT
SET @F = 1
WHILE @N > 0
BEGIN
SET @F = @F * @N
SET @N = @N - 1
END
RETURN @F
END
SELECT DBO.FACT(5)
Q) Create a function that takes empno as an argument and returns employee name.
CREATE FUNCTION FIND_EMP(@ENO INT)
RETURNS VARCHAR(12)
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @EN VARCHAR(12)
SELECT @EN = ENAME FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO = @ENO

RETURN @EN
END
SELECT DBO.FIND_EMP(1005)
TABLE VALUED FUNCTIONS or INLINE FUNCTIONS:
 These functions will return multiple rows.
 When these functions are created Begin and End blocks should not be mentioned.
 A function should be provided with return type as TABLE, since it is returning multiple rows.
Syntax:
CREATE FUNCTION FUNC_NAME(LIST_OF_ARGS)
RETURNS TABLE
[ WITH ENCRYPTION ]
AS
RETURN ( SELECT QUERY )
Calling a Table Valued Functions:
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM DBO.FUNCTION_NAME(LIST_OF_ARGS)
Q) Create a function called EMPRET that retrieves the rows of those employees who are working in
deptno 20.
CREATE FUNCTION EMPRET(@DNO INT)
RETURNS TABLE
AS
RETURN (SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=@DNO)
SELECT * FROM DBO.EMPRET(20)
Viewing the code related to stored functions: SP_HELPTEXT < FUNCTION_NAME >
Dropping a function: DROP FUNCTION < FUNCTION_NAME >
To display list of user created scalar functions:
SELECT NAME FROM SYSOBJECTS WHERE XTYPE='FN'
To display the information about the user created function:
SP_HELP < FUNCTION_NAME >
TRIGGERS
 It is a stored T-SQL program unit in a database as stored block object, which is associated to
a specific table.
 Triggers are executed (fired) automatically when invalid operations are performed over a
Trigger associated table.
 Triggers will not take any arguments like procedures and functions.
 Triggers will not be executed manually as of Procedures and functions.
 Triggering statement will be responsible for the execution of triggers.
ADVANTAGES OF TRIGGERS:
 It can audit the transactions
 We can provide high security for the data and database objects.
 We can provide complex business rules that can’t be possible with constraints.
 It can have backup of data without the notice of a user.
TYPES OF TRIGGERS:
 FOR/AFTER Triggers
 DML Triggers
 DDL Triggers
 INSTEADOF Triggers
 LOG ON Triggers
DDL Triggers and LOGON Triggers are introduced in SQL SERVER 2005 to perform administration
related tasks.
Syntax:
CREATE TRIGGER < TRIGGER_NAME >

ON TABLE_NAME/VIEW_NAME/DATABASE
FOR / AFTER / INSTEADOF DML/DDL COMMANDS
AS
BEGIN
[ DECLARATION PART ]
[ TRIGGER CONSTRAINT ]
[ TRIGGER ACTION ]
END
VIRTUAL TABLES (MAGIC TABLES)
SQL SERVER provides two virtual tables which can be used only in triggers. These tables are provided
by TempDB (System Database)
 These tables play major role to have backup of data.
 Tables are identified as INSERTED, DELETED
INSERTED:
 This table will store the same data which is provided in target table (user defined table).
 If a record is inserted into a target table then the same record is available in this magic table.
 Data available in this table can be used to perform operations and can be again stored into
the other user
Defined tables
If the record is updated in a target table, new value is stored in this magic table and old
value is transferred to DELETED Table.
DELETED:
 This magic table stores the removed rows from a target table.
 It also stores the old value when update operation is performed over a target table.
Note:
 These tables will store the data for temporary.
 These tables can be used individually or both at a time in a single trigger.
Q) Create a trigger TR1 for INSERT, DELETE triggering event where trigger should be fired if the
transactions are performed on SUNDAY.
CREATE TRIGGER TR1
ON EMP
FOR INSERT,DELETE
AS
BEGIN
IF DATENAME(DW,GETDATE())='SUNDAY'
BEGIN
ROLLBACK
RAISERROR('CANT INSERT OR DELETE THE DATA ON SUNDAY',15,16)
END
END
Q) Create a trigger TR2 for INSERT, DELETE Triggering event where trigger should be fired if the
transaction is performed before 10AM and after 5PM.
CREATE TRIGGER TR2
ON EMP
FOR INSERT,DELETE
AS
BEGIN
IF DATEPART(HH,GETDATE()) NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 17
BEGIN
ROLLBACK
RAISERROR('INVALID TIME',15,16)
END
END
Q) Create a trigger TR3 for UPDATE triggering event where trigger should be fired to store the
updated and old data into a separated table.

CREATE TABLE EMPB (ENO INT,OSAL INT,NSAL INT,DOT SMALLDATETIME)
CREATE TRIGGER TR3
ON EMP
FOR UPDATE
AS
BEGIN
IF UPDATE(SAL)
INSERT EMPB SELECT I.EMPNO,D.SAL,I.SAL,GETDATE()
FROM INSERTED I,DELETED D
END
Or
CREATE TRIGGER TR3
ON EMP
FOR UPDATE
AS
BEGIN
SET NOCOUNT ON
IF UPDATE(SAL)
INSERT EMPB SELECT A.EMPNO,A.OLD, A.NEW, A.MDATE
FROM (SELECT I.EMPNO, D.SAL OLD, I.SAL NEW, GETDATE() MDATE FROM
INSERTED I, DELETED D WHERE I.EMPNO=D.EMPNO)A
END
Q) Create a trigger TR4 for DELETE triggering event on DEPT table, where trigger should be fired by
deleting the records from EMP table.
CREATE TRIGGER TR4
ON DEPT
FOR DELETE
AS
BEGIN
SET NOCOUNT ON
DELETE FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO IN(SELECT DEPTNO FROM DELETED)
PRINT CAST(@@ROWCOUNT AS VARCHAR(5))+' Rows Are Deleted'
END
Q) Create a trigger for DDL triggering event that restricts the dropping and altering of a table in a
database.
CREATE TRIGGER TR5
ON DATABASE
FOR DROP_TABLE,ALTER_TABLE
AS
BEGIN
ROLLBACK
RAISERROR('CANT ALTER OR DROP THE TABLES',15,16)
END
INSTEADOF TRIGGERS:
 These triggers are used to make the modifications into base table thru a complex view.
 By default a complex view is not updatable view (i.e. read only view).
 A complex view consists of joins, mathematical expressions, group by clause, distinct
operator.
Q) Create a complex view on EMP table that stores a query for empno, sal and annual salary.
CREATE VIEW V1
AS
SELECT EMPNO,SAL M_SAL,SAL*12 A_SAL FROM EMP
CREATE TRIGGER TR6
ON V1
INSTEAD OF INSERT
AS
BEGIN
INSERT EMP(EMPNO,SAL) SELECT EMPNO,M_SAL FROM INSERTED
END
To display list of triggers created in a database:
SELECT NAME FROM SYSOBJECTS WHERE XTYPE='TR'
VIEWING TRIGGER INFORMATION:
SP_HELPTEXT < TRIGGER_NAME >
DISABLE / ENABLE THE TRIGGERS:
ALTER TABLE < TABLE_NAME > DISABLE/ENABLE TRIGGER < TRIGGER_NAME>
TO DISABLE DATABASE OR DML TRIGGERS:
DISABLE/ENABLE TRIGGER < TRIGGER_NAME > [ALL] ON DATABASE /
OBJECT_NAME
DROPING A TRIGGER: DROP TRIGGER < TRIGGER_NAME > ON < DATABASE_NAME >
CURSORS
 It creates a temporary memory at database server to store result set of a query.
 It is created at a system database TempDB
 Cursors will create a memory to store multiple rows that are returned by a SELECT query.
Cursors are Created based on the following steps:
 Declaring a Cursor
 Opening a Cursor
 Fetching the data from a Cursor
 Closing a Cursor
 Deallocating a Cursor
DECLARING A CURSOR:
A cursor is declared by its name associated with a standard SELECT query using DECLARE keyword. It
stores a query for retrieving all rows of a table or retrieving the rows on conditional basis. It also
includes navigation of cursor, type of cursor and type of lock provided on cursor.
Syntax:
DECLARE < CURSOR_NAME > /VAR CURSOR
NAVIGATION_TYPE FORWARD / SCROLL
CURSOR_TYPE STATIC / KEYSET / DYNAMIC / FAST FORWARD
LOCK_TYPE READONLY / SCROLL LOCK / OPTIMISTIC
FOR SELECT QUERY
**By default a cursor is FORWARD only cursor, which supports to access the cursor sequentially.
**If navigation type is provided as SCROLL then can access cursor randomly.
CURSOR TYPES: SQL SERVER will support to create a cursor with any of the following types;
 STATIC: When this cursor type is specified it will not make the changes in the cursor when
the table is changed in a database.
 KEYSET: When this cursor type is specified it will make the changes in a cursor when the
table is provided with the changes thru DML operations.
 DYNAMIC: When this cursor type is specified it also makes the changes in cursor when the
table is changed in a database but performance gets decreases.
 FAST FORWARD: When this cursor type is specified it will work similar to KEYSET and
provides fast performance.
LOCKS provided on Cursor:
 READ ONLY (Shared Lock): When this lock is provided cursor will not accept any changes into it.
 SCROLL LOCK (Exclusive Lock): It will allow to make modifications but only by one user.
 OPTIMISTIC: It will allow to make modifications but only by multiple users.
OPENING A CURSOR:
A cursor which is created when gets opened; the query which is associated gets executed and makes
the data available in a cursor.
Syntax: OPEN < CURSOR_NAME >

FETCHING DATA FROM A CURSOR:
Data from a cursor gets fetched in different ways into temporary or buffer variables. It supports to
fetch only 1 row at a time.
Syntax:
FETCH {FIRST/LAST/NEXT/PREV}
ABSOLUTE =POSITION
RELATIVE =POSITION
FROM CURSOR_NAME
INTO TEMPORARY VARIABLES
CLOSING A CURSOR:
The created cursor when gets closed it does not support to fetch the data from a cursor.
The operations can be performed over that cursor when it gets reopened.
Syntax: CLOSE < CURSOR_NAME >
DEALLOCATING A CURSOR:
When the cursor gets de-allocated, it removes the complete structure and does not support to
reopen the cursor. If operations are to be performed over a cursor again it should be created.
Syntax: DEALLOCATE < CURSOR_NAME >
Note:
 Any number of cursors can be created in a single program but with unique names.
 Global variable @@FETCH_STATUS plays an important role, where it returns Boolean value
i.e. returns 0 if it makes a fetch operation successful over a cursor else returns -1.
Q) Create a cursor which supports to access all the employ records.
DECLARE @EN VARCHAR(12),@DES VARCHAR(14),@DNO INT
DECLARE C1 CURSOR FOR SELECT ENAME,JOB,DEPTNO FROM EMP
OPEN C1
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @EN,@DES,@DNO
WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS<>-1
BEGIN
PRINT @EN+' '+@DES+' '+CAST(@DNO AS VARCHAR(5))
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @EN,@DES,@DNO
END
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1
Q) Write a program to create a cursor to store unique department numbers and the other cursor
which stores employees of those departments.
DECLARE @ENO INT,@EN VARCHAR(12),@PAY INT,@DNO INT
DECLARE C1 CURSOR FOR SELECT DISTINCT DEPTNO FROM EMP
OPEN C1
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @DNO
BEGIN
PRINT 'DEPARTMENT........'+CAST(@DNO AS VARCHAR(10))
PRINT 'EMPNO'+' '+'ENAME'+' '+'SALARY'
DECLARE C2 CURSOR FOR SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=@DNO
OPEN C2
FETCH NEXT FROM C2 INTO @ENO,@EN,@PAY
BEGIN
PRINT CAST (@ENO AS VARCHAR(8))+' '+@EN+' '+CAST(@PAY AS
VARCHAR(10))
FETCH NEXT FROM C2 INTO @ENO,@EN,@PAY
END
CLOSE C2
DEALLOCATE C2
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @DNO
END
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1
Q) Write a program to create SCROLL cursor and access first and last records of EMP table.
DECLARE @ENO INT,@EN VARCHAR(12),@DNO INT
DECLARE C1 CURSOR SCROLL FOR SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,DEPTNO FROM EMP
OPEN C1
FETCH FIRST FROM C1 INTO @ENO,@EN,@DNO
IF @@FETCH_STATUS = 0
BEGIN
PRINT CAST(@ENO AS VARCHAR(10))+' '+@EN+' '+CAST(@DNO AS
VARCHAR(12))
END
ELSE
BEGIN
PRINT 'FETCHING FAILED'
END
FETCH LAST FROM C1 INTO @ENO,@EN,@DNO
IF @@FETCH_STATUS=0
BEGIN
VARCHAR(12))
END
ELSE
BEGIN
END
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1
Q) Write a program to display required record from a cursor using absolute position.
DECLARE @ENO INT,@EN VARCHAR(12),@DNO INT
DECLARE C1 CURSOR SCROLL FOR SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,DEPTNO FROM EMP
OPEN C1
FETCH ABSOLUTE 3 FROM C1 INTO @ENO,@EN,@DNO
FETCH RELATIVE 2 FROM C1 INTO @ENO,@EN,@DNO
IF @@FETCH_STATUS=0
BEGIN
VARCHAR(12))
END
ELSE
BEGIN
END
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1
Note:
 When RELATIVE position is specified with +Ve value, it moves the record pointer from
current position to the next record in forward direction.
 If -Ve value is specified it moves the record pointer in backward direction from current
position. To the current position relative position is added or subtracted and then takes the
control to the next record.
Q) Write a program to delete all tables from a Database.
DECLARE C2 CURSOR FOR SELECT NAME FROM SYS.TABLES
DECLARE @TN VARCHAR(12)
OPEN C2
FETCH NEXT FROM C2 INTO @TN
WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS <>-1
BEGIN
EXEC('DROP TABLE '+@TN)
FETCH NEXT FROM C2 INTO @TN
END
CLOSE C2
DEALLOCATE C2
CLR INTEGRATION
In SQL Server 2005 Database Engine is integrated with CLR (Common Language Runtime
Environment) Database objects can be created with T-SQL Code + DOT NET Language Code.
A Database object created with T-SQL + DOT NET Language Code can be called as CLR Database
Object
 CLR Stored Procedure
 CLR Stored Functions
 CLR Stored Triggers
 CLR User Defined Types
 CLR User Defined Aggregates
To prepare CLR Database object we have to follow four steps.
 Develop .NET Assembly
 Register the Assembly in SQL Server 2005.
 Convert the Assembly methods into SP’s, SF’s, ST’s etc.
 Invoke the Object through SQL Server.
CLR Function with C#
using.system;
using.system.collections.generic;
using.system.text;
using.system.data;
using.system.data.SQLClients;
using.system.data.SQLTypes;
using.microsoft.SQLserver.server;
Public Class CLRClass
{
[MS SQL Server SQL Function]
Public Static Int MyCLRMethod (int a, int b)
{
return (a+b);
}
}
Step 2: Register the Assembly in SQL Server.
GUI
Step 1: Select the Database
Step 2: Click on Programmability
Step 3: Click on New Assembly
Step 4: Provide the Path of the Compiled C# DLL File
Query Based
CREATE ASSEMBLY MYCLRASSEMBLY FROM 'C:MYCLR\BIN\DEBUG\MYCLR.DLL'
WITH PERMISSION_SET = SAFE
PERMISSION_SET = SAFE / UNSAFE / EXTERNALACCESS
CREATE FUNCTION MYCLRTEST(@I INT, @J INT)
RETURNS INT
AS
EXTERNAL NAME
MYCLRASSEMBLY.CLRCLASS.MYCLRMETHOD
SELECT DBO.MYCLRTEST(27,89)
ENABLE/DISABLE CLR Integration:
Step 1: Microsoft SQL Server
Step 2: Configuration Tools
Step 3: SQL Server Surface Area Configuration
Step 4: Surface Area Configuration Features
Step 5: CLR Integration
Step 6: Enable the CLR
Or
SP_CONFIGURE 'SHOW_ADVANCED OPTIONS',1
SP_CONFIGURE 'CLR ENABLED',1
1- ENABLE, 0 - DISABLE
XML INTEGRATION
In SQL SERVER 2005 XML integration is introduced, which supports to store and access the data in
XML format.
Retrieving the table data in XML Format:
The data in a table which is in the form of rows and columns can be displayed in XML Format using
FOR XML clause of SELECT Statement.
Syntax:
SELECT .....................
FROM TABLE1...........
FOR XML <RAW / AUTO / PATH>, ROOT (NAME)
SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,DEPTNO FROM EMP FOR XML RAW
Output: <row EMPNO="7369" ENAME="SMITH" DEPTNO="20" />
<row EMPNO="7499" ENAME="ALLEN" DEPTNO="30" />
<row EMPNO="7521" ENAME="WARD" DEPTNO="30" />
SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,DEPTNO FROM EMP FOR XML AUTO,ROOT('EMPINFO')
Output:
<EMPINFO>
<EMP EMPNO="7369" ENAME="SMITH" DEPTNO="20" />
<EMP EMPNO="7499" ENAME="ALLEN" DEPTNO="30" />
<EMP EMPNO="73690" ENAME="test" DEPTNO="10" />
</EMPINFO>
SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,DEPTNO FROM EMP FOR XML PATH,ROOT('EMPINFO')
Output: <EMPINFO>
<row>
<EMPNO>7369</EMPNO>
<ENAME>SMITH</ENAME>
<DEPTNO>20</DEPTNO>
</row>
<row>
<EMPNO>7499</EMPNO>
<ENAME>ALLEN</ENAME>
<DEPTNO>30</DEPTNO>
</row>
</EMPINFO>
Storing XML data into table:
 Data which is represented in XML format can be stored into a table in the form of rows and
columns using OPENXML ()
 XML data is converted in table format by creating a temporary memory and it is done by
using a predefined procedure.
EXEC SP_XML_PREPAREDOCUMENT ARG1 OUTPUT, ARG2
Arg1 is a pointer to that temporary memory table which stores the address
of that table. It can be used when that temporary table is to be removed.
Arg2 is a variable which contains the data in XML format.
Use INSERT INTO SELECT query.

To remove that temporary memory table, a predefined procedure is used.
EXEC SP_XML_REMOVEDOCUMENT Arg1
Arg1 is a pointer variable which contains the address of that temporary table.
CREATE TABLE EMPX (ENO INT, EN VARCHAR (12))
DECLARE @XMLDOC VARCHAR (500), @P INT
SET @XMLDOC='<ROOT>
<EMP ENO="9001" EN="PRASAD" />
<EMP ENO="9002" EN="SUNIL" />
<EMP ENO="9010" EN="KIRAN" />
</ROOT>'
EXEC SP_XML_PREPAREDOCUMENT @P OUTPUT,@XMLDOC
INSERT INTO EMPX SELECT * FROM OPENXML (@P,'/ROOT/EMP',1)
WITH
(ENO INT, EN VARCHAR (12))
EXEC SP_XML_REMOVEDOCUMENT @P
Working with XML Data Type:
 XML data type has been introduced in SQL SERVER 2005.
 It supports to insert the data in XML format using INSERT command. XML is case sensitive.
 XML data type provides default memory of 2GB.
CREATE TABLE EMPT (ENO INT, INFO XML)
INSERT INTO EMPT VALUES (101,'<EMP>
<ENAME>XYZ</ENAME>
<SAL>1000</SAL>
</EMP>')
INSERT INTO EMPT VALUES (102,'<EMP>
<ENAME>ABC</ENAME>
<SAL>2000</SAL>
</EMP>
<EMP>
<ENAME>PQR</ENAME>
<SAL>3000</SAL>
</EMP>')
XML String
SP_XML_PREPAREDOC
MSXML PARSER (MSSQL.DLL)
XML DOM (Document
Object Model)
OpenXML ()
Dynamic RowSet
Temp Table
Empno Ename
1001 XYZ
EMP
(Server)
XML Architecture
query () : This function will support to retrieve the required attribute information from the XML data
stored in a column. This function is case sensitive, which means it should be used with small letters
only. This function should be used with column name created with XML data type.
SELECT info.query('/EMP/ENAME') FROM EMPT
SELECT info.query('/EMP/SAL') FROM EMPT
exist() : This function will return Boolean value i.e. 1 if the specified element exists else returns with
0.
SELECT info.exist('/EMP/SAL') FROM EMPT
SELECT A.ENAME,A.AVER FROM (SELECT ENAME,AVG(MAR) AVER ,ROW_NUMBER() OVER
(ORDER BY AVG(MAR) DESC) AS AA FROM STU

GROUP BY ENAME) A WHERE A.AA = 2
TRANSACTION & LOCKS
Transaction is nothing but a logical unit of work, which contains a set of operations.
Transaction & Locks increase the complexity of Database operations, by the guarantee valid data
and query results in multi user applications. This guarantee is expressed with ACID Properties
Atomic: For a transaction to be ATOMIC all the DML Statements INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE must
either call COMMIT or ROLLBACK which means a transaction can’t be left in half done.
Consistency: Means a user should not never see data changes in the mid of transaction. Their view
should return the data as it appears prior to beginning of the transaction or if the transaction is
finished. Then they should see the changed data.
Isolation: it is the heart of Multi User Transaction; it means one transaction should not disrupt
another transaction.
Durability: Implies that the changes made by the transaction are recorded permanently.
Locking mechanism eliminates concurrency problem and Provides consistency. Locks can be applied
at different levels.
LOCK GRANULARITY
The Simplest way to meet the ACID requirements would be for a transaction to create a lock that
seizes the entire Database affected, not letting anyone touch or see any other data until the
transaction completed.
This solution would of course cause a great deal performance problems as other transactions try to
access data. The other extreme would be to lock on a single row. A lock can be issued against a
Database, Table, Extent, Page or a Row. A Page is usually of 8KB Storage Area on the hard drive. An
extent is a group of 8 Pages.
Lock Modes:
SQL Server utilizes several different types of locks & modes. The way in which a lock shares or does
not share records.
Exclusive Lock (X): This Lock mode is very straight forward where group of records are taken (Row,
Pages, Extent, Table or Database) and are held exclusively by one transaction. When an insert,
Updated, Delete Statement runs Exclusive Lock will be issued. No other operation of any kind can
use the records hold by X Lock.
Shared Lock: A Shared Lock is applied on records read by a Select Statement. It is designed to allow
concurrent read access from other transactions, but none can modify the held records.
Dead Lock: Dead Lock refers to the condition in which one resource is waiting on the action of a
second while that second is waiting on first; it neither completes any of the two conditions.
Other Locks: SQL also provides other type of locks, but they will not be used for Lock Optimization.
Schema Locks(Sch*) are usually used when a table is being modified such as column being added,
Bulk Update Tools are used for Bulk Update Statements , intent Lock(I*) are used internally by SQL to
increase performance.
SP_LOCK- It will return the list of information about locks that are available in database.
SELECT * FROM SYS.DM_TRAN_LOCKS
Example on Shared Lock
CREATE TABLE EMPL (ENO INT, EN VARCHAR(10))
INSERT INTO EMPL VALUES (100,'X')
INSERT INTO EMPL VALUES (101,'Y')
INSERT INTO EMPL VALUES (102,'Z')
BEGIN TRAN SHARED
SELECT * FROM EMPL WITH (HOLDLOCK)
SELECT RESOURCE_TYPE, REQUEST_MODE FROM SYS.DM_TRAN_LOCKS
WHERE RESOURCE_TYPE <> 'DATABASE'
WAITFOR DELAY '00:00:10'
Example on Exclusive Lock
Session 1:
BEGIN TRAN EXCLUSIVE
UPDATE EMP SET ENO = 200
SELECT RESOURCE_TYPE, REQUEST_MODE FROM SYS.DM_TRAN_LOCKS
WHERE RESOURCE_TYPE <> 'DATABASE'
WAITFOR DELAY '00:00:15'
Session 2:
SELECT * FROM EMPL WITH (NOLOCK)
ISOLATION LEVELS:
These are classified in four types:
 READ COMMITTED
 READ UNCOMMITTED
 REPEATABLE READ
 SERIALIZABLE
**By Default a transaction isolation level is “READ COMMITED”
DataReads:
Dirty Read – A Dirty read is the situation when a transaction reads a data that has not yet been committed.
For example, Let’s say transaction 1 updates a row and leaves it uncommitted, meanwhile, Transaction 2 reads
the updated row. If transaction 1 rolls back the change, transaction 2 will have read data that is considered
never to have existed.
Non Repeatable read – Non Repeatable read occurs when a transaction reads same row twice, and get a
different value each time. For example, suppose transaction T1 reads data. Due to concurrency, another
transaction T2 updates the same data and commit, Now if transaction T1 rereads the same data, it will
retrieve a different value.
Phantom Read – Phantom Read occurs when two same queries are executed, but the rows retrieved by the
two, are different. For example, suppose transaction T1 retrieves a set of rows that satisfy some search
criteria. Now, Transaction T2 generates some new rows that match the search criteria for transaction T1. If
transaction T1 re-executes the statement that reads the rows, it gets a different set of rows this time
Read Uncommitted – Read Uncommitted is the lowest isolation level. In this level, one transaction may read
not yet committed changes made by other transaction, thereby allowing dirty reads. In this level, transactions
are not isolated from each other.
Read Committed – This isolation level guarantees that any data read is committed at the moment it is read.
Thus it does not allows dirty read. The transaction holds a read or write lock on the current row, and thus
prevent other transactions from reading, updating or deleting it.
Repeatable Read – This is the most restrictive isolation level. The transaction holds read locks on all rows it
references and writes locks on all rows it inserts, updates, or deletes. Since other transaction cannot read,
update or delete these rows, consequently it avoids non-repeatable read.
Serializable – This is the highest isolation level. A serializable execution is guaranteed to be serializable.
Serializable execution is defined to be an execution of operations in which concurrently executing transactions
appears to be serially executing.
Syntax:
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL < LEVEL_TYPE >
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ UNCOMMITTED
SELECT * FROM EMPL
BULK COPY PROGRAM
 The Bulk Copy Program Utility in SQL Server enables Database administrator to import bulk
data into a table or export it from a table into a file.
 It also supports several options that define how data will be imported. Where it will be
imported and which data will be loaded.
 BCP Commands will allow a user to Bulk Copy Data “IN” & “OUT” of SQL Server Tables.
Syntax:
BCP < Source.DB > IN / OUT < Destination file > [Options]
IN – Import, OUT – Export
Options are Case Sensitive
-T --- Trusted Connection (Windows Authentication)
-S --- Server Name
-U ---User Name
-P --- Password (SQL Server Authentication)
-c --- Character Format
-r --- Row Terminator (CR-LF) Carriage Return Line Field
-E --- Field Terminator (Tab Default)
Exporting data with BCP Utility one of the simplest operations that can perform with BCP is to bulk
copy data out of a SQL Server table into a Text File
Exporting data through Query
BCP “SELECT * FROM TESTDB.DBO.EMP” QUERYOUT C:\emp.csv –c –T -t
Importing Data: To Import the data of a file into a table create at SQL Server, BCP will provide an
option called “IN”
BCP testdb.dbo.emp IN C:\emp.csv –c –T –t -E
BACKUP & RECOVERY OF A DATABASE
Backup of a Database: As system is an electronic device, at any point of time it may come across
with a problem in hardware or at Operating System or at Database, due to which data available in
Database may be lost.
In order to have security for data and Database objects. It is essential that at the End of the Day to
go for a Backup. It creates a backup of Database in to Flat Files. Backup Data later can be transferred
into other external devices for security reasons.
Backup is done in different ways
 Full Backup
 Differential Backup
 Files & File Groups
 Transaction Logs
Syntax:
BACKUP DATABASE <DATABASE_NAME>
TO DISK ='FILEPATH.BAK'
Syntax:
BACKUP DATABASE <DATABASE_NAME>
TO DISK ='FILEPATH.BAK'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL
Restore of Database: Database can be restored in a same system or it can be on different system.
Syntax:
RESTORE DATABASE <DATABASE_NAME>
FROM DISK ='FILEPATH.BAK'
Note: for Restoring the Query to be executed using master database
EXTENDED STORED PROCEDURES:
A Stored Procedure contains T-SQL Statements and C/C++ Code compiled into DLL file is called
Extended Stored Procedure. Every Extended Stored Procedure starts with XP. All Extended Stored
Procedures are stored in masterdb.
Extended Stored Procedures are used to perform operations in Operating system and Mail Server.
XP_CMDSHELL (Operating System Command) it is used to communicate with Operating System to
execute commands.
Note: to work with this extended procedure it should be enable at configuration tools
SP_CONFIGURE 'CMDSHELL',1
RECONFIGURE
XP_CMDSHELL 'DIR C:\'
XP_CMDSHELL 'MD C:\NEW'
XP_SENDMAIL, XP_READMAIL are used to interact with mailing servers.
DEPLOYMENT OF DATABASE: The process of copying database objects structures with data from
one server to another server is called Deployment of Database.
Method 1:
Copy Backup file (.BAK) to destination system and return it on destination system.
Method 2:
 Copy Data Files and Log Files to destination system.
 Detach the Database on Source System
 SP_DETACH_DB <DATABASE_NAME>
 Copy the Database Files to same location on destination system.
 Attach these files to a Database on destination system
CREATE DATABASE < DATABASE_NAME >
ON
FILENAME = 'FILE_PATH'
FOR ATTACH
Method 3:
Creating a Batch and Script Files:
 Batch is nothing but set of T-SQL Statements executed under single execution plan.
 Every Batch is followed by GO (which makes a separate execution plan) Creation of any
Objects, setting any property should be presented in different batches.
 Script is nothing but collection of batches saved in a file with .SQL extension.
Advantages:
 Script files are reusable.
 Script files are used to copy database objects from one system to another system.
Generating T-SQL Scripts for existing Database SQL Server provides Script wizard to generate scripts
for existing Database and other objects.
Select Database
Click on Tasks
Click on Generate Scripts - Click Next
Select Database Name - Click Next
Check Scripts all objects in Database - Click Next
Provides Scripting options
Append to File = True (If True Select Existing File)
Script Database Create = True (If True Create Database statement generated)
(If False Create Database Statement will not generated)
Script for server version SQL Server 2005
Click Finish
DATA TRANSFORMATION SERVICE or SQL SERVER INTEGRATION SERVICES
 In SQL Server 2000 we have DTS Packages which are based on COM Technology (Component Object
Model)
 In SQL Server 2005 it is introduced as SSIS package based on DOTNET Technology.
 To import or export Database objects and data from one source to another data source we
can use DTS or SSIS Package.
SSIS Package will support to import or export the database and data between following software’s.
SQL Server ------------ MS Access
SQL Server ------------ Oracle
SQL Server ------------ SQL Server
SQL Server ------------ Text File/XML Files/Excel Files etc
DTS/SSIS communicates with any data source with the help of ODBC or OLEDB or DOTNET data
providers.
Note: SSIS Package’s will be stored in MSDB Database.
SQL Native Client: Interface can be used to communicate with only SQL Server
Exporting data from SQL Server to Excel Sheet
Select Database
Right Click on Select Export Data - Click Next
Specify Source Data
Data Source: SQL Native Client
Server Name: Sys-PC
Database: TestDB - Click Next
Specify Destination
Destination: MS EXCEL
File Path: ‘C:\Testexcel.xls ’
Check First row has column names - Click Next
Select Copy data from one or more tables or views - Click Next
Select Tables/ Views whose data is to be copied into Excel sheet - Click Next
Check Execute Immediately
Click Finish
Importing data from SQL Server to SQL Server
Select Database (Destination Database)
Right Click on Select Import Data - Click Next
Specify Source Data
Data Source: SQL Native Client
Server Name: Sys-PC
Database: TestDB - Click Next
Specify Destination
Destination: SQL Native Client
Server Name: Sys-PC
Database: TestDB1 - Click Next
Select Copy data from one or more tables or views - Click Next
Select Tables/ Views whose data is to be copied into Excel sheet - Click Next
Check Execute Immediately
Click Finish
Browsing SSIS packages
 Object Explore
 Connect to Integration Services
 Select Stored Packages
 MSDB (System Database)
 Select Package and Run Package
SQL SERVER AGENT
 In SQL Server 2005 SQL Server Agent is a service, it supports to create jobs, schedules, alerts
and operations.
 It provides automatic execution of Jobs and Tasks associated with different steps
automatically based on system date, Day and Time.
 To work with SQL Server Agent it is essential that services should get start.
To start the Service
Start - Programs – SQL Server – Configuration Tools – SQL Server Configuration Manager – Select SQL
Server Manager and Click Start
Example:
Create a table
CREATE TABLE SSA(ID INT IDENTITY, DATE SMALLDATETIME())
To Work with SQL Server Agent:
Object Explorer
Click on SQL Server Agent
Step 1:
New Job
Name: INS_REC_JOB
Owner: SA
Category [uncategorized (local)]
Step 2:
Select Steps from select a page window
Click New
Step Name: INS_REC
Type: T-SQL Script
Database: TestDB
Command: INSERT SSA VALUES (GETDATE())
Step 3:
Select Schedule from select a page Window
Click New
Name: SCH_INS_REC
Schedule Type: Recurring
Frequency Occurs: Daily
Click Finish
SQL SERVER REPORTING SERVICES
 It is a server based reporting generation software system from Microsoft. It can be used to
prepare and deliver a variety of interactive and printed reports.
 It is administrated via a web interface reporting services features a web service interface to
support the development of custom reporting applications.
 SSRS Competes with crystal reports and other business intelligence tools and it is included in
express, workgroup, standard and enterprise edition of SQL Server as an install option.
 Reporting services was first released in 2004 as an add-on to SQL Server 2000.
 The Second version was released as a part of SQL Server 2005 in November 2005.
 The latest version was released as part of SQL Server 2008 in August 2008.
 Reporting services frame work contains the following components.
 Report Server
 Report Manager
 Report Temporary Database
Report Server: It compiles and executes client requests connecting to different data sources and
loads the required data in to temporary database.
Report Manager: It will verify security information connections information of client.
Report Temporary Database: To store the reporting data temporary for processing purpose.
Generating Sample Reports:
Starting the Service: Configuration Tools – SQL Server Configuration Manager –SSRS
Generating the Report
SQL Server 2005 – SQL Server Business Intelligence Development Studio
Step 1:
Click on File –New Project – Report Server Project Wizard
Name: User Report
Location: C:\TestReport
Click Ok & Click Next

Step 2:
New Data Source
Name: Datasource1
Type: MS SQL Server
Connection String
Click on Edit
Server Name: Sys-PC (Server Name of the SQL Server)
Database Name: TempDB (Select the User Defined Database)
Click Test Connection and Click Ok
Click Next
Step 3:
Query String
SELECT ENAME, JOB, SAL FROM EMP
Click Next
Step 4:
Select Report Type—Tabular
Click Next
Step 5:
Report Builder Report Designer
Report Manager Report Server
Report Server Database Data Source
Architecture of Reporting Services
Design the Table
Groups – Job
Details – Ename, Sal
Click Next
Step 6:
Choose the Table Style—Slate
Step 7:
Choose the Deployment Location
Report Server: http://localhost/ReportServer
Deployment Folder: Report Test
Click Next
Step 8:
Completing the Wizard
Check the Preview Report
Click Finish
Select a table data from server2 using server1
OPENQUERY ( linked_server ,'query' )

OPENQUERY ( linked_server ,'select * from EMP')
UPDATE OPENQUERY (OracleSvr, 'SELECT name FROM joe.titles WHERE id = 101')
SET name = 'ADifferentName';
INSERT OPENQUERY (OracleSvr, 'SELECT name FROM joe.titles')
VALUES ('NewTitle');
DELETE OPENQUERY (OracleSvr, 'SELECT name FROM joe.titles WHERE name = ''NewTitle''');
SELECT * FROM OPENQUERY (OracleSvr, 'SELECT name FROM joe.titles WHERE name = ''NewTitle''');
TEMPORAL TABLES
 Brings built-in support for providing information about data stored in the table at any point in
time rather than only the data that is correct at the current moment in time.
 Works along with SQL AUDIT for Complete data change history (WHO, WHAT, WHEN)
 Primary key must be on table on which we are trying to create Temporal Table.
 Also called System Versioned temporal table
CREATE TABLE Department
(
DeptID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY CLUSTERED
, DeptName varchar(50) NOT NULL
, ManagerID INT NULL
, ParentDeptID int NULL
, SysStartTime datetime2 GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW START NOT NULL
, SysEndTime datetime2 GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW END NOT NULL
, PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME (SysStartTime, SysEndTime)
)
WITH
(
SYSTEM_VERSIONING = ON (HISTORY_TABLE = dbo.DepartmentHistory)
)
;
INSERT Department(DeptID,DeptName,ManagerID,ParentDeptID) VALUES(1,'SALES',12,1);

INSERT Department(DeptID,DeptName,ManagerID,ParentDeptID) VALUES(2,'FINANCE',12,2);
SELECT * FROM Department;

SELECT * FROM DepartmentHistory;
UPDATE Department SET DeptName='SALES OPPS' WHERE DeptID=1;

UPDATE Department SET DeptName='FINANCE NEW' WHERE DeptID=2;

SELECT * FROM Department;

SELECT * FROM DepartmentHistory;
ALTER TABLE [dbo].[Department] SET ( SYSTEM_VERSIONING = OFF )

GO
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS [dbo].[Department];
GO
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS [dbo].[DepartmentHistory];
GO
Dynamic Data Masking
 Effectively protects sensitive data in application layer based on User access level
 A masking rule may be defined on a column in a table, in order to obscure the data in that
column.
 There are four types of masking rules are available in SQL server 2016.
FUNCATION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Default Full masking according to the data types of the XXXXXXXX

designated fields.
Email Masking method which exposes the first letter of an aXXX@XXXX.com

email address and the constant suffix ".com", in the
form of an email address.
Random A random masking function for use on any numeric 101

type to mask the original value with a random value
within a specified range.
Custom Masking method which exposes the first and last XXXXXXX8967
String letters and adds a custom padding string in the
middle.
Dynamic Data Masking Limitations

 A masking rule cannot be defined for the following column types:
 Encrypted columns (Always Encrypted)
 FILESTREAM
 A mask cannot be configured on a computed column, but if the computed column depends on a
column with a MASK, then the computed column will return masked data.
 Can easily bypass masking rule, by using user interface or brute-force techniques.
IF OBJECT_ID('dbo.tbl_Contacts', 'U') IS NOT NULL
DROP TABLE dbo.tbl_Contacts;
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS dbo.tbl_Contacts;
CREATE TABLE tbl_Contacts
(
ContactId int IDENTITY(1,1) ,
FirstName varchar(100) MASKED WITH (FUNCTION = 'partial(1,"XXXXXXX",1)') NULL,
LastName varchar(100) NOT NULL,
Phone varchar(12) MASKED WITH (FUNCTION = 'default()') NULL,
Email varchar(100) MASKED WITH (FUNCTION = 'email()') NULL,
AccountNumber bigint MASKED WITH (FUNCTION = 'random(5000, 10000000)'),
CONSTRAINT PK_tbl_Contacts_ContactId PRIMARY KEY CLUSTERED(ContactId ASC)
);
INSERT tbl_Contacts (FirstName, LastName, Phone, Email,AccountNumber) VALUES
('Roberto', 'Tamburello', '555.123.4567', 'RTamburello@contoso.com',52578945319),
('Janice', 'Galvin', '555.123.4568', 'JGalvin@contoso.com.co',7501563271),
('Zheng', 'Mu', '555.123.4569', 'ZMu@contoso.net',948367981);
SELECT * FROM tbl_Contacts;

DROP USER IF EXISTS TestUser;
CREATE USER TestUser WITHOUT LOGIN;

GRANT SELECT ON tbl_Contacts TO TestUser;
EXECUTE AS USER = 'TestUser';

SELECT CURRENT_USER CurrentUser

SELECT * FROM tbl_Contacts;
REVERT;
Row Level Security
 Row-Level Security enables customers to control access to rows in a database table based on the
characteristics of the user executing a query (e.g., group membership or execution context).
 Row-Level Security (RLS) simplifies the design and coding of security in your application. RLS
enables you to implement restrictions on data row access.
 The access restriction logic is located in the database tier rather than away from the data in
another application tier.
--DROP USER IF EXISTS Manager;
--DROP USER IF EXISTS Sales1;
--DROP USER IF EXISTS Sales2;
CREATE USER Manager WITHOUT LOGIN;
CREATE USER Sales1 WITHOUT LOGIN;
CREATE USER Sales2 WITHOUT LOGIN;
CREATE TABLE Sales

(
OrderID int,
SalesRep sysname,
Product varchar(10),
Qty int
);
INSERT Sales VALUES
(1, 'Sales1', 'Valve', 5),
(2, 'Sales1', 'Wheel', 2),
(3, 'Sales1', 'Valve', 4),
(4, 'Sales2', 'Bracket', 2),
(5, 'Sales2', 'Wheel', 5),
(6, 'Sales2', 'Seat', 5);
GRANT SELECT ON Sales TO Manager;
GRANT SELECT ON Sales TO Sales1;
GRANT SELECT ON Sales TO Sales2;
CREATE SCHEMA Security;

GO
CREATE FUNCTION Security.fn_securitypredicate(@SalesRep AS sysname)
RETURNS TABLE
WITH SCHEMABINDING
AS
RETURN SELECT 1 AS fn_securitypredicate_result
WHERE @SalesRep = USER_NAME() OR USER_NAME() = 'Manager';
CREATE SECURITY POLICY SalesFilter

ADD FILTER PREDICATE Security.fn_securitypredicate(SalesRep)
ON dbo.Sales
WITH (STATE = ON);
EXECUTE AS USER = 'Sales1';

SELECT * FROM Sales;
REVERT;
EXECUTE AS USER = 'Sales2';


REVERT;
EXECUTE AS USER = 'Manager';

REVERT;
JSON Support
 JSON, short for JavaScript Object Notation, is based on a subset of the JavaScript programming
language and is noted for being human readable and easy for computers to parse and generate.
 A lightweight format for exchanging data between different source types, similar to how XML is
used.
 SQL Server 2016 includes no JSON-specific data type and consequently none of the kinds of
methods available to the XML data type. SQL Server 2016 continues to use the NVARCHAR type
to store JSON data.
 JSON support introduced in SQL server 2016 to convert JSON into Relational data and vice versa.
SELECT LoginID,FirstName, MiddleName, LastName, BirthDate ,HireDate ,

Phone
FROM DimEmployee e
WHERE EmployeeKey IN (2,3)
FOR JSON AUTO;
/****** To add PII element ************/
SELECT LoginID,FirstName, MiddleName, LastName, BirthDate AS [PII.BirthDate],HireDate AS
[PII.HireDate],
Phone AS [PII.Phone]
FROM DimEmployee e
FOR JSON PATH , ROOT('Employees');
/******** JSON HAVING ROOT element *************/
[PII.HireDate],
FROM DimEmployee e
FOR JSON PATH , ROOT('Employees')
/******** JSON to Include Null Values *************/
[PII.HireDate],
FROM DimEmployee e
FOR JSON PATH , ROOT('Employees') , INCLUDE_NULL_VALUES;
DECLARE @json NVARCHAR(MAX) = N'
{
"FirstName":null,
"LastName":"Duffy",
"NatID":245797967,
"Current":false,
"Skills":["Dev","QA","PM"],
"Region":{"Country":"Canada","Territory":"North America"}
}';
SELECT * FROM OPENJSON(@json);

DECLARE @json NVARCHAR(MAX) = N'
{
"FirstName":null,
"LastName":"Duffy",
"NatID":245797967,
"Current":false,
"Skills":["Dev","QA","PM"],
"Region":{"Country":"Canada","Territory":"North America"}
}';
SELECT [Key],Value FROM OPENJSON(@json);
DECLARE @json NVARCHAR(MAX)='{
"Employees":[
{
"Name":{
"First":"Terri",
"Middle":"Lee",
"Last":"Duffy"
},
"PII":{
"DOB":"1971-08-01",
"NatID":"245797967"
},
"LoginID":"adventure-works\\terri0"
},
{
"Name":{
"First":"Roberto",
"Middle":null,
"Last":"Tamburello"
},
"PII":{
"DOB":"1974-11-12",
"NatID":"509647174"
},
"LoginID":"adventure-works\\roberto0"
}
]
}'
--SELECT [key], value

--FROM OPENJSON(@json);

--FROM OPENJSON(@json, '$.Employees');

--FROM OPENJSON(@json, '$.Employees[0]');
SELECT *
FROM OPENJSON(@json, '$.Employees')
WITH(FirstName NVARCHAR(25) '$.Name.First',
MiddleName NVARCHAR(25) '$.Name.Middle',
LastName NVARCHAR(25) '$.Name.Last',
BirthDate DATE '$.PII.DOB',
NationalID INT '$.PII.NatID');
PolyBase
 PolyBase enables your SQL Server 2016 instance to process Transact-SQL queries that read data
from Hadoop.
 PolyBase external access is not limited to Hadoop. Other unstructured non-relational tables are
also supported, such as delimited text files.
 Query both sources of data, then write custom query logic to join and integrate the data at the
client level
STRETCH DATABASE
 Interesting solution to where to put that historical data without taking up valuable disk space or
prolonging backups.
 Queries don’t change, SQL combines local and ‘stretched’ data.
ALWAYS ENCRYPTED
 Always Encrypted is a client-side encryption technology that Microsoft introduced with SQL
Server 2016
 Always Encrypted requires your client application to use an Always Encrypted-enabled driver to
communicate with the database.
 Even SQL admins not able to read the data and Secret key never passed to SQL server.
 Very effective feature if you are using cloud based Azure data storage

Database Management System: SQL Server 2019 SQL and T-SQL

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Database Management System: SQL Server 2019 SQL and T-SQL

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SQL Server 2019 Page: 1 SQL and T-SQL

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

 Collection of Objects or Relations to store data.

Differences between Oracle & SQL Server

FEATURES OF SQL SERVER

 Table Value Constructors(Support Through Values Clause)

 Row Level Security

SQL SERVER NEW FEATURES IN 2019

SIZE = 5MB , MAXSIZE = 10MB , FILEGROWTH = 2MB )

To display list of User Defined Views

CREATE TABLE DEPT ( DEPTNO INT, DNAME VARCHAR(14), LOC VARCHAR(13) )

CREATE TABLE SALGRADE ( GRADE INT, LOSAL INT, HISAL INT )

DATA QUERY LANGUAGE

o SELECTION - retrieves the data of all columns.

SELECT EMPNO AS ECODE, ENAME AS EMPNAME FROM EMP

/= - Divides by an amount and sets the original value to the result.

type or different order type.

SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY SAL

 Built In Functions Or Predefined Functions

**Functions used with in other function refers to FUNCTION CASCADING

FLOOR (NUMBER) – It decreases a nearest integer

DECLARE @d DATETIME = '10/01/2011';

RANKING OR WINDOW FUNCTIONS

ROW_NUMBER() – Provides unique row number for each row

@@LANGUAGE - Returns the name of the language currently being used.

when 20 then sal

 This operator should be used only at GROUP BY clause.

associated to last query.

SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL, E.DEPTNO, DNAME, LOC

SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, SAL, E.DEPTNO, DNAME, LOC

SELECT E.*, GRADE FROM EMP E, SALGRADE S

NESTED QUERIES / SUB QUERIES

WHERE SAL < (SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP))

OVER (ORDER BY EMPNO) RN FROM EMP) E WHERE RN <= 5

Q) Display the Employee Details of Nth Maximum Salary.

DATA DEFINATION LANGUAGE:

 schema should contain always Unique Table Names.

 Size can be specified Minimum 1 BYTE Maximum 8000 BYTES

[ MINVALUE <value > | NO MINVALUE ]

CREATE SEQUENCE [dbo].[NewCounter]

SELECT NEXT VALUE FOR [dbo].[NewCounter]

DROPPING THE COLUMNS:

SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM EMP

INSERT DEPT (DEPTNO,DNAME)

Update a set a.ename=b.ename

INSERT [ COLUMNS_LIST ] VALUES [ LIST_OF_VALUES ] ;

 Foreign key is a bidirectional key since

The aim of Normalization is to store the data in simple format.

SECOND NORMAL FORM

THIRD NORMAL FORM

 Indexing plays a major role when a data is to be searched in bulk records.

CREATE NONCLUSTERED INDEX INDX2 ON EMP(deptno)

 Network traffic gets reduced.

SELECT E (EMPNO, EN, PAY, DNO)

DROP LOGIN TESTLOGIN

Pivot- Converting Result set rows to columns

select * into #salesPivoted from

select * From #salesPivoted

false statement or block.

the statements are written beyond the rule.

 Multiple Try and Catch blocks are valid.

 Using EXEC Command

DROPING THE PROCEDURE

 Scalar Valued Functions (which returns 1 value)

SELECT @EN = ENAME FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO = @ENO

CREATE TRIGGER < TRIGGER_NAME >

updated and old data into a separated table.

Syntax: OPEN < CURSOR_NAME >

Use INSERT INTO SELECT query.

(ORDER BY AVG(MAR) DESC) AS AA FROM STU

Click Ok & Click Next

Select a table data from server2 using server1

OPENQUERY ( linked_server ,'query' )

INSERT Department(DeptID,DeptName,ManagerID,ParentDeptID) VALUES(1,'SALES',12,1);

SELECT * FROM Department;

UPDATE Department SET DeptName='SALES OPPS' WHERE DeptID=1;