The Cambridge Grammar of Classical Greek (PDFDrive)

THE CAMBRIDGE GRAMMAR OF
CLASSICAL
GREEK
Evert van Emde Boas « Albert Rijksbaron
luuk Huitink e Mathieu de Bakker
Cambridge Grammarof Classical Greek
This is the first full-scale reference grammar of classical Greek in English in a
century. Thefirst work of its kind to reflect the significant advancesin linguistics
madein recent decades,it offers students, teachers and academics a comprehensive
yet user-friendly treatment. The chapters on phonology and morphology makefull
use of insights from comparative andhistoricallinguistics to elucidate the complex
systems of roots, stems and endings. The syntax offers linguistically up-to-date
descriptions of such topics as case usage, tense and aspect, voice, subordinate
clauses, infinitives and participles. An innovative section on textual coherence
treats particles and word order and discusses several sample passages in detail,
demonstrating new ways of approaching Greek texts. Throughout the book
numerous original examples are offered, all with translations and often with
clarifying notes. Clearly laid-out tables, helpful cross-references and full indexes
make this essential resource accessible to usersof all levels.
EVERT VAN EMDE Boas specializes in the application of modern linguistic and
cognitive approaches to ancient Greek literature. He currently serves as Leventis
Research Fellow in Ancient Greek at Merton College, Oxford. His publications include
a monograph andarticles on Greek tragedy,as well as several interdisciplinary studies
on the psychology of theatre audiences. He has previously held various teaching and
research positions at the University of Oxford, the University of Amsterdam, VU
University Amsterdam, the University of Groningen and Leiden University.
ALBERT RIJKSBARON is emeritus professor of Ancient Greek Linguistics at the

University of Amsterdam. His publications include highly acclaimed and widely
used Greek linguistics titles as well as numerousarticles. He has edited and co-
edited collaborative worksin this field.
Luuk HuITINK is currently employed as a postdoctoral research fellow on the ERC

Project Ancient Narrative at Heidelberg University, where he examinestherela-
tionship between ancientrhetoric and cognitive linguistics in order to shed light on
the ancient readerly imagination. He previously was the Leventis Research Fellow in
Ancient Greek at Merton College, Oxford, and held a Spinoza Visiting Fellowship at
Leiden University. He has published on linguistic and narratological topics in
classical and post-classical Greek and is the author of a CUP commentary on
Xenophon s Anabasis III (together with Tim Rood), whichis keyed to this grammar.
MATHIEU DE BAKKER is university lecturer at the classics department of the

University of Amsterdam, where he teaches courses on all aspects of ancient
Greek. He has published on the Greek historians and orators and previously
lectured at the University of Oxford.
Cambridge Grammar
of Classical Greek
EVERT VAN EMDEBOASUniversity of Oxford
ALBERT RIJKSBARON Universiteit van Amsterdam
LUUK HUITINK Universitat Heidelberg

MATHIEU DE BAKKERUniversiteit van Amsterdam
la] CAMBRIDGE
eB UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
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www.cambridge.org
Information onthis title: www.cambridge.org/9780521198608
DOI: 10.1017/9781139027052
© Cambridge University Press 2019

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisionsof relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part maytake place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2019
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd, Padstow Cornwall
A catalogue recordfor this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Emde Boas, Evert van, 1982- author. | Rijksbaron, Albert, author.|
Huitink, Luuk, 1981- author. | Bakker, Mathieu de, author.
Title: Cambridge grammarofclassical Greek / Evert van Emde Boas,
Albert Rijksbaron, Luuk Huitink, Mathieu de Bakker.
Description: Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2017.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017024372 | ISBN 9780521198608
Subjects: LCSH: Greek language - Grammar.
Classification: LCC PA258 .E45 2017 | DDC 488.2421-dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017024372
ISBN 978-0-521-19860-8 Hardback
ISBN 978-0-521-12729-5 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLsfor external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websitesis, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
Contents
Preface xxxi
On Cs and Gs: History and Aims of the Book xxxi
Conception and Development xxxi
Target Audience and Scope xxxii
SomePrinciples of Presentation xxxiii
Using CGCG: A Few Points of Guidance xxxiv
Acknowledgements xxxv
Abbreviations, Symbols, Editions xxxviii
Abbreviations Used in This Book xxxviii
Other Symbols xxxix
Texts and Translations of Examples xxxix
On Terminology xl
Problems and Principles x1
Verbal Terminology xii
Tenses, Aspects and Moods xli
On First and Second Aorists and Perfects xii
PART I: PHONOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY 1
The Signs and Soundsof Classical Greek 3

Writing: the Alphabet, Accent and Breathing Marks, Punctuation 3
The Alphabet 3
Particulars 4
Accents and Breathings 4
Punctuation 5
Further Diacritical Signs 6
The Alphabet, Breathings, Accents, Punctuation: a Very Brief Historical Overview 6
Pronunciation: Vowels and Diphthongs 7
Vowels 7
Phonetic Details 8
Diphthongs 8
Short Diphthongs 9
Long Diphthongs 9
Spurious Diphthongs «1 and ov 10
Pronunciation: Consonants 10
List of Consonants 10
Contents
Phonetic Details 11
Stops 11
Fricatives 12
Resonants 12
Geminates 13
Letters Representing Two Consonants 13
Elision, Movable Consonants, Crasis, Hiatus 14
Elision 14
Movable Consonants 14
Crasis 15
Hiatus 16
Historical Developments: Introduction 16
Historical Developments: Ablaut (Vowel Gradation) 18
Introduction; Qualitative and Quantitative Ablaut 18
Some Typical Greek Ablaut Patterns 19
Historical Developments: Vowels 20
Attic-Ionica>n 20
Contraction of Vowels 21
Contraction of a,¢,n, oandw 21
Diphthongs 22
Summary Table of Contractions 22
Further Particulars and Exceptions 23
Long and Short: the Augment, Stem Formation, Compensatory Lengthening 24
Compensatory Lengthening 24
Summary Table 25
Shortening: Osthoff's Law 25
Quantitative Metathesis 27
Historical Developments: Consonants 27
Consonants at Word End 27
The Disappearance of f, yando 28
Sound ChangesInvolving t/y 28
Sound ChangesInvolving t/p 29
Sound Changes Involving o 30
Other Consonant Clusters: Vocalization of Resonants, Assimilation, Loss of
Consonants 30
Vocalization of Syllabic Resonants 30
Assimilation in Consonant Clusters 31
Loss of Consonants 33
Loss of Aspiration: Grassmann s Law 34
2 Introduction to Nominal Forms 35

Basic Categories 35
Contents Vii
Building Blocks: Stems and Endings 35

Declensions and Endings 36
Declensions 36
Table of Endings 38
3 The Article 39
4 Nouns 40
First-Declension Nouns 40
Stems, Types and Genderof First-Declension Nouns 40
Feminine Nounsin -n, -a or -& 40
Masculine Nounsin -ns5 or -as 42
Further Notes and Exceptions 43
Second-Declension Nouns 43
Stems, Types and Genderof Second-Declension Nouns 43
Masculine (and Feminine) Nouns in -os or -ous 44
Neuter Nouns in -ov or -ouv 45
Third-Declension Nouns 46
Stems, Types and Genderof Third-Declension Nouns 46
Stemsin a Labial Stop (1, B, 9) or Velar Stop (x, y, x) 48
Stems in a Dental Stop (t, 5, 8, except vt) 49
Stems in vt 50
Stemsinv 51
Stems in a Liquid (Aorp) 52
Stemsin (e)p, with Three Ablaut Grades (Type tratip, d&vtp) 53
Stems in o (Neuter Nounsin -os, Names in -ns) 54
Stems in 1/e(y) (Type dais) 56
Stems in u (Type ious) or in u/e(f) (Type tijxus) 57
Stems in nu/n(F) (Type Baorets) 58
Zeus, vais, Bots 59

Conspectus of Noun Types 61
5 Adjectives and Participles 63

First-and-Second-Declension Adjectives and Participles 63
Of Three Endings(-os, -n/-&, -ov) 63
Adjectives 63
Participles 64
Of Three Endings, with Contraction (-ots, -7/-&, -otv) 64
Of Two Endings(-os, -ov or -ous, -ouv) 65
Vili Contents
Further Particulars 67
Mixed-Declension Adjectives 68
First-and-Third-Declension Adjectives and Participles 69
Of Three Endings, Stemsin vt (-ov, -ouca, -ov and Tr&s, Té&oa, TaV) 69
Adjectives 69
Participles 70
Of Three Endings, Perfect Active Participles in -os, -uta, -65 72
Of Three Endings, Stems in u/eg (-us, -e1a, -u) 73
Of Three Endings, Stemsin v (-as, -aiva, -av) 74
Of Three Endings, Stemsin evt (-e1s, -eooa, -ev) 74
Third-Declension Adjectives 75
Of Two Endings, Stemsin ov (-wv, -ov) 75
Of Two Endings, Stemsin o (-ns, -es) 76
Adjectives Formed with Dental-Stem Nouns 77
Adjectives of One Ending 77
Comparison of Adjectives 77
Introduction 77
Comparatives in -tepos and Superlatives in -tatos 78
Comparatives in -(i)wv and Superlatives in -1otos 80
6 Adverbs 83
Formation of Adverbs 83
Introduction 83
Manner Adverbs in -ws 83
Adverbs Based on Other Case-Forms 84
Specific Formations of Adverbs Indicating Space 86
Adverbs Deriving from Prepositions/Prepositional Phrases 87
Comparison of Adverbs 87
7 Pronouns 89
Personal Pronouns 89
Reflexive Pronouns 90
The Reciprocal Pronoun 91
The Possessive Pronoun 92
autos 92
Demonstrative Pronouns 93
6Se 93
outos 94
éketvos 94
Contents
Other Demonstratives 95
Deictic Iota 95
Relative Pronouns 96
ds and doTis §=96
Other Relative Pronouns 96
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns 97
Tis, Ti; TIs, TL 97
Other Interrogative Pronouns 97
Seemingly Similar Formsof attés, 6 atités, Exutot and ottos 98
8 Correlative Pronouns and Adverbs 99

The System of Correlative Pronouns and Adjectives 99
The System of Correlative Adverbs 100
9 Numerals 101
List of Numerals 101
Declension of Numerals 102
10 The Dual: Nominal Forms 105

Endings 105
Forms 105
The Article 105
Nouns and Adjectives/Participles 106
Pronouns 106
11 Introduction to Verb Forms 108

Summaryof the Greek Verbal System 108
Basic Categories and Elements 110
Categories of the Verb 110
Finite versus Non-finite Verb Forms 110
Categories Pertaining to All Verb Forms: Tense-Aspect and Voice 110
Categories Pertaining Only to Finite Verb Forms 111
Categories Pertaining to Non-finite Verb Forms 112
Morphological Building Blocks: Stems, Endings, and Other Markings 112
Verb Stems and Tense-Aspect Stems 112
Endings 114
Thematic Vowels, Optative Suffixes, Participle Suffixes 114
Augments and Prepositional Prefixes 115
Thematic and Athematic Conjugations 115
Endings 116
Contents
Personal Endings 116

Tables of Endings 117
Subjunctives 119
Imperatives 120
Exceptions 120
Endings of Non-finite Forms 121
Infinitives 121
Participles and Verbal Adjectives 121
Augments and Reduplications 121
Formation of the Augment 121
With Stems Beginning with a Consonant 121
With Stems Beginning with a Vowel or Diphthong 122
Formation of Reduplications 123
Two Types of Reduplication 123
Reduplications Outside the Perfect 125
The Relative Position of Augments, Reduplications and Prefixes 125
Basic Rules 125
12 The Present 128

Thematic (-w) and Athematic (-u1) Presents 128
The Thematic Present 129
Overview of Forms 129
Non-Contract and Contract Presents 130
Endings 131
Contract Presents 131
Simple Contraction Rules 131
Thematic Present Stem Formation 134
Presents without Elaboration 134
Presents with an Original Yod 135
Presents with a Nasal Infix 137
Presents with the Suffix -(1)Jox- 137
Reduplicated Presents 137
The Athematic Present 138
Verbs in -vun =138
Reduplicated Verbs 139
Root Presents 141
Contents
Present Stems with a Long and Short Variant 142

Types of -u1 Verb; Present Stem Formation 142
Verbs in -vun: 142
Reduplicated Verbs 143
Root Presents 143
Endings 144
Thematic Forms 145
13 The Aorist: Active and Middle 147

Types of Aorist (Active and Middle) Stem 147
Sigmatic (and Pseudo-Sigmatic) Aorists 148
Sigma and Alpha 149
Endings 150
Stem Formation of Sigmatic Aorists 151
Verb Stems Ending ini, vor a Diphthong 151
Verb Stems Ending ine, aoro(ornorew) 151
Verb Stems Ending in a Labial or Velar Stop 153
Verb Stems Ending in a Dental Stop 153
The Pseudo-Sigmatic Aorist - Verb Stems Ending ina Resonant 154
Thematic Aorists 155
Stems and Endings 156
Irregular Forms 157
The Most Common Thematic Aorists 158
Verbs with Vowel Variations between the Present and Aorist Stems 158
Other Differences between the Present and Aorist Stems 158
Suppletive Verbs 159
Root Aorists 160
Stems 161
Endings 162
SiScu1, Tn and inur 163
Stems 164
Endings 165
Verbs With More Than One Type of Aorist 166
14 The Aorist: Passive (6n-/n-) 168

Types of Aorist Passive Stem 168
Conjugation of @n-Aorists and n-Aorists 169
xii Contents

Endings 170
@n-Aorist Stems 171
Formation of 6n-Aorist Stems 171
Verb Stems Ending in u or a Diphthong 171
Verb Stems Ending in Other Vowels 172
Verb Stems Ending in a Labial or Velar Stop 173
Verb Stems Ending in a Resonant 175
Suppletive Stems 176
n-Aorist Stems 177
Formation of n-Aorist Stems 177
Verbs without Vowel Differences between the Present and n-Aorist Stem 177
Verbs with Vowel Differences between the Present and n-Aorist Stems 178
15 The Future: Active and Middle 180

Types of Future Stem 180
Conjugation of the Future 180
Sigmatic Future 180
Attic Future 182
Endings 183
Sigmatic Future Stems 183
Stem Formation 183
Verb Stems Ending in1, u or a Diphthong 183
Verb Stems Ending in a Labial Stop 185
Verb Stems Ending in a Velar Stop 186
Suppletive Verbs 187
Attic Future Stems 188
Stem Formation 188
Other Attic Futures 190
Other Futures 191
Verbs with a Middle Future 191
Contents Xili
16 The Future: Passive (6n-/n-) 194

Types of Future Passive Stem 194
Conjugation of the Future Passive 195
Particulars 195
17 The Perfect (and Future Perfect): Introduction 197

Perfect (and Future Perfect) Stems 197
Types of Stem 197
Periphrastic Forms 198
18 The Perfect: Active 199

Types of Perfect Active Stem 199
x-Perfects, Aspirated Perfects, Stem Perfects: Conjugation 200
Endings, Periphrastic Forms 202
x-Perfects, Aspirated Perfects, Stem Perfects: Stems 203
Stem Formation 203
Verb Stems Ending ini, u or a Diphthong 203
The Aspirated Perfect - Verb Stems Endingin a Labial or Velar Stop 205
Stem Perfects 206
Irregular Stem Perfects: Zoixa, eiwba, ofa 208
Mixed Perfects (8¢501Ka, Zotnka, TéBvnKa and BéEBnka) 209
Particulars 210
19 The Perfect: Middle-Passive 212

The Perfect Middle-Passive Stem 212
Conjugation of the Perfect Middle-Passive 212
Endings 214
Overview of Middle-Passive Perfect Stem Changes Before Different Endings 215
Perfect Middle-Passive Stems 215
Stem Formation 215
Verb Stems Ending ini, u or a Diphthong 215
Verb Stems Ending in a Labial Stop 217
XIV Contents
Verb Stems Ending in a Velar Stop 218

20 The Future Perfect 222

Formation of the Future Perfect 222
General 222
Future Perfect Active: Particulars 222
Future Perfect Middle-Passive: Particulars 223
21 The Dual: Verb Forms 224

Endings 224
Examples of Dual Forms 225
22 Principal Parts 228

Regular Principal Parts 228
Principal Parts with Peculiarities 230
23 Word Formation 260

Introduction 260
Nominal Word Formation 261
Nominal Word Formation by Meansof Derivation 261
Some Terminology Concerning Nouns 261
List of Derivational Suffixes 262
Nominal Word Formation by Means of Composition 269
Compound Adjectives with Nominal/Adverbial Element + Nominal Element 269
Compound Formswith Verbal Element + Nominal Element 270
Compound Forms with Nominal/Adverbial Element + Verbal Element 271
Verbal Word Formation 272
Denominative Verbs Formed with *-yw 272
Verbs Formed with *-yw from Nominal Stems Ending ina Vowel 272
Verbs Formed with *-yw from Nominal Stems Ending in a Consonant 274
Compound Verbs 275
Denominative Compound Verbs from Compound Nouns/Adjectives 276
CompoundVerbs FormedbyPrefixation 276
24 Accentuation 277
Introduction 277
General Rules of Accentuation 278
Possible Positions of the Accent; Long and Short Syllables 278
Contents
The Rule of Limitation 279

The owtfp&-Rule 280
Contraction 280
Recessive, Persistent, and Mobile Accentuation 281
Finite Verbs: Recessive Accentuation 282
Non-Finite Verb Forms:Participles and Infinitives 284
Nominal Forms: Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Numerals 286
General Rules 286
Mobile Accentuation of Some Third-Declension Nouns 287
Some Rules for the Placement of Base Accents on Nominal Forms 288
Enclitics and Proclitics 289
Introduction 289
Accentuation of Enclitics and Proclitics 291
Elision and Crasis 292
25 Ionic and Other Dialects 293

Introduction 293
Ionic Literary Prose 295
Phonology 295
Morphology: Nominal Forms 297
First Declension 297
Second Declension 297
Third Declension 298
The Article, Adjectives 300
Pronouns 300
Morphology: Verbal Forms 301
Thematic Conjugations 301
Athematic Conjugations 302
Further Points on Verbal Morphology 303
The Doric a in Choral Lyric 304
PART II: SYNTAX 305
26 Introduction to Simple Sentences 307

The Sentence Core 307
Predicate, Subject, Object, Complement 307
Omission of the Subject and Other Constituents 309
Linking Verb, Predicative Complement 310
Omission of a Linking Verb: Nominal Sentences 312
Contents
Optional Constituents 313

Adverbial Modifiers and Other Optional Constituents 313
Noun Phrases 315
Elements of the Noun Phrase 315
Types of Modifier 316
Types of Head 317
Pronominal and Adnominal Use of Pronouns, Quantifiers and Cardinal
Numerals 318
Apposition 319
Predicative Modifiers 319
Elements Interrupting or Outside the Syntax of a Sentence 320
Parentheses 320
Elements Outside the Syntax of aSentence 321
27 Agreement 322
Subject - Finite Verb 322
Basic Rule 322
Exceptions 322
Head - Modifier (in Noun Phrases); Predicative Modifiers
and Complements 324
Basic Rule 324
Exceptions 324
Antecedent Relative Pronoun 325
Basic Rule 325
Exceptions 325
Apposition 326
28 The Article 328

Meaning of the Definite Article 328
Basic Meaning 328
Reasonsfor Identifiability of a Referent 328
Relative Position of Article, Head and Modifiers ina Noun Phrase 331
Attributive and Predicative Position 331
Attributive Genitives 332
Demonstrative and Possessive Pronouns 333
autos 334
Quantifiers 334
Adjectives Determining Position (uéoos, &xpos, EoxaTos etc.) 334
The Article as Substantivizer 335

Pronominal Uses of the Article 337
Contents Xvii
29 Pronouns and Quantifiers 339

Personal Pronouns 339
Contrastive and Non-Contrastive Personal Pronouns 339
First and Second Person 339
Third Person 340
autos 341
As Third-Person Personal Pronoun 341
As an Adjective, Expressing Identicalness: The Same 342
As an Adjective, Emphatic Use: Self 343
Summaryof the Uses of atités 344
Reflexive Pronouns and OtherReflexive Expressions 345
Introduction; Pronouns Used as Reflexives; Direct and Indirect Reflexives 345
Pronouns Usedas Direct and Indirect Reflexives 346
Direct Reflexivity 346
Indirect Reflexivity 347
Possessive Pronouns and Other Expressions of Possession 349
Introduction; Pronouns Used as Possessives 349
Pronouns Used in Different Constructions 349
First and Second Person 349
Third Person 350
Reciprocal Pronouns 351
Demonstrative Pronouns 352
Pronominal and Adnominal Use; Pointing Outside or Inside the Text 352
General Differences between 65¢, oUTos and éxeivos 352
Indefinite Pronouns 356
Interrogative Pronouns 357
Relative Pronouns 357
Quantifiers 358
Twas 358
6Aos 358
wovos 358
&AAos and étepos 3359
30 Cases 360
Functions, Meanings and Labels 360
Nominative 361
As Obligatory Constituent with Verbs 361
Other Uses 362
XVili Contents
Accusative 362
As Obligatory Constituent (to Complement Verbs) 362
Internal Object 364
As an Optional Constituent (Adverbial Modifier) 365
Apposition to a Sentence 366
Genitive 367
As Obligatory Constituent (to Complement Verbs/Adjectives) 367
Verbs Taking the Genitive 367
Genitive of Comparison 370
Attributive Genitives as Object, Predicative Complement, or Prepositional
Complement 370
As Modifier in a Noun Phrase: the Attributive Genitive 371
Dative 374
As Obligatory Constituent (to Complement Verbs/Adjectives) 374
AsIndirect Object 374
With Other Verbs and Adjectives 376
Dative of the Possessor 377
Referring to Things or Abstract Entities 377
Referring to Persons 379
With Expressions of Comparison 380
Vocative 380
Cases and the Expression of Time and Space 381
31 Prepositions 383
Introduction 383
CommonUsesof the Prepositions 384
Proper Prepositions 384
Improper Prepositions 396
32 Comparison 398
Meaning of Comparatives and Superlatives 398
Comparison 399
Constructions of Comparison that Follow a Comparative or Superlative 399
Constructions of Comparison that Express Identicalness, Similarity or Equality:
6 avtds, Suoios and icos 402
33 The Verb: Tense and Aspect 404

Basic Notions and Terminology 404
Tense 404
Contents
Aspect 405
Grammatical Aspect 405
Lexical Aspect 408
Factors Influencing Interpretation 409
Tense and Aspect Combined: The Indicative in Main Clauses 409
Basic Values of the Indicative; Narrative and Non-Narrative Text 409
The Seven Indicatives of Greek: Basic Values 409
Narrative and Non-Narrative Text 411
Present Indicative 412
Basic Uses 412
Specific Interpretations 412
Imperfect 415
Basic Uses 415
Aorist Indicative 417
Basic Uses 417
Non-Past Uses of the Aorist 419
Perfect Indicative 420
Basic Uses; Active versus Passive 420
Pluperfect 423
Basic Uses 423
Future Indicative 425
Future Perfect Indicative 427
The Alternation of Tenses in Narrative Text 427
Aorist versus Imperfect (and Pluperfect) 427
Special Uses of the Imperfect in Narrative 428
Historical Present 430
Aspect Outside the Indicative in Main Clauses 432
Aspect and Relative Tense 432
Further Interpretations; Exceptions 433
Aspectual Interpretation in Temporally Fixed Contexts 435
34 The Verb: Mood 438

Introduction to Moods 438
Indicative in Main Clauses 439
Subjunctive in Main Clauses 439
Hortatory and Prohibitive Subjunctive (in Commands/Requests) 439
Deliberative Subjunctive (in Questions) 440
XX Contents

Optative in Main Clauses 441
Potential Optative with &v (in Statements/Questions) 441
Cupitive Optative (in Wishes) 442
Modal (Secondary) Indicative in Main Clauses 442
In Statements/Questions 442
In Unrealizable Wishes 444
Imperative 445
Overview of the Uses of Moods in Main Clauses 446
35 The Verb: Voice 447

Introduction 447
Basic Terminology 447
Voice: Active and Middle-Passive Meanings 447
Active, Middle and Passive Forms 448
Verbs with and without an Object; Causative Verbs 449
The Morphology of Voice 450
Voice Distinctions in the Different Tense Stems 450
Verbs with Only One Voice; Verbs Switching Voice between Tense Stems 451
Middle-Passive Meanings 452
Indirect-Reflexive Meaning 452
Direct-Reflexive Meaning 453
Passive Meaning 454
Change-of-State Verbs 456
Change of Physical State or Position 456
(Change of) Mental State 458
Middle-Only Verbs and Passive-Only Verbs 459
Indirect-Reflexive Meaning 459
Reciprocal Meaning 459
Change-of-State; Mental State 460
Other Middle-Only and Passive-Only Verbs 460
Middle Future Forms with Passive Meaning 461
Synonymous Active and Middle Verbs 462
Overviews 462
Overview of the Middle-Passive Meanings and Forms of Some Important Types of
Verbs 462
(Active) Verbs which Take an Object/Complement 462
Verbs Whose Middle-Passive May Have a Direct-Reflexive Meaning 463
Verbs Whose Middle-Passive May Have a Change-of-State Meaning 463
Overview of the Meanings Expressed by Aorist and Future Conjugations 464
Contents
36 Impersonal Constructions 465

Introduction 465
Quasi-Impersonal Verbs and Constructions 466
Verbs 466
Neuter Adjectives; Nouns 467
Proper Impersonal Verbs and Constructions 468
Weather and Time Expressions 468
Impersonal Passives and the Impersonal Use of Verbal Adjectives in -téov 469
Proper Impersonal Verbs with a (Dative and) Genitive 470
37 Verbal Adjectives 471

Types of Verbal Adjectives 471
Adjectives in -téos, -téa, -téov 471
As Predicative Complement 471
Impersonal Use 472
Adjectives in -tés, -th, -tév 473
38 Questions, Directives, Wishes, Exclamations 474

Introduction: Sentence Types and Communicative Functions 474
Questions 476
Introduction: Basic Terminology 476
Yes/No-Questions and Alternative Questions 476
Specifying Questions 478
The Use of Moods in Questions 479
Is That a Question? - Non-Standard Communicative Functions of the
Interrogative Sentence Type 479
Answers 480
Directives 481
Basic Constructions 481
Difference between Present-Stem and Aorist-Stem Imperatives/Subjunctives 483
Other Expressions Used as Directives; Differences between These Expressions 484
Wishes 486
Realizable and Unrealizable Wishes 486
Difference between Present-Stem and Aorist-Stem Forms 487
Exclamations 488
Introduction: Basic Terminology 488
Exclamations of Degree 488
Nominal Exclamations 489
The Exclamatory Infinitive 490
Xxii Contents
39 Introduction to Complex Sentences 491

Definitions; Functions of Subordinate Clauses 491
Types of Subordinate Constructions 492
40 Introduction to Finite Subordinate Clauses 494

Subordinators 494
Functions and Typesof Finite Subordinate Clauses 494
Moods in Subordinate Clauses 495
Subordinate Clauses Which Use the Same Moodsas Independent Sentences 495
Subordinate Clauses with Required Moods 496
Moodsand the Useof &v in Temporal, Conditional and Relative Clauses 496
Sequence of Moods; the Oblique Optative 499
Attraction of Mood 501
41 Indirect Statements 502

Introduction: Indirect Speech 502
Direct versus Indirect Speech 502
Types of Indirect Speech 503
Indirect Statements 504
Verbs Introducing Indirect Statements 504
Subordinators Introducing Indirect Statements 504
Tense and Moodin 6t1/a>5-Clauses 505
In Primary Sequence 505
In Historic Sequence 506
With Verbs of Speaking 506
With Verbs of Perception, Knowledge and Emotion 511
The Continuation of Indirect Speech 512
Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Speech 513
42 Indirect Questions and Indirect Exclamations 517

Indirect Questions 517
Introduction: Direct versus Indirect Questions 517
Verbs Introducing Indirect Questions 517
Subordinators Introducing Indirect Questions 518
Yes/No-Questions and Alternative Questions 518
Specifying Questions 518
The Use of Moodsin Indirect Questions 519
Indirect Exclamations 520
Introduction: Direct versus Indirect Exclamations 520
Verbs Introducing Indirect Exclamations 520
Construction of Indirect Exclamations 520
Contents XXili
43 Fear Clauses 522

Introduction; Verbs of Fearing and Apprehension 522
Construction and Meaning of Fear Clauses 523
Fear for Possible Future Actions 523
Fear for (Uncertain) Present or Past Actions 524
Use of Fear Clauses to Express Disappointment 524
Independent Useof uy + Subjunctive 525
Effort Clauses 526

Introduction; Verbsof Effort, (Pre)caution and Contriving 526
Construction of Effort Clauses 526
Interference between Fear and Effort Clauses 527
Independent Use of dts + Future Indicative 528
45 Purpose Clauses 529

Introduction 529
Construction of Purpose Clauses 529
46 Result Clauses 531

Introduction 531
Construction of Result Clauses 531
With the Moods of Independent Sentences 531
ote Introducing a New Sentence 532
With the Infinitive 533
47 Temporal Clauses 536

Introduction 536
Expressions of Time When 536
Conjunctions Used in Temporal Clauses 536
Moodsand Tenses Used in Temporal Clauses 537
Temporal Clauses with Causal Force 538
Temporal Clauses Referring to a Single Action in the Past 538
Temporal Clauses Referring to the Future 539
Temporal Clauses Referring to a Repeated or Habitual Action 540
ews 542
Tpiv 543
Comparative Temporal Clauses (a> éte/aos 61rdTe) 545
48 Causal Clauses 546

Introduction 546
Contents
Construction of Causal Clauses 546

6t1 and &i6T1 546
Temporal Conjunctions with Causal Force 547

étrei/aos Introducing a New Sentence 549
49 Conditional Clauses 550

Introduction 550
Neutral Conditions 551
Neutral Conditions with a Future Indicative in the Protasis 552
Prospective Conditions 552
Potential Conditions 553
Counterfactual Conditions 554
Habitual Conditions 555
Mixed Conditionals 557
Concessive Clauses: ci kai and xaiei 558
Comparative Conditional Clauses: as ci, Sotrep ci and Sotrep &v ei as if 560
ei/éav in case, in the hope that 560
ém c(t) on the condition that 561
Conditional Clauses in Indirect Discourse 561
Overview of Conditional Sentences (Basic Types) 562
50 Relative Clauses 563

Introduction 563
Relative Pronouns, Adjectives and Adverbs; Definite and Indefinite Relatives 563
Correlative Clauses 565
Digressive, Restrictive and AutonomousRelative Clauses 565
Antecedent, Agreement, Attraction and Connection 566
Basic Principles of Agreement 566
Relative Attraction 569
Inverse Relative Attraction 570
Incorporation of the Antecedent in the Relative Clause 570
Relative Connection 571
Moodsand Tensesin Relative Clauses 571
In Digressive Clauses 571
In Restrictive Clauses 572
Relative Clauses Expressing Cause, Purpose, or Result 574
Potential and Counterfactual Constructions in Restrictive Clauses 575
(Cor)relative Clauses with Relative Adjectives or Adverbs 576
With Relative Adjectives (oios, étroios, S005, 61d005) 576
Contents
With Relative Adverbs 577

Relative Adverbs of Place (and Time) 577
Relative Adverbs of Manner: Clauses of Comparison 578
51 The Infinitive 580

Introduction 580
Basic Properties 580
Overview of Uses: Dynamic and Declarative Infinitives, Articular Infinitives,
Other Uses 580
Without the Article: Dynamic and Declarative Infinitive 580
With the Article; Other Uses 582
The Dynamic Infinitive 583
Verbs Taking a Dynamic Infinitive 583
Expression of the Subject of Dynamic Infinitives 585
Negatives with Dynamic Infinitives 588
Tense and Aspect of Dynamic Infinitives 588
Dynamic Infinitives Expressing Purpose or Result 589
DynamicInfinitives Specifying Adjectives and Nouns 590
The Declarative Infinitive 591
Verbs Taking a Declarative Infinitive 591
Expression of the Subject with Declarative Infinitives 592
Negatives with the Declarative Infinitive 593
Tense and Aspect of Declarative Infinitives 593
&v with the Declarative Infinitive 595
Verbs Taking Both Constructions 596
TheInfinitive with Verbs of Preventing and Denying 599
The Construction of Verbs of Hindering/Preventing with Other Verbs 600
The Articular Infinitive 601
Introduction 601
Expression of Subjects with Articular Infinitives 602
Negative with the Articular Infinitive 603
Tense and Aspect of Articular Infinitives 603
FrequentUses of the Articular Infinitive 604
Other Usesof the Infinitive 605
52 The Participle 606

Introduction 606
Basic Properties; Main Uses 606
Placementof Participles 607
Tense/Aspect and Mood of Participles 607
Xxvi Contents
&v with Participles 610

The Supplementary Participle 610
Introduction; Verbs Taking a Supplementary Participle 610
Verbs Taking a Supplementary Participle which Expresses an Action whichis
Realized 612
Verbs Taking a Supplementary Participle which Expresses Propositional
Content 613
Verbs Taking a Supplementary Participle which Expresses a Wayof Being 614
The Case Form of Supplementary Participles and their Subjects 615
Supplementary Participles and Other Complement Constructions 617
Verbs of Perception Taking More Than One Type of Supplementary
Participle 617
Verbs Taking a Participle or an Infinitive: Verbs of Knowledge 619
Verbs Taking a Participle or an Infinitive: Other Verbs 621
Verbs Taking Both Participles and é11/as-Clauses 622
The Circumstantial Participle 623
Introduction 623
The Case Form of Circumstantial Participles and Their Subjects 623
Connected Participles 624
Genitive Absolute 624
Accusative Absolute 626
Interpretation of Circumstantial Participles 626
Time, Circumstance 626
Cause, Motivation 627
Condition 628
Purpose 629
Manner, Means 629
Comparison 630
Concession 630
DominantUse of Circumstantial Participles 630
The Participle in Noun Phrases 631
Attributive Use (as Modifier) and Substantival Use (as Head) 631
Generic Use 632
Tense/Aspect of Attributive and Substantival Participles 633
Participles in Apposition 633
Periphrastic Uses of the Participle 634
eiut + Participle 634
éyw + Participle 635
53 Overview of Subordinate Constructions 636

Complements 636
Contents XXVii

Adverbial and Adjectival Subordinate Clauses 638
54 Overview of Moods 640

Indicative 640
Modal (Secondary) Indicative 641
Subjunctive 642
Optative 643
Imperative 644
Moodsof Independent Sentences in Subordinate Clauses 645
55 Overview of the Uses of &v 646

In Independent Sentences 646
In Finite Subordinate Clauses 646
With Infinitives and Participles 647
56 Overview of Negatives 648

General Points 648
ou versus un 648
Multiple Negatives 648
In Independent Sentences 649
In Subordinate Clauses 650
With Infinitives 650
With Participles 651
57 Overview of the Uses of ws 652

Asa Conjunction 652
Asan Adverb 653
As a Preposition 654
PARTITI: TEXTUAL COHERENCE 655
58 Introduction to Textual Coherence 657

Coherence 657
Sentences versus Texts 657
Relations between Text Segments; Hierarchy; Interactional Relations 658
Devices Indicating Coherence 659
Text Types 660
xxviii Contents
59 Particles 663
Introduction 663
Meanings and Functions; Typesof Particle 663
Particle Combinations 664
The Position of Particles 665
Connective Particles 665
Introduction 665
List of Connective Particles 667
GAAG 667
atép 668
at and atte 668
yop 668
dé 671
i 673
Kail 673
Kaito. 675
ev 676
wevto. 677
vuv 679
oudé/undsé and otite/unte 679
ouKkouv and oUKouv 680
otv 681
Te 683
Toryap, Toryapoty, and toryépto1 683
Toivuy 684
Attitudinal Particles 685

Introduction 685
List of Attitudinal Particles 685
apa 685
dpa 686
Sai 686
Sh 686
Sntou 688
Sijta 689
689
unvy 689
Tou 690
to. 691
Particles of Scope 692

Introduction 692
List of Scope Particles 692
Contents
ye 692
yotv 692
Tep 693
Adverbial kai 693
Particle Combinations 694
List of Particle Combinations 694
GAAG yap and gAAd&... yap 694
GAAK(...) SH 695
GAAG unv 695
GAN ov 695
yap 6 695
yap ov 696
Sov 696
Tun 696
Kal yap 697
Kal... 6 697
Kai dn 698
Kal 57 Kai =698
Kalunv 699
uév ouv (attitudinal unv + otv) 699
uév ouv (... 5 ) and pév toivuy (... 8) 700
ou uty &AA& and ot pévtor AAG 700
ou pny ovdé and otSé unv 701
60 Word Order 702

Introduction 702
Wordswith a Fixed Position: Postpositives and Prepositives 703
Mobile, Postpositive and Prepositive Words 703
The Placementof Postpositives 704
The Placementof Prepositives 706
The Ordering of Words in Noun Phrases 707
Head-Modifier versus Modifier-Head 707
Multiple Modifiers 708
Hyperbaton 709
The Ordering of Constituents Within the Clause 709
Asserted and Presupposed Information 709
Consequences for Greek Constituent Order: Focus and Topic 711
Focus Constructions: Broad and Narrow Focus 712
Topics 713
Given Topics (Postverbal) 714
Contrastive and New Topics (Clause-initial) 714
Contents
The Periphery of the Clause: Settings, Themes and Tails 717

Settings 717
Themes 718
Tails 719
Overview of Clauses with a Periphery 720
Prolepsis 720
61 Four Sample Passages 722

Narrative: Lysias 12.5-12 722
Introduction and Text 722
Commentary 724
Description: Xenophon, Anabasis 1.5.1-4 729
Commentary 730
Argument: Plato, Gorgias 484c-485a 735
Commentary 736
Dialogue: Sophocles, Ajax 1120-41 741
Commentary 742
Bibliography 749
Introduction 749
List of Books, Articles and Online Sources 749
I Encyclopedias, Companions(with Full Bibliographies) 749
II Online Sources 749
III General Works on Language and Linguistics 750
IV Historical Linguistics (Indo-European, Greek Historical Grammar, Etymology)
and Greek Dialectology 751
V Greek: Full Reference Grammars 752
VI Greek: Phonology, Morphology, Accentuation, Word Formation 752
VIL Greek: Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics, Discourse 753
Index of Examples 757
Index of Subjects 776
Index of Greek Words 794
Preface
On Cs and Gs: History and Aimsof the Book
Conception and Development
Readers picking up this hefty tome maybe surprised to learn that the first C of
CGCG(as welike to call it) once stood for Concise. The syntax part of that Concise
Grammarof Classical Greek began, as so many grammar books no doubt have, as
lecture handouts - to be precise, as EVEB s handouts used in first-year Greek
syntax classes at the University of Oxford. The work grew from dissatisfaction
with existing teaching materials in English: the main concern was that those
materials did not reflect decades worth of advancesin the linguistic description
of Ancient Greek, inspired by the incorporation of insights from various areas of
general linguistics. The last good full-scale reference grammarin English, Smyth s
Greek Grammar, for all its excellence, stemmed from a time long before such
advances had even been possible, and more recent grammar books had done
nothing to bridge the gap. The truth was that no bookexisted that represented
the current state of knowledge on the Greek language. There were other problems,
too: Smyth was often perceived by undergraduates as daunting and dense, but
alternatives were typically too limited in their coverage; examples used in existing
grammars werenot always representative, and based on antiquated text editions;
terminology was confusing and outmoded; andsoforth.
The lecture handouts began to look morelike a book when EVEB wasjoined by
ARin revising the material and producing additional chapters. LH, who had also
been teaching at Oxford and who had runinto similar difficulties with existing
materials, then joined, and he and EvEB wrotethefirst version of the section on
textual coherence - a particular desideratum in view of the advancesin linguistics
mentioned above.
Late in 2009, at the instigation of Juliane Kerkhecker, Grocyn Lecturer at
Oxford, the material was sent, in the state that it had now attained (still without
a morphology), to Cambridge University Press - not so much asa full-fledged
book proposal (in the mindsof the authors, at least: without the morphology the
work could notyet lay full claim to its first G), but as an opening gambit. To our
delight, the Press took the submission very seriously, and engaged a large number
of readers to judge the work. This led to a contract, and a changeoftitle to
Cambridge Grammarof Classical Greek.
A very great deal of labour, however, wasstill to be done at this point. Over the
next few years with manydelaysas the result of other obligations we drafted the
phonology and morphology chapters, and overhauled the existing parts to take
XXXxii Preface
into account the readers reports (which had been gratifyingly favourable and
detailed). It is in this period that MdB, former Grocyn Lecturer at Oxford, who
had himself been planninga similar effort, joined the writing team.
The revised work, which had grown considerably due to addition of the pho-
nology/morphology and further additions requested by our readers, was resub-
mitted to the Press in the final months of 2013, and anotherfull set of readers
reports on the complete text followed in the subsequent year. These reports were
once again very helpful anddetailed,eliciting not only a final roundofrevision,but
also a complete overhaul of the numbering system used for our sections. These
changes were completedearly in 2015; this was followed by a lengthy and complex
production process (in our Bibliography, we have not systematically added refer-
ences to works from 2016 orlater).
The end productis in every waytheresult of a joint effort: although individual
authors wrotefirst drafts of particular chapters, or took the initiative in revising
chapters or sections, we discussed every page of the book as a group,andall four of
us have reflected extensively on the entire work. Each of us is happy to share
responsibility for the whole.
Target Audience and Scope

Ourparticular hopeis that university students (at all levels) and teachers will profit
from CGCG.Professional scholars whose main area of expertise is not Greek linguis-
tics mayalso benefit from our presentation, particularly where it concerns areas which
are less often covered in traditional grammars (word order is a prime example), but
also more generally because of the mannerin which wehavetried to reflect current
thinking in the field (on such issues as verbal aspect, the use of tenses, voice, the
representation of reported discourse, complementconstructions, particles, etc.).
CGCG's coverage is such, we suggest, that it could be used in the context of
undergraduate and graduate language courses, and that a commentary on a
classical text geared primarily to a student audience could refer to it for most
grammatical features, except those so rare that they deserve fuller discussion
anyway.Still, there are many subjects about which we might have said much
more, and someabout which wehavesaid almost nothingatall (syllable structure,
the interjections, and forms of address spring to mind here). Other expansions,
such as a section on metre and/or prose rhythm,or the kind of stylistic glossary
often found in grammars, were neverseriously considered: to our mind, readers
are muchbetter served on these issues by specialized resources.
On the point of coverage, a few words mustalso be said about the second C and
G of ourtitle. There was a temptation (and a desire among a minority of our
readers) to increase the diachronic and dialectological scope of the work to cover
Homer,archaiclyric, the Koine, etc.; we also would have loved to say more about
On Cs and Gs: History and Aimsof the Book XXXxili
the Greek of inscriptions. However, as any such move would have drastically
increased the size and complexity of the book (and accordingly decreasedits
accessibility), we decided to limit our purview to classical Greek. Again, such
omissions seemed all the more feasible given the availability of specialized
resources on the dialects, Homeric grammar, etc. Since Herodotus and the dra-
matists fall clearly under the headingofclassical Greek, we did include a chapter on
Ionic prose and somedialectal features of drama (particularly the Doric alpha).
SomePrinciples of Presentation
Although we abandoned Concise for ourfirst C early on, we havestill strived for
concision andaccessibility in our presentation. Implicated in this is our decision
not to clutter the book s pages with bibliographical references or extensive discus-
sion of diverging views. We doprovide a brief, thematically organized bibliogra-
phy at the end of the book, and trust that the resources listed there will allow
interested readers to follow up particular subjects. We are well aware, of course,
that at some points our presentation is open to genuine debate or uncertainty.
Where we haveelided such discussions,it is not from dogmatism but from a desire
for consistency andclarity.
Anotherwayin which we have attempted to keep the book accessible is by making
it theory-light and by taking a considered approach towards our terminological
apparatus. Whetheror not we have succeeded in this must be judged by ourusers:
weprovide somefurther discussion of our choices in terminology at pp. xl-xlii.
Keeping the book approachable also meant forgoing radical departures from
normal ways of organizing a grammar. Our syntax chapters, for instance, follow
a traditional pattern, moving from the constructions of simple sentences (including
basic nominal syntax and verbal categories such as tense, aspect and mood), to
various kinds of subordinate constructions, gathered under such headingsas causal
clauses , purposeclauses , the participle , etc., which are strongly correlated to form.
Another approach - one moreattuned to the fact that language is not merely a
system of forms, but a medium usedby speakers and writers to accomplish certain
goals and effects - might have been to give much more prominenceto function, for
instance by discussingall ways of expressing cause or purpose under one heading.
This is not, in the end, the course we took, but gestures towards such an approach
may be found throughout the book, and somechapters(e.g. the chapter on wishes,
directives, etc.) more expressly align with such organizing principles.
Wehaveput considerable effort into the selection of our Greek examples: some,
of course, were found in our predecessors and recommissioned, but most were
newly culled from a wide range of texts. Our aim hasbeentofind,in varied sources,
examples that are clear and actually representative of the phenomenontheyare
meantto exemplify. Digital search corpora such as the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae
XXXIV Preface
and Perseus under PhiloLogic were of great help in finding suitable material. We
also decided to dispense almost entirely with fabricated sentences, from a convic-
tion that working with real Greek examplesis the best way of learning howto deal
with real Greek texts (and from what we consider a healthy mistrust of our own
ability to produce Greek that would have soundedtrue to an ancienthearer).
In the phonology/morphology part, too, our presentation of forms is often based
on a fresh examination of the corpus. Someexceptional formsthat are often listed in
grammars but do not actually occur in classical Greek have been left out. This is
particularly relevantin thecase of ourlist of principal parts, where we have generally
avoided giving forms which are non-existent (or nearly so) in classical Greek.
While on the topic of the phonology/morphology: we have in those chapters
provided rather morehistorical information than is now usualin university-level
grammars. Much of what is irregular in Greek forms and paradigms can be
explained with little historical background, andit is our experience that students
benefit greatly from being provided with such information. It should be stressed
that our aim in this was expressly didactic, not to provide a proper historical
grammar. This is the only excuse we can offer to experts wondering about our
principles of selection (no labiovelars?), or our mannerof presentation (e.g. the use
of the Greek alphabet for reconstructed forms, yielding, for instance, such infeli-
citous reconstructionsas *cey- instead of*seg -). Students interested in finding out
more aboutthe historical background of the language are strongly encouraged to
refer to the works onthis topic listed in the bibliography.
In the phonology/morphology part we have given indications of vowel quantity
&/&, 1/1, U/G) where we deemedsuch indicationshelpful for the analysis of forms, or
for students memorization of prevalent patterns (e.g. vowel quantities in endings).
Weoften give full indications only once within a section, or only when a form or
endingfirst appears. We havenotstrived for complete consistency, nor attempted to
replicate the information about individual lexical items available in dictionaries.
Finally, one other point of principle in the morphology has been to analyse forms
explicitly: we find in our teaching that there is a crucial difference betweentelling a
student that the acc. pl. masc. aor. ppl. act. of toaiSeUo is Tradevoavtas, and
explaining that the form is built up from a sigmatic aorist stem troiSevo(a)- (itself
the product of regular processes of formation), the participle-suffix -vt-, and a third-
declension accusative ending -as. Our aim throughout has been to stimulate the
second, analytical approach to Greek morphology.
Using CGCG: A Few Points of Guidance

The chapters of the book were written so as to be suitable for continuous reading,
yet we recognize that mostusers of a reference grammarwill cometoit looking for
Acknowledgements XXXV
discussion of a particular topic. A detailed table of contents and extensive indexes

should allow for easy navigation to the right place.
Wehave also included many cross-references throughout the book, so that
related topics or terms may be followed up quickly. In somecasesthe target of
these references is a (more) complete treatment of a topic which is not (fully)
discussed at the source ; in others, a cross-reference is inserted when a gramma-
tical term or conceptis used which users may not know,or which they may wish to
see treated in more detail; we also use cross-references in the discussion of
examples, helping readers with difficult points of grammar. Some readers will
want to follow up more of these cross-references than others: we trust that
individual users will soon develop their own preferences and practices in this
respect.
A difference in type-size represents the difference between sections discussing
features of the language that are more frequent, central, or significant (to our
mind), and thosethat are less so. Notes are addedto sections for further discussion,
exceptions, etc. The general idea is that text in larger type presents the main
features of a particular grammatical topic - those which an undergraduate student
might be expected to know - whereas the notes and smaller-type sections offer
additional information, or features with which students will be confronted when
reading texts, but which they may not be expected to know byheart. Naturally,
when CGCGis used as a teaching resource, instructors will determine for them-
selves which material they wish to emphasize.
In the morphology,tables of forms are presented before a paradigm is discussed
in detail. Those looking for nothing but the tables, gathered together in oneplace,
may find them online, at the book s page on the Cambridge University Press
website.
Acknowledgements
CGCG has been a long time in the making, and over the years many have
contributed to its improvement. Whereit falls short the responsibility is of course
ours. It is a genuine pleasure to record here someof the debts we haveincurred.
A first word of thanks must go out to the community of scholars working on
Greeklinguistics at large. Many of them will see their ideas reflected in these pages,
and although,outside of our bibliography, we do notcite individuals by name(for
reasons outlined above), their contribution in shaping our thinking is no less
significant.
The Cambridge University Press-assigned readers offered generously of their
time (twice!) to commenton a large manuscript in detail. Their general endorse-
ment has been gratifying, their criticism has sharpened our presentation in many
XXXVI Preface
places, and their corrections have saved us from a large number of mistakes. We
are pleased to be able to mention someof the readers by name:Patrick Finglass
wrote acute comments andwasthe ideal person to comment on our Ajax-passage;
HelmaDik provided superior input and has continued doingso even after her task
was done; Coulter George deserves a special deal of gratitude for the breadth and
detail of his report.
Benjamin Allgaier, Maurits de Leeuw, Karel Stegeman and David Cohen
checkedthe text and citation of all of our examples, working with precision and
speed. Mirte Liebregts took on the mammothtask of drafting our Index Locorum
and parts of the other indexes: we are grateful for her diligent efforts.
Juliane Kerkhecker provided early encouragement and was instrumental in
making contact with the Press. Gerry Wakker was intimately involved in early
discussions, and commentedonthefirst draft of the section on textual coherence.
Rutger Allan offered insightful comments on several chapters, and more generally
we haveprofited from his published work in manyplaces.
At the Press, we would like to thank Michael Sharp as well as our successive
Content Managers, Liz Hanlon, Christina Sarigiannidou, Ross Stewart, and espe-
cially Sarah Lambert. Malcolm Todd, our swift and precise copyeditor, was a
trusted ally during the production phase.
The bookuses a specially modified version of the Press's house font for Greek,
Neohellenic. Additional characters were designed by EvEB and by George
Matthiopoulos of the Greek Font Society. For his elegant designs, produced at
very short notice, George has our sincere thanks.
Friends and colleagues at our various institutions offered moral support, and
patience when wewere once again preoccupied with work on the grammar. EVEB
wishes to thank, in Oxford, the Faculty of Classics, Corpus Christi College, and
Magdalen College (particularly his colleagues at the Calleva Centre); and in the
Netherlands, the members of the departments of Classics at the University of
Amsterdam, VU University Amsterdam, the University of Groningen, and the
University of Leiden. Each ofthese institutions provided a welcoming homeand a
base of operations on one or more occasions during the years that CGCG was
written. AR is indebted to the Amsterdam Center for Language and
Communication of the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Amsterdam,
which continuedto provide material support of various kindsafter his retirement.
LH wishes to record a debt of gratitude to the Provost and Fellows of Worcester
College, Oxford, where the work was begun, to the Warden andFellows of Merton
College, Oxford, where most of it was done, and to the Seminar fir klassische
Philologie of the Ruprecht-Karls-Universitat Heidelberg, whereit wasfinally seen
through; at the last institution Jonas Grethlein in particular has showngreat
patience and support. MdB wishes to thank his colleagues from the Classics
Acknowledgements XxXxvii
team at the University of Amsterdam, and Irene de Jongin particular for her
support and encouragement.
Even more patience was shownbyourfamilies, who relentlessly supported the
enterprise and cheerfully indulged our nocturnal email exchanges. Thefourof us
spent many hoursin each other s (often digital) company, including evenings and
weekends. Weare all too aware that those hours might also have been spent
elsewhere.
Students in Oxford (especially at Merton College), Amsterdam, Groningen and
Leiden have been using pages from the book or earlier versions of the whole for
sometime, and haveoffered their views. To all our students, we owea great debt.It
is with them in mind that we wrote this book.
Abbreviations, Symbols, Editions
Abbreviations Used in This Book
1 first person ind. indicative

2 second person inf. infinitive
2X acc. double accusative intr. intransitive
3 third person Ion. Ionic
acc. accusative Ital. Italian
act. active Lat. Latin
adj. adjective lit. (more)literally
adv. adverb masc./m. masculine
Afrik. Afrikaans mid. middle
aor. aorist mp. middle-passive
athem. athematic n. note
Att. Attic neut./n. neuter
augm. augment(ed) nom. nominative
cf. compare (confer) opt. optative
class. classical pass. passive
dat. dative pf. perfect
decl. inf. declarative infinitive pl. plural
du. dual plpf. pluperfect (=secondary
perfect indicative)
dyn.inf. dynamicinfinitive ppl. participle
Engl. English pres. present
fem./f. feminine redupl. reduplication/
reduplicated
Fr. French refl. reflexive
fut. future sec. secondary
fut. pf. future perfect Sg. singular
gen. genitive sigm. sigmatic
Germ. German subj. subjunctive
Gk. Greek them. thematic
imp. imperative Voc. vocative
impf. imperfect (=secondary
present indicative)
Abbreviations of authors and works used in the examples follow those of the
Oxford Classical Dictionary, except that the orators are cited, where possible, by
speech number, and that Euripides Heracles is abbreviated (Her.). Fragments are
Texts and Translations of Examples XXXIX
cited (fr.) with the edition from which they (and their numbering) are taken. When
scholarly consensus holds a work to be spurious, this is indicated by square
brackets (e.g. |Andoc.] 4 ). For a complete list see the Index of Examples at the
end of the book.
Other Symbols
The symbol ( see ) indicates a cross-reference to another chapter (e.g. 1),
section (e.g. 1.2) or range of sections (e.g. 1.2-4). In some cases a cross-
reference points to a specific note (e.g. 1.2 n.1).
Greek examples are numbered (1), (2), (3), etc. (the numbering restarts each
chapter), and referred to using that format. Three dots (... ) in Greek examples
indicate that a part of the text has been left out for the sake of brevity or clarity. A
vertical bar (| ) indicates a line division in the Greek text. A double semicolon :: )
is used to indicate a change of speaker. Explanatory notes in and following the
translations of Greek examples are given in italics.
For the signs > and <, the asterisk * and the symbol f, - 1.48.
For the representation of (reconstructed) sounds using the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), - 1.14.
Texts and Translations of Examples

Our examples were typically taken from electronic sources - we have made
extensive usage of the online edition of Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, as well as
the excellent search functionality of Perseus under PhiloLogic. All examples were
subsequently checked against printed editions, normally the most recent Oxford
Classical Text, in a few cases a Budé or Teubneredition. We have indicated any
material left out, but have freely addedfull stops (or question marks) to sentences
which are syntactically complete in our example but run on in the original. We
have also indicated line divisions and speaker changes (see above, Other
Symbols ).
All translations are our own,although we have often borrowed phrasing from
published translations (particularly those in the Loeb Classical Library series).
On Terminology
Problems and Principles

Greek grammaris something of a terminological morass. All kinds of phenomena
are knownbydifferent overlapping - or not quite overlapping - labels, variously
popular in different periods or different regions. Conversely, for some features of
the language no good term haseverbeen firmly established. Matters are not helped
by the fact that, outside of Greece, the traditional terminology for Greek grammar
is largely based on Latin grammar, even though there are some fundamental
differences between the two languages(particularly in the verbal system).
The challenges for the grammarwriter are many, ranging from thetrivial to the
serious: should wecall ci + optative a hypothetical condition, a remote condition,
a should-would condition,a potential condition, or perhapsa future less vivid ?
Should we refer to pny as a modal , attitudinal or interactional particle, or
perhaps as a particle which expresses a mode of thought in isolation (all the
while well aware that the term particle itself has fallen out of favour with linguists
today)? Being noreal fans of the declarative and dynamic infinitive, should we
yet abandonthoseterms - nowfairly well established in Greek linguistics, if not in
Classics at large - for an older apparatus which blurs the crucial distinctions? Are
imperfective and perfective , the fully standardized termsin the linguistic litera-
ture on verbalaspect, too confusing to use whenthere are also imperfects and (not
at all perfective) perfects to contend with?
Any answerto such problemsis inevitably a compromise, and one which will
leave a numberof people unhappyto see no preference accordedto their preferred
terms. What remainsisto briefly state our general principles in selecting and using
terminology in this book:
Weaim to use, wheneverpossible, terms which have some currencyin general

linguistics, not merely in Greek grammar.
Wewishto reflect, through our selection of terms, some of the significant
advances madein Greek linguistics in recent decades.
Weaim to use terminology which is accurate anddiscrete (i.e. terms cover the
phenomenathey are meantto cover, and no moreorless).
Taking the aboveprinciples into account, we aim to use terminology whichis
intuitive (ideally, self-explanatory) and, where possible, familiar.
Finally, and most importantly, we havestrived for terminological inclusiveness
throughout: our notes and our Index of Subjects provide manyalternative terms
for the phenomenawetreat (sometimes wealso indicate whythose alternative
terms were not chosen).
Verbal Terminology xli
Verbal Terminology
Separate attention in this context is demandedbythe verb.A satisfying description
of the Greek verbal system is made especially difficult by the confusion plaguing
traditional grammatical terminology. This confusion is not easily resolved, other
than by completely abandoningthattraditional terminology (a course we decided
not to take). Although we aim to be precise in ouruse of verbal terminology, some
overlaps and forms of shorthandwill remain,andit is good to be clear about these
at the outset (reference to the table that opens chapter 11 maybe helpful here; fuller
discussion of the relevant terms may be found in that chapter).
Tenses, Aspects and Moods
The term tense is found used as (i) a morphological concept identifying certain
indicatives ( the imperfect tense , the aorist tense , narrative tenses , etc.), (ii) as
the equivalent of what wewill call tense-aspect stems ( a participle of the aorist
tense , a present-tense optative , the tenses outside the indicative , etc.) and(iii)
as a grammatical concept referring to the expression of temporal relationships
( past tenses , present tenses , etc.; anteriority ,, simultaneity ,, etc.). In this
grammar tense is primarily used in the third sense, occasionally in thefirst.
The seconduse will (and should) be avoided, since the term tense is much less
relevant to the description of (e.g.) participles and optatives.
Similarly, the terms present, aorist, future and perfect are used both (i) to refer
to tense-aspect stems( a perfect infinitive , the aorist optative does not have an
augment ) and(ii) to refer to the indicatives of these tense-aspect stems ( aorists
and imperfects , the aorist has an augment ) . It may be notedthatin the latter
use, aorist is a direct equivalent of imperfect , but not in the former(thereis, in
Greek, no imperfect subjunctive parallel to the aorist subjunctive ). In this
book wewrite aorist for aorist indicative (etc.) only when there can be no
doubt about the intended meaning.
Note 1: Thus, most often, aorist in this book stands for a stem which expresses a kind of
aspect (perfective aspect), present for a stem which expresses anotherkind (imperfective
aspect), etc.: for these distinctions, 33.4 7. We observe that in somerecent treatments in
general linguistics, the stems are in fact referred to by these names (yielding such
terminology as primary imperfective indicative for Greek forms which we will call
present indicative , and perfective infinitive for what wecall aorist infinitive ). Such a
system has considerable advantages, but strays, perhaps, too far from territory familiar to
most students and scholars of Greek.
Weprefer simple imperfect and pluperfect over imperfect indicative and

pluperfect indicative , since the latter formulations are tautologous (Greek
imperfects and pluperfects are by definition indicatives), and may suggest that
xlii On Terminology
other variables could go into the indicative slot (which they cannot: there is no
imperfect subjunctive ). For the definition of the imperfect as secondary pre-
sent indicative and the pluperfect as secondary perfect indicative , 11.7.
Weidentify only indicatives, subjunctives, optatives and imperatives as moods:
the infinitive and participle should not be classed as such.
On First? and Second Aorists and Perfects
Finally, there is a persistent tradition in handbooks to distinguish between first

(or weak ) and second (or strong ) formsin theaorist, aorist passive and perfect
stems:
An aorist stem is called first (or weak ) when o is added to the verb stem (e.g.
tra1sevo(a)-), an aorist passive stem when @ is added(e.g. traiSeu8n-), a perfect
stem whenx is added(e.g. tretraiSeuk-).
Otherwise, forms are second(or strong ).
Wehavenotfollowedthis use: first and second are, in our view, unhelpful terms
which provide insufficient morphological information (note, for instance, that the
second thematic aorist é-Aitt-o-uev has a thematic vowel, whereas second root
aorist -yva-yev does not; these should not be classed together), and which mis-
leadingly suggest that phenomena which are in fact highly regular (e.g. perfect
active stems endingin x or 9g) are irregular. Instead, we distinguish between three
types of aorist stem (sigmatic, thematic, root; 13), between two types of aorist
passive stem (@n- and n-; 14), and between three types of perfect active stem (x-,
aspirated, stem; 18).
Part I
Phonology and Morphology

l
The Signs and Soundsof Classical Greek
Writing: the Alphabet, Accent and Breathing Marks, Punctuation
The Alphabet
1.1 The standard Greek alphabetconsists of twenty-fourletters:
capital lower case name capital lower case name

1 A a éAga alpha 13 N v vi nu
2 B B Brita beta 14 =: g Ei (Ei) xi
3. O*#£#F Y yaupa gamma 15 oO ° Oo UIKpOV
omicron
4 A 5 SéAta delta 16 TT Tv tei (tri) pi
5 E é widdv epsilon 17. =P p 64 rho
6 Z Z Cita zeta 18 x,C 0,5) ¢ oiyya/oiyya
sigma
7 4H n ta eta 19 T T tat tau
8 ©o 6 O7\ta theta 20 #3Y U U wird
upsilon
9 | 1 idta iota 21 ® @ et (gi) phi
10 K kK KattTa kappa 22 xX X xei (xi) chi
11 A A Ad(u)BSa 23. OW w wei (wi) psi
la(m)bda
12 M uM wo mu 24 Q w a Ueya omega
1.2 Several other letters were used in Greek alphabets during and before the classical period. Of
these, the following will be used in this book:
letter name
F digammaor wau (1.31, 1.74, 9.13); the symbols u or w are also used as an
equivalent of this.
0 koppa (9.13)
S stigma ( 9.13)
a san or sampi (9.13)
Notpart of any Greek alphabet, but frequently used in the transcription of reconstructed Greek,
is the sign y, yod ( 1.31, 1.74); this is also often written as i or asj.
1.3-8 The Signs and Soundsof Classical Greek
Particulars
1.3 For the pronunciation (and phonetic categorization) of the letters, >1.14-33. a, ¢,
1 1, 0, u and w represent vowels; the other letters represent consonants, apart from
¢, and y, which each represent two consonants.
1.4 Lowercase sigmais conventionally written o in all positions except at the end of a
word,whereit is written s: e.g. 2@oTtpatos, oTcko1s. Sometext editions use so-called
lunate sigma C/c in all positions: e.g. Cactpatoc, ctdcic.
1.5 Somespecific spelling conventions pertain to diphthongs (combinations of two

vowels that are pronouncedin single syllable):
- Only thefirst part of diphthongs is capitalized: e.g. Aiyutttos, Eupitidns.
- In three diphthongs ending in iota, the iota is conventionally printed
underneath the first vowel: a, n and w. This is called iota subscript.
Alternatively, these diphthongs are sometimes printed with iota adscript: o,
m, w1. Iota subscript is not used with capitals: e.g. A1Sns, Q15n (lower case 51).
For a completelist of diphthongs, their pronunciation, and details concerning iota
subscript, 1.20-3. For accents and breathings on diphthongs, 1.8.
Accents and Breathings

1.6 Three accent signs are conventionally used in Greektexts:
the acute accent ': e.g. 4, é, 4, at, of;
the grave accent*: e.g. G,é, 0, U, ai, oi (written only on thefinal syllable of a word);
- the circumflex accent ~ (also frequently written ~ ): e.g. &, #, ad, of (written only
on long vowels or diphthongs).
For the value of these accents and the basic principles of Greek accentuation,
24,
1.7 Twobreathing signs are conventionally used in Greek texts, written on wordsthat
begin with a vowelor diphthong,or with p:
the smooth breathing(spiritus lenis) : e.g. dp0s, adtn,1;
the rough breathing (spiritus asper) : e.g. d6pos, att, fh.
A rough breathing indicates aspiration, i.e. a [h]-sound preceding the opening
vowel/diphthong of a word ( 1.27). In addition, words beginning with p are
written with a rough breathing(e.g. bitttw). A smooth breathing indicates the lack
of aspiration.
1.8 The following conventions pertain to the placement of accents and breathing
marks:
1.8-9 Writing 3
Accents and breathing marks are written only on vowels (and the rough
breathing on ep). When written on a capitalized vowel or p, accents and
breathings are placed beforetheletter:
oO Epatoo evns 0 Aduntos 1) Pddos
Whenwritten on a diphthong, accents and breathings are written on the second
vowel:
aiteiv o10s Troinoov
OUKOUV Eupitridns TraideVov
However, when an accent and/or breathing is written on a diphthong with an
iota subscript, it is written on the first vowel. This convention is followed even
in cases whereadscript iota is used (in certain text editions, or if the diphthong
is capitalized):
ékouv (adscript: dikouv) 1 (adscript: 7) A18n5
In combinations of breathing marks and accents, acute or grave accents are
written after (i.e. to the right of) breathing marks(e.g. otKouv, & ASuntos); the
circumflex is placed above breathing marks(e.g. ciS0s, o, Hpa).
Punctuation
1.9 Moderneditions of Greek texts use the following signs of punctuation:

the period(.): serves the same function as in English usage;
the comma(,): serves the same function as in English usage;
the high dot (-): roughly the equivalent of the English semi-colon (;) and
colon (:);
the question mark (;): the equivalent of the English question mark (?);
the apostrophe ( ): used to indicate elision of a vowel ( 1.34-8);
dashes ( ) or parenthesis signs ( ( ) ) are used to mark parentheses; the dashis
also used by some editors to mark interrupted/incomplete utterances in dra-
matic texts; other editors use three dots (... ).
Moderneditionsare inconsistent in their use of quotation marks: someeditions are
printed entirely without quotation marks(often with a capitalletter at the start ofthe
quoted speech - this conventionis followed in this book), some use ... or ... . ;
»? « >
finally, sometext editions (particularly those printed in France andItaly) use « ... ».
Note 1: Modern punctuation of Ancient Greek texts traditionally follows the

conventions used in modern languages (and therefore varies according to where an
edition is printed): it often does not reflect the probable ancient intonation and/or
writing conventions.
1.10-12 The Signs and SoundsofClassical Greek
Further Diacritical Signs
1.10 Apart from the breathings, accents and punctuationsignslisted above, the follow-
ing signs are used:
the diaeresis : written on the second of two vowels to indicate that they do not
form a diphthong(e.g. SaiZo, &iitrvos);
- the coronis (sign identical to a smooth breathing): used to indicate crasis, the
merging of a word ending with a vowel/diphthong and a word beginning with
a vowel/diphthong: e.g. tattdéd (= 16 atTd), Kata (= kai ita); for details,
1.43-5.
The Alphabet, Breathings, Accents, Punctuation: a Very Brief Historical

Overview
The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the Phoenicians, presumably in the ninth
century BCE, with the first securely dated inscriptions attested in the eighth century
BCE.Theletters ofthe Phoenician alphabet all represented consonants, but the Greeks
re-assignedthe value ofsomeoftheletters to represent vowels, and added someletters.
Most of the namesof the Greek letters are derived from the Phoenician names.
Early Greek alphabets differed strongly from each other, with respect to both the
inventory and the shape of the symbols. The East-Ionic alphabet (which had some
particular innovations, such as assigning a vowel-sound to the letter H) was
eventually adopted throughout the Greek world; in Athens, it was adopted for
official state documents in 403/402 BCE, although it may have been introduced
earlier for literary works. This is the standardized alphabet given above.
The division between upper and lowercase letters is not ancient: small letters
(minuscules) were introduced in the ninth/tenth centuries CE by Byzantine
scholars; the ancient Greeks themselves only wrote in capital letters (majuscules/
uncials). In modern editions, capital letters are conventionally used only at the
beginning of names and sometimes at the beginning of a new sentence, a new
paragraph, a newspeech turn (in dialogues), or to mark the beginning of cited
direct speech (the latter convention is followed in this book). Inscriptions are
sometimesprinted entirely in capital letters in modern editions.
Note1: For the use of the letters of the alphabet as numerals, 9.13.
1.12 Breathing marks and accents were introduced by scholars working in the Library
of Alexandria in the Hellenistic period. The system of accentuation adopted in
moderntext editions, although deriving indirectly from these Hellenistic scholars,
is based on treatises by Byzantine scholars.
1.13-15 Pronunciation: Vowels and Diphthongs 7
1.13 The Greeks also did not avail themselves systematically of punctuation or word
divisions (although early inscriptions sometimesusedthesigns: or : for divisions
between words or word groups). Both were introduced in Byzantine times and
adopted in moderneditions.
Pronunciation: Vowels and Diphthongs

The (reconstructed) pronunciation of sounds in classical Greek in the following
sections is given in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), and with as close an
approximation in English or another modern language as possible. IPA symbols are
given between square brackets (e.g. [a]). Many IPA symbols are predictable and corre-
spond to standard English usage; some, however, diverge (for these, a guide or the
website of the International Phonetic Association may be consulted). The symbol : in
IPA indicates a long vowel (e.g. [a:]).
Vowels
1.15 The following are the Greek vowels, and their pronunciation. In addition, an
approximation of the classical pronunciation is given in English and/or another
modernlanguage.
vowel sound example approximation

ax [a] yép [gar] for aha, Germ. Mann,Ital. amare
[a:] Xopa [k"5:ra:] land aha,Ital. amare
[e] weyw [pségo:] rebuke fatal, Fr. clé
n [e:] 780s [é:t"os] character air, Fr. téte
1 [1] ToAis [polis] city fancy, Fr. écrit
(i: ] SeAQivos [delp"i:nos] dolphin (gen.) weed
[o] tote [pote] once go, notorious, Germ. Motiv
[y] PUOIS [p"ysis] nature Fr. lune
[y:] ud8os [my:t"os] word, story Fr. muse, écluse
w [9:] TAd&toov [plato:n] Plato more, notorious
Below,to distinguish short and long a, 1 and u, the marks ~ (breve, short) and ~
(macron,long) will frequently be used: &, i, and t are short, a, tand U are long. ¢ and
o are always short. n and w are alwayslong.
Note 1: In conventional Anglophone pronunciation of Ancient Greek, « is usually

pronounced [¢] as in get, n is often (especially in America) pronounced[e:] as in made, 1
is usually pronounced[1] as in win, and o is often pronounced[p] as in got.
1.16-20 The Signs and Soundsof Classical Greek
Phonetic Details
1.16 Vowels are produced by the uninterruptedflow ofair from the vocal cords through
the mouth (as opposed to consonants, which involve a complete or partial inter-
ruption of the air flow, 1.25).
1.17 The quality of a vowel(its sound) is determinedby threefactors:

height (or openness ): the vertical position of the tonguerelative to the roof of
the mouth: for example, 1 and vu are high ( close ) vowels, because the tongueis
high in the mouth whenthey are pronounced;a is a low( open ) vowel;
- backness: the position of the tongue relative to the back of the mouth: for
example, 1 is a front vowel, because the tongueis positioned towards the front
of the mouth whenit is pronounced; is a back vowel; « is a central vowel;
roundedness: whetherthe lips are rounded or not: for example, u and o are
rounded becausethe lips are rounded whenthey are pronounced;1, ¢ and « are
unrounded .
1.18 The quantity (length) of a vowel is determined primarily by the duration ofits
pronunciation, although there are often changes in quality between long andshort
vowels as well. Note that the letters «, 1 and u are used to represent both short and
long vowels. The long equivalentof¢ is either n or spurious «1; the long equivalent
of o is either or spurious ou ( 1.23).
1.19 Using these variables, the vowel system of classical Attic may be represented as
follows (the outer triangle represents long vowels, the inner triangle short vowels;
rounded vowels are underlined):
front central back
A high/close
mid
WV low/open
Figure 1.1: Vowel triangle: the vowel system ofclassical Attic
Diphthongs
1.20 Greek has thirteen diphthongs, combinations of two vowels that are pronouncedin a
single syllable. The second part of a diphthongis always either 1 or u. On the basis of
the quantity of the first vowel, a distinction is made between short and long
diphthongs(although the resulting syllable is always long for the purposes of metre
and accentuation, except for final -o1/-c1 in certain words; for details 24.7, 24.10).
1.21-2 Pronunciation: Vowels and Diphthongs
Short Diphthongs
1.21 The following are the short diphthongs:
diphthong sound example approximation

a1 [ai] Kaivds [kainds] new high, eye (with shortfirst
vowel)
1 [e:] (earlier reife [pé:t"9:] persuade made, Germ.Beet(earlier
[ei]) eight, hey)
ol [oi] Aoitrds [loipds] remaining Afrik. rooibos (with short
first vowel)
Ul [yj] uvia [myja] fly Fr. huit, halleluja
au [au] tatipos [tairos] bull how (with shortfirst vowel)
eu [eu] eupos [etiros] width (no close equivalentavail-
able) a glide from get to
wide; cf. Cockneybell
ou [o:] (earlier trovs [pd:s] foot mode(earlier low, later pool)
[ou], later
[u:])
Note 1: u as secondpart of a diphthong was presumably closerto [u] (as in Engl. do) than to
[y]. Moreover, 1 and u in diphthongs were not pronouncedexactly like the equivalent single
vowels, but as sounds approximating semivowels [j] and [w] (as in Engl. you and wave); this
was particularly the case when the diphthong preceded a vowel, in which case 1/u was
pronounced as a glide between the vowel sounds(as in Engl. heyyou and new wave). For
the semivowels, also 1.31.
Note 2: ui occurs only before vowels.
Long Diphthongs
1.22 In long diphthongs, if the second partis 1, it is written in most texts underthefirst
letter (iota subscript):
diphthong sound example approximation

[asi] &S [a:ido:] sing rye
-Q
[e:1] Komidf) [komidé:1] entirely Fr. appareil

=
[o:1] tpaywdia [trago:idia:] tragedy noise (with longfirst vowel)

au [a:u] tauTo [ta:utd] the same how (with longfirst vowel)
nu [s:u] nupov [hé:uron] found (similar to ev, but with long
first vowel)
[o:u] éwutov [heo:uton] himself a glide from more to wide;
(Ion., 25.14) cf. saw
10 1.22-4 The Signs and Sounds of Classical Greek
Note 1: The 1 as second part of long diphthongs wasgradually lost in the pronunciation of
post-classical Greek, and subsequently also in writing. Iota subscript was then introduced to
indicate the original presence of the sound. In an increasing numberof moderntexteditions,
the iota is written as a full letter: iota adscript (mninstead of n, «1 instead of a, on instead of ).
Observethat oin this system is ambiguous(it can be both a short and a long diphthong;
but 1.8 above for the position of accents and breathing marks).
Note 2: The 1 as secondpart of n was probablylost alreadyin the classical period. This sound
then appears to have merged with «1.
Note 3: In conventional Anglophone pronunciation of Ancient Greek, iota subscript is
usually not pronounced(i.e. 7 is pronouncedas 7,etc.).
Spurious Diphthongs « and ou
1.23 Two developments contributed to a peculiar feature of Greek (particularly Attic-

Tonic) spelling:
along e-soundand a long o-sound,[e:] and [0:], cameinto useas the result of
contraction ( 1.58-65) or compensatory lengthening ( 1.67-9); these were
distinct from - namely higher ( 1.17-19) than - the older long vowels [e:]
(eventually written n) and [9:] (eventually written «));
the pronunciation of the diphthongs[ei] and [ou] gradually shifted towards[e:]
and [o:] as well (they were monophthongized).
As a result, in the late fifth century, the digraphs «1 and ou began to be used
to represent [e:] and [o:], not just when these sounds developed from the
older genuine diphthongs (at that time no longer pronounced as such), but
also whenthey resulted from contraction or compensatory lengthening. This
spelling was later standardized.
Because «1 and ou in such cases represent sounds which were never genuine
diphthongs, they are normally called spurious diphthongs.
Note 1: Below, and 6 will occasionally be used to represent [e:] and [0:] when resulting
from contraction or compensatory lengthening,in orderto distinguish them from genuine
diphthongs. It may be noted that E and O wasthespelling for both long [e:]/[o:] and short
[e]/[o] in Attic inscriptions up to the late fifth century BCE: the use of E] and OY madeit
possible to distinguish the long vowels from short[e] and [o].
Note 2: The pronunciation of ou (whetheroriginally genuine or spurious ) soon shifted to
[u:] (the pronunciation was fronted and raised, 1.17-19).
Pronunciation: Consonants
List of Consonants
1.24 The following are the Greek consonants, and their pronunciation:
1.24-6 Pronunciation: Consonants 11
consonant sound example approximation

B [b] Baives [bains:] go, walk bed
Y [g] yuvn [gyné:] woman guy
before y, x, x: [n] ouyyevts [syngené:s] akin living,
hangman
5 [d] 81c [dia] through dear
Z [zd] Con [zdo :] life wisdom
@ (t"] Bdvatos (t"anatos] death (word-initial t)
Tom
kK [k] éx [ek] out of, from scan
A [1] KaAds [kalés] beautiful lesson
M [m] Ofc [r"&:ma] word mother
v [n] vu§ [nuks] night nothing
g [ks] Eipos [ksip"os] sword ex
1 [p] Acittw [lé:po:] leave spot
p (r] pew [r'éo:] flow rhyme(rolling r)
a/s [s] Bdors [basis] step sound
T [t] Kpatos [kratos] power still
@ [p"] ypago [grap"o:] write (word-initialp)
pot
X [k"] rays [tak"ys] quick chorus
w [ps] payadsds [rapso:idés] lapse
rhapsode
Phonetic Details
1.25 Consonants are sounds produced by the complete or partial interruption of

the flow of air by a constriction at some point in the vocal tract: the Greek
consonants may be divided into the following categories: stops (labial, velar
and dental stops), fricatives, liquids, and nasals (for semivowels, 1.31).
Stops
1.26 Stops (or plosives): sounds produced by the complete interruption of the flow of
air. Within this category, three groups may be distinguished, depending on the
place of articulation:
(bi)labial stops: the flow of air is interrupted by pressing the lips (Lat. labia)
together;
- dental stops: the flow of air is interrupted by pressing the tongue against the
teeth (Lat. dentes);
12 1.26-9 The Signs and Soundsof Classical Greek
velar stops: the flow ofair is interrupted by pressing the tongueagainst the roof
of the mouth (Lat. velum).
The stops maybefurther divided between:

voiced stops: the vocal cords vibrate;
- voiceless stops: the vocal cords do notvibrate;
aspirated (voiceless) stops: the sound is produced together with aspiration (an
h-sound: 1.27).
The following are the nine stops of Greek:

voiced voiceless aspirated (voiceless)
labial stops B [b] t [p] Q [p"]
dental stops 5 [d] t [t] 9 [t"]
velar stops y [gl « [k] X [k"]
Note1: In conventional Anglophone pronunciation,9 and 6 are often pronouncedasfricatives

([f] asin Engl. fast and [8] as in theatre, respectively). This correspondsto the pronunciation of
medieval and modern Greek.
Note 2: y mayalso be a nasal, 1.29, with n.1.
Fricatives
1.27 Fricatives: sounds produced by squeezing air through a constriction at some

point in the mouth. The standard Greek alphabet has only onefricative, o, a
voiceless sibilant (a sharp hissing sound; the obstruction is formed by pressing
the tongue against the gums).
In addition, the rough breathing ( ) represents a fricative, [h].
Resonants
128 The category of resonants consists of the nasal consonants u andv (and in certain
cases y) and the so-called liquids A andp.
1.29 Nasals: the air flow is completely obstructed in the mouth, but flows through the
nose. The Greek alphabethasthree nasals (all voiced):
- a labial nasal, y [m]: the flow ofair is interrupted by pressing thelips together;
air escapes throughthe nose;
- adentalnasal, v [n]: the flow ofair is interrupted by pressing the tongue against
the teeth or gums; air escapes through the nose;
avelar nasal, y [yn] (only whenwritten before a velar stop - y,x, y): the flow of
air is interrupted by pressing the tongue against the roof of the mouth; air
escapes through the nose.
1.29-33 Pronunciation: Consonants 13
Note 1: Theletter y was, accordingto scholars in antiquity, pronouncedas [n] also before the
nasal u, e.g. in tea&yua [pra:yma]. This sound was then called angma . In modern
convention, however, this pronunciation is usually not followed, and y before yu is given
its regular pronunciation as a voiced velar stop [g].
1.30 Liquids: two Greek letters belong to the class of liquids - A and p:
- a lateral consonant, A [I]: air escapes along the sides of the tongue, but not
through the middle of the mouth;
- a rhotic consonant(or tremulant ), p [r]: this was pronouncedasa rolling,
alveolartrill sound, with the tongue vibrating against the gums. At the begin-
ning of a word (and in somecases in the middle of a word), this sound was
pronounced with aspiration (hence word-initial rho is always written 6-).
1.31 To the category of resonants also belong the so-called semivowels:

[j], asin Engl. you: in the notation of Greek, theletter yod (y,also j) is used to representthis
sound; some modern treatments use the symboli;
[w], as in Engl. wave: various Greek alphabets used the letter digamma (f, also known as
wau) for this sound; some modern treatments use the symbol w oru.
The semivowels are the equivalents of the vowels 1 and u, but they occur in different environ-
ments; for this, and for their disappearance from Greek, 1.74-82.
Geminates
1.32 Mostof the consonants discussed above can be doubled (so-called geminates ), e.g. kx, up, oo:
these stand for lengthened versions of the same sounds(cf. the pronunciation of English
compoundssuch as unnamed, part-time). In geminates with an aspirated stop (19, 16, xx),
only the secondletter is written in its aspirated form (thus e.g. Zattpa@ Sappho). Geminates
affect the metrical quantity of a syllable: thus e.g. the first syllable of dupa eye is long for the
purpose of metre, even though theo is a short vowel.
Letters Representing Two Consonants
1.33 Single letters, two consonants: three letters in the Greek alphabet represent a
combination of two consonants:
- { [zd]: voiced sibilant, followed by voiced dental stop;
- § [ks]: voiceless velar stop, followed by voiceless sibilant;
- wy [ps]: voiceless labial stop, followed by voicelesssibilant.
Note 1: In conventional Anglophone pronunciation, ¢ is sometimes pronouncedasa single

voiced sibilant [z] (as in Engl. zoo). This correspondstothat of post-classical and later Greek.
Elision, Movable Consonants, Crasis, Hiatus
Elision
1.34 Most short vowels at the end of a word may be droppedbefore a word beginning
with a vowel or diphthong;this is called elision. That a vowel has beenelided is
indicated by an apostrophe( ):
dtr attot (= &tr(o) attot) from him
(1) 1 ap Adnvasv got atrdpOntos trdAis; (= ét(T) &p(&) APnvar got(T) dtrdpEytos
wéaAis;) (Aesch. Pers. 348)
Is, then, the city of the Atheniansstill not sacked?
When m, « or t precedes the elided vowel, and the following word begins with a
vowel/diphthong with rough breathing, the stopis aspirated (6,y, 8; assimilation ,
1.88-9):
ap ot (= &tr(d) o8) since
(2) GAN Eo@ 60 Huds aivéceis. (= GAA(&) Eot(7) ST(E) Huss aivéoers.) (Eur. Alc. 1109)
But there will be a day when youwill praise me.
1.35 Elision also takes place in compound words, although this is not marked in
writing:
éTrepKoua Come upon (étri + Epyouat), dageors discharge (&trd + Eors)
1.36 In monosyllabic words,the final vowel can onlybeelidedifit is : e.g. y (ye), 8 (82), w (ue), but
not, for instance, the vowel of 16, Td, Ti, Trp, etc.
The -i of tepi and é11 is never elided; the final 1 of third-declension dative singular forms
endingin 1 (e.g. pUAax1) is elided only very rarely. Final -t is neverelided.
1.37 In poetry,the first vowel of a word (usually é-) may be elided whenitfollows a word ending in a
long vowelor diphthong. This is called prodelision or aphaeresis . E.g. tot ot1 (= trod (2)
oT1), éya 'k (= éya (2)k).
1.38 Rarely, and onlyin poetry, final -on or -o1is elided: e.g. civ év TH TdAe1 (= eiv(an) év TH 1dAe1) to
be in the city, oly as &buyd (= oip(o1) as &Bupd) woe, how I suffer.
Movable Consonants
1.39 Someverb forms and nominal forms normally get an additional -v when a word
beginning with a vowel or diphthongfollows, and often at the end of a clause or
sentence. This is called movable nu (Gr. vi épeAxuotixdv). It occurs with the
following forms:
nominal forms with a dative plural ending in -o1: e.g. tatpdoi(v), EAAnoi(y),
Toioi(v);
1.39-43 Elision, Movable Consonants, Crasis, Hiatus 15
third-person verb forms ending in -¢ or -1: e.g. ZAeye(v), pépouor(v), TIGnor(v),

éoti(v);
the 3 sg. impf. fer(v) he went, and 3 sg. pluperfects endingin -«1(v): e.g. HSe1(v) he
knew; andin the 1 sg. impf. 7(v) I was.
EAeyevautois she said to them EAeyetoidde she said the following
pépouolyaide tredotroAci these servants Siapépouoci8ai gvoeis natures differ
carry
Taow&vOportrois all men Tr&o1Beois all the gods
The optional presence of movable nu is indicated in this book by -(v) .
Note 1: Especially in poetry, movable nu is written even before consonants: e.g. t&ow
Bpotois all mortals (often for metrical purposes, as it makes the final syllable of its word
metrically long ). This occurs sometimesin prose texts as well, however.
1.40 The word ottwsso, thus is usually spelled oUtTw (withoutfinal -;) when a word begi-
nning with a consonantfollows. This -s is therefore sometimesalso called movable :
ottwséteAeUToev so he died otTwSéxovTai Tov OTPATOV SO
they receive the army
1.41 The preposition é« takes the form #§ when followed by a word beginning with a vowel:
é avSpav from men éxBpotaév from mortals
1.42 The negative ov not has three forms: ot before consonants, otx before vowels/
diphthongs, but oty before vowels/diphthongs with rough breathing:
ot Béuis it is not allowed ovtxoidaIdonotknow otydpas; don't you see?
Note 1: For the forms ot/otx/oty (with accent) and otyi, 24.36, 56.1.
Note 2: unxéti no longer (negative yn + 11) has its x by analogy with otxét1 no longer (ovx + #11).
Crasis
1.43 Two words of which thefirst (a word of at most two syllables) ends in a vowel/
diphthong, and the second begins with a vowel/diphthong, may blend together,
the two blendedsyllables forming a single new syllable. This is known as crasis
(kp&o1s mixing), and is indicated in texts by the addition of a coronis ( 1.10) on
the new vowel/diphthong:
TAUTE (= TH aT) touvavtiov (= Td évavtiov) éya@da (= éyo oiSa)
the same things the opposite I know
If tr, x or t precedes the new vowel/diphthong, and the second wordstarted with a
rough breathing, the aspiration is transferred to this stop (the coronis hasits usual
shape):
Poipdtiov (= Td ip&tiov) THOSE OtEpa (= THSe TH Huepa) xo (= Kai 6)

the cloak this day and the
Note 1: Someeditors incorrectly print @oipdtiov, Shygpa,etc.
1.44 No coronisis presentif the first word consists of only a single vowel or diphthong
(this occurs especially with formsofthe article). In such cases, only the breathing
mark ofthe first word is written:
avep (= © &vep) ath (= F adh) autds (= 6 attés) oupoi (= of guot)
sir! the same woman the same man my men
1.45 The vowel/diphthongresulting from crasis depends on the rules of contraction

( 1.58-66). Thus e.g. 16 évavtiov gives totvavtiov because o + contracts to
( spurious ) ou, T&évavtia gives Tavavtia because a + contracts to a.
Note 1: In somecasestherules of contraction are not observed, in order to preserve the vowel
quality ofthe second word sinitial vowel: e.g. avip the man (= 6 &vip,although o + « normally
gives w), avtt, avtds ( 1.44 above).
Note 2: When a diphthong with 1 merges with a following word,the is lost: Kayo (= kai éyo)
and I, tapa (= toi &pa), wevtTav (= pévtor &v); also OhuEpA, yo, atdTai, and otyoi ( 1.43-4
above).
Note 3: Most crasis-formsof 6 étepos the other (of two) are based on an older form &tepos: e.g.
atepos (= 6 &tEepos), aTEpor (= of &tEpo1), BaTtEpov (= Td GtEpov), BATEpa (= TH atépa). Batep-
forms are often written without coronis; from this developed a fully-fledged alternative
pronoun 6&tTepos.
Hiatus
1.46 Hiatus is the term for any instance of a word ending with a vowel followed by a
word beginning with a vowel, e.g. t& 5évavtia, toUtodpa. Hiatus is generally
avoided in poetry and sometimes by prose writers: this is done byelision, the
addition of movable consonants,orcrasis.
Historical Developments: Introduction

1.47 The remainingsections of this chapter treat certain historical developments in the
Greek language beforethe classical period. These sections are designedto elucidate
manyofthe irregularities of (Attic) Greek morphology. Contrast, for instance, the
following pairs of nominatives and genitives of some third-declension nouns:
nom.sg. &yoav contest gen. Sg. aydvos
nom.sg. yévos race, offspring gen. Sg. yevous
nom.sg. Baoieus king gen. sg. Baoiléws
1.47-50 Historical Developments: Introduction 17
The endings of these genitives seem at first sight unrelated, but may in fact be
explained as three instances of the samegenitive singular ending -os seen in &yév-os:
yévous derives from a form whichis reconstructed as *yéveo-os, from which the
first o disappeared, giving yéveos; eo subsequently contracted to 6 ( spurious ov)
(for these steps, 1.83, 1.58-60);
Baoiréws derives from *PaoiAsjf-os, from which ¢ disappeared, and no changed by
a process knownas quantitative metathesis to ew (for these steps, 1.80, 1.71).
Such changes are found to have occurred consistently in certain environments at
certain periods, and are therefore sometimes referred to as sound change laws : for
instance, the disappearance of ¢ between vowels is such a law of Greek historical
grammar. Most of the apparentirregularities of Greek morphology can be explained
with referenceto suchlaws,andit is therefore useful to have somefamiliarity with them.
Reference to the sections below will be made throughout the morphology.
1.48 The following conventionsof notation will be used in the description ofhistorical
developments:
Earlier forms which are not actually attested in our extant texts, but which are
reconstructed on the basis of our knowledge of historical developments, are
marked with the symbol* (asterisk).
Non-existent hypothetical forms and impossible forms are marked with the
symbolf.
The symbol> stands for develops into ; the symbol < stands for is derived
from ; these symbols are used both for changes in individual forms (e.g.
*yéveoos > yéveos), and for more general laws(e.g. & > n in Attic, 1.57).
1.49 In principle, the sound laws detailed below took place without exception (though
they are often restricted to certain phonological environments (e.g. between
vowels), to certain dialect-regions, and always to certain periods in the develop-
mentof the language). Still, numerous forms then remain which appearto violate
the laws. Such unexpected formsare often the result of analogy , the process by
which certain forms are remodelled after certain familiar other forms.
For instance, the nom./acc.pl. neut. form of the noun éototv boneis 607%, and
derives from doTéa; yet the combination ea normally contracted to n ( 1.59). The
unexpected form éoT& was presumably modelled on other nom./acc. pl. neut.
forms, which nearly always endin -a (e.g. 5pa gifts).
Analogical remodelling often functioned to level (i.e. regularize) nominal or
verbal paradigms: for instance, the aor. pass. (@n-aor.) of the verb yéw pouris
éyuény, etc., even though the expected form, given sound changelaws, would have
been Téxu@nv (-Ku@-<*-yu8-, 1.97). Forms with yu8- maybe explainedaslevel-
ling of the verb paradigm, given thatall other forms of the verb havey-.
1.50 Several of the developments detailed below apply only to Attic Greek (for other
dialects, 25).
Historical Developments: Ablaut (Vowel Gradation)
Introduction; Qualitative and Quantitative Ablaut
1.51 In Greek, as in all Indo-European languages, there are often different grades
(variants) of an individual root (for roots, 23.2): the different grades
have different vowels. The German term Ablaut is normally used for this
alternation.
Forinstance, the following grades ofthe root meaning father are found, depending
on the wordin which that root is used, and the grammatical case:
Tatep- e.g. in the voc. sg. 1d&tep, nom. pl. tratépes (normal) e-grade
tTatnp- inthe nom. sg. trattp father lengthened e-grade
Tatop- e.g. in the gen. sg. &tratdpos, acc. sg. dtratépa (normal) o-grade
Tatwp- e.g. in the nom.sg. of the adj. dtratapfatherless lengthened o-grade
Tatp- e.g. in the gen. sg. tratpds, dat. sg. tratpi zero-grade
Different grades also frequently appear in different tense-aspect stems of a verb
( 11.11-12), for instance with the verb Acitre leave:
Aeit- e.g. in the pres. ind. Aeitre, fut. ind. Aeiyo diphthong with e-grade
Aoit- e.g. in the pf. ind. AeAortra diphthong with o-grade
Ait- e.g. in the aor. ind. ZArrov no diphthong, zero-grade
Note 1: Indo-Europeanablautis the cause of similar variation in English roots, such as drink,
drank, drunk; and blood, bleed.
Note 2: Ablaut is in some older works called apophony .
1.52 Two dimensionsof ablaut maybe distinguished:

qualitative ablaut: variation between e-grades and o-grades;
quantitative ablaut: variation between the zero-grade (or weak grade), nor-
mal grade(or strong , full grade), and lengthened grades.
This gives the following possibilities:
e-grade o-grade
normal grade TATED &tTratépos
lengthened grade TOTtp a&TAaTap
zero-grade TOTpds
1.53 Often, the ablaut patterns outlined above are not immediately transparent in Greek
variants of a root because historical sound changes and/or subsequent analogical
remodelling have obscured them. Forinstance:
- Roots with a nasal or liquid consonant often have a zero-grade with &
( 1.85-7):
1.53-5 Historical Developments: Ablaut (Vowel Gradation) 19
e-grade o-grade zero-grade

Tpétrw turn TPETT- TpOTT- tTpatr- (<*tr1-)
otéAAw dispatch OTEA- OTOA- oTGA- (<*oTl-)
oTreipw SOW OTTEp- oTrop- otrap- (<*omttr-)
TaAOKW Suffer, TEVBOs pain Tevé- Tové- Ta8- (<*1rn8-)
The stems of some frequently occurring verbs, which alternate between a long
and a short vowel, are reconstructed as e-grades and zero-grades. For instance:
e-grade zero-grade
Sidap1 give 50- 5o-
iotnu make stand, set up otn- (<ota-, 1.57) oTa-
TiOnur put, place 81- Oe-
inui send, let go i)- é-
Note 1: The reconstruction of stems such as 8w-/80-, otn-/ot&-, etc. involves a series of
consonants called laryngeals : for instance, w-/80- is reconstructed as *deh3-/*dh3-, o1n-/
ota- as *stehz-/*sth2- (where hz and h3 are symbols for laryngeals). These laryngeals
disappeared from the language very early in its history, but left several traces. For
treatments of laryngeal theory, consult the works on historical grammar listed in the
Bibliographyat the end of this book.
Some Typical Greek Ablaut Patterns

1.54 Lengthened grade formsare found primarily in the nominative singular mascu-
line/feminine of nominal formsof the third declension ( 4.31-92). Contraste.g.
the followingpairs:
lengthened grade normal grade
nom. sg. masc. Saipnwv daemon acc. Sg. Saipova
nom.sg. fem. uytnp mother acc. $8. UNTEPAa
1.55 Manyfirst-declension nounsending in n/& ( 4.3 7) and most second-declension

nounsin -os ( 4.19-23) have a stem in the (normal) o-grade:
o-grade contrast:
Adyos word, speech AEyw say, speak, e-grade
otddos expedition, otoAn garment otéAAw dispatch, dress, e-grade
Note 1: Again, this pattern is sometimes obscured by sound changes (frequently involving
laryngeals, 1.53 n.1 above):
pavr voice (o-grade, onui say, claim (<gaui, e-grade, <*b"eh,-; cf. 1 pl. p&uev,
<*b"oh-) zero-grade, <*b"hy-; cf. otn-/ot&-)
Neuter third-declension nounsin -os ( 4.65 7) and -ya ( 4.40-2) often have a
stem in the e-grade (for ablaut in the endings of neuter nouns in -os, 4.66).
e-grade contrast:
yévos race, offspring yi-yv-ouon become, be born (zero-grade), ydvos child
(o-grade)
oTrepua seed goTrapnv I was sown (zero-grade, <*ottr-), oTrdpos
sowing (o-grade)
1.56 Manyverbsoriginally had:

e-grade in thematic present, future, and sigmatic aorist stems;
o-grade in perfect active stems;
zero-grade in thematic aorist, aorist passive, and perfect middle-passive stems.
In the following example, this pattern is retained:

e-grade o-grade zero-grade
Tpéttw turn pres. TpéTrw pf. tétpopa them.aor. étp&tréunv (<*tr11-)
fut. Tpéwoo aor. pass. étpaTrny
sigm. aor. éTpeya pf. mp. tétp&ppou
However,this pattern has often been obscured by subsequent changesor analogical

remodelling ( 1.49).
Historical Developments: Vowels
Attic-Ionic « > n
1.57 In Attic, long « was gradually raised to n (for vowel height, 1.17):
uytne mother (<patnp), ouy?flight (<puy&), vin victory (<vixa), SeomréTs master
(<SeoTréTas), fem. Seivt impressive (<Seva), lon make stand, set up (<iote&un),
aor. étiunoa honoured (<étipaoa), fut. vixtow will conquer (<vikaow).
But this sound change wasreversed if « stood immediately after ¢, 1 or p:

Ga sight, aitia cause, cogia wisdom, yapa land, veavias young man, fem. Sikaia
just, aor. paca did, fut. dviéow will grieve.
Note 1: The change & > n is peculiar to the Attic-Ionic dialect group. In Ionic, the change to n
took place alsoafter¢, 1 or p: thus e.g. xapn, 25.5.
Note 2: If & stands in other places than after ¢/1/p in Attic, it is itself the result of another
development, usually contraction (e.g. imp. tipa <*-&, 1.58-66) or compensatory
lengthening (e.g. tas every, all <*t&vts, 1.68).
Note 3: Quantitative metathesis ( 1.71) took place after this change: thuse.g. gen. sg. veas
ship (<*vn(F)ds <*vapds). So too the disappearance of ¢ ( 1.80): thus e.g. képn girl (with n
after p, <*xdéppn <*Kdpra).
1.58-60 Historical Developments: Vowels 21
Contraction of Vowels
1.58 Contraction is the merging of two vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, into a single
long vowel or a diphthong. This occurred especially when f, y or o disappeared
between vowels ( 1.74-84): e.g. 1 sg. tina I honour (<*-d(y)w); dat. sg. yéver race
(<*-e(o)1). For a complete overview of possible contractions,see the table below (1.63).
Contraction of a, «, n, oand w
1.59 Contraction of the vowels a, ¢, n, o and w involves two of the main factors
determining vowel quality: height and roundedness ( 1.17-19):
unrounded rounded
high ¢ (spelling: spurious diphthong «1) 6 (spelling: spurious diphthongov)
é 0
n w
low a, &
If at least one of the componentvowelsis (relatively) low, the productwill be low;if

at least one of the component vowels is rounded, the product will be rounded
(roughly speaking: a-sounds beat e-sounds, o-sounds beat everything else). The
productis always a long vowel or a diphthong. Thuse.g::
¢ +e (none of the component vowels is rounded or low) > é (high/unrounded,
long); e.g. 2 pl. troteite (= -Ete <-éeTe);
¢+o (none of the componentvowelsis low, one is rounded) > 6 (high/rounded,
long); e.g. 1 pl. troiotpev (= -Spev <-gopev);
o + o (none of the component vowels is low, both are rounded) > 6 (high/
rounded,long); e.g. 1 pl. SnAotpev (= -Spev <-dopev);
«+o (one of the component vowels is low, one of the component vowelsis
rounded) > w (low, rounded); e.g. 1 pl. tTindpev (<-copev).
If contraction leads to a low, unroundedproduct (i.e. contraction of a with ¢/n), the

ruleis: « first > @; ¢/n first > n. Thuse.g.:
¢ + a (one of the component vowels is low,¢ first) > n (low, unrounded); e.g.
nom./acc. pl. neut. yévn (<-ea);
- a+e (same, but with a first) > &; e.g. 2 pl. tate (<-ceTe).
Note 1: For the sequences n&, n&, no, no, and nw, 1.71.
1.60 Long vowels é and 6 werespelled in classical Greek as spurious diphthongs «1 and
ou ( 1.23). Their behaviour in contraction, however,is entirely according to the
rules given above. This means that when these soundscontract with another vowel,
no 1 or vu is involved. Thuse.g::
a+ spurious «1 > & (not a): e.g. inf. Tipav (<*-d-év);

o+ spurious «1 > spuriousou (= 6): e.g. inf. SnAowv (= -ov <*-d-év);
a+ Spurious ou > w (not wu): e.g. 2 sg. imp. mp. TI(<*-a-5).
Diphthongs
1.61 Contraction of a vowel with 1/u generally leads to a diphthong:e.g. dat. sg.
ToAe. (<*1rdAe(y)1), 3 sg. opt. Tra1Sevor (-0-1).
1.62 When a vowelcontracts with a diphthong, the product is a diphthong with the
same1 or u as its second part; for the first part of the diphthong, the rules given
above apply (so e.g. ¢ + a1 > n, because ¢ + a > n).
Exception: o + n > o1 (e.g. 3 sg. subj. SnAoi <*-o-n).
Note 1: Diphthongs &, o1 and ou are shortened to regular «1,o1, ou (so e.g. 3 sg. ind. SnAoi
<*-6-¢1 (0 + > 36)).
Note 2: The endings -e1s and -«1 of 2/3 sg. pres. act. ind. have a real diphthong, but in the
infinitive ending -ew the diphthongis spurious (contracted from -e-ev): thus 3 sg. ind. tiyé
(<*-a-e1), but inf. tyuav (<*-a-év); 3 sg. ind. SnAoi (<*-o-e1), but inf. SnAoGv (= -dv <*-o-Ey).
Summary Table of Contractions
1.63 The principles outlined abovelead to the following possibilities for contraction:
first vowel second vowel

a/e e(@) n 1 oO ou (5) w U
o/& a & a a ala w ) ) au
n e( ) ea(@) nq « ou (3d) ou (3) w U
n 1.71 n 1) n wo ->1.71 w1.71 w -1.71 nu
Ww ou (6) ov(d6) wo oa ou (6) ou (5) Ww ou
Ww w Ww w Oo Oo Ww Ww Ww GU
first vowel second vowel (diphthongs)

El nN an a ol ou w
o/& a a (x) a wD n/a n/a
E él n n n ol n/a a
n n n 1.71 n/a w 1.71 n/a n/a
ol ol n/a n/a ol n/a a
w wo wo n/a n/a wo n/a a)
Occasionally, 1 or u contracts with a following vowel, generally swallowing it: e.g.

nom.pl. iy@ves > ix8ts fishes, Xtios > Xios Chios.
1.64 Somefurther examples:

contraction beginning with o-:
a + e/spurious e1/n > & e.g. Tiuae > Tivo; Tipdetv (= -cév) >
TIUAV; TIUANTE > TIUATE
a + o/spurious ou/w > w .8. TIUGOLEV > TIU@PEV; TIUGOU > TINO;
TILA> TINA
atrealer>aqator>a .8. TIUGEL > TINGTIUcOoIMEV > TIUdpEV
contraction beginning with e-:

e + e/spurious 1 > spurious «1 e.g. Toice > Troiel; Troigelv (= -e v) > Troteiv
¢ + o/spurious ou > spurious ou e.g. Trolgopa > Tro1loGuar; yYpucEou (= - d) >
XpucoU
etar>netarn e.g. yeven > yevn; Tradeveat > Traideun.
e dissolves into 1, 01, n, .g. Trolgel > Trolgt; TrolgolpEev > TTOIOIPEV;
TTOLENTE > TOITTE; TOIEW > Tro1d
contraction beginning with o-:
o + e/spurious £1 > spurious ou e.g. St)Aoe > SHAou; SnAdei(= -dév) > SyAoiv
ota/niw>o e.g. ai5da > aid; SnAdnTE > SNATE;
SNAdw > SNA
ot+e/o>oj;ot+n>or(!) e.g. SnAdei > SNAoi; SnAdoipev > SNAoivev;
SAH > SnAoci
contraction beginning with n- or w-:

Hter-nwtear>o .2. XPTIETAI > XPT/TAL; Tpwes > Tews ; Npwa
> Tipe
Nn+n>mpBotor>a e.g. Cyn > Cis Aaywo! > Aaya
Further Particulars and Exceptions
1.65 If ¢ disappeared ( 1.80) between ¢/n and another vowel, contraction only
occurred if the second vowel was¢/n (or a diphthong with those sounds) as well.
Thuse.g. 3 sg. 1Aci sails (<*Aéf-e1), TepixAtis Pericles (<*-xAé¢-ns); but 1 pl. Agopev
(<*trAgpopuev), gen. TepixAgous (<*-KAgf-ds5 <*-KAEfe(c)os).
If ¢ disappeared between other vowels, these did not contract: e.g. pf. &xt}Koa
have heard (<*&xt\Kofa).
Note 1: Even if ¢ disappeared between two instances of ¢/n, contraction did not occur
consistently: contrast 3 sg. impf. katéxee with éveyer (both <*-éyere, of the verbs kataxéw
pour down and éyyéw pourin, respectively), and nom.pl. vijes ships with BaonAjjs kings (both
<*-fipes).
1.66 Frequently, analogy ( 1.49) cancels the effects of contraction: e.g. nom./acc. neut.
pl. d0té-a > d0T& bones (not tdéoT#; by analogy with other neut. pl. formsin -a);
nom.fem.pl. pvéou > vai minae (not tyuvé; by analogy with other fem.pl. formsin
-o1), nom. fem. pl. ypuoéai > ypucait golden (not typuo#}).
Long andShort: the Augment, Stem Formation, Compensatory

Lengthening
1.67 A numberof grammatical rules and sound changescausevariants of certain forms

to occur with either a long or a short vowel/diphthong:
the formation of many verbal and nominal stems: e.g. nom.sg. dSaipoov spirit,
contrast gen. sg. Saipovos; troin- (e.g. in fut. troitjow), contrast troie- (pres. stem
of troigw make, do);
the formation of the augment with verbs starting with a vowel or diphthong:
e.g. impf. fKouov (&kovw hear); for details, > 11.37-8;
so-called compensatory lengthening, usually caused by the disappearance
of a consonant in a cluster consisting of resonant + o/y: e.g. aor. Zpnva
showed (<*é-g&v-oa).
All of these phenomenaare often referred to as lengthening , but the sound
changes underlying them are not the same, and occurred at different moments
in the development of the language (in fact the heading lengthening is often not
accurate, particularly in the case of stem formation, where the alternation is
typically the result of ablaut, -1.51-6). They therefore lead to different results,
especially whereit concernsthe long counterparts of &, « and o. For an overview of
the different results, see the table below ( 1.69).
Compensatory Lengthening
1.68 Compensatory lengthening, most often caused by the disappearance of a con-

sonant from the cluster nasal/liquid + o or y, occurs regularly in the following
cases:
in the pseudo-sigmatic aorist (with verb stems ending in a resonant, > 13.24-6);
e.g. kplve judge, verb stem xpi(v)-, aor. Expiva (<*é-Kpiv-oa); with gaive show,
verb stem pnv-/pav-, aor. Eprva (<*é-pav-oa);
in the present stem of verbs in -sivw/-ipw, -ivw/-ipw, and -dvw/-Upw,
e.g. otreipw sow (= oTtEpw <*otrép-yw), Kpivw judge (<*xpiv-yw), pupa mix
(<*pUp-yoo);
in the dat. pl. masc./neut., the fem., and sometimes the nom.sg. masc. of nominal
vt-stems ( 4.45-8, 5.15-18), e.g. nom. sg. masc. ppl. Se1kvis showing (<*Se1kvivs
<*Seikvuvts), dat. pl. Seixvior (<*-Uvo1 <*-tvto1), fem. Seikvica (<*-ivoa
<*-ivtya), but gen. sg. masc. Seikvivtos, dat. Sev
in the 3 pl. pres. act. ind. of -w verbs (thematic, 11.27, 12.3-7): e.g. 3 pl.
tro1sevouoi educate (= traisevdo1 <*traiSevovo1), contrast 1 pl. taiSevopev;
in the accusative plural endings of the first and second declensions: té&s
(<*t&vs), Tous (= TOs <*toOvs);
- other, incidental, cases, e.g. cis one (= Es <*évs), contrast gen. évds; cis (in)to
(= &>5 <*évs); eiui be (= Evi <*éoui), contrast 2 pl. éorté.
Two stages of compensatory lengthening are distinguished: in the first, o or y
disappeared and a resonant remained(e.g. éxpiva <*éxpivoa); in the second, (word-
final or secondary , 1.84) o remained and a resonantdisappeared (e.g. tous <*tévs).
In Attic, the two stages led to different results in the case of lengthened a, as one
stage occurred before the change a > n (1.57), the other after it; thus first-stage
lengthened & could subsequently changeto n (e.g. Epnva <*Epava <*Epavoa), whereas
second-stage & did not(e.g. Tas <*t&vs).
Note 1: Results such as té&s, tous, and eis originally would have occurred only when these
words were followed by a vowel, but were generalized. Sometimes different dialects/authors
generalized different forms (e.g. Ion.és).
Note 2: In the dat. pl. of nominal v-stems, the v seems to disappear without compensatory
lengthening: e.g. with Saiuev spirit (stem Soipov-), dat. pl. Saipoo1; with cappav prudent
(stem owgpov-), dat. pl. cappoo. This is presumably the result of analogical levelling of
paradigmsrather than a regular change: 4.51 n.1.
Summary Table
1.69 The following table summarizes the different vowel alternations:

(the table on the next page)
Shortening: Osthoff s Law

1.70 Long vowels (a, n, 1, U, wo) were shortened (to &,¢, i, U, o, respectively) when they
were followed by a resonant(u,v, A, p) and another consonant. This sound change
is known as Osthoff's Law. Some examples:
gen. sg., ppl. aor. pass. troideu8évtos (<*-Onvtos), gen. pl. traideu@evtov
(<*-Onvtov); cf. étra1dsevOnv;
ppl. aor. yvovtes (<*yvasvtes), dat. pl. yvotior (= yvion <*yvdvtoi <*yvevton); cf.
EYVOov.
To this sound change also belongs the shortening of long diphthongsbefore a
consonant(or at word end), since the second part of diphthongs (1, u) counts as a
resonant(cf. y, ¢, 41.31). This explains such casesas:
Baoitets king (<*-nus), voc. sg. Baoied (<*-nu), cf. nom. pl. BaciAtis (<*-7iges,
1.79-80);
long vowel augmentation/stem formation
short
vowel augmentation stem formation
a n a&Kkouw impf. 7j}Kouvov TIyao fut.
TILT]OW
& (after «, Spafut. Spaow
1 or p)
E n épwtdeo impf. jpatov Troiteo fut.
TTONO@
1 1 Tut impf. inv
° wo dvouelo impf. avdyaZov SnAdeo fut.
SNAwow
U U UBpife impf. UBpifov
long vowel unchanged fjko impf. jKov n/a
diphthong first part as above, aioyUvouon impf. foyuvounv n/a
secondpart (1/u) eupioxw aor. NUpoV
unchanged oikéw impf. dkouv
long vowel compensatory lengthening

short first stage (result: o/y disappears, secondstage(result: o
vowel resonant remains) : remains, resonant disappears)
& n stem p&v- aor. Epnva 3 a dat. pl. iot&or
(<*?pavoa) (<*iotavtot)
a (after e,10rp) stem pidv- aor.
guiava (<*éuiavoa)
E spurious «1 (= ) stem pev- aor. Eueivo : dat. pl. 1:8¢icn
(<*uevoa) (<*118évTo01)
T T stem Kpiv- aor. éxpiva : Ion. acc. pl. 1rdAis
(<*éxpivoa) (<*trdAivs, 25.22)
Oo spurious ou (=s) : dat. pl. 8:S0t01
(<*8186vT01)
3 pl. ind. AUouor
(<*Avovo1)
U U stem &puv- aor. dat. pl. Seixviion
Tuva (<*Hpwvoa) (<*Se1kvivto1)
long vowel n/a
diphthong n/a
Note 1: There are several exceptions to these rules for the formation of the augment. Fordetails,
11.40-1.
1.70-3 Historical Developments: Consonants 27
vats ship (<*vats, rather than > vnis), dat. pl. vauoi (<*vauoi, rather than > vnuoi),
cf. nom.pl. vijes (<*viifes).
Note 1: The diphthong formed bythe optative marker1/1n (11.16) is always short, even
whenit is added to stems whichare otherwiselong: e.g. yvoinv, otoiev, tadeuGeipev (contrast
Eyvev, got, étraidevOnv). Osthoffs Law was presumably involvedat least in forms whose
endings begin with a consonant (e.g. troiSeu@ecivev <*traideuOt)-1-yev); the reasons for the
short diphthong in someothercases are controversial.
Quantitative Metathesis
1.71 The following changesare referred to as quantitative metathesis (= exchange of

(vowel) quantity):
Whenn wasfollowed by long & or , it was shortenedin Attic-Ionic(i.e. n& > ea,
nw > eo); if it was followed by 6 ( spurious ou), it was shortened and 6 changed
to w (i.e. nd > ew).
Whenn wasfollowed by short & or 0, it was shortened and the second vowel
lengthened to & or w (i.e. n& > ea, No > Ew):
Contraction of the two resulting vowels then took place, unless ¢ stood between
them ( 1.65).
Gea sight (<*On(F)a); gen. sg. vew temple (<*vn(F)o); gen. pl. Baoidgwv kings
(<*Baoiht(p)ov), 1 sg. aor. subj. 86 (<Péa <*Ota), 3 pl. aor. subj. cota (<oTéwo1v
<*oTHworr).
acc. sg. Baoidea (<*Baoidti(F)&); gen. sg. Baoidéws (<*PaoiAf(f)os), nom. sg. ves
(<*vn(e)ds <*vapos), nom.pl. iAew favourable (<*iAn(F)o1).
Note 1: The term quantitative metathesis is inaccurate in cases such as 66,veo, etc., as there
is no exchange ofvowel length, merely a shorteningofthe first. Nevertheless, the term tends
to be used for such instances as well.
Historical Developments: Consonants
Consonants at Word End
1.72 Apart from vowels, only v, p and gs (including and w) can occur at word end.
Note 1: There are two exceptions (both proclitics, +24.33-5): the preposition é«x and the
negative oux/ovy.
1.73 Otheroriginal consonants at word end werelost or changed:

stops at word end disappeared:
voc. sg. yuvor woman (<*yuvaik, cf. yuvaikds), nom. sg. ya&Aa milk (<*ydAaxtT,
cf. yaéAaxTos);
voc. sg. trai child (<*troid, cf. taidds), neut. ppl. toiSetov (<*-ovt, cf. gen.
tro1sevovtos), 3 pl. impf. épepov carried (<*tpepovt,cf. Lat. ferebant).
-w at word end after a vowel became-v (for -u at word end after consonants,
1.85-6):
neut. év one (<*oéy, cf. fem. opia), acc. sg. AUKov wolf (<*AUKou,cf. Lat. lupum), 1
sg. impf. Epepov (<*Epepou, cf. Lat. ferebam).
The Disappearanceoff, y and o
1.74 Manypeculiarities of Greek morphology are due to the disappearance or changeof

the semivowels y and ¢ ( 1.31) andthefricative o at different points in the history
of the language. The most important sound changes involving these consonants
are detailed below.
Semivowel ¢ and vowel t are in fact the same sound in different environments (so
e.g. Taxus quick (nom. sg., zero-grade) between consonants, but *tayégos (gen.sg.,
e-grade, > tayéos between vowels). The same holds for semivowel y and voweli (so
e.g. 1dAis city (nom. sg., zero-grade) between consonants, but *1rdAeyes (nom.pl., e-
grade, > 1dAeis) between vowels).
Sound Changes Involving i/y
1.75 The voweli is found:

Between consonantsor at word end after a consonant.So e.g. 1dAis, voc. TrdAi.
Between a vowel and a consonantor at word end after a vowel, forming a
diphthongwith the preceding vowel. So e.g. itn go, dw sing (<dei8-), BS song
(<éoi8-), opt. toiSevoin, 3 sg. troadevor.
1.76 When semivowel y stood between vowels, it disappeared without trace; the
vowels then contracted ( 1.58-66): e.g. dat. sg. 1dAe1 (<*trdAey1), nom.pl. 1dAeis
(= 1dAEs <*1rdAey-es), 1 sg. ind. TIWd (<*Tidy), Nom. TpEis three (= Tpes <*TpEyES).
Note 1: When1 occurs between vowels,i.e. in a diphthong followed by a vowel,this is usually

dueto the loss of ¢ or o (e.g. troiéw do, make <*troige-; toios such <*td0yos), or analogy ( 1.49,
e.g. 2 sg. opt. Soins (<*Soyns), presumably modelled on e.g. 1 pl. Soipev; 1 sg. impf. ha went,
modelled on formssuchas 1 pl. fev).
1.77 Stop + y before a vowel hadvariousresults:

Labial stop + y (i.e. try/py) > mrt: e.g. BAdtrte harm (<*BAdtryw), Patt bury
(<*8dpyoo).
Voiceless dental or velar stop + y (ie. ty/@y, xy/xy) > TT: e.g. yéAitta bee
(<*uéArtya), KopUTTw equip (<*kopU8yw), puAdTTw guard (<*puAdKyw), 6pUTT
dig (<*dpuxyo).
But in somecases ty > o: e.g. fem. t&oa every,all (<*travoa <*tr&vtIya), T6c0s SO
large (<*tétyos).
Voiced dental or velar stop + y (ie. 5y or yy) > Z: e.g. Zes (<*Ayeus), vopifeo
believe (<*vopidya); kpdlw shout (<*kp&yyw), &Zouan revere (<*&yyouat).
But also sometimesyy > tr,e.g. TaTTw array (<*t&yyow), probably by analogy
with voiceless velars.
tT as theresult ofthese changesis specifically Attic; other dialects, including Ionic, have
oo, whichis also preferred in tragedy, by Thucydides, and in Koine Greek ( 25.10).
1.78 Resonant+ y before a vowel also had variousresults:

Ay > AA: e.g. &yyéAAw report (<*&yyéAyoo), B&AAw throw (<*BdAya), &AAOs other
(<*&Ayos).
vy/py after a/o> aiv/aip, o1v/oip (inversion of the v/p and y): e.g. paive show
(<*pavyw), péAaava black (<*peAavya), KaBbaipw cleanse (<*xabipyw), yoipa fate
(<*popya).
vy/py after ¢/1/u > e1v/eip (= ev/ép), tv/ip, Uv/Up (y disappears with compensatory
lengthening ( 1.68-9) of the vowel before v/p): e.g. xteive kill (<*xtévyw),
otteipa coil (<*otrépya), Kpiva judge (<*xpivyw), &yUve defend (<*&utvyo),
pupe mix (<*pUpye).
Note 1: oy and ry between vowels > y, resulting in a diphthong: e.g. totos such (<*tdéo0yos),
Kaio burn (<*xagyw); sometimes the y disappeared, e.g. kaa next to kato.
Sound Changes Involving U/f
1.79 The vowel Ut is found:

Between consonants or at word end after a consonant. So e.g. taxis quick,
neut. Tayu, acc. sg. ioyiv strength, do1t town.
Between a vowel and a consonantor at word end after a vowel, forming a
diphthong with the preceding vowel. So e.g. Zeitis, voc. sg. Zet, Bots ox. If the
preceding vowel waslong, it was shortened (Osthoff's Law, 1.70): BaoiAeus
king (<*Baoidnu-s), vats ship (<*vai-s).
1.80 In other environments, the semivowel ¢ disappeared:

At word beginning before a vowel: so e.g. oixos house (<*foixos), &va lord
(<*cévak), epyov work (<*fépyov).
Between vowels: 1 pl. pres. ind. 1Agopev sail (<*1Aggouev), gen. sg. Aids Zeus
(<*Aigdés). When ¢ disappeared between twoinstances of ¢ or n, these vowels
usually contracted ( >1.65): TlepixAtjs (<*TlepixAgens), 3 sg. pres. ind. trAci
(<*qrAgge1), nom.pl. BaciAfjs (<*PaorAfiges).
1.81 ofat word beginning before a vowel disappeared leaving a rough breathing: e.g. *8us
(<*opabdus, cf. Lat. suavis, Engl. sweet), avddvw please (<*ofa-).
1.82 In the combination resonant + ¢ between vowels, ¢ disappeared without trace: e.g. Eévos
stranger (<*§éveos) but for Ion. §eivos, 25.11.
Sound Changes Involving o
1.83 o disappeared between vowels or at word beginning before a vowel, leaving the
sound[h]:
at word beginning before a vowel: the [h] appears as a rough breathing: so e.g.
étrouafollow (<*oe-; cf. Lat. sequor), iotnpi make stand (<*ciot-, 11.49), eis one
= E> <*Evs (1.68) <*oévs), Et& seven (<*oeTr1m, 1.86; cf. Lat. septem).
between vowels: the [h] subsequently disappeared, and contraction normally
followed ( 1.58-66): gen. sg. yévous race (<yéve(h)os <*yévecos), acc. LwKpaTy
(<*-xpdteoa), 2 sg. mp. ind. éraiSevou (<*étraiSeveco), fut. Bard will throw
(<*Badéow).
Note 1: If o is found in classical Greek in these environments (i.e. between vowels or

word-initially before a vowel), it is normally itself the product of sound changes(e.g. dat.
pl. yéveon races (<yéveoot, 1.92), fut. dvopdow will name (<*dvouddSow, 1.91), To00s so
large (<*1étyos, 1.77)), or due to analogy ( 1.49; e.g. dat. pl. ioxuon strengths (modelled
on .g. pUAaE1), fut. TaISevow strengths (modelled on e.g. Sei&w), aor. étaiSevoa (modelled on
e.g. E5e1Ea)).
Such instances of o are often called secondary, or, together with instances where an
original o did not disappear (e.g. at word end), strong .
1.84 In a cluster of resonant + o, the o usually disappeared, with compensatory

lengthening of any preceding vowel ( 1.68): so e.g. fem. pia one (<*opia), and
pseudo-sigmatic aor. évesa dealt out (= tvépa <*évenoa), Epnva showed (<épava
<*tpavoa).
Word-final or secondary o ( 1.83 n.1) in such clusters was not lost; instead the
resonant disappeared, again with compensatory lengthening:so e.g. fem. aoa every,
all (<*tr&vo0 <*trévtya), 3. pl. ind. traaSeUoua: (= -d01 <*-ovai <*-ovTn), cis one (= Es
<*Evs).
Note 1: The cluster po changedto pp in Attic: 8&ppos courage < @dpaos, &ppnv masculine <
apony.
Note 2: The cluster Ao sometimes remained unchanged:e.g. &Agos grove, aor. éxeAoa put
to shore.
Other Consonant Clusters: Vocalization of Resonants, Assimilation,

Loss of Consonants
Vocalization of Syllabic Resonants
1.85 Resonants (nasals and liquids) could originally occur between consonantsorat
word end after a consonant: such nasals/liquids were pronouncedin a separate
syllable, and are therefore called syllabic resonants ; they are commonly written
Ms Ds |f.
°o
Note 1: The pronunciation of such nasals and liquids may be compared to English examples
such as seventh [sev°n@] andbottle [bot"1].
Note2: The relation between(e.g.) u and m is identical to that between y and 1, and between fF
and u: 1.74.
1.86 In Greek syllabic nasals m and n were vocalized to &:

exatov hundred (<*é-xntdv, cf. Lat. centum), 5é«& ten (<*Séx-m, cf. Lat. decem),
Svoue name (<*d-vou-n, cf. Lat. nomen).
Note especially the endings -&/-&s> of the acc. sg/pl. of many third-declension
nominal forms ( 2.4 n.1, 2.6), and the zero-grade stem of some verbs ( 1.53, 1.56):
acc. sg. 165& foot (<*1d65-m, cf. e.g. Lat. pedem), yore vulture (<*yt1-m), cf. e.g.
tov (<*tdu, 1.73);
acc. pl. 1d8&s5 (<*1rd8-ns), yras (<*yOt-ns), cf. e.g. Tous (<*tdvs, 1.68);
zero-grade stems: aor. pass. étT&@nv (<*é-th-Onv), pf. téete&Ka (<*Té-TH-Ka), Cf. Teiveo
stretch (<*tév-yw, 1.78); aor. é1a&8ov suffered (<é-mn8-ov); cf. 1év8os grief.
This changealso explains the -& of the (pseudo-)sigmatic aorist ( 13.7):
1 sg. aor. act. ind. @ei§& showed (<*é-5e1 -m; cf. 1 sg. impf. act.eivuv <*-vu-p,
1.73)
1.87 Syllabic liquids|, r were also vocalized, becoming A&/p& (or &A/&p), respectively:
dat. pl. tratpao1 fathers (<*tratt-on, cf. gen. sg. tatp-ds), WAGTUs wide (<*tlTUs).
Note especially the zero-grade stem of some verbs ( 1.53, 1.56):
aor. pass. éotpapnv (<*é-otto-nv, cf. otpépw turn), pf. mp. Siep@&pycn
(<*81- -pOr-uau, cf. Siapbeipw destroy);
aor. pass. &xA&arnv (<*2-Kltt-ny, cf. KAgtrt steal), pf. mp. ZoTHAyan (<*-otlyau,cf.
ottAAw dispatch).
Assimilation in Consonant Clusters
1.88 Assimilation is a common morphological process by which one sound becomes more
like another, nearby sound. In Greek sequences of two consonants, the first often
changed under influence of the second ( regressive assimilation , as in e.g. ouAAgyo
collect <ouv-Aéyw); very rarely the reverse process occurred ( progressive assimilation ,
as in e.g. dAAuut lose <*dA-vupn). The most commonformsofassimilation are detailed
below.
1.89 Assimilation in clusters of stops:

- A labial or velar stop before a dental stop became voiceless, voiced, or
aspirated ( 1.26) in the same manneras that dental stop: thus the only
32 1.89-91 The Signs and SoundsofClassical Greek
possible combinations are tt/xt (voiceless), B8/y5 (voiced), and 98/yé

(aspirated):
3 sg. pf. mp. tétpimta (<*tétpiB-to, cf. tpiBw rub), aor. pass. éAéyOnv
(<*éAey-Onv, cf. Aéyw say), TAEySnv entwined (<*trAéK-5nv, cf. AEKw plait).
- A dental stop before another dental stop changedto o:
aor. pass. étreioOnv (<*étrei8-Onv, cf. teifw persuade), 3 sg. pf. mp. Kexduioto
(<*kexou18-Ta1, cf. Kopi51) attendance), wevorns liar (<*wevd-tn5, cf. wevSoucn
lie).
Note 1: The preposition éx- does not change in compounds, e.g. éxyovos descendant,
exdidaur give up, EKB_eTos put out.
Note 2: For geminates such as tt, 1.32.
1.90 Assimilation in clusters of stop + nasal:

Clusters ofvelar or dental stop with a nasal normally remained unchanged:e.g.
&kut) point, oxve shrink from, xedvos diligent.
However, before » in the conjugation of the middle-passive perfect, velars
changedto y, dentals to o (i.e. ku/yu > yu; Tu/Sy/8p > op); this also occurs before
somesuffixes such as -ua and -pos ( 23.21-2):
pf. mp. tepuAaypan (<*trepuAak-you, cf. gen. sg. pUAakos guard); Seiya evidence
(<*Seix-pa, cf. Seikvupi show);
pf. mp. tétreropon (<*trétre18-pan, cf. reife persuade), petoua lie (<*wetS-pa,cf.
wevSouanlie).
Labial stops assimilate fully to a following up (i.e. ty/Bu/@yu > ups); also By > pv:
pf. mp. tétpippor (<*téTp1B-pan,cf. teiBw rub); ypduya writing (<*ypao-yo,cf.
ypagpw write); ceyvos revered (<*oeB-vos, cf. céBopan revere).
Nasals before stops got the same placeof articulation as the stop ( 1.26, 1.29):
the labial nasal u before a labial stop, dental nasal v before a dental stop, velar
nasal y before a velar stop:
oupRdaarrw throw together, ouvtattw array, ouyKare convene(all <ouv-). Cf.
also the nasal infix ( 12.30) in verbs like AapBdveo get, AavOdveo go unno-
ticed, Axyydavw obtain by lot (cf. aor. EAaBov, EAaBov, EAaxov).
1.91 Assimilation in clusters of stop + o:

- A dental stop before o disappeared withouttrace:
aor. Eyevoa (<*weud-oa, cf. wed cheat); fut. teicw (<*1reif-ow, cf. reife
persuade); dat. pl. tedypan things (<*tpdypat-o1,cf. tecyyatos), vww§ night
(<*vUK-s <*vUKt-s, cf. vuxtds); dat. pl. tr&o1 all (<*tr&voi (1.68) <*1r&vT-91,
cf. tra&vtds).
Note 1: With some adverbs of direction in -5¢ ( 6.11), sibilant o became voiced
before the voiced dental &, and the resulting cluster was spelled Z ([zd], 1.33): e.g.
A tvale to Athens (<-ac-5e).
- Labial stop + o > y; velar stop + o > (this is to some extent a matterof spelling
rather than assimilation):
aor. étpiya (<*étpiB-oa, cf. tTpiBw rub); fut. ypaya (<*ypdg-ow, cf. ypdqoo
write); yuw vulture (<*yut-s, cf. gen. sg. yutrds);
aor. étAg&a (<*érAeK-o, cf. tAEKe plait); fut. TKwill array (<*tdy-ow,cf.
tay? battle line); puAag guard (<*puAax-s, cf. gen. sg. pUAakos).
1.92 A sequence of twosibilants (o + o) was simplified to o: e.g. dat. pl. yéveon races
(<yéveo-o1), aor. yéAaoa laughed (<éyéAao-oa).
1.93 Assimilation in clusters of liquids and nasals:

Ina sequenceofv before uy,the first nasal assimilated to the second:e.g. éupéveo
abide (<év-yévw), oUppayos ally (<oWv-payos). However, in the conjugation of
the middle-passive perfect, vu was sometimes replaced analogically by oy; this
also occurs before somesuffixes such as -ya:
pf. mp. tépacpuan (*trépav-you, cf. paives show); piaoya pollution (*piav-po, cf.
uiaives defile); but contrast regularly formed pf. mp. fHoyuppan (<*fhoyuv-you,
cf. aioyUvouon be ashamed)
- The sequences vp, wp and pA were expanded with a transitional sound, a
voiced stop with the same pointofarticulation (i.e. labial or dental) as the
nasal ( 1.26, 1.28), i.e. v8p, uBp, wBA. At the beginning of a word, the nasal
waslost:
acc. sg. dvdpa man (<*dvpa (zero-grade), cf. voc. dvep (e-grade)); BAwoKe come
(<*Aw- (zero-grade), cf. aor. -yoA-ov (o-grade)).
Note 1: Exceptions: especially in compounds with ouv- and trav-, the nasal often
assimilates fully to the following liquid: e.g. cuppéw flow together (<ouv-p-), ouAAéyw
collect (<ouv-A-), tappnoia freedom of speech (<trav-p-).
Loss of Consonants
1.94 In clusters of three or more consonants, one was sometimeslost. This occurs
especially in sequences consonant-o-consonantin the conjugation of the perfect
middle-passive, where the o normally disappears:
pf. mp. inf. nyyéAdan (<*iyyéAoGa1; &yyéAAw report), Tetpagbar (<*teTPaTrBE1
<*tetpdtrodai; teeturn); 2 pl. pf. mp. ind. tétayée (<*tétTaybe <*téTayoOe;
TATTarray).
1.95 Wheno stood between twostops with the sameplace ofarticulation, thefirst stop disappeared:
e.g. AdoKw rattle (<*AdKoKw, cf. aor. ZAakov).
1.96 For clusters with a dental stop before o, 1.91 (dental disappears; e.g. vu§ night <*vuxts;
TaoXe suffer <*1aboKw (<TH6-oK-w, 1.86), with transference of aspiration).
Loss of Aspiration: Grassmann s Law
1.97 In a sequenceaspirated stop vowel-aspirated stop, the first aspirated stop lost
its aspiration (this sound change is known as Grassmann s law). The changealso
occurred in such sequences with an intervening resonant:
TiOnui put, place (<*#i8-), pf. TeOnKa (<*88-), aor. pass. éTeOnv (<*é00-); pf. Teonva
(<*péq-; gaivouor appear), pf. Kéyuyar (<*yéx-; yew pour), Tpépw nourish
(<*8pég-), They run (<*Opey-).
By the sameprocess, a vowel with a rough breathing before an aspirated stop lost
its aspiration:
txw have (<*tyw <*o¢yw; for the disappearance of o, 1.83).
Note1: and w were not aspirated when this sound change occurred,so they had noeffect on
a preceding aspirated stop or rough breathing. This explains variations such as éyw (<*éyw
<*oexw) but fut. Bw (<*oeyou); fut. dw but aor. pass. eraqnv (<*2dqny; batrtw bury);
Tpépw (<*8péq-) but fut. Goeyo; nom.sg. Opi hair but gen. sg. tpryds (<*8p1x<s).
The change occurred after the disappearance of y, hence e.g. 6d1rtw bury (<*@apye,
1.77, not tta&tt.).
Note 2: Exceptions to this rule occur frequently, especially in later forms; these can
normally be explained as the result of analogy ( 1.49): e.g. aor. pass. apbabny (dpbdw
set straight), éyu@nv (xéw pour), épavOnv (gaiveo show; cf. also trepdvOa1), éxabdpOnv
(xa@Baipw cleanse), etc.
Notealso the inverse application of the rule (with the second aspirated stop losing its
aspiration) in the case of the 2 sg. imp. of @n-aorists, e.g. moidevOqT (<*troiSevOn-61),
14.6.
2
Introduction to Nominal Forms
Basic Categories
2.1 All nominal forms(the article, nouns, adjectives, participles, pronouns) express
each of the following three categories:
case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative or vocative;
number:singular, plural or dual (referring to a group of exactly two);
gender: masculine, feminine or neuter.
Some examples of nominal forms and the categories they express:
SHpe gift: a noun markedfor case (dative), number (singular) and gender(neuter).
traisevovtes educating: a participle marked for case (nominative), number(plural)
and gender (masculine); the participle also expresses tense-aspect and voice
( 11.2-4).
toiv the: an article marked for case (genitive or dative), number(dual) and gender
(masculine, feminine or neuter).
Note 1: Nouns can have any case and number, but (usually) have only one gender: for
instance, in the case of the nounoikos house, the form oikouis genitive singular, oixois dative
plural, and oixous accusative plural, but they are all masculine, as the noun is masculine.
The article, adjectives, participles and pronouns can have any combination of case,
number and gender: for instance, in the case of the adjective Seivds impressive, awful the
form 5Se1voi is nominative plural masculine, Seivais dative plural feminine.
Note 2: The genitive, dative and accusative are often referred to as oblique cases.
Building Blocks: Stems and Endings

2.2 All forms of a certain nominal word share a stem, which identifies the forms
as deriving from that particular noun/adjective/etc.: for example, in any form
of the adjective Seivds (e.g. Seivot, Seivois, Seivc), the nominal stem Se1v-
identifies the form as belonging to that particular adjective and thus expressing
the meaning impressive.
Some Greek nominal stems occur in different variants due to ablaut vowel
change ( 1.51-6). For example, the stem of the noun yévos race occursas either
36 2.2-4 Introduction to Nominal Forms
yevoo- (o-grade) or yeve(o)- (e-grade), and the stem of the noun 8Saipov spirit
occursas either Saipav- (lengthened grade) or Saipov- (full-grade). Which gradeis
used depends on the type of stem, case and number.
Some other nouns andadjectives use more strongly different variants of nom-
inal stems. For instance, the adjective toAUs much, many has some formsbuilt on
the stem trodu- (e.g. TroAUs, TroAUv), and some on the stem troAA- (e.g. TroAAod,
TOAAais).
With any such forms,all different variants of the stem are normally given in the
following chapters.
2.3 Every nominal form also has an ending, which provides the information required
to identify the case, numberand(in the case ofarticles, adjectives and pronouns)
genderof the form:
tratpdés: the ending -os identifies the form as a genitive singular; the noun tratip
father is masculine.
6Sois: the ending -ois identifies the form as a dative plural; the noun 686s road
is feminine.
autoi: the ending -o1 identifies the form as a nominative plural masculine.
In a significant number of cases, a single ending may represent two or three
different combinations of case, numberand gender:
autois: the ending -ous identifies the form as a dative plural masculine or neuter.
éxeivo: the ending -o identifies the form as a nominative or accusative singular
neuter.
Seiv@v: the ending -wv identifies the form as a genitive plural, masculine or
feminine or neuter.
Declensions and Endings
Declensions
2.4 Greek nominal forms are constructed according to regular patterns, called
declensions:
first or a-declension: nearly all forms show the presence of an a-sound in
the ending (either & or & - in Attic, « has changed to n, exceptafter ¢, 1, p,
1.57);
second or o-declension:nearly all forms show the presence of an o-sound in the
ending(either 0, ou, or w);
third or consonant-declension (sometimes also called mixed declension):
a distinct set of endings is added to a stem, which ends in a consonantor 1 or
u (or semivowels y/r, 1.74).
2.4-5 Declensions and Endings 37
Some examples:
Seiv-&s impressive: a first-declension form, with ending -as for accusative plural.
SouA-ous slaves: a second-declension form, with ending -ous for accusative
plural.
yitr-es vultures: a third-declension form, with ending -es for nominative plural.
Note 1: Historically, the endings used in each of the declensions were largely the same.
The differences between the declensions may be explainedasfollows:
The second declension is thematic , i.e. includes a thematic vowel o (¢ in the
vocative singular; for thematic vowels, 11.18-19). Thus the second-declension
nom. sg. So0tAos slave can be analysed as consisting of a stem SouA-, thematic
vowel -o- and an original ending -s. The thematic vowel is often considered to be
part of the stem, so that the second declension consists of stems (usually) ending in
o, such as S0uAo-.
- The first declension (with stems ending in a) and third declension (with stems
ending in a consonant or 1/u) are athematic , i.e. endings are added directly to the
stem. Thus the first-declension nom. sg. veavias young man and the third-declension
nom. sg. yuw vulture may be analysed as veavia-5 and yutr-s, respectively, with the
same ending -s.
In manycases, however, such similarities between the declensions have been obscured
by sound changesor variations in the use of endings. Thus, for instance, an original
accusative singular ending *-y has led to a -v in the first/second declension (e.g. S00Aov
<*SoUA-o-u, 1.73) but in most subtypes of the third declension to an -& (e.g. yiwa
<*ytm-m, 1.86); similarly, compare the accusative plural forms (original ending
*-vs) of the first declension (e.g. veavias <*veavia-vs, 1.68), second declension
(e.g. SoUAous = S0UAds <*SoUA-0-vs, 1.68), and third declension (e.g. yids
<*ytm-ns, 1.86).
Forclarity s sake, the a-soundofthefirst declension and the o/e of the second declension will
be treated as part of the endings below.
It is often impossible to derive the stem and pattern of declension of a noun

from the nom. sg. form alone: dictionaries therefore provide the article
and/or gen. sg. form in addition. These forms together generally provide
sufficient information to determine which subtype the noun belongs to.
Compare, for example:
6 S00Aos slave, gen. SovAoU but to yévos race, gen. yévous (third decl.)
(second decl.)
6 =épEns Xerxes, gen. =ep§ou but 6 Zwxpdtns Socrates, gen. Twxpatous
(first decl.) (third decl.)
In the third declension, the nom.sg. and gen.sg. are usually needed to determine
which subtype of the third declension a noun belongs to: >4.33.
38 2.6-7 Introduction to Nominal Forms
Table of Endings
2.6 The regular case endings for each of the declensionsare given in the table below.
Fuller information and exceptions will be given in the following chapters:
first declension second declension third declension

sg. nom.| -& or -a/-n -as/-ns -O§ i-ov or -o| -s or -@ | -@
(fem.) (masc.) (masc./fem.) 7 (neut.) (masc./fem.) 7 (neut.)
gen. -as/-ns -OU -OU : -OS :
(fem.) (=-6 1.23) |(=-6 1.23)
(masc.)
dat. -a/-n -@ -1
acc. -&v or -av/-nv -ov =nom. | -& or -v 3 = nom.
(masc./fem.) (neut.) (masc./fem.) | (neut.)
voc. = nom. ! -% or -a/-rn |-e = nom. | = nom./-0 |
(fem.) | (masc.) (neut.)
pl. nom.| -o1 -O1 -& -5 : -&

(masc./fem.) (neut.) (masc./fem.) ! (neut.)
gen. -dv (<-dwv) -WV -Wv :

dat. -ais* -o15° -oi(v)
acc. -&s -OUS i= nom. | -&s> 3 = nom.
(=-d5 1.23) i(neut.) | (neut.)
(masc./fem.) | |
voc. = nom. = nom. | = nom. |
The symbol 9 stands for no ending . E.g. nom. sg. masc. EAAnv Greek (comparegen.sg. EAAnv-0s).
* In the neuter, the nominative, accusative and vocative are always identical to each other.
> The voc.sg. of feminine first-declension nounsis alwaysidentical to the nom.sg.; the voc.pl. ofall
nominal formsis identical to the nom.pl.
* In poetry, the epic/Ionic (+25)dative plural endings -o101(v) and -c1o1(v) are frequently found; they are
found occasionally in prose. The regularfirst-declension dative plural ending in Ionic proseis -no1(v).
2.7 For the endings of the dual, 10.1.

3
The Article
3.1 For the meanings and usesof the article, -28. The formsare as follows:
article
6, fh, TO the
masc. fem. neut.
Sg. nom. O n TO
gen. TOU TTS TOU
dat. To Ti] TO
acc. TOV Thy TO
pl. nom. oi ai To
gen. TOV TOV TOV
dat. ToIs Tas TOIS
acc. TOUS TOS TH
Except for the nom. sg. masc. 6 (which has no ending), the article uses second-
declension endings in the masculine and neuter, and first-declension endings in
the feminine. The formsstart with t-, except the nominatives of the masculine and
feminine, which start with a rough breathing.
Note 1: The forms of the article are prepositive ( >60.4-6, 60.13). For the purpose of
accentuation they countas proclitics (24.33-9).
Note2: In poetry, the dat. pl. forms toto and toioare frequently found. In someproseuses,
the form of the nom.sg. masc. is 5 ( 28.29-30).
Note 3: For Ionic forms, 25.26.
Nouns
First-Declension Nouns
Stems, Types and Genderof First-Declension Nouns
4.1 Thefirst declension is also knownas the a-declension,since it consists of nouns

with a stem ending in an a-sound (this sound is considered to be part of the
endings, 2.4 n.1).
4.2 The following types of noun belongto thefirst declension:

- feminine nouns, with a nominative singular endingeither in short -& or long -&
(which in Attic has changed to -n, exceptafter ¢, 1 or p, 1.57);
masculine nouns, with a nominative singular ending in -ns/-as.
Thefirst declension does not have neuter nouns.
Feminine Nounsin -n, -& or -&
4.3 Overview of forms:
with long &/n with short «

- aftere,1orp - after ¢,1 or p
tf ouyt flight tjyopaland ft, poto&% muse 1 Sidvoie thought
sg. nom./ voc. gpuyn Kapa yotoe S1avoie
gen. guytis Xapas UOUONS S1Avoias
dat. ouyt} XoOpa youon Siavoia
acc. guyty XYapav yLotoay Siavoiay
pl. nom./voc. guyai XOpor potion Si&voiat

gen. Quyov XOpPoV MOUOGV SIAVOLOV
dat. guyais Xapais MOUGAIS Stavoiais
acc. puyas Xapas YoUoGs Siavoias

44-7 First-Declension Nouns 41
4.4 Mostnounsofthe first declension are feminine. There are two main types:
with a nominative singular in a long -n/-«: for example 4 guyn flight, 4 tUyxn
fate, 4 vixn victory, 1 &deApr sister; f EAévn Helen; 1 yopa land, i 8é& sight, 7
aitia cause; ) HAgKtp& Electra;
with a nominative singular in a short &: for example 4 potod muse, fh PGAaTTE
sea, 1) 86 & opinion; 1 Siavan& thought; h woipa fate; h "lpryever& Iphigenia.
4.5 Endings in the singular ( 2.6):

- Type with long n/a: long vowel throughout the singular (n, but & when ¢, 1 or p
precedes):
TUXT;: Nom.sg. Xopa: nom.sg.
muy: gen. sg. aitias: gen. sg.
&SeAqi}: dat. sg. xapa: dat. sg.
viKTV: acc. Sg. aiTiav: acc. sg.
- Type with short &: short vowel in the nominative, accusative and vocative
singular:
PaAaTTE: Nom.sg. UoUod: VOC. sg.
Sicvoi&v: acc. Sg.
In the othercasesin the singular, the endings haveeither n or(after ¢, 1 or p) long a:
PaAaTtTNs: gen. sg. Siavoias: gen. sg.
youon: dat. sg. yoipa: dat. sg.
4.6 Endingsin the plural ( 2.6) are the samein all types:
puyai: nom.pl. PaArdttais: dat. pl.
potoar: nom.pl. aitiaus: dat. pl.
4.7 Observethat there is no distinction in spelling between the endings of the two maintypesif¢, 1
or ep precedes (indications of vowel length are not given in standardtexts): it is, however, often
possible to determine the length of « from accentuation (e.g. in the case of nom.sg. S:dvo1d,
24.8-9, 24.27), and sometimes from the use of a word in certain metrical positions (for
exampleif the final syllable occupies a position which must scan short).
42 4.8-12 Nouns
Masculine Nounsin -ngs or -as
nounsin -ns nounsin -&s (after ¢, 1 or p)

6 ScoTroTNs Master 6 veavias young man
Sg. nom. SEOTIOTNS VEAVICS

gen. SEOTIOTOU veaviou
dat. SeomrdTy veavia
acc. SeoTTOTHv veaviay
voc. SEOTIOTE VEAVIE
pl. nom./ voc. SeoTal veavian

gen. SEOTIOTOV VEQVIOOV
dat. SeoTrdTAls VEAVIAIS
acc. SEOTIOTAS VEAVICS
4.9 Nounsofthe first declension with a nom.sg. in -5 are masculine (most are proper
namesor professions): for example 6 SeoTréTn5 master, 6 ToAitns citizen, 6 KpITHs
judge; 6 Atpeidns son ofAtreus, 6 Etpimidns Euripides, 6 MNépons Persian; 6 veavias
young man, 6 tayias treasurer; 6 =avéias Xanthias.
4.10 Masculine nounsofthe first declension have the same endings as feminine ones,
with two exceptions:
the nominative singular endsin -s: contrast e.g. 6 kpitijs with 4h TUN;
the ending -ouis used in the genitive singular: contrast e.g. tot kpitot with tis
TUXTS.
Note 1: This genitive ending was presumably formed with the genitive ending -(c)o, via
a process -G@(o)o > -no (1.57, 1.83) > -ew (1.71) > -e0 (by analogy, 1.49) > -6 ( 1.58-
60; =-ou). The second-declension ending -ou (itself < -o(o)o), used for many masculine
nouns, mayalso havedirectly influenced this formation.
4.11 There are no masculine nounsofthe first declension with short &; thus the endings
in the singular are always long (e.g. nom. sg. troAitns, acc. sg. veaviav), except
sometimesin the vocative.
4.12 The voc. sg. is formedas follows:

with nounsin -tns and with the namesofraces/peoples: -& (e.g. with kpitis, voc. Kpit&; with
Tlépons, voc. Tlépo&);
4.12-18 Second-Declension Nouns 43
with other first-declension nounsin -ns/-as, including all proper namesin -&&ns and -i&ns:
voc. in -n/-& (e.g. with AtpeiSns, voc. sg. Atpeidn; with veavias, voc. sg. veavia, with =avbias,
voc. sg. =av@ia).
4.13 Proper namesin -ns5 mayalso belongto the third declension:e.g. 6 Zwxpdtns (gen. Zwkpdtous,
4.65-9). All namesin -d&8n¢5 and -t5ns are first-declension.
Further Notes and Exceptions
4.14 A few nounsofthe first declension have endings resulting from contraction with ¢ or a. In a-
contracts the long & resulting from the contraction is foundin all forms. In e-contracts, the
endings are like those of the type puyf ( 4.3-7), but with differences in accentuation
( 24.12):
a-contracts: } wv& mina (<*pvd-&), gen. wads, etc; AOnva Athena (<A nva(i)-a), gen.
A nvas, etc;
¢-contracts: t yaAt| weasel (<*yadé-&), gen. yaArjs, etc.; 6 Eputis Hermes (<*Epue-as), gen.
Epyod,etc.; 6 Bopp&s north wind (<Bo(p)pé-as, with a because of the precedingp), etc.
Note that in the e-contracts, various formsare different from what the rules of contraction
ought to have produced, by analogy with uncontractedfirst-declension endings ( 1.49): e.g.
nom.pl. yaAai (rather than yaAf) <*yoaAé-an).
4.15 Occasionally, a genitive in -& is used with proper names endingin -as (the Doric genitive,
25.47): e.g. gen. E¥pata (with 6 Etpaotas Eurotas), gen. Kadaria (with 6 Kadaias Callias).
4.16 t Kopn girl and * Seen neck have -n in the sg., even though p precedes(originally, ¢ intervened:
e.g. KOpn <*Kdprn <*Kdpra, 1.57 n.3).
Second-Declension Nouns
Stems, Types and Gender of Second-Declension Nouns
4.17 The second declension is also knownas the o-declension, since it consists of nouns
with a stem which normally endsin o (the o is treated here as part of the endings,
2.4 n.1).
4.18 The following types of noun belong to the second declension:

- masculine (and several feminine) nouns, with a nominative singular ending in
-ogs (or -ous Or -«s);
neuter nouns, with a nominative singular endingin -ov (or -ouv).
44 4.19-22 Nouns
Masculine (and Feminine) Nounsin -os or -ous
nounsin -os nounsin -ous

6 S0UAos slave 6 vols mind
Sg. nom. SovAos vous (<-6-0s)
gen. SouAou vou (<-d-ou)

dat. SouAw voo (<-d-)
acc. SoUAov vouv (<-6-ov)
voc. SoviAE vou (<-6-¢)
pl. nom./ voc. SoGAo1 vot (<-6-o1)

gen. SouAwY vav (<-6-av)
dat. SOUAOIS vois (<-d-o1s)
acc. SouAous vous (<-d-ous)
4.20 Most nounsof the second declension are masculine: these have a nom.sg. in -os.
E.g. 6 S00Aos slave, 6 iatpds physician, 6 tdéAEUOSs War, 6 ToTapds river; 6 AinyuAos
Aeschylus.
4.21 With a few masculine nouns of the second declension, the vowels of the endings
have contracted ( 1.58-64) with a preceding o in the stem. For example 6 vois
mind (<vé-os) and 6 éxtrAous sailing away (<ékTrAo-os).
4.22 Several nouns of the second declension are feminine. These include:
t) tapévos maiden, h tte1pos mainland, 4 vdcos disease, 4 vijoos island, 686s
¢ '
road (and compounds,e.g. 7 ciaodos entrance);

many geographical entities, e.g. 7 Aiyutttos Egypt, 7) Képiv80s Corinth, i Pd80s5
Rhodes;
mosttrees and plants, e.g. # Gytredos vine, t WA&tavos plane-tree.
They are declined exactly like second-declension masculine nouns:
Tis 6500: gen. sg. fem.
Toais vycors: dat. pl. fem.
A few others occur both as masculine and feminine nouns(these are often called
common gender nouns), again with no changes in the declension: 6/1 8&5
god/goddess, 6/i &v8pwtros man/woman, 6/% Tpods nurse, etc.:
4.22-7 Second-Declension Nouns 45
ToU dv@petrou: gen. sg. masc.

Tis avOpertrou: gen. sg. fem.
4.23 There are also nouns with a nominative in -os which belong to the third declension, always
neuter: e.g. TO yévos (gen. yévous, 4.65-7); these should not be confused with second-
declension nouns.
Neuter Nounsin -ov or -ouv
nounsin -ov nounsin -ouv
To SHpovgift To d0Totv bone

Sg. nom. / voc. S@pov ooTOUV (<-¢-ov)
gen. S@pou ooTOU (<-é-ou)
dat. SHOPwW ooTe (<-é-o)

acc. S@pov ooTOUV (<-¢-ov)
pl. nom./ voc. Spa d0Th

gen. O@puov OOTOV (<-é-wv)
dat. O@Pois OOTOIS (<- -o15)

acc. SHG COTS
4.25 There are many neuter second-declension nouns: for example 16 &é0Tpov star, TO
Seitrvov meal, 1d SHpovgift, TO iuc&tiov cloak. Note that nominative and accusative
are identical, and that in the plural these endin -a.
4.26 With a few neuter nounsof the second declension, the vowels of the endings have
contracted ( 1.58-66) with a preceding « in the stem. For example 16 xavotv
basket (<xavé-ov) and 16 doTtotv bone (<dot¢ -ov).
Note 1: The ending of the nom./acc.pl. in -& (607&) is due to analogy with the a-soundin e.g.
Sapa ( 1.49; regular contraction of -e& would have resulted in -n,cf. e.g. yevn < yéved, 1.59).
4.27 The so-called Attic second declension consists of a few masculine and feminine nouns whose
nominative singular ends in -ws, for example 6 vews temple, 6 Aews people, Ews dawn; 6
MevéAews Menelaus. Their endings throughout the declension include w. These endings are
usually the result of quantitative metathesis ( 1.71):
46 4,.27-31 Nouns
nounsin -ws (Attic second declension)

6 vews temple
sg. nom./ voc. VECS (<*vnFos)

gen. VEO) (<*vnf6)
dat. VEw (<*vnpo)
acc. VEDV (<*vnpov)
pl. nom./ voc. VED (<*vnoi)

gen. VECOV (<*vnfev)
dat. VES (<*vngois)
acc. VEGDS (<*vngos)
Also in the Attic declension, but not the result of quantitative metathesis, are a few nounslike 6
Aayos hare (<*Aaywds), 6 kéAws cable (<*xéAwos). The resulting endings are identical to those
of veos.
Theacc. sg., particularly with nounsof the Aayas type, sometimesendsin -w. This is always
the case with ws dawn (originally declined like ai&d>s, 4.71): thy Ew.
Note 1: The Attic declension is not used consistently in Attic poetry, or in Ionic ( 25.19),
and was not adoptedin the Koine; these use e.g. MevéAcos, Adds, etc. The term Attic derives,
in fact, from the contrast with Koine Greek.
Note 2: For the accentuation of forms such as MevéAews, 24.10 n.2.
4.28 Some second-declension nounshave both masculine and neuter forms (such words, following
different patterns of declension,are often called heteroclitic):
6 Seopds band, bond, chain has both masculine and plural neuter forms: nom.pl. Seoud as
well as Seouoi/Seouous (only the masculine forms are used when Seouoi refers to chains or
bondsused for imprisonment).
6 oitos grain has neuter plural forms: nom./acc. pl. t& ota.
to ot&S10v stade has both neuter and masculine plural forms: nom./acc.pl. oi ot&101/tTots
otaSious as well as t& oTdba.
4.29 With eds god, the nom.sg. is used as voc. sg., rather than a form in -e: @ @¢ds.
4.30 For the declension of 16 Sdxpuov tear, 6 dveipos dream, 6 oxdtos shade and 6 uids son, 4.91.
Third-Declension Nouns
Stems, Types and Gender of Third-Declension Nouns
4.31 All third-declension nouns have a stem ending in a consonantor 1 or vu (or

semivowelsy or Ff).
4.32-4 Third-Declension Nouns 47
4.32 Although the endings used are generally the same throughoutthe entire declension
( >2.6, for exceptions see the individual sections below), a numberofdifferent
subtypesof the third declension are distinguished: the differences between these
types largely depend on twofactors:
the (type of) consonant, or 1/u, in which the stem ends;
whetheror notthere is ablaut ( 1.51-6) in the stem.
4.33 It is often impossible to derive the stem of a third-declension noun (andthus the
exact pattern of that noun s declension) from the nominative singular alone: the
genitive is required to determine which subtype the noun belongs to. Compare,for
example:
6 &yav contest, gen. &yavos, but 6 yépwv old man, gen. yépovtos,
stem in v stem in vt
t) Atris hope, gen. éAtrid0s, but % 1dAis city, gen. TdAEWS,
stem in 8 stem in 1
t) Kopus helmet, gen. xdpuGos, but 6 iy@is fish, gen. iy@Uos,
stem in 8 stem in u
but 6 tri\xus forearm, gen. ThxEws,
stem in u, with ablaut
6 owttp saviour, gen. owtiipos, but 6 tatip father, gen. tatpds,
stem in p stem in p, with ablaut
For a complete overview of noun types, 4.93 below.
4.34 Third-declension nouns are masculine, feminine or neuter. Some subtypes occur
only in certain genders, however: see the individual sections below.
48 4.35-9 Nouns
Stemsin a Labial Stop (tr,B, m) or Velar Stop (x, y, x)
4,35 Overview of forms:
nouns in -w nounsin -§
6 yuy vulture 6 puAdg guard
stem yuTr- stem puAak-
sg. nom./ voc. yuy Quaaé

gen. yuTros @uAaKkos
dat. yuTti puAaKi
acc. youre QurAaKkc
pl. nom./ voc. yitres QUAaKES

gen. yuTraev QuAaKkev
dat. yuyi(v) Quaaéi(v)
acc. yuTras QuraKkas
4.36 Third-declension nouns with a stem endingin a labial or velar stop are either
masculine or feminine: e.g. 6 yuw vulture (yut-), 7 pAew vein (pAeB-), 6 TleAow
Pelops (MeAotr-); 6 QuAag guard (guaAax-), 6/7 oi goat (aiy-), | ocAmy§ trumpet
(coAtryy-), 1) 8pig hair (8piy-), 6 dvug claw (dvuy-).
4,37 Labial + o = y; velar + o = :

- in the nom.sg.: yur-s> yuw; pAgB-s > pAEW; Svuy-s > SvUs;
in the dat. pl.: yuttr-ci> yuwt; pAeB-oi > pAewi; SvuyX-o1 > SvuEL.
4.38 The noun * yuvy womanis, apart from its irregularly formed nom.sg., declined according to
this type (stem yuvoik-): gen. sg. yuvankds, dat. pl. yuvongi, etc.
The voc. sg. is yuvan (<*yuvoux, 1.73).
4.39 The stem of @pi hair has lost its initial aspiration in all cases where aspirated y is retained
( 1.97 n.1): gen. sg. tprx6s, dat. tprxi, acc. tpixa; nom.pl. tpixes, gen. Terxav, acc. Tpixas; but
nom.sg. @pig, dat. pl. @piéi.
440-2 Third-Declension Nouns 49
Stemsin a Dental Stop (t, 5, @, except vt)
stems in a dental stop

nounsin -ya nounsin -is nounsin -1s other nouns
(always neuter) (with accented (or -us) (with
final syllable) unaccented final
syllable)
TO TIPSya th éAtris 1 Epis strife 1| gots clothing
thing expectation stem épi5- stem éo@nt-
stem tpayypat- stem éATri5-
sg. nom. TPAya EATTIS EPIS E0815
gen. TIPAYUATOS EATTIOOS Ep150¢5 EoOT|TOS
dat. TPGYYaT1 éAmri81 ép181 éo6fT1

acc. TPAya EATIIO® Epiv Eobijta
voc. = nom. éAtri Epl = nom.
pl. nom./voc. mpd&ypata eATrides ép1des éoOtiteEs

gen. TIPAYUAToV EATIIOWOV Epldav EoOntTav
dat. Trpcyyaor(v) éAtrioi(v) Zpio1(v) éo6fjoi(v)
acc. TPayLata EATIIONS Ep1das eoOtitas
4.41 Third-declension nouns with a stem endingin a dental stop maybe:

neuter, usually with a stem in pat: e.g. TO tedypa thing (Tpaypat-), TO COHpa
body (owyat-), TO dvoua name (dvouat-);
Note 1: There are a few other neuter nounswith a stem in Tt: e.g. td yévu knee (yovat-), Td
Sdépu spear (Sopat-), To yéA1 honey (ueAit-), TO ots ear (T-), TO TEpas OMEN (TEPaT-), TO BSwWP
water (Udat-), To padslight (pwt-). Also >4.90-1.
- feminine: e.g. 7 éAtris expectation (éAm5-), f Epis strife (@p18-), f éoOns clothing
(208nt-), t) Kaxdétns baseness (kaxotnt-), f Kdpus helmet (xopu8-), yx&pis
favour, gratitude (yapit-); ) Aptepis Artemis (Apteuis-);
occasionally masculine: e.g. 6 trovs foot (1roS-); common gender: 6/1 dpvis bird
(dpvi0-), 6/4 trois child (tr05-).
4.42 Dental stops disappear without trace before o ( 1.91):

- in the nom.sg.: e.g. *éAtri8-s > éAtris;
in the dat. pl.: e.g. *éAtri8-o1 > éAtrion; *tTépat-o1 > Tépaol.
50 4.42-6 Nouns
Neuter nounswith a stem in pat have no ending in the nom./acc. sg., and the final
tT is lost ( 1.73): *trp&yyat > Trp&yya.
Note 1: * vw§ night derives from vux(t)-s (stem vuxt-, cf. gen. sg. vuxtds); dat. pl. vugi <
vux(t)-of. Similarly 6 &vaé lord (gen. &vaxtos). Also cf. neut. 16 yéAa milk (stem yoadoxt-,
nom./acc. <*yéAa(xT), gen. yaAaktos; sg. only).
4.43 Nounsin -1s (or -us) which do not have the accent onthefinal syllable of the stem
(ie. on the 1 or u) have an accusative singularin -1w(or -uv):
opvis, gen. dpvidos acc. Opviv
Xapis, ZEN. KAPITOS acc. xapiv
Apteuis, gen. Aptépisos acc. Apteuiv
KOpuS, gen. KOpuBos acc. KOPUV
but:
eAtris, gen. eATrid0¢ acc. éATrida
4.44 The voc. sg. is usually formed without ending and with loss of the final dental: e.g. @ trai
(<*troiS, 1.73). In other casesit is identical to the nominative.
Stems in vt
stems in vt
6 ylyas giant 6 yépwv old man
stem ytyavt- stem yepovt-
sg. nom. yiyas YEpov

gen. yiyavtos YEPOVTOS
dat. yiyavTh yépovti
acc. yiyavta YEpovTa
voc. yiya&v yépov
pl. nom./ voc. ylyavtes yépovTes

gen. ylyavtov YEPOvTav
dat. yiyaor(v) yépouoi(v)
acc. yiyavtas yEepovTas
4.46 Third-declension nouns with a stem in vt are masculine: e.g. 6 yépwv old man
(yepovt-), 6 ylyas giant (y1yavt-), 6 Spdxoov serpent (Spaxovt-), 6 Agev lion (Aeovt-),
6 d50us tooth (d5o0vt-); 6 =evopdv Xenophon (=evopavt-).
4.47 The combination vt disappeared before o, with compensatory lengthening

( 1.68-9):
in the nom.sg., when it is formed with -s: *yiyévt-s5 > yiyas; *68ovT-s > d80Us
(= 686s); note, however, that some nouns have a nom.sg. ending notin -s, but
with a long vowel and noT: e.g. yépwv; SpdKooy;
in the dat. pl.: *yépovt-o1 > yépouci (= yépdon); *yiyavt-o1 > yiyaon.
4.48 The voc. sg. is formed without ending ( 2.6) and without-t: e.g. @ yépov.
Stems in v
stems in v
(with ablaut)
6 &yav contest & trowty shepherd 6 Saipoov spirit
stem é&yov- stem trowev-/tromnv- stem Saipov-/Sa1pev-
Sg. nom. oyav TOIT daivoav

gen. ayvos TTOLMEVOS Saivovos
dat. a&yavi TOevt Saivov1
acc. ayava TTOINEVa daitova
voc. = nom. TOUT Saiuov
pl. nom./ voc. ayaves TTOIMEVES Saipoves

gen. oyavav TTOIMEVGOV SaIMOVOOV
dat. &yaor(v) Toipéeoi(v) Saivooi(v)
acc. aydadvas TTOLMEVAS daivovas
4.50 Third-declension nouns with a stem in v maybe:

masculine: e.g. 6 &yav contest (&ywv-), 6 Saiuav spirit (Scpov-), 6 SeAgis dolphin
(SeAgiv-), & tryevov guide (hyeyov-), 6 troy shepherd (troiwev-); 6 Ayayeuveov
Agamemnon (Ayauepvov-), 6 EAAnv Greek (EAAnv-), 6 TAc&toov Plato (TAatov-);
in fewer cases, feminine: e.g. i) cikov image (eixov-), f otayav drop (otayov-),
1) adis childbirth pain (@8w-); DarAapis Salamis (LaAapr-).
4.51 Thefinal v of the stem has disappeared before a:

in the nom.sg. of a few nouns: *SeAgiv-s > SeAgis (gen. SeAgivos), *ZaAapiv-s >
ZoaAauis (gen. ZaAdapivos); observe, however, that most nounsofthis type form
a nom. sg. without an ending ( 2.6), and with a long vowel ( 1.54): e.g. &yav
(stem &yov-); Saipav (stem Saipov-);
in thedat. pl.; there is no compensatory lengthening: e.g. dyao1, Saivoo1, otaydon.
52 4.51-6 Nouns
Note 1: The dat. pl. was presumably formed through the process *Saiun-o1 (zero-grade,
1.51-3) > *8aipsor (n > & 1.86) > Saipoo (analogical levelling of the paradigm, 1.49,
with o for a). It is thus more accurateto say that there was,in the dat. pl., never a cluster -vo-
between vowels which could have resulted in compensatory lengthening. This pattern is
foundin all nominal v-stems (adjectives, 5.24, 5.27; pronouns, 7.24).
4.52 The voc. sg., without ending ( 2.6), is often identical to the nominative (e.g. & TlAdtav,
x
Toit), although with some nounsa short vowel gradeis used: e.g. & Ayayepvov, a Saipov, a
"AtroAAov (also 4.53).
4.53 6 AtroAAwv Apollo has acc. AmoAAw next to ATdAAwva. So too 6 Tooe1Sav Poseidon, acc. sg.
Tlooe1da next to Tlooe15déva. Their voc. is "ATroAAov, Tloceidov.
4.54 6 kUwv dog uses the stem xuv- throughouttherest of its declension (gen. sg. kuvéds, dat. sg. kuvi,
etc.), except for the voc. sg. KUov.
Stemsin a Liquid (A or p)
stemsin a liquid
6 GAs salt 6 pitwp orator
stem dA- stem pntop-
Sg. nom. GAS PnTwApP

gen. CAS ONTOPOS
dat. ani O1TOp1
acc. ana pnTopa
voc. _ ptyTop
pl. nom./ voc. GAEs OT\TOPES

gen. GAG PNTOpev
dat. é&Aoi(v) étyTopo1(v)
acc. aAas PnTopas
4.56 Third-declension nouns with a stem endingin a liquidare:

- normally masculine: e.g. 6 641twp orator (pnTop-), 6 Kpatip mixing bowl
(kpatnp-), 6 owtip saviour (owtnp-), 6 pap thief (pwe-); 6 Extwp Hector
(Extop-). A few feminine nouns occur: e.g. | khp fate (knp-), 1 xeip hand
(xeIp-);
masculine or feminine are 6 GAs (grain of) salt, 1 &As sea (GA-); 6/h Sip air
(dep-); 6/7 aiétip heaven (ai@ep-);
two nounsare neuter: To Zap spring and 16 trip fire (4.61).
4.57 The nom. sg. is normally without ending. Several nouns of this type have
ablaut in the stem, and then use the lengthened vowel in the nom.sg.
(1.54): e.g. aiétp (gen. aifgpos), PrTwP (gen. ArTOpOs); other nouns have
a long vowel throughout the declension: e.g. kpatip (gen. Kpatijpos), pap
(gen. pwpds).
In GAs, -s is added to the stem (without change) to form the nom.sg.
4.58 The voc. sg. is formed without ending ( 2.6), normally with a short vowel: © A7jtop, @ odTEp,
a@ Extop.
4.59 1 xeip hand (stem yeip-, gen. yxe1pds) has dat. pl. xepoi: this shorter variant of the stem (y¢p-) is
found in the othercases as well, especially in poetry.
4.60 6 waptus witness (stem paptup-, gen. udpTtupos, dat. ydptupt, etc.) has dat. pl. uaetuor.
4.61 The neuter nouns to trvpfire and 16 Zap spring occur only in the singular. They are declined
Tip, Tupds, Tupi, Tp and Zap, gapos (often > Apos), Zap1 (often > Ap1), zap.
Stemsin ()p, with Three Ablaut Grades (Type tratnp, avnp)
type tratnp avnp

6 tatihp father 6 d&vip man
stem trat(e)p- stem d&v(e)p-
Sg. nom. TAaTNp avnp

gen. TTATPOS GVvdpos
dat. Tatpi &vbpi
acc. TTATEPa avdpa
voc. TIATED a&vep
pl. nom./ voc. TTATEPES &vdpes

gen. TTATEPOOV avdpoav
dat. Tatpaoi(v) &vdpao1(v)
acc. TTATEPAS avdpas
4.63 Four nounsendingin -tnp 6 tratnpfather, f wtp mother, @uyatnp daughter,

t) yaotnp belly - show three different ablaut variations ( 1.51-2) through their
declension:
lengthened e-grade in the nom.sg.: e.g. tatip, utp;

e-grade in the acc. and voc. sg.; nom., gen. and acc.pl.: e.g. tatépa, Puyatépwv,
YaoTEpas;
54 4.63-6 Nouns
zero-gradein the gen. anddat. sg., and in the dat. pl., e.g. untpds, Buyatpds; in
the resulting combination of the dat. pl., *-tp-o1, the p has expanded to p&
( 1.87): e.g. tTatp&o1, yaotp&or.
4.64 6&vnp manis similarly declined using three ablautvariations: lengthened gradein
the nom.sg. (dv7p), e-grade in the voc. sg. (avep); however, the zero-grade appears
in all the other cases, where the resulting combination vp has changed to vdp
( 1.93): e.g. avdpi, dvdpav. Note the dat. pl. dvdpaon.
Stems in o (Neuter Nounsin -os, Namesin -ns)
neuter nounsin -os proper names in -ns5
TO yévos race ZwKpatns Socrates TlepixAijs Pericles

stem yevoo-/yeveo- stem ZwKpateo- stem TlepixAe(F)eo-
sg. nom. YEVOS DZWOKPATNS TlepixAtis (<*- (¢) ns)
gen. yevous (<*-s(a)os) 2aKpaTous (<*-e(a)os) TlepixkAgous (<*-é(F)e(o)os)

dat. Yevel (<*-e(o)1) 2WKPATEL (<*-e(o)1) TlepixAsi (<*- (F)e(o)1)
acc. YEVOS Z@KPATH (<*-e(o)a) TlepixAea (<*-&(¢)e(a) a)

Or DwWKPAaTHV
voc. = nom. TAOKPATES TlepixAeis (<*-e(p)es)
pl. nom. / voc. yévn (<*-e(o)a)

gen. YEVaoV (<*-e(o)aov)
dat. yéveoi(v) (<*-eooi(v))
acc. yevn (<*-¢(o)a)
4.66 Third-declension nouns with a stem ending in o maybe:

neuter: nouns ending in -os, with two ablautvariations in the stem, oo- (used in
nom./acc. sg.) and eo- (usedin all other cases): e.g. To yévos race (yeveo-), TO ETrOS
word (étreo-), TO Etos year (éteo-), TO KpaTos might (kpateo-), TO TEiyos wall
(tTe1yE0-);
- masculine: a number of masculine proper namesin -ns, with a stem in eo-:
e.g. 6 Aloyévns Diogenes (Aioyeveo-), 6 ZwKpatns Socrates (ZwKxpateo-); also
namesin -xKAfjs, with a stem originally ending in e(f)eo-: e.g. 6 MepixArjs Pericles
(TlepixAe(p)eo-), 6 ZopoKAris Sophocles (ZopoxAe(F)Eo-).
The masculine proper namesare built on the same stems as someofthe neuter
nouns: Aroyévns (yévos), ZwKpdtns (Kkpa&tos), TepiKAris (KAEos fame, <*KAéfos).
4.67 Between vowels, the o of the stem has disappeared ( 1.83), and the remaining
vowels have contracted ( 1.58-66): e.g. gen. sg. Zwxpdtous (= -Tds) < -E05 <
*-eoos; nom./acc. pl. yévn < -ea < *-eoa.
In the dat. pl., the combination -eo-oi has been simplified to -eor: e.g. yéveon,
ETEOI < - 001.
4.68 Proper namesin -ns often get an acc. in -nv (modelled onthefirst declension): e.g.
TOV 2wKPaTHy, TOV Aloyevny.
4.69 In the declension of names endingin -xA js, both the o and the ¢ have disappeared
between vowels. After the disappearance of ¢ further contraction has occurred in
the nom., dat. and voc. (TlepixAfis <*-KAgens; TlepixAci <*-KAgfeot; TlepixAers
<*-«Aeces), but not in the gen. and acc. (TlepixAgous <*-KAéfecos; TMepixAd&
<*-KAgfeoa; with & after ¢, 41.57).
4.70 There are a few neuter nounswith a stem in ao-: e.g. 16 yépas gift ofhonour, td yiipasold age,
to Kpéas flesh. These are declined as follows: nom./acc. sg. yépas, gen. yépws (<*-a(o)os), dat.
yépa (<*-a(o)1); nom./acc. pl. yépa (<*-a(o)a), gen. yepdv (<*-&(o)wv), dat. yépaoi (<*-a(o)
1).
4.71 To the o-stemsalso belong two feminine nouns - 4 tpinpnstrireme and f aides shame. They
are declined as follows:
tpitpns (properly an adjective with an unexpressed form of* vats ship): gen. tpitypous,dat.
TPINPEL, acc. TpINpN; nom. pl. teinpes, gen. tpijpwv, dat. teinpeot, acc. ternpers (for the
declension,cf. &Anéts, 5.28-9);
- aides (sg. only): gen. aidots (<*-d(c)os), dat. aiS0t (<*-d(0)1), acc. ai6& (<*-d(o)a).
4.72 6 Apns Ares has gen. Apews or (poetic) Apeos, dat. Apel, acc. "Apn or (poetic) Apea, voc. Apes.
4.73 Proper names ending in -ns may also be ofthe first declension ( 4.8-13): e.g. 6 EUpittidngs,
gen. Etvprridou. But all namesin -yévns, -kpdtns, -uévns and -ofévns are third-declension.
56 4.74-8 Nouns
Stemsin 1/e(y) (Type 1rdA1s)
stemsin 1/e(y)
t) WOAIs city
stem troAi-/TroAc(y)-
sg. nom. TrOATs
gen. TTOAEWS
dat. TTOAE1 (<*-e(y)i)

acc. TOAiv
voc. TOAT
pl. nom./ voc. TOAEIS (<*-e(y)es)

gen. TTOAEGV (<*-e(y)oov)
dat. TOoAEoi(v)
acc. TTOAEIS
Note 1: For Ionic forms, 25.22 (the Ionic paradigm differs strongly from the Attic one).
4.75 Third-declension nounswith a stem endingin are nearly all feminine:e.g. 1 1dAts
city, | 5Uvauis power, 1 GBpis brutality. Many such nounsendin -o1s ( 23.27): e.g.
t) Troinois poetry, tf) Avois release, *) mp&Eis act. A few nouns are masculine: e.g.
O UAVTIS Seer, O Sgis Serpent.
These nouns show two ablautvariations in the stem:
(zero-grade) in 1: in nom., acc. and voc. sg.: e.g. T1dOAI-s, TOAI-v, TOAI;
(e-grade)in ey, the y ofwhich disappeared ( 1.76): in dat. sg. 1éAe1 (<*trdAe(y)-1),
nom.pl. 1dAeis (= 1dAEs <*1rdAe(y)-es, with contraction).
4.76 The dat. pl. was probably modelled on the nom.pl., using a stem trode-: dat. 1dAe-o1.
Theacc. pl. also derives from the nom.pl., either directly or building on the stem troAc-:
acc. WdéAEIs = TOAES <*11dAE-V5 (1.68).
The gen. sg. andpl. in -ews/-ewv is built on a stem troAn- (attested in Homer): 1déAews <
TOANos; TéAEWY <*TroATjwov (quantitative metathesis, 1.71; for the accentuation of 1déAEws/
méAgwv, 24.10 n.2).
4.77 The 1-stem noun ois sheep has a declension without ablaut: nom. sg. ois (<*8(F)1-s) gen. oids,
dat. oii, acc. oiv; nom.pl. ois, gen. oidv, dat. oio1, acc. ois (<*8(F)1-vs).
4.78 A few compoundproper namesin -1rdéAis are declined as dental-stem nouns ( >4.40-4; ie., not
according to the declension of 1éAis): so e.g. 6 AixaidtroAis Dicaeopolis, gen. AixorotréAi&os, dat.
ArxaiotrdA1&1, acc. AikaidtroAiyv, voc. AikaidétroAt.
Stems in u (Type icxus) or in u/e(F¢) (Type trijxus)
stems in uv
(without ablaut) (with ablaut)

1| loyus strength 6 tijxusforearm
stem ioyu- stem mnxu-/1nxe(F)-
Sg. nom. ioXUS TTXUS
gen. ioxuUos TET|XES
dat. ioyUi TNXél (<-e(e)i)
acc. ioxuv TITXUV
voc. io TETXY
pl. nom./ voc. ioxues or ios TET|XEIS (<-e(r)es)

gen. ioxUov TIT}XEOV (<-é(f)eov)
dat. ioyvoi(v) TnxEo1(v)
acc. ioxts or ioxuas TIT}XEIS
4.80 Third-declension nouns with a stem endingin vu are of two types:

- without ablaut: feminine and a few masculine nounsin -us, with a gen.in -vos:
e.g. t) ioxus strength, 1 yéAus tortoise, ) Epis Fury; 6 iy@is fish, 6 véxus corpse.
- (infrequently) with ablaut in the stem (tj/ef, > 1.74): these nouns havea gen.sg.
in -ews and are masculine:e.g. 6 1ijxus forearm, 6 TEéAeKus axe, 6 TpEofuselder.
4.81 In the type without ablaut, the regular third-declension endings are addedto the
stem in u; note acc. sg. ioyu-v andacc.pl. ioyts (<*ioyu-vs, 1.68; ioyvas occurs
sometimes). The nom.pl. is usually ioyves, but the (contracted) form ioyis occurs
as well.
Note 1: The quantity ofu in this type varies. For instance, of ioyus, metrical texts attest both
nom.sg. icyUs/acc. sg. ioyuv and icyus/ioyxtiv. However, the gen. and dat. regularly have -itios,
-ti, -Uoov, -Uor(v).
4.82 The type with ablaut corresponds in most of its declension with type 1dAis
( >4.74-6), since ¢ has disappeared in the same place as y there. The irregular
forms in the gen. sg., dat. pl. and acc. pl. were, in fact, probably modelled on the
TdAis-type (the acc. pl. tyes may also have been modelled on the nom.pl.).
Note 1: The accentuation of these nouns is also analogous to that of the mdAts-type
(24.10 n.2).
58 4.83-5 Nouns
4.83 There is one neuter nounof the type with ablaut, +6 &otu town: the rest of the declension is
gen. sg. dotews, dat. dote1, nom./acc. pl. don (<*-efa), gen. d&otewv, dat. doteor(v). For the
accentuation, 24.10 n.2.
Stems in nu/n(F) (Type BaoiAeus)
nounsending in -eUs
6 Baoitelis king
stem Bao1An(F)-
sg. nom. Bao1dEeus (<-nus)

gen. Bao1léos (<-n(F)os)
dat. BaoiAst (<-n(F)1)

acc. Bao1re (<-n(F)&)
voc. Baoiret (<-nu)
pl. nom./ voc. BaoiAf\s (<-n(F)es)

or BaoiAgis
gen. Bao1Agov (<-n(F)ov)
dat. BaoiAstion(v) (<-nuo1)

acc. Bao1reas (<-n(F)&s)
later Baoilcis
Note1: For Ionic forms, 25.24.
4.85 Third-declension nounsendingin -evsare all masculine; they are proper namesor
indications of profession or geographical origin: e.g. 6 Baoidels king, 6 ittres
horseman, 6 yoadxevs metal-worker, 6 Tipwtets Proteus, 6 Ayapvets Acharnian
(from the deme Acharnae). The forms of these nouns derive from a stem in nu/
ng (1.74, 1.79-80):
before a consonant(andin the voc. sg.): diphthong nu, which was shortened to
eu (1.70): so nom.sg. Baoiev-s, dat. pl. BaoiAet-on.
before a vowel: ng, from which ¢ disappeared, followed in many cases by quanti-
tative metathesis ( 1.71): gen. sg. BaoiAgws <*-nfos; acc. sg. BacolAea <*-ned; gen.
pl. Bacirgwv < *-npav; acc. pl. Baoidéas <*-npas. In two cases contraction has
taken place: dat. sg. BaotAci <*-jp1 (with «1 shortened from n); nom.pl. BaoiArjs
<*-fipes.
Note 1: A later nom. pl. form BaoiAeis, modelled on the e-forms of the sg. (-¢is <*-e-es)
gradually replaced the form in -7js from the fourth century onwards. Later an acc. pl. in -eis
was modelled on the new nominative (cf. 1déA1s, 4.76).
Zeus, vais, Bots
Zeus vais Bots

6 Zeus Zeus 1) vats ship 6/1) Bots ox/cow
stem Ayev-/Ai(f)- stem vau-/va(F)- stem Bou-/Bo(F)-
sg. nom. Zeus (<*Ayets <*Aynus) vats (<*vatis) Bots
gen. Aids (<*Aids) VEWS (<*unpos <*vards) Bods (<*Bords)
dat. Ait (<*Ait) vni (<*vngi <*vaei) Bot (<*Bort)
acc. Aia (<*Aifa) vauv (<*vaiv) Botv
also Ziva
voc. Zev (<*Ayed) vat Bot
pl. nom. Tes (<*vijpes <*vaees) Bogs (<*Bdres)

gen. VEOoV (<*vnpadv <*varav) Bodv (<*Bordv)
dat. vauoi(v) (<*vauoi(v)) Bouoi(v)
acc. vaus Bots
Note 1: For the Ionic declension of vatis, 25.25.
4.87 The nouns 6 Zeus Zeus, h vats ship and 6/hH Bots ox/cow, like nouns in -evs
( 4.84-5), had a stem ending in u/r¢ that formed a diphthong with the preceding
vowel before a consonant (and in the voc.), but disappeared between vowels
(1.74, 1.79-80).
6 Zeus in addition showsthree ablaut variations in the stem: lengthened grade
*Aynu- (in the nom.; nu shortened to ev, 1.70), normal e-grade *Ayeu-, and
zero-grade *Ai(e)-. Apart from the different results of u/f, the declension was
complicated by the change dy > ¢ (1.77).
In the declension of 4 vats, the long & of the stem (vau-/vag-) becameshort in
those cases where it formed diphthong au (before a consonant), but remained
long in those where ¢ disappeared (between vowels). Long « changed to n
( 1.57), resulting in quantitative metathesis ( 1.71) in the gen. sg. and gen.
pl. (e.g. vews < vnds <*vards).
4.88 The declension of 4 ypais old lady is in origin identical to that of vats, but Attic forms
differ in various cases because of p preceding & (1.57): nom sg. ypats, gen. ypads, dat.
ypat, acc. ypatv, voc. ypat; nom.pl. ypé&es, gen. ypadv, dat. ypauoi, acc. ypats.
60 4.89-91 Nouns
4.89 There are a few feminine nouns, usually ofwomen s names,with a stem in wy/oy: e.g. } LaTrg@
Sappho, * 1e18@ persuasion. For their declension, see below, and comparethe declension of
aisas (4.71).
Very few nouns,all masculine, have a stem in wr,e.g. 6 pws hero, 6 untpws maternal uncle, 6
<
Sus slave. The complete declension is given below. An occasionally occurring gen.sg. in -w (e.g.
tjpw) is modelled on the Attic second declension ( >4.27):
stems in w(y)/o(y) stemsin (f)

#| Zatrp@ Sappho 6 fipeos hero
stem Latrpo(y)- stem fpco(F)-
sg. nom. Tara (<*Zatrpa(y)) fpas (<*fpoo(F)s)

gen. Latrgotis (<*-d(y)os) fpwos or pw (<*#\pco(F)os)
dat. Lar@oi (<*-d(y)1) Tpwi or hpw (<*#poo(F)1)
acc. Targa (<*-d(y)a) fpwa or pw (<*fpo(F)a)
voc. ZATTPoi = nom.
nom./ voc. Tpwes OF Tpws (<*tpeo(F)es)

ee
gen. Tipawv (<*fpa(f)wv)

dat. Tpworlv) (<*#poo(F)o1)
acc. Tpwas or Tpws (<*fpoo(F)as)
ee
4.90 Several third-declension nouns have formsbuilt on different stems (heteroclitic nouns):
to xépas horn has dental-stem and o-stem forms ( >4.40-4 and cf. o-stem yépas, 4.70):
thus gen. sg. képatos or Képws, dat. sg. képati or Képa, etc.
So too 6 xpwsskin (sg. only, cf. o-stem aides, 4.71) gen. ypwtds or xpods (uncontracted),
xpoti or ypot, acc. ypta or xpda. The dat. sg. yea also occurs. The o-stem formsare
poetic.
To yovu knee and ro S6pu spear have nom./acc.sg. of the u-type (cf. dotu, 4.83), but other
forms built on a stem in at- ( 4.40-4; e.g. gen. sg. 5d6patos, dat. pl. ydvaon).
to USwp water similarly has a stem in at (USaT-): e.g. gen. sg. USatos, dat. JSar1.
So too To HTrap liver, gen. ftratos, dat. Aram; and tap day, gen. Hyatos (poetic).
to xapa head (poetic) has gen. sg. kpatds, dat. pati (but also xépa), gen. pl. kpdtoov.
The nom./acc. sg. t6 kp&ta also occurs.
For f yuvn, 4.38.
4.91 Other heteroclitic nouns have both second-declension and third-declension forms:
6 dveipos dream (in poetry also Td dveipov) has alternative dental-stem type forms:so e.g. gen.
sg. oveipou or dveipatos, etc. The nom./acc. sg. td dvap also occurs.
6 yédws laughter, gen. yéAwtos is normally declined as a dental stem; in poetry,
Attic second-declension acc. sg. yéAwv also occurs.
4.91-3 Conspectus of Noun Types 61
6 Epws love, gen. Epwtos is normally declined as a dental stem; in poetry, second-declension
pos, dat. Zpw, acc. Zpov also occur.
6 oxdTos shade, second-declension, also occurs as a neuter third-declension o-stem noun:
nom./acc. sg. TO oKdTos, gen. oKdToUus, dat. oxdTel, etc.
To SévSpov tree similarly has dat. sg. 5év5pe1, nom./acc. pl. SévSpn, dat. pl. SévSpeor next to
Sevdpa, Sevdpa, Sevdpors.
6 vids son has, next to its regular second-declension forms, alternative u-stem type forms:
gen. Sg. vigos, dat. viet; nom.pl. vieis, gen. vigov, dat. vido, acc. vieis (for these forms, cf. the
declension of dus, 5.21)
Similarly, +6 S&xpuov tear has dat. pl. Sdxpuc1 next to Saxpvors. Nom./acc. sg. S&Kpu is
found in poetry, next to S&Kpuov.
4.92 The form tév (indeclinable) occurs only as a form of address: & tav dear man, goodsir.
Conspectus of Noun Types

4.93 Listed below,alphabetically, are the endings of nom.sg. and gen. sg. of most types of
noun (excluding individual exceptions), followed by an indication of the declension
(with subtype), gender, and a referenceto the sections above wherethat typeis treated:
nom.sg. gen. sg. declension gender section(s)

-& -aS 1 (after ¢, 1, p) fem. 4,3-7
-& -115 1 fem. 4,3-7
-& -aS 1 (after ¢, 1, p) fem. 4,3-7
-aS -OU 1 (after ¢, 1, p) masc. 4,.8-13
-OS -AVTOS 3 ~vt-stem masc. 4.45-8
-AS -ATOS 3 dental-stem neut. 4,40-2
-OS -0OS 3 o-stem neut. 4.70
-EUS -EOS 3 eu-stem masc. 4.84-5
7 5 1 fem. 4,3-7
-NV -T)V0sS 3 v-stem masc. 4.49-52
-1V -EVOS 3 v-stem masc. or fem. 4,49-52
-1N1p -11P05 3 liquid-stem masc. 4,55-8
-nNp -EPOS 3 liquid-stem mostly masc. 4,55-8
-(t)np -(t)pos 3 p-stem with ablaut masc. or fem. 4.62-4

62 4.93 Nouns
nom. sg. gen. sg. declension gender section(s)

-7i5 -EOUS 3 o-stem masc. proper names >4.65-9
-115 -11TOS 3 dental-stem fem. or masc. 4,40-2
-n5 -OU 1 masc. 4.8-13
-115 -OUS 3 o-stem masc. propernames - >4.65-8
-Is -E0S 3 wWe(y)-stem mostly fem. 4,74-7
-Is -1S0s/-18os/-itos 3 dental-stem mostly fem. 4,40-4
-I5 -Iv0s 3 v-stem mostly fem. 4.49-52
-Ua -UATOS 3 dental-stem neut. 4,40-2
- -yos/-Kos/-yos 3 velar-stem masc.or fem. 4,35-7
-OS -oU 2 mostly masc. 4,19-22
-OS -OUS 3 o-stem neut. 4.65-7
-Ov -OU 2 neut. 4,.24-6
-OuV -OU 2 (with contraction) neut. 4.24-6
-OUS -OVTOS 3 ~vt-stem masc. 4.45-8
-OUS -OU 2 (with contraction) masc. 4.,19-22
-U EWS 3 u/e(e)-stem neut. 4.83
-US -UOS 3 u-stem mostly masc. 4.79-81
-US EWS 3 u/e(e)-stem masc. 4.79-82
-y -Bos/-tros/-gos 3 labial-stem masc. or fem. 4,35-7
-@) -OUS 3 oy-stem fem. 4.89
-GOV -OVOS 3 v-stem masc. or fem. 4,49-52
-COV -OVTOS 3 ~vt-stem masc. 4.45-8
-GoVv -GOVOS 3 v-stem mostly masc. 4,49-53

-(t)wp -(t)opos 3 liquid-stem masc. 4,55-8
-0OS -@ 2 Attic mostly masc. 4,27

-WS -wos (or -w) 3 f¢-stem masc. 4.89
5
Adjectives and Participles
First-and-Second-Declension Adjectives and Participles

Of Three Endings (-os, -n/-a, -ov)
Adjectives
-0$, -1), -OV -0s, -&, -ov (after ¢, 1, p)

Sewods impressive Sixanos just
masc. fem. neut. masc. fem. neut.
sg. nom. SELVOS Sev SElVOV SiKAL1OS O1KaIe SiKG1OV
gen. Selvou Seivr|s SeivoU Sikaiou SiKaias Sikaiou
dat. Seva Seivi} Seva Sikaic Sikaian Sikaio
acc. SELVOV SElvv SElVOV SiKQLOV o1Kkaiay SiKGIOV
voc. SELVE = nom. = nom. dikate = nom. = nom.
pl. nom./voc. 8Seivoi Seva Sewe Sikaiol SIKAIAL SiKALe

gen. SELVaOV SELVOV SE1VaoV OIKAIGV S1KALGV OIKAIGV
dat. SE1VOIS dSe1vais SE1VOIS SIKALOIS S1KALAIS SIKAIOIS
acc. SELVOUS Seivas Seva SIKALOUS SIKALAS OiKaIe
5.2 The most commontype of adjective has second-declension forms in the masculine
and neuter, andfirst-declension formsin the feminine.E.g. Se1vds, -1, -d6v impress-
ive, KaAds, -1), -ov beautiful, dAiyos, -n, -ovlittle, few, AetTds, -1, -dv fine, piAos, -n,
-ov dear, Sixaios, -&, -ov just, aioypds, -a, -dv shameful, véos, -&, -ov young, new.
These adjectives are declined:
like S0A0s5 (4.19, second declension) in the masculine;
like puy7 in the feminine,orif ¢, 1, or p precedes the endingslike yopa ( 4.3,
first declension); the endings of the fem. sg. have a long vowel throughout;
like 8@pov ( 4.24, second declension) in the neuter.
Note 1: But the accentuation does not necessarily correspond to such nouns, depending,
rather, on the base accent of the adjective s nom. sg. masc. ( >24.14); for the accentuation of
the gen. pl. fem., 24.22 n.1.
64 5.3-5 Adjectives and Participles
Participles
-MEVvoS, -Hévn, -MEVOV
pres. mp.ppl. tradeeducate

masc. fem. neut.
Sg. nom. TIIOEVOUEVOS TIALOEVOLEVT] TTAIOEVOMEVOV
gen. TTAIOEVOMEVOU TIALOEVOLEVT|S TTAISEVOMEVOU
dat. TTAISEVOLEVOD TALdeVOpEVT) TIAISEVOLEVOD
acc. TIGIOEVOMEVOV TIALOEVOMEVTYV TTAIOEVOMEVOV
voc. TIAISEVOMEVE = nom. = nom.
pl. nom./voc. TTALISEVOUEVOL TIAIOEVOUEVAL TIAISEVOLEVE.

gen. TTALISEVOMEVOOV TTAIOEVOMEVOOV TICISEVOMEVOOV
dat. TTALISEVOLEVOIS TIAIOEVOLEVALS TICISEVOEVOIS
acc. TTALSEVOMEVOUS TIAIOEVOMEVOS TIAISEVOLEVE.
5.4 Like Seivds, -1, -dv are declined all middle-passive participles ending in -pevos,
-UEVT], -MEVOV:
pres. mp.ppl. .8. TTALSEUVOLEVOS, TTOLOULEVOS, TIUGHEVOS,
ONAOUMEVOS, SEIKVULEVOS
aor. mid. ppl. e.g. Ta1devocpevos, AaBdpevos, SduEvos
fut. mid. ppl. .8. TAISEUOOMEVOS, VELOULEVOS
fut. pass. (8n-/n-) ppl. e.g. TaiSevOrodpEevos, BouAnodpEvos
pf. mp.ppl. e.g. TeTralSeupevos, Tetpippevos (note the
different accentuation, 24.20)
Of Three Endings, with Contraction (-ots, -7/-&, -otv)
-oUs, -fj, -oUv -otis, -&, -otv (after¢, 1, p)

xpuools gold(en) &pyupoissilver
sg. nom./voc. ypuoots ypuot xpucotv apyupots dapyupd& apyupotv
gen. Xpucot Xpuort|s Xpuoot apyupou apyupas apyupou
dat. Xpuc@ Xpuon} Xpuo® apyupe apyups apyupe

acc. Xpucouv ypuoty xpucotv dapyupotv dpyupav apyupotv
pl. nom./voc. ypucoi Xpuocat Xpuo& apyupoi apyupai apyupa

gen. Xpuodyv Xpuoay Xpuoayv apyupay apyupov apyupdav
dat. Xpuoois Xpuoais Xpuoois apyupois apyupais apyupois
acc. Xpucous ypucds XpuoG apyupots dapyupdas apyupa

5.6-8 First/Second-Declension Adjectives and Participles 65
5.6 In some first-and-second-declension adjectives, the endings are contracted with

a preceding « or o in the stem. These are adjectives expressing material, e.g.
Xpuoots, -f, -otv gold(en) (-éos, -é&, -éov), &pyupots, -&, -otv silver, tToppupots,
-&, -oUv purple; and those expressing multiplication ending in -TAovs, e.g. atrAovs,
-7j, -otv single (-dos, -é&, -dov); S1TrAots, -7}, -otv double.
These adjectives are declined:
like vots (4.21) in the masculine;
like puy7 in the feminine,orif ¢, 1, or p precedes the endingslike yopa ( 4.3,
first declension). The endingsof the fem. sg. have a long vowel throughout;
like dototv ( 4.24) in the neuter.
Note 1: Even if the stem has o, the feminine endingsare as if contracted with e: thus &tAots
(-d0s), but ata (- a).
Note 2: The ending of the nom./acc. pl. neut. in -& (yxpuo&, &épyup&) is due to analogy with
e.g. Seva (1.49; regular contraction of -e& would have resulted in -n, cf. yévn < yéved,
1.59). The sameholds for the endings of the feminine (e.g. nom.pl. ypuooi rather than
expected typuof} < -éa).
Of Two Endings(-os, -ov or -ous, -ouv)
-O0$> -OvV -OUS, -OUV
G&Sdikos unjust eUvous well-disposed

masc. and fem. _neut. masc. and fem. neut.
sg. nom. GS1KOS adiKov EUVOUG eUVOUV
gen. &dikou &dikou eUVOU eUVOU

dat. &Sixe &Sixe eva eva
acc. adika Od1KOV EUVOUV EUVOUV
voc. GSdike = nom. = nom. = nom.
pl. nom/voc. &&1Kko1 &Sika EUVOL eUvoa

gen. GOiKaov GOIKaoV EUVOOV EUVOOV
dat. &Sikois &Sikos eUVOIS EUVOIS
acc. GSiKOUS ad1ka EUVOUS EUVOa
5.8 Some adjectives have no distinct forms for the feminine. With such
adjectives, second-declension forms are used for all three genders, and the
feminine forms are identical to the masculine ones (of two endings thus
means one set of forms for the masculine and feminine, and one set for the
neuter). Comparee.g.:
GSikosS av Np the unjust man
| O-
:
Gdikos Sikn the unjusttrial
a
5 &S1kov Epyov the unjust deed
5.9 Adjectives of two endingsare declined:

like S00Aos5 (4.19, second declension) in the masculine and feminine;
like 8@pov ( >4.24, second declension) in the neuter.
A few adjectives of two endings show contraction (e.g. eWvous, -ouv, well-disposed;
&trAous, -ouv unseaworthy); such adjectives are declined:
like vots (4.19) in the masculine and feminine;
like d0totv ( >4.24) in the neuter; but note that the endings of the nom. andacc.
pl. are not contracted (-0&).
5.10 Adjectives of two endingsfall into two groups.

compound adjectives, formed from two or more distinct components
( 23.37-40), regularly have two endings:
Ev-50 0s, -ov famous
TrEpi-o1KOS, -oVv dwelling round
eU-@T]HOS, -oVv reverentially silent, well-spoken
Bet\Aatos, -ov god-driven (8eds, ZAatva)
Note adjectives with so called privative -:
G-S1KOS, -OVv unjust
&-Aoyos, -ov without reason
c-@iAos, -ov friendless
&-Kivntos, -ov motionless
afew non-compoundadjectives,e.g.:
BapBapos, -ov non-Greek
BéBanos, -ov safe, secure, clear
gonNUOs, -OVv abandoned, uninhabited
f\ouXos, -ov calm
MPOVILOS, -oVv thoughtful, careful
XPTOIMOS, -oVv useful
Note 1: Comparatives and superlatives ( 5.36-8) of these adjectives are of three

endings: e.g. with &8ixos, comparative &Sikatepos, -&, -ov, with PéBaios, superlative
BeBalotatos, -n, -ov.
5.11-12 First/Second-Declension Adjectives and Participles 67
5.11 Adjectives which regularly have three endings sometimes appear as adjectives of two
endings, and vice versa, in specific authors, texts or in individual places. This occurs
frequently in poetry. Thus e.g. with the adjective BéBatos (usually -os, -ov):
(1) coi 8 SuiAia pds TévSe .. . BEBaros. (Soph. Phil. 70-1)
Yourrelationship with him is safe. Of two endings, as usual.
(2) &petiis BéBoucn ... ai kTHoe1s povns. (Soph.fr. 194 Radt)
Only of valourare the gains safe. Of three endings.
Further Particulars
5.12 A few (first-and-)second-declension adjectives are declined in the masculine and neuter
following the Attic second declension ( 4.27). Of these, only tAéws, -éa, -éov full has
three endings; others, such as ews, -ewv favourable, and compound adjectives such as
ExTrAews, -ewv completely full, all have two endings. The full declension of these adjectivesis
as follows:
E00S, -EX, -EQOV EWS, -EWV

TAéwsfull fAewsfavourable
masc. fem. neut. masc. and fem. _neut.
sg. nom./voc. TAEas TAEG TTAEGOV TAgaos TAgoov
gen. TrAEG TTAEGS TAEG TAgoo TAEO
dat. Ago) Aga TAE@ TAE@ TAE@
acc. TTAEW@YV TrAEGY TTAEW@YV TAEOOV TAEGOV
pl. nom./voc. Aéw TTAECL TAEG iAEo AE

gen. TrAEWV TTAE@OV TTAE@V TAgoov TAgoov
dat. TAE WS TAEas TAE OS TAEGS TAEGS
acc. TTAEWS TTAEGS TTAEG TAEWS TAEa
Note 1: For Ionic forms of tAgas, 25.27.

Mixed-Declension Adjectives
5.13. Overview of forms:
TTOAUS, TTOAAN, TTOAU Méyas, MeyaAn, peya

TroAus great, many péyas large, great
Sg. nom. TOAUS TOAAN TrOAU weyas yeyaAn peyo
gen. TOAAOG TOAAjs ToAAoU syXAou sueyA ueycaAou
dat. TTOAAG TTOAAF} TOAA@ wey~ s eXA) yEeycro
acc. TOAUV TOAAY TrOAU uéyav ueydAnv eyo
voc. = nom. = nom. = nom. weyare = nom. = nom
pl. nom./voc. TroAAoi ToAAai TTOAAG uEyaAol ueyaAor weyaAc

gen. TOAAGY TrOAAGv TOAAGy usyGAwv usyGAw@v weyAo
dat. TOAACIS TWOAAaiis TOAAoIs §= ssAig ekg, WEKAS
acc. ToAAOUs TOAAGs TTOAAG ueydAous pEeyadAas peyarg
Note 1: For Ionic forms (regular toAAds, TroAAH, TroAAdv), 25.27.
5.14 The adjectives troAus great, many and péyasgreat, large have a mixed declension,
and are built on two different stems:
The nom. andacc. sg. in the masc. and neut. are third-declension formsbuilt
on the stems toAt- and yeya-; the nom.sg. masc. endsin -s, the acc. sg. masc.in
-v; the nom./acc. sg. neut. has no ending.So:
nom. Sg. Masc. TTOAU-S, HEYA-S
acc. S§. Masc. TTOAU-v, HEYO-V
nom./acc. sg. neut. TroAU, HEYa
All other formsare built on the stems TroAA- and pey&a-, andare ofthefirst-and
-second declension type, declined like Se1vds ( >5.1). So e.g.:
nom.pl. masc. TrOAA-oi, UEYGA-O1
gen. sg. fem. TOAA-TIs, WEYaA-15
5.15-16 First/Third-Declension Adjectives and Participles 69
First-and-Third-Declension Adjectives and Participles

Of Three Endings, Stems in vt (-wv, -ouca, -ov and tr&s, Tr&oa, Tr&v)
Adjectives
WV, -OUTG, -OV TAS, TATA, HAV

éxaov willing Tras every, whole, all
sg. nom./voc. ékov EKOUOE EKOV TOS TACK TOV
gen. EKOVTOS EKOUOTN|S EKOVTOS TAVTOS TANS TAVTOS
dat. ExOvTi éxovon ExdvTi TOVTI Tao TaVTi

acc. EKOVTE éxotoay éKkdv TAVTS TACKY THY
pl. nom./voc. ékdvTeEs Exottoal éxdvT& TOvTES Too TEVTS

gen. EKOVTWY EKOUT@V EkdOVTWY TaVTWV TIAOaV TAVTOOV
dat. éxottoi(v) éxovoais éxotoi(v) tma&oilv) tmaoais Tao1(v)
acc. EKOVTES EKoUGaS EKOVTE TaVTES WACaS TAVTS
5.16 The adjectives ixwv willing (éxovt-), &xwv unwilling (axovt-) and t&s whole,
every, all (1a&vt-) have a stem ending in vt. They are declined:
in the masculine: following the third declension,like yépwv or yiyas ( 4.46).
With éxoov and &kwv the nom.sg. masc. has a long stem-vowel and nofinal t (so
éxa@v with stem éxdvt-). With mas the ending -s was added and vt disappeared
with compensatory lengthening (1és <*tr&vts, 1.68). In the dat. pl. of each of
these adjectives, again, vt disappeared with compensatory lengthening (éxoto1 =
Ex601 <*éKOvT-o1; TOL <*Tr&VT-O1);
in the feminine: the sufhx *-y& ( 23.9) was addedto the stem,resulting in -o&
(<*-vty&, 1.77) with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel
( 1.68). So e.g. Exotio& (<*éxdvt-y&), T&OE (<*1r&vT-y&). The resulting forms
are declined followingfirst declension nounswith short &, like poto& ( 4.3);
in the neuter: the nom./acc.sg. is identical to the stem buthaslostthe finalt:e.g.
exov (<*éxdvt), wav (<*trdvt, but n.1). The nom./acc. pl. ends in -&. Other
formsare identical to the masc.
Note 1: The long a in the nom./acc. sg. neut. 1ré&v is irregular; it is modelled on othercases
throughout the paradigm, such as (regular) 1&s>, t&oa (analogy, 1.49).
70 5.17 Adjectives and Participles
Participles
WV, -ouo®g, -OV -@v, -oUoa, -oUVv
pres. act. ppl. of traiSeuw educate pres. act. ppl. of troigw make, do
sg. nom. traidevoov TTAIOEUOUDA TIAldEeVov TTOLGDV TTOLOUOG® TrolouUV
gen. traidevovtos traidevovons traisevovtos TroloUvTos Trolovons TroioUvTos

dat. toSevovtl toaiSevovon taisevovT: toiotvt: toiovon TolotvTl
acc. traidevovta tTaisevoucav traidetov TolUVvTa Trolovoav Troiotv
pl. nom. toiSevovtes traiSevUouoa traisevovta tolotvtes trolovoa troiotvTa

gen. TraideudvTmv TraidevouTGv TralSevdovTw@VY TOIOUVTWV TTOLOUDHV TOIOUVTOYV
dat. traiSevouoi(v) Taidevovcais traiSevouoi(v) Troiotoi(v) tTroiovcais troiotoi(v)

acc. traisevovtas traisevoucoas traisevovtTa TrolouvtTas Trolovoas TroloUVvTa
-QV, -@Oa, -@v -Q@V, -oUCa, -oUV

pres. act. ppl. of tipdoo honour pres. act. ppl. of SnAdw make clear
Sg. nom. Tiyav TILWOO TIMGOV ONA@V dnAovoa onAouv
gen. TIUMVTOS TIWMONS TIWdVTOS SnAOUVTOS SnAOoUoNs SnAotvWvTOS

dat. TIUOVT1 TILWON TINOVT1 onAovvTl STAoVoN OnAovvT1
acc. TIUOVTA TIL@OAV TILdV SnNAotwTa SnAotoav snAotv
pl. nom. Tipdvteg Tiwdoar tindvtTa SnAovvtes SnAotoa SnAovvta
gen. TIUMVTMVY TILWOOY TIN@VTMVY SNAoUVTwmVY SnAoUOmdv SnAouvtov

dat. TIUHOUv) Tiwooais Tip@oi(v) SnAotvoi(v) SnAovoais SnAodvor(v)
acc. TIUMVTAS TIWWOaS =TIWdVTa SnAoUWTas SnAoUoas BSnAotwTa
-US, -Uoa, -UV -AS, -Goa, -av

pres. act. ppl. of Seixvumi show pres. act. ppl. of totnu make stand
sg. nom. SeiKvus SelkvUoa SelKVUV lOTAS iotaoa loTaV

gen. Seikvuvtos Seiviuons Seikvivtos iotavtos iotaons lOTAVTOS
dat. SeikvivTi Seikvuon SeikvuvTt ioT&VTI iota ioT&VTI
acc. Semvivta Seixvioav Seikviv ioTaVTA ioThOav loTaV
pl. nom. Seikvivtes BSeixvtoor Seixvivta iotavtes iotaoai ioTaVTA

gen. Seikvivtwv Seikvuodv Seikvivtwv iotavtwv iotaody ioTAVTOOV
dat. Seikvioi(v) Servuoais Seikvtoi(v) iot&oi(v) iotacais iot&oi(v)
acc. Seikvuvtas SeiKvucas SeiKvivta iotavtas iotaoas loTaVTa
-eis, -cioa, -év -oUs, -oUoa, -ov

pres. act. ppl. of ti@nn put, place pres. act. ppl. of SiSc1 give
masc. fem. neut. miasc. fem. neut.
sg. nom. Tideis TI8Eiox TIBEV 5150us S150U0a 5156v
gen. TI8EvTos TIBEeio'ns TIPEVTOS S1S0VTOS d150U0Ns S1S0VTOS
dat. TIBEVTI TIBEion TIDEVTI Si50vT1 S1s0v0n S150vT1
acc. TIBEVTA TI8eioav TIPEV d150vTAa disotoav 1d0Vv
pl. nom. Tiéevtes TIBEeIoa TBEVTE SiS0vTES Sis0toar did0vTa

gen. TIGEvTMY TIBeicodv TIPEvTWVY Sid0vTHMV Sid0Uu0Hv sS1d0vTHv
dat. TiOsioi(v) TiBeicais TiIBEIioi(v) SiS0to(v) S8iS0vcais 81S0to1(v)
acc. TI8evtas TIPEioas TIPEVTA S1D0OVTAS S1d0U0GS S1O0VTAa
5.18 All active participles (except perfect active participles in -os, -via, -ds, +5.19-20),
and aorist passive (8n-/n-aorist) participles, are built on a stem ending in vt, and
thus follow the pattern of declension of éxeov or és:
like éxoov (with a nom.sg with a long stem-vowel, without Tt):
pres. act. of -a verbs e.g. Ta1devev (gen. -ovtos), TaiSevouoa, Taldsetov
pres. act. of eipi be dv (gen. dvtos), ova, dv
pres. act. of cigo iv (gen. idvtos), iotoa, idv
fut. act. e.g. Ta1devowv (gen. -ovtos), TaiseUoouoa,
Taldevoov
aor. act., thematic e.g. AaBav (gen. -dvtos), AaBotioa, AaBdv
Note the forms of participles with contraction:
pres. act. of -éw verbs e.g. Troldv (gen. -otvtos), To1iotoa, Troiotv
pres. act. of -&a verbs e.g. TIUv (gen. -vtos), TIudoa, TIUAvV
pres. act. of -dw verbs e.g. SnAdv (gen. -otvtos), SnAotoa, SnAotv
fut. act., Attic e.g. vendov (gen. -otvtos), venotioa, vesotv
like 1é&s (with a nom.sg. ending in -; and compensatory lengthening):
pres.act. of -y1 verbs e.g. Seikvus (gen. -Uvtos), Seikviioa, Seikviv
e.g. iota&s (gen. -&vTos), ioté&oa, iota&v
51S0us (gen. -dvtos), 5iS0tc0, 5186v
Ti8eis (gen. -évtos), TIBEIoa, TIBEV
icis (gen. - vtos), ieioa, iév
aor. act., sigmatic e.g. TaiSevoas (gen. -&vtos), Tadevocoa, Taldsetvoev
aor. act., root e.g. 5s (gen. Stvtos), Sica, SUV
e.g. oT&s (gen. -&vTos), oT&Oa, OTHV
e.g. Geis (gen. -évTos), Beioa, Bev
e.g. Sous (gen. -dvTos), Sotca, Sdv
aor. 6n-/n- e.g. Tra1deuGeis (gen. -évtos), TaiSeuSeion, Tradeudev
e.g. paveis (gen. -évTos), paveioa, pavév
Of Three Endings, Perfect Active Participles in -ws, -via, -6s5
WS, -Via, -O5

ppl. pf. act. of 1raiSeue educate
miasc. fem. neut.
Sg. nom. TETTAISEUKOS TETTALSEUKUIO TTETTALSEUKOS
gen. TTETTOIOEUKOTOS TTETTOLOEUKUIGS TTETTAISEUKOTOS
dat. TIETTQISEUKOTI TIETTCIOEUKULO TIETTAIOEUKOTI
acc. TIETTOIOEUKOTO TTETTAISEUKUIQV TTETTOIOEUKOS
pl. nom. TIETTCIOEUKOTES TIETTQIOEUKUTOL TIETTAISEUKOTA

gen. TETTOISEUKOTOOV TTETTOISEUKUIOOV TETTAISEUKOTOOV
dat. TeTaiSseuKdo1(v) TETTAISEUKUIAIS TeTralSeukdo1(v)
acc. TETTAISEUKOTOS TTETTAISEUKUICS TTETTAISEUKOTE
5.20 The participle of the perfect active has, in the masculine and neuter, some forms
with a stem in oo and other forms with a stem in ot. Feminine formsare built on
a stem in u1. The formsare declined as follows:
in the masculine: following the third declension; in the nom.sg., the stem in oo-
is used, without ending, but with lengthened stem-vowel (i.e. -ws), e.g.
Tetraideukws; in all other cases the stem in otis used, e.g. gen. sg.
TreTraSeuKotos, dat. pl. tetraiSeuxdo1 (dental t disappears before -o1);
in the feminine: following the first declension, type Sidvoi% ( 4.3, note the 1
preceding the a), hence gen. sg. wetraidSeuxuids, dat. sg. -via;
in the neuter: in the nom./acc. sg. the stem in oois used, without ending(e.g.
TetTraldeuKds); Other cases use the stem in ot-, e.g. nom./acc. pl. tetra1SeuKdT9;
gen. and dat. forms are thus identical to the masc.
Note1: The suffix originally used in these participles was (o-grade) *-foo-, with the feminine
based on zero-grade *-ro- followed by the suffix *-y& (23.9) (*-po-y& > -u1&). The suffix
*-eot- then replaced *-croo- in most cases of the masculine and neuter. The resulting
heteroclitic pattern of declension was originally found in stem perfects such as ¢iSas<,
eiSuia, etc. (oiSa, 18.23) and extended from there (with ¢ no longer felt) to later,
regularly formed x-perfects and aspirated perfects (for these types of perfect stem, 18.2).
Of Three Endings, Stems in u/ef (-us, -e1a, -u)
US, - 1@, -U
1)SuUs sweet
masc fem. neut.
Sg. nom. Sus Seid ratol
gen. NSEOS NdEias NSEOS
dat. Sei HSeia Sei
acc. Hduv Hdeiav du
voc. ndu = nom. = nom.
pl. nom./voc. dis Ndeiat NOEX

gen. TSEov NSE1@v TSE@V
dat. 1Séoi(v) Slats deoi(v)
acc. TS¢eis NdEIaS NdEX
5.22 A group of adjectives ending in -us, -e1a, -u is built on stems with two ablaut
variants ending in zero-grade t or e-gradeer (for /f, > 1.79): e.g. HSuUs sweet, Bapus
heavy, eupus wide, d§Us sharp, tayus quick.
in the masculine: following the third declension, similar to trijxus (4.79, but
note the different gen. sg.). The zero-grade stem in u is used in the nom.andacc.
sg. t)5uU-s, NSU-v. The other cases use the full e-grade *fSer-, the ¢ of which
disappeared: gen.sg. *)5 (F)os, gen. pl. 75é(F)av; there is contraction in the dat.
sg. HSei (<*Se(F)1) and nom.pl. Seis (= HSEs <*HSE(F)eEs);
Note 1: The formsofthe dat. pl. and acc. pl. were presumably built on a stem Se-, analogous
to (e.g.) the nom.pl.; for this kind of formation,cf. 1éA1s (4.76) and trfjxus (4.82).
in the feminine: the suffix *-y& ( 23.9) was addedto the e-grade stem fder-,
producing *Sei& (<*Sé(F)ya). The forms are declined according to the first
declension,like Siavoia ( 4.3, note 1 preceding &);
in the neuter: following the third declension, similar to dotu (4.83, but note
the uncontracted gen. sg. and nom./acc. pl.). The nom./acc. sg. is built on the
zero-grade and has no ending:78u; other cases use the full e-grade. The nom./
acc. pl. ends in -& (nSé& <*Se(F)G, without contraction). Other forms are
identical to the masc.
Of Three Endings, Stemsin v (-as, -aiva, -av)
2g, Alva, -Av
ueAas dark
masc. fem. neut.
Sg. nom. MEAG uEAaiva EAR

gen. UEARVOS ueAaivns UEARVOS
dat. ueAavi weAaivn ucAavi
acc. pEAava uEeAaiva UEAav
voc. MEAKY = nom. = nom.
pl. nom./voc. péA&ves ugAaival ueAava

gen. usd&vaov usAaivedy UsAaveov
dat. ugAcor(v) usAaivais ueAcor(v)
acc. uEAavas uEAaivas pEAava
5.24 The adjectives péAas dark (stem yeAGv-) and té&Aas miserable (stem taddv-) have
stems ending in v. Their declensionis as follows:
in the masculine: following third-declension v-stems ( 4.49). In the nom.sg.
weAas and td&Aas have the ending-s, with loss of v and compensatory lengthening
(ugAas <*yeAa&vs, 1.68).
Note 1: The short vowelin the dat. pl. (ueA&o1) is presumably theresult of analogy, cf. v-stem
forms such as Saivoo1, 34.51 n.1.
in the feminine: the suffix *-y& ( 23.9) was added to the stem, producing
yeAaiva, TéAciva through inversion (<*téAavya, 1.78);
in the neuter: the nom./acc. sg. has no ending: péAav, téAav. The nom./acc.pl.
ends in -&: ugAava. Other forms are identical to the masc.
Note 2: Also with a stem in is the adjective tépnv tender (stem tepev-). The nom.sg. masc.
tépnv has no ending and a long stem-vowel; the fem.is tépewa (= Tépéva <*tépevya, 1.78),
gen. tepeivns; neut. tépev, gen. tépevos. Declined like the masc./neut. of tépnv is dppnv male
(of two endings).
Note 3: There are also adjectives with a stem in v of two endings (in -ov): 5.26 below.
Of Three Endings, Stemsin evt (-é15, -eooa, -ev)
5.25 A few first-and-third-declension adjectives chiefly found in poetry and meaningrich in... or... -
ful have the endings -e1s, -eooa, -ev: e.g. yapieis graceful, pwvieis voiced, Saxpudsis tearful.
The stem of these adjectives ends in vt, and they are declined in most of the masculine and
5.25-7 Third-Declension Adjectives 75
neuter as in 5.17 above(cf. e.g. T:6eis, m:@év). In the feminine, however, forms with -eoo- (known
from epic poetry) are used. The full declension is as follows:
E19, EGO, -Ev
xapiers graceful
masc. fem. neut.
sg. nom./voc. yapieis Xapicooa yapiev
gen. Xapievtos Xapleoons Xapievtos
dat. Xapievt1 Xapleoon xapievt1
acc. Xapievta Xapliecoav yapiev
pl. nom./voc. yapievtes Xapicooa XapievTa

gen. XAPLEVTOOV Xapiecodyv XAplevToov
dat. xapicor(v) Xxapiécoais yapieoi(v)
acc. XapievTas Xapleooas Xapievta
Third-Declension Adjectives
Of Two Endings, Stemsin ov (-wyv,-ov)
WV, -OV
cappev prudent
masc. and fem. neut.
sg. nom. THOQPWV oOppov
gen. OWOPPOVOS OWOPPOVOS
dat. owgpovi owgpovi
acc. THOQPOVa oOMpov
voc. O@MPov = nom.
pl. nom./voc. OWMPOVES oMppova

gen. TWPPOVOYV TWPPOVOYV
dat. owopooi(v) owopooi(v)
acc. THOMPOVAS THOPPOVa
5.27 A group of adjectives of two endings (i.e., with no separate forms for the
feminine) have stems ending in ov. E.g. cwppawv prudent (owopov-), evdaipov
fortunate (evdopov-), pvtiov mindful (uvnyov-). Their declension is as
follows:
in the masculine and feminine:like 5aipwv (4.49). The nom.sg. uses a long
stem-vowel and noending(e.g. cappav with stem owgpov-).
in the neuter: the nom./acc. sg. has no ending, e.g. cppov. The nom./acc.pl.
ends in -&. Other formsare identical to the masc./fem.
Note 1: In the dat. pl. v disappears without compensatory lengthening (e.g. o@ppoo1). For
this type of formation, 4.51 n.1.
Of Two Endings, Stemsin o (-ns, -es)
NS> ES
é&Aners true uyitis healthy
masc. and fem. neut. masc. and fem. neut.
sg. nom. GAndns GAnBEs uyins uyles
gen. GAnBotis (<-é(o)os) GAnbotis uy10Us uyl10Us
dat. é&Aneei (<- (o)1) é&Anbei uyiet uylet
acc. GANS} (<-é(o)a) GAnBEs Uy1& uyles
Voc. GANGES = nom. uyiés = nom.
pl. nom./voc. aAnPeis (<- (o)es) GANET (<-é(o)a) uyeis uUy1&

gen. GANPdv (<-¢(a)wv) GANGav uyldv Uyl1dv
dat. GAnbéor(v) (<-gooi(v)) &Anbéor(v) uyiéoi(v) uyiéoi(v)
acc. oAnBeis GANET (<-é(o)a) uyeis uUy1&
5.29 A group of adjectives of two endingsin -ns, -es have stems endingin eo. E.g. &An®r\s
true (&Anfeo-), evyevtys well-born (evyeveo-), evxAetys famous (edKAgeo-), Uyitys
healthy (syieo-). Their declensionis as follows:
in the masculine and feminine: the nom. sg. uses a long stem-vowel and no
ending(e.g. dAné1s, stem in other cases &Anfeo-). The other case forms are the
result of contraction ( 1.58-64) after the o of the stem disappeared ( 1.83).
Notethe acc.pl. in -eis (for which cf. 1dAe1s, 4.76);
inthe neuter: the nom./acc. sg. has no ending,e.g. dAn@és, eUKAeés. The nom./acc.
pl. ends in -n (contracted from -e(o)a). The gen. and dat. sg./pl. are identical to
the masc./fem.
5.30 With adjectives that have ¢ or 1 preceding the eo of the stem,e.g. exAerjs, Uyins, the
formsofthe acc. sg. masc./fem. and nom./acc. pl. neut. normally do not contract to
-n, but to -@ (1.57): e.g. euKAe&, Uy1& (however, Uyalso occurs).
5.31-4 Comparison of Adjectives 77
Further Particulars
Adjectives Formed with Dental-Stem Nouns
5.31 A few third-declension adjectives are compounds (thus of two endings, 5.10) formed
with a dental-stem noun as their second part: e.g. eUeATris hopeful (compounded with
éAtris, stem éArri8-; gen. evéATr1B0s), &yapis graceless (compounded with ydpis, stem yapit-;
gen. &ydpitos), &troAis city-less (compounded with 1rdArs, treated as if from stem TroAié-;
gen. &tréAiS0s; cf. proper names in -1roAis, 4.78).
The forms of such adjectives are largely declined as the relevant nouns ( >4.40; the nom./
acc. pl. neut. ends in -a, e.g. dydpita). But the acc. sg. masc. always endsin -1w ( >4.43), the
nom./acc. sg. neut. in -1 (e.g. eveAtr1).
Adjectives of One Ending
5.32 There are also a few other adjectives of two endings with stems ending in a dental stop
(or in some cases another type of consonant). Since no separate neuter forms of these
adjectives are found, they are sometimescalled of one ending :
Trévns poor gen. Téevntos &yves unknown, ignorant gen. ayvdtos
puyas fugitive gen. puy&Sos &ptrag thieving, raping gen. &épTrayos
Used only in the masculineis é#eAovtis, -ot volunteer- (first declension, 4.8). Only used in
the feminineare adjectivesin -is, gen. -iS05 (third declension, 4.40), such as EAAnvis Greek,
oupuaxts allied.
uaKap blessed, gen. udxxapos, may also be listed here (uéxap may be masc./fem./neut.),
although a separate fem. udxarp& (<*-ap-y&, 23.9, 1.78) also occurs in poetry.
5.33 Manyofthese adjectives are used regularly as nouns(e.g. 4/1) puyés fugitive, 6 1évns poor
man, t EAAnvis Greek woman).
Comparison of Adjectives
Introduction
5.34 The comparative (expressing greater degree) and superlative (expressing greatest
degree) of adjectives are formed in two different ways:
most adjectives form comparatives using the sufhx -tepos, -Tépa, -Tepov; corre-
sponding superlatives are formed using the sufhx -tatos, -tatn, -tatov. E.g.
Sixaidtepos more just, fairly just, too just, most just (of two); Sixaidtatos most
just, very just;
a smaller group of adjectives forms comparatives using the suffix -(i)ov- (nom.
-(i)eov); corresponding superlatives are formed using the sufhix -1eTos, -iotn,
-otov. E.g. kaxiav worse, fairly bad, too bad, worst (of two), Kkxiotos worst,
very bad.
5.35 For the meanings and uses of comparatives and superlatives, 32.
Note 1: Apart from by single forms, comparison mayalso be expressed by the adverb p&AAov
more(itself the comparative form of u&Aca very): e.g. u&AAOV iAos dearer.
Similarly, an alternative for the superlative is the use of the adverb udAiota most(itself
superlative of udAa): e.g. u&Alota pidos dearest.
Comparativesin -tepos and Superlatives in -tatos
5.36 The comparative degree of most adjectives is formed with the suffix -tepos, -tépa,
-Tepov, added to the (masculine) stem of the adjective s positive degree (for details
see below). Such comparatives are declined as first-and-second-declension adjec-
tives, like Sixaios ( 5.1-2, note -tépa&).
5.37 The superlative degree of these adjectives is formed by adding the suffix -tatos,
-TaTNH, -TaTov to the same stem. Such superlatives are declined as first-and-second
-declension adjectives, like 5e1vds ( >5.2).
5.38 The following individual types may be distinguished:

- For adjectives with a masc. in -os ( >5.1-2, 5.7-10), if the preceding syllable is
long (i.e. its vowel is long or followed by two or more consonants), the
comparative has the form -6tpos, superlative -oTatos:
positive comparative superlative
Seivos impressive SEIVOTEPOS SEVOTATOS
dSikalos just SIKALOTEPOS SIKALOTATOS
loxupos strong ioKUPOTEPOS IOXUPOTATOS
Aetrts fine AETITOTEPOS AETTOTATOS
Tikpds painful TIIKPOTEPOS TKPOTATOS
- If the preceding syllable is short(i.e. its vowel is short) the comparative has the
form -wtepos, superlative -wtatos:
& ios worthy &EIOTEPOS &EIOTATOS
ix&vos suitable, sufficient IKGVOOTEPOS iK&VOTATOS
véos young VEDTEPOS VEWTATOS
yaretrds difficult XOAETTOTEPOS XAAETTOTATOS
Adjectives with a masc. in -as (stem in v, 5.23 4) have -é&vtepos, -avtatos:
ugAas dark UEAAVTEPOS UEAAVTATOS
Adjectives with a masc. in -ug ( 5.21-2) have -utepos/-Utatos (but for excep-
tions, 5.43 below):
Bapus heavy BapuTtEepos BapuTatos
Bpayus short BpayuTEepos BpayuTatos
5.38-9 Comparison of Adjectives 79
Adjectives with a masc. in -ns ( >5.28-30) have -éotepos/-éotatos:

GAnOns true GANBEOTEPOS GAnPEoTtatos
euKAetys famous EUKAEEOTEDOS EUKAEEOTATOS
Adjectives with a masc. in -wv ( 5.26-7) add -éo- to the stem, giving
-ovéoTtepos/-ovéotatos:
evSainov fortunate EUDAIMLOVEOTEPOS EUSAIMOVEOTATOS
cogpav prudent OWPPOVEOTEPOS OWPPOVEOTATOS
So too, in mostcases, adjectives with a contracted masc. in -ous ( 5.5-6, 5.7-10),

giving -ouotepos (<-ogoTEpos), -oveTaTos:
atAots single ATTAOUOTEPOS &TAOUOTATOS
but also: &trAo@TEpos
eUvous well-disposed EUVOUOTEPOS EUVOUCTATOS
Andadjectives with a masc. in -e1s ( >5.25) also have -éotepos, -éotatos:
xapiers graceful XAPIEOTEPOS XAPIEOTATOS
5.39 The following exceptions may be noted:

The adjective giAos dear has comparative and superlative forms without o: piAtepos dearer,
piAtatos dearest (occasionally pidaitepos, piAaitatos, see below). So too évéptepos lower,
évéeptatos lowest with oi évepoi those below (only masc.pl.).
Also without o are the comparative and superlative of several adjectives ending in -a1os,e.g.:
yepaids old, grey YEPAITEpos YEpaitatos
TaAaldes ancient TTaAaiTEpos TOAGITATOS
oxoAaios leisurely oXoAaitepos oxoAaitatos
but also: cxoAaidtepos but also: cxoAadtatos
Someotheradjectives also get a comparative and superlative in -aitepos, -aitatos, e.g.:
dwios late dwraitepos dyraitatos
thouxos calm Nouyaitepos Nouxaitatos
but also: fouyatepos but also: houyatatos
Kevds empty and otevds narrow (<*keveds, *oteveds, 41.82) normally have -étepos/-dtatos,
even though the precedingsyllable is short/open in Attic.
Tévns poor (gen. tévytos) shortens its vowel, giving tevéotepos (<*trevet-tepos, 1.89),
TTEVEOTATOS.
Someadjectives form a comparativein -iotepos, superlative in -iotatos: e.g. AdAos babbling,
comparative AaAiotepos, superlative AaAiotatos.
5.40 Some comparatives and superlatives of this type are not based on an adjective, but on
a preposition/adverb or no positive degree whatsoever:
(x out) Eaxatos extreme, utmost
(arpbefore) tpdotepos earlier, before TrpATos first
(Strép above) UTréptepos higher UTreptatos highest
Wotepos later Gotatos latest
Comparativesin -(i)wv and superlatives in -10T0s
5.41 Several frequently occurring adjectives form their comparative degree by adding
the suffix -tov-/-(y)ov- to the adjective s stem (this occurs especially with adjectives
in -us), or to an entirely different stem. For the declension of such comparatives,
5.44 below.
5.42 The superlative degree of these adjectives is formed by adding the suffix -1eTos,
-ioTn, -1otov to the same stem. Such superlatives are declinedas first-and-second-
declension adjectives of three endings, like Seivds, -h, -6v ( 5.1-2).
5.43 The following comparatives and superlatives belong to this type:

&yatds good, strong uElvaov &piotos (see below)
&peiav (poetry only) AP1IOTOS
BeATicov BEéATIOTOS
Awov A@®oTOS
(kpatus strong xpeittev better Kpatiotos best
(Homeronly))
aicypds ugly aioyioov AlOK1OTOS
éy8pds hostile éyOicov ExBioTOS
nous sweet TStev Nd10TOS
xakds bad, evil KOKIOOV KAKIOTOS
but also: kaxwtepos (poetry only)
Yeipav XEiploTOS
TiTToV worse i\KioTos worst (usually adv.
NkioTa)
KaAnds beautiful KOAATOOV KQAAIOTOS
yaxpds long (udoowv (<*udK-yov, 1.77), UT)KIOTOS
poet.) but also: paxpdtatos
but normally: paxpdtepos
ueyas large, great uetZoov (Ion. péleov <*uey-yoo, MEYIOTOS
1.77)
5.43-4 Comparison of Adjectives $1
uikpds small éAdtTov (<*éAd&y-yov, 1.77) EAAX1OTOS

" ueioov
but also: pixpdtepos LIKPOTATOS
dAlyos little, few eAd&ttwv (<*2Ady-ywov, 1.77) EAAK1OTOS
OAiyloTOS
"
UElooV
ttTwv less f\K1oTos least (usually adv.
"
kiloTa)
TroAus great, many trA wv or TrAsicov TTAEIoTOS
Padios easy Paov PAOTOS
TaXUS quick Battav (<*dy-yov, 1.77) TAXIOTOS
(<*Bay-, 1.97)
Note 1: The various comparatives and superlatives of &yaéds (each translatable by better and
best) and xaxdés (each translatable by worse and worst) have different nuances of meaning:
broadly speaking, &peiav/&piotos refer to capability/prowess, BeAtiav/BéATIoTOs to (moral)
suitability, A@wv/Adotos to usefulness, benefit. yeipwv/yeipiotos refer to lack of worth,
itTwv/fKiotos to weakness. dueiveov and Kaxiwv share the range of meanings of d&ya@ds
and xaxds. These shades of meaningare not alwaysfully clear in individual examples.
5.44 Comparatives in -(i)v are declined as third-declension adjectives of two endings

with a stem in ov-, like cappwv ( 5.26-7; the nom.sg. masc./fem. uses a long
stem-vowel).
In somecases (acc. sg. masc./fem.; nom./acc. pl. masc./fem. and neut.), alter-
native forms based on anolder suffix *-yoo- are used more frequently than the ov-
forms (for these forms, cf. aiSas>5, 4.71).
The full declension is as follows:
82 5.44 Adjectives and Participles
-(ieov, -(1)ov
uelZeov larger, more
masc. and fem. neut.
Sg. nom. uEeiCoov ueiZov
gen. ueiCovos ueiZovos
dat. usiZovi usiZovi
acc. ueiCova ueiZov
more often yeilw (<*-o(o)a)
voc. uEeiZov = nom.
pl. nom./voc. _usiloves usilova

more often weilous (<*-o(o)es) more often weil (<*-o(o)a)
gen. UELCOvaov uErlOvaov
dat. usiZooi(v) usiZooi(v)

acc. ueiCovas ueiZova
more often yeilous (= nom.) more often weil (<*-o(o)a)
Note 1: For the accentuation of this type of comparative, 24.32.

6
Adverbs
Formation of Adverbs
Introduction
6.1 Nearly all adverbs derive from original case-forms of an adjective or noun.
- A few of these case endings developed into sufhixes specifically used for the
formation of adverbs; chief among these is -ws (an old case-ending -«, with
a suffix -s); this suffix -as wasfreely added(i.e. it was productive) to the stems of
adjectives to create manner adverbs, e.g. adv. jews sweetly, with the adj. Sus
sweet. 6.3.
Less productive, butstill widely used, were various endings indicating various
local relationships,e.g. -5¢/-ce (indicating place to which), -@ev (indicating place
from which), etc. >6.7-11.
In numerousother cases, another case-form came to be used as adverb: in some
instances the derivation wasstill transparent in classical Greek (as the case-form in
question wasstill used, e.g. adv. trou very, greatly, originally acc. sg. neut. toAu of
the adj. troAuUs great, many); however, in other cases, the original noun/adjective
had goneoutofuse, and the adverb remainedasa fossilized, isolated form. 6.4-6.
Note 1: Even in the case of adverbs whose derivation was transparent, however, they were
presumably nolonger felt to be adjectives; this may be seen most clearly in cases where the
adverb is accented differently from the original adjective form: e.g. opd5pa very, strongly
(originally acc. pl. neut. opodp& of opoSpds vehement).
6.2 A few adverbsdid notoriginate as case forms of a noun oradjective. Someof these
are treated below. For adverbs formed from (the stems of) pronouns(e.g. 1éte,
OTroTe, TOTE, THSe, TaUTH), 8.2. For adverbs formed from numerals (usually in
-&K1s), 9.12.
Manner Adverbsin -ws
6.3 The productive adverbial suffix -ws formed primarily adverbs of manner.
The suffix is added directly to the stem.
84 6.3-4 Adverbs
Note 1: This meansthat the form of these adverbsis nearly identical to the gen.pl. masc. of
the corresponding adjectives, except for the final -s (in short, replacing -«wv in the gen.pl.
masc. with -ws forms the adverb); the parallelism in the formation extends to accentuation.
E.g. with &&10s worthy, adv. & iws in a worthy manner(cf. gen.pl. &&iev); with cards beautiful,
fine, noble, adv. xaddés well, nobly (cf. gen. pl. kaAdv).
Such adverbs are formed from all types of adjectives, and occasionally from
participles.
Formedfrom adjectives:
&Eioos inaworthy manner (&&105 worthy)
GAAWS otherwise; in vain (&AAos other)
KAAS well, nobly (kadds beautiful, fine, noble)
&TrAGS simply (arAots simple)
TAVTOS wholly, in every way (1r&s_ all, whole)
GANE65 truly, really (dAn815 true)
T5é0s sweetly, pleasantly (Sus sweet)
&Mpdvas senselessly (&@pwv senseless)
XaplevTws gracefully (xapieis graceful)
Formedfrom participles:
dVTOS truly, really, actually (ppl. dv, with iyi be)
Siagepovtws differently (ppl. Siapépwov, with Siagépo differ)
Note 2: duds likewise, similarly and éyws nevertheless, still (cf. Engl. all the same) are related
to an adjective duds one and the same(in classical Greek the adj. éu0105 similar is used instead
of duds; this has its own, regularly formed adverb, éyoiws in a similar manner).
Note 3: The suffix -ws also functions as an adverbial suffix in its own right, e.g. in:
the demonstrative manner adverb ottws thus, in that way (also o§tw 1.40; this adverb
corresponds to ottos; note that its formation is not parallel to that of the gen. pl. masc.
TOUTWY);
the interrogative adverb 1s; how?, in what way?;
the relative manneradverb as (such) as, like.
For these forms, also 8.2.
Adverbs Based on Other Case-Forms
6.4 Various adverbsderive from other case-forms of adjectives.

accusative neuter (singular or plural); 30.18 for the adverbial accusative:
ueéya (also ueyc&Aws) greatly, very, loudly (yéyas great)
UIKPOV a little (uikpds small)
dAiyov a little (dAtyos few, small)
TTOAAG often (aroAus large, many)
6.4-6 Formation of Adverbs 85
TTOAU much, very (troAUs large, many)

tax(also tayéws) fast, quickly (tayus quick)
Note 1: Also based on an accusativeis the adverb poxpdévfar, long (uaxpds long; fem., supply
686v: a long way; cf. superlative (tiv) tayiotnv in the quickest possible way, 6.13 below).
Note 2: For formsin -n, also 8.2.
genitive (neuter):
ulkpoU almost (uikpds small)
dAiyou almost (dAiyos few, small)
dative (usually feminine: 656 may be supplied; cf. above n.1):
iSia privately (iS105 private)
KOIVA] in common, commonly (xoivds communal, shared)
Teli on foot, by land (treZds on land)
6.5 Some adverbs are based on case-forms of nouns: these are often difficult to
distinguish from particular usages of cases, such as the accusative of the internal
object (30.12), accusative of respect (30.14) or dative of manner ( 30.44).
TEAOS in the end (1d TéAos end)
Swpecv for free, freely (4) Spec gift)
KUKA® in a circle, round about (6 KUKAoscircle)
o1yt} in silence (4 o1yn silence)
6.6 For many adverbs which derive from an original case-form, there is no longer
a corresponding adjective or nounin classical Greek: only the adverb remainsas an
isolated, fossilized form. Some examples are (there are many more):
- Originally accusative:
é&yav, Aiav too, excessively
UaTHY in vain
EU well (adverb with dya@ds good ; éus good, brave
occurs in epic)
TaAw back, again
- Originally genitive:
eEt\s in a row, one after the other
Originally dative:
eik7] randomly
Adcbpa in secret, secretly
Formed with adverbial -s (cf. -(w)s):
aTrag once
&A1s sufficiently
86 6.6-10 Adverbs
Udyis, HOAs with difficulty, hardly, scarcely

eudus (also ev@u, eves) directly, immediately, straight
Other, in some cases obscure derivations (only a few examplesare given):
TrEAGS nearby
ara very
Ta&vu altogether, completely, very (related to 1&s)
vuv now
xBEs yesterday
Specific Formations of Adverbs Indicating Space
6.7 With place namesand a few other nounsofthe first declension (in -n/-«), which
havea dative plural in -aus, an older form of the dative plural, in -ao1 or -no1,isstill
used as a locative (denoting place where):
Adjvnor in Athens
TAatai&ot in Plataea
6.8 There also remain in classical Greek a few fossilized examples of an original
locative in -1.
oikol (at) home
yapal on the ground
Tuoi at Delphi
Note 1: This endingis also found in a(i)et always.
6.9 Somegenitives are also used to indicate place where:

auto here, there, in this very place (atts)
6uot in the sameplace, together, at once, close at hand (duds, 6.3 n.2 above)
6.10 An old instrumental ending -w is used in various adverbs indicating direction,

often related to prepositions:
&voo above, upwards (av& above)
KATO below, downwards (xatc below)
fEoo (to) outside, away (2§ (away) from)
TOppw forward
dTtidw backward
Note 1: This endingis also found in ottre/pttrw not yet, ob Tatrote/pt) TaTroTE never yet.
6.11-13 Comparison of Adverbs 87
6.11 Several other suffixes (originally case endings) are used to form spatial modifiers:
The suffixes -oe and -&¢ (attached to the accusative) indicate place to which:
TOVTAXOGE in all directions
dudoe to the sameplace
Adtyvale (<A tyvac-5e) to Athens(for Z, > 1.91 n.1)
oikade (to) home
- The sufhx -@ev indicates place from where:
TavTaxdobev from every direction
A@rynd_ev from Athens
oikobev from home
The sufhx -@1 indicates (with certain stems only) place where:
&AAo#1 elsewhere
&upoTepaér on both sides (= in both ways)
autoéi (= avtot) in that very place
For the use of these suffixes in the system of correlative adverbs, 8.2.
Adverbs Deriving from Prepositions/Prepositional Phrases

6.12 Finally some adverbs derive from a preposition or prepositional phrase:
- Adverbsderiving from a combination of preposition and noun(forthis type of
formation, 23.38):
EKTTOSaV out of the way (éx Troddv)
TaApayprpa immediately (trap& yprjya)
Tapatrav altogether, absolutely (rapa Tra&v)
- Manyprepositions are used also as adverbs ( 31.6):
ueTa thereafter
TrpdS furthermore, besides
For adverbs such as &vw (dvd), katw (kata), etc., 6.10 above.
Comparison of Adverbs
6.13 The comparative and superlative degrees of adverbs are identical to the neuter
accusative of the corresponding comparative and superlative adjectives. The acc.
neut. singular of the comparative adjective is used for the comparative adverb; the
acc. neut. plural of the superlative adjective is used for the superlative adverb.
Thus:
88 6.13-14 Adverbs

d&Anbdds G&Anftotepov more truly G&Anséotata mosttruly
&Eioos &E1aTtepov in a more worthy &&iatata in the most worthy
manner manner
AaTIAAS a&irAovoTtepov more simply atAovotata most simply
&ppdveos &ppoveotepov more senselessly a&ppovéotata most senselessly
XAPlEVTOS xapigotepov more gracefully xapiotata most gracefully
The same rules apply to superlative adverbs based on irregular comparatives and
superlatives ( >5.41-4):
eU (&yabdés) dueivov in a better manner &piota in the best manner
1)5éws i\S10v more pleasantly iSiota most pleasantly
yeyGAs, ueya peilov more greatly ueylota most greatly
KAAS KaAAlov more beautifully KaAAiota most beautifully
ddiyov tTTov less i\kiota least
TTOAU TAgiov more TAgiota most
TOXEWS, TAXU 8aTTOv more quickly TaxloTa most quickly;
also: (tv) Tayiotny
(in) the fastest way
Observe that some comparative/superlative adverbs have no directly
corresponding adverb in the positive degree ( 5.40):
(arp) tpdtepov earlier, before TpAtov/tpatafirstly
also: Td trpdtepov the also: T6 pdtov/té
previous time tpata thefirst time
Uotepov later totatov lastly
also: To Uotepov the also: T6 Wotatov/Té&
next time Notata the last time
In some cases, comparative and superlative adverbs are formed from positive
adverb. Note especially:
UaAa very UaAAov more uaAioTa most
Note 1: A few adverbs, e.g. &AAws and trévtws, due to their meaning, have no comparative
and superlative.
6.14 In addition to the above forms, comparative adverbsin -tépwsare fairly frequent. E.g::
Sixalotépws more justly (Sixaios, next to Sixaidtepov)
yareTrwtépws in a more difficult way (xaAetrés, next to yaAeTr@Ttepov)
owppoveotépws more prudently (coppwv, next to cwppovéoTtepov)
Superlative adverbs in -tétws occur infrequently, e.g.:
ouvtopatatas in the most summaryfashion _(oWvtoypos, next to cuvtopa@tata)
7
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
7.1 For the meanings andusesof the personal pronouns, 29.1 6. The formsare as
follows:
first person second person

éyw I, me; tueis we, us ov you (sg.); Syeis you (pl.)
accented unaccented accented unaccented
sg. nom. éya ov (also voc.)
gen. ENUOU Lou oou oou
dat. éuol ol ores foxes!
acc. EME UE or: OE
pl. nom. Tusis Uyueis (also voc.)

gen. Tudv ULOV
dat. huiv Upiv
acc. Nas UGS

Note 2: The unaccented formsare enclitic ( 324.33-4).
In poetry some editors follow the ancient grammatical tradition of distinguishing
unaccented forms of the oblique cases of the plural (these have their accent on the first
syllable): fucov; ftv (or Auiv), hueas/fyas (or ds), Buecov/Upov, Uyiv (or Gyiv), Gueas/Guas (or
Upyas). In poetry, the last syllable -iv in the dat. pl. often scans short, so that there is indeed
good reason to print jyiv/tuw in those cases.
7.2 For the third-person personal pronoun,classical Greek uses primarily oblique forms of attés
( >29.5, 29.7). A separate third-person pronounis almost entirely absent from classical Greek.
However:
In poetry and Ionic, the form wwis frequently found as accusative third-person pronoun.
In poetry, viv is also found as accusative singular and plural.
- Formsof an older separate third-person pronoun,still used in Homeric epic, are used in
Attic as indirect reflexives (29.18); in Herodotustheyare also used as personal pronoun,
25.28. The complete paradigm is (in Attic):
90 7.2-3 Pronouns
third person
him, her, it; they, them
accented unaccented
sg. nom.
gen. ou ou
dat. oi ol
acc. E é
pl. nom. ogeis

gen. OQavV OPov
dat. ogioi(v) ogioi(v)
acc. MAS ONas
Note 1: For Ionic forms, 25.28

Note 2: The unaccented formsare enclitic ( 24.33-4).
Reflexive Pronouns
7.3 For the meanings andusesof the reflexive pronouns, 29.14 20. The forms of
the direct reflexive pronounareas follows:

guauTou, -fis myself, ourselves o(e)auTol,-fis yourself, yourselves
masc. fem. masc. fem.
sg. nom.
gen. éuauTOU EUQUTTS o(e)auTtot o(e)autiis
dat. EUQUTO UQUTT] o(e)auta o(e)auTi
acc. EUaUTOV EuauTTy o(e)autov o(e)auTHy
pl nom
gen. TNUOV AUTAV NUOV AUTOV ULV AUTOV ULV AUTOV
dat. Nyiv autois Nyiv autais UMIV aUTOIS UUIV aUTais
acc. Teas aAUTOUS eas AUTaS UUGS AUTOUS ULES AUTAS
7.3-6 The Reciprocal Pronoun 91
third person
gaxuTtod,-fis, -o0 himself, herself, itself; themselves
miasc. fem. neut.
sg. nom.
gen. EXUTOU, AUTO EQUTT|S, AUTTS EXUTOU, AUTOU
dat. EXUTO, AUTO EQUTT], AUTT EXUTO, AUTO
acc. EQUTOV, HUTOV EQUTTV, AUTTV EQUTO, GUTOV
pl. nom.
gen. EXUTOV, AUTOV EQUTOV, AUTOV EXUTOV, AUTOV
OMaV auTav OMdV auTdav
dat. EXUTOIS, AUTOIS EQXUTOIS, AUTAIS EXUTOIS, AUTOIS
ogiow auTois ogiow auTtais
acc. EXUTOUS, AUTOUS EXUTOS, AUTHS EXUTA, AUTH
oMas aAUTOUS OMas aUTaS
Note 1: There is no nominative of the reflexive pronoun.

Note 2: The genitives guautot, ceautot, and éautot originally result from crasis of éuéo
auTou, o 0 atTtot and £o atitot (Zo (so found in Homeric epic) = classical Attic ot). The other
cases were generalized from these forms (analogy, 1.49), and built on éu-, o¢-, é-.
74 Third-person éautot was gradually generalized to the first and second person as well; for
details, 29.19.
7.9 For the use of the obsolete third-person pronoun oU/oU,oi/oi, /é opdév/agwv, etc. (7.2
above)as indirect reflexive pronoun, 29.18.
The Reciprocal Pronoun

7.6 For the uses of the reciprocal pronoun éAAnAwv each other, 29.26. It has the
following forms:
reciprocal pronoun
GAAeach other
masc. fem. neut.
pl. nom.
gen. GAANAwY GAANAwY GAANAGY
dat. GAANAOIS GAANAAIS GAANAOIS
acc. GAANAous GAANAGS GAANAa
92 7.7-10 Pronouns
The Possessive Pronoun
7.7 For the uses of possessive adjectives, >29.21 5. Theyare:
singular plural
first Eos, EUT, EUOV My, Mine TIMETEPOS, -TEPG, -TEPOV OUT, OUTS
, >
second OOS, Of), COV your, yours UMETEPOS, -TEPG, -TEPOV your, yours
third opetepos, -TEPa, -Tepov their
They are declined like the adjectives in -os, -n/-&, -ov (5.1).
Note 1: The term pronoun for these adjectives is somewhat misleading: they are properly
adjectives, and not used pronominally ( 26.22, although they may,like all adjectives, be
used as head of a noun phrase ( >26.20), e.g. t& éu& my things).
7.8 In Attic, there is no third person singular possessive adjective, and for plural possession
opéteposis relatively infrequent. Instead, the genitive of attds, of the reflexive pronoun, or
morerarely, of a demonstrative pronounis used.
Note 1: opétepos is properly a form of an older third-person possessive pronoun, whichis

still used regularly in Homeric epic. In the singular, its forms are s/ééds, #/ét, Sv/édv.
7.9 Especially in the plural, the possessive pronounsare occasionally strengthened by a gen. of
autdés whentheyare usedfor reflexive possession: e.g. {udv avtiis my OWN, TETEPOS AUTAHV OUr
own, ogetépors avitév their own,etc.
QUTOS
7.10 For the meanings and uses of autés, 29.7-13. The formsare as follows:
2 a
autos, TN -o
masc. fem. neut.

Sg. nom. AUTOS auTN AUTO
gen. auTtou QUTTS auTou
dat. aUuTe OuTT aUuTe
acc. QUTOV auTny AUTO
pl. nom. auto auTtat auTE

gen. QUuTOV QUTOV QUuTOV
dat. autos auTais auTOIS
acc. auTOUS AUTAS outa
7.10-13 Demonstrative Pronouns 93
autds is declined like the adjectives in -os, -n, -ov, with the exception of nom. and
acc. sg. neut., which is avd, using the pronominal ending -o found also with the
article (16), oUTos (ToUTO), éxeivos (éxeivo, 7.14 -15).
7.11 Formsofthe article ending in a vowelor diphthongfrequently coalesce with avt-

(crasis, > 1.43- 5), as follows:
autos = 6 avtds, aUTH = f atTH, TavTd = Td adTS (but TavTdv is also found)
TAUTOU = TOU AaUTOU, TAUTH = TH auto
TOUTT = TH auty
auToi = ol auTol, auTai = ai avTai, TAUTA = TA AUTH
Note 1: For Ionic forms in crasis, 25.14.

Note 2: Formsof attés and 6 attés (with crasis) are often confused with each other or with
forms of ottos or éautot: for the differences between the forms, 7.26.
Demonstrative Pronouns
7.12 For the uses of the demonstrative pronouns, 29.27-37.
ode
7.13 65¢ is declined as follows:
oS¢
55e, Se, T65¢ this (here)
masc. fem. neut.
Sg. nom. ode Tide TOSE
gen. TOUSE Thode TOUSE
dat. TOSE THOSE TOSE
acc. Tovde TIVE TOdE
pl. nom. olde aide THOSE

gen. TOOVOE TOVOE TOVOE
dat. ToioS¢e tTaiode TOIGSE
acc. TouodE TaOdE Tade
65¢ is declined by adding the deictic suffix -&¢ to the forms of the article
( 3.1):
94 7.14-15 Pronouns
OUTOS
7.14 ottos is declined as follows:
OUTOS
ouTOS, aUTH, ToUTo this, that
masc. fem. neut.
sg. nom. OUTOS aut TOUTO
gen. TOUTOU TOUTNS TOUTOU
dat. TOUT TAUTN TOUT
acc. ToUTov TAUTNHV ToUTO
pl. nom. ouTOI QUuTaL TAUTO

gen. TOUTOV TOUTOV TOUTOV
dat. TOUTOIS TAUTAIS TOUTOIS
acc. TOUTOUS TAUTAS TAaUTAa
The endings of ottos are those of e.g. attds(i.e. those of adjectives endingin -os, -n,
-ov, but with pronominal ending -o in nom./acc. sg. neut.). With regard to the stem(s)
of the forms, note that:
- they start with t-, except in the nominatives of the masc. and fem., whichstart
with a rough breathing (comparethearticle, 3.1);
- the stem is (t)out- or (t)aut- depending on the ending (not the gender): if an
a/n-sound follows, (t)autis used; if an o-soundfollows, (+)outis used. Note
particularly gen. pl. fem. toUtwv and nom./acc. pl. neut. tatta.
EKEIVOS
7.15 éxeivos is declined as follows:
éxeivos
éxeivos that (there)
miasc. fem. neut.
Sg. nom. EKETVOS exelvn EKEIVO
gen. EKEIVOU exelvns EKelvOU
dat. éxelvao éxeivn EKelvad
acc. EKEIVOV EKELVTV EKEIVO
pl. nom. éxeivol éxeival Exeiva

gen. EKELVOOV EKELVOOV EKELVOOV
dat. eKelvols EKEIValS éKeivois
acc. EKELVOUS EKELVAS EKEIVa
EKEivos is declined like attés (7.10).
Note 1: éxeivos has an alternative form xeivos, which is used in poetry for metrical reasons,
and occasionally in Herodotus.
Further Particulars
Other Demonstratives
7.16 The following pronominaladjectives are also demonstrative (for details on these,
8.1):
tTood05e, Toonde, Toodvde of such a size, so great, so much;
plural: so many
Toldode, To1dSe, To1dv5e of such a kind/nature/quality, such
TODOUTOS, TOOaUTNH, ToootTo or -ov of such a size; so great, so much,
plural: so many
TOLOUTOS, TOIAUTH, TO1oUTO OF -oV such (as) ... , of such a kind/quality/nature
Note 1: toodoSe and to1dode combine the adjectives téa0s and toios (which are found in
poetry with the same meaning), and the suffix -Se (compare 68, 7.13). tooottos and
toiottos are built from too- and to1- + ottos, respectively.
7.17 Less frequent are tnAikdoSe, tHAiKnSe, THAKdvSe so old, so big, and tnArkottos, THAIKaUTN,
TNAiKoUto(v) so old, so big.
Deictic Iota
7.18 Forms of demonstrative pronouns, adjectives or adverbs are sometimes expanded

with the suffix -1, usually called the deictic iota. When this suffix is present, the
pronounis always accented on it. Before the suffix the short vowels a, ¢ and o
disappear.
e.g. 081, TOUS, Tdi, TOVSI; NS, TOSi; OUTOOI, TOUTOUI, TOUT, TOUTOVI; aUTHI, TOUTI;
EKEIVOOL, EKEIVTI
For the use of deictic iota and further examples, 29.36.
Note 1: In comedy, long vowels and diphthongs preceding deictic iota count as short: autiji,
TouToul, etc.
96 7.19-23 Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
7.19 For the uses of relative pronouns, 50.
ds and dotis
és OoTIs
ds, 4, & who, which, that Soris, fms, 611 whoever, anyone who
masc. fem. neut. mnasc. fem. neut.
sg. nom. 6s n 3 OOTIS NTIS OTl
gen. ou 15 ou outivos / é6tou fotivos/dtou ovtivos / dtou
dat. oO n Oo oti/ STH qi / tw atin / otw
acc. Ov tv 3 OvTiva TWvTtiva OT1
pl. nom. oi ai & oiTivEs aitives &tiwa / atta

gen. GV GV OV @vtTivwv / étwowv a@vtivwv/ 6Twov avtTivwv / STV
dat. ois ais ois oiotioi(v) / 6toIs aiotioi(v) / StoIs CioTioi(v) / SToIS
acc. ous aS a OUOTIVaS GQOTIVAS ata / atta
The definite relative pronoun és is declined like (the endings of) attdés ( 7.10),
beginning with a rough breathing. The indefinite relative pronoun éortisis
formed by adding the appropriate form of the indefinite pronoun tis ( 7.24) to
that of ds.
Note 1: In manytext editions the neuter sg. nom andacc. of éort1s is printed as 6 11, to
differentiate it from the conjunction 61that, because.
Note2: The alternative forms étou, ét« (indeclinable 6 + the alternative genitive and dative
of t1s, 7.24) and &tta (<*&-tya, 1.77), are all far more commonthanregularly formed
outivos and @tivi and &twa. The plural forms dSvtivev, Stav and oiotioi(v), Stors are rare.
7.21 Formsofés are frequently followed by the enclitic particle -tep (59.55), and then written as
one word, dotrep,etc.
7.22 For the use ofthe article as relative pronoun in poetry, 28.31.
Other Relative Pronouns
7.23 Someother pronounsusedin relative clauses are (for details on these pronouns,
8.1):
OTTOTEPOS, -G, -OV (the person of the two ...) that, which
definite dé00s, -n, -ov (so much/great ...) as, pl.: (so many ...) as
7.23-5 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns 97
indefinite é1rd00¢, -n, -ov

definite oios, of&, oiov (such ...) as, (of such a kind/nature...) as
indefinite dtroios, -a, -ov
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns
TIS, Tl; TIS, TI
7.24 For the meanings and uses of interrogative pronouns, 38.11-14 (direct ques-
tions), 42.5-6 (indirect questions). For the meanings andusesof indefinite pro-
nouns, 29.38-42. The formsofthe central interrogative pronouns tis and ti, and
the corresponding indefinite pronounstis and17,are as follows:
interrogative pronoun indefinite pronoun
tis, ti Tis, Tl
independent who? what? independent someone, something
as adjective which? what? as adjective some
masc./fem. neut. masc./fem. neut.
sg. nom. Tis Ti TIS Tl
gen. tivos / Tot tivos / tot tivos / Tou tivos / Tou
dat. tivi / TO tivi / TH tivi / Tew tiv / Tw
acc. TIVE Ti TIVE Tl
pl. nom. tives tiva TIVES tiva / atta

gen. Tiveov Tivaov TIVOOV TIVQV
dat. tioi(v) tioi(v) tioi(v) tioi(v)
acc. TIvas Tiva TIVas tiva / atta
They are declined following the third declension, with two endings and a stem
ending in v ( 5.26)
Note 1: The forms tot/tou, 1/to, etc. occur frequently in both prose and poetry, but are
somewhatless commonthan tivos/twos, tivi/tim, etc. The form &tta (nom./acc. neut. pl. of
the indefinite pronoun) is much less commonthan twa, andparticularly rare in poetry.
Note 2: For the accentuation of these pronouns, 24.38 n.1.
Other Interrogative Pronouns
7.29 Someother interrogative pronounsare (for details on these pronouns, 8.1):

TOTEPOS, TOTEPG, TéTEpov which of the two?
TOO0S, TOON, TddOV how great, how much? pl.: how many?
TOi0s, TOI, Troiov what sort/kind of?
98 7.25-6 Pronouns
Note 1: Also, but rarely, 1nAixos, -n, -ov how old, how big?
Seemingly Similar Forms of attds, 6 avtTds, ExuTOU and ouTos
7.26 Forms of attés, 6 attés (with crasis), éautot (when contracted) and ottos can easily be
confused. They may be distinguished by looking at the position of the accent, and at breath-
ings. Note that no form or combination is ambiguous:
éautou (contracted) 6 avtds (in crasis) OUTOS

Tr
AUTOS
-smoothbreathing -roughbreathing -roughbreathing -rough breathing in
~accent onthelast accent on the last in nom. masc./ nom. masc./fem.
syllable syllable fem. t in other forms
-oblique cases only t/coronis in accenton thefirst
other forms syllable (with ou/au)
accent on thelast
syllable
nom.sg./pl. masc. QUTOS, AUTO QUTOS, AUTO! OUTOS, OUTOI
nom.sg./pl. fem. auTn, auTtai auth, autai

¢e a ¢ ,
auth, auTaL
nom./acc. sg. neut. auto auto (acc.) TauTto(v) TOUTO
nom./acc.pl. neut. AUTH auta (acc.) TAUTE TAUTAa
gen./dat. sg. m./n. QaUTOU, AUTH aUTOU, AUTO TAUTOU, TAUTOH TOUTOU, TOUT
dat. sg. fem. auTT auTT TAUTT TOAUTN
other forms QUTTS, AUTOV, QUTTS, AUTOV, TAUTNS, TOUTOV,

QUTTY, aAUTAY, QUTTY, AUTOY, TAUTHY, TOUTHY,
auTois, etc. auTois, etc. TouTOISs, etc.
8
Correlative Pronouns and Adverbs
The System of Correlative Pronouns and Adjectives

8.1 The (cor)relative pronouns/adjectives are as follows:
interrogative indefinite personal and relative

demonstrative
direct indirect definite indefinite
basic forms tis; dorTis, Tis TIS d5¢ bs SOTIS

who? who, which someone this (here) who, who(ever)
which? OUTOS which, that
what? that (there)
EKEIVOS
that (far away)
-TEPOS TOTEPOS; OTOTEPOS, TOTEPOS (6) Etepos - OTTOTEPOS
of two which of TOTEPOS one/other the one/the other which(ever) of
the two? which of (of two) (of two) the two
the two (very rare)
-o0- TOO0S; 6TT4005, Tooos of toodabe 6005 OTTOG05
size, number howgreat, TOOS somesize/ ToooUTos (as great, (however

how much? howgreat, quantity so great,so much; much) as; great, much)as;
pl. how how much, pl. so many pl. (as pl. (however
many? pl. how many) as many) as
many
-010- TOi0s; OTroios, TTO1OS To1l005¢ 0105 OTTOTOS
kind, sort what kind? Toios of some kind TOIOUTOS (such) as (such ever) as
what kind such,of this kind
The indefinite pronounsare enclitic ( 24.33-4).

' aéTEpos is accented like interrogative mdétepos but nonetheless enclitic, unlike the interrogative.
2 In poetry also téc0s, Toios.
100 8.2 Correlative Pronouns and Adverbs
The System of Correlative Adverbs

8.2 The (cor)relative adverbs are as follows:
interrogative indefinite demonstrative relative

direct indirect definite indefinite
-ou TOU; Strou, Tow Trou autot (évtatéa ...) OTTOU
position where? where somewhere, on thespot, in ov, iva, Evba (somewhere

anywhere this very place ...) where
ivodbe (there . .)
here where
évTauba
EKET
there
-1 Th Stn, Th 1 THOSE q dé]
way by (in) which (in) which (in) some TAUTN (in the way...) (in some way
which, way? way; how way, éxeivn in which ...) in which
manner how? somehow (in) that way,
on thatside
-Oev TOE; wOd_Ev, trofev EvOev, EvOevde EvOev, S6ev oTrdbev
separation from OTré0Ev from some from here (the place .. .) (somewhere.. .)
where? from where place or évtetOev, from where from where
other éxeidev
from there
-O1 Toi; OTrol, Troi Tol evOcde oi OTrol
destination (to) where? (to) where, (to) (to) here (the place ...) (someplace ...)
to what to what somewhere évtau@oi, égvtatiéa to which to which
end? end EKEICE,
KEeiog, EKEi
(to) there
-TEe TOTE; OTOTE, WOTE TTOTE viv OTE OTTOTE
time when when? when sometime, now (the time.. .) (sometime.. .)

once Tote, évTatiba when when
then, on that
occasion
-WS TOS; OTTWS, TTS TOS @de (oUTws ...) as OTTWS
manner how? how somehow in this way, in (insuchaway how
the following way ..) as
OUTS
EKELVOOS
in that way
The indefinite adverbsare enclitic (324.33-4).

Therelationship between évOévSe/évtedGev/éxeiBev, O5e/oUTws/éxeiveos, etc., is similar to that between 85¢/oUtos/
EKEIVOS.
1
In poetry also évéa.
9
Numerals
List of Numerals
9.1 The numerals are as follows:
cardinal numbers ordinal adjectives

(one, two,three, .. .) (first, second,third, . . .)
1 Eis, ula, év TIPATOS, TPWTN, TPATOV
2 duo SEUTEPOS, -G, -OV
3 TpEis, Tpia TpiTos, -n, -OV
4 TETTAPES, TETTAPA TETAPTOS
5 TTEVTE TEUTETOS
6 a EKTOS
7 ETT EBSouos
8 OKTO dy5oos (not contracted)
9 EVVER EVATOS
10 SEKa SEKATOS
11 EVOEKA EVOEKATOS
12 Sodeka SwSEKATOS
13 tpeis/tpia Kal Séxa Tpitos Kal SEKaTos
14 TEeTTApEs/-pa Kal SéKa TETAPTOS Kal SEKaTOS
15 TTEVTEKAIOEKA TEUTETOS Kal SEKATOS
16 EKKALIOEKA EKTOS KAL SEKATOS
17 ETTTAKAIOEKA EBSouOs Kai SEKaATOS
18 OKTWKAISEKA dySoos Kal Séxatos.
19 EVVEAKALIDEKA tvatos Kal Séxatos:
20 eikoo(v) EiKOOTOS
21, etc. cis/uia/év Kal eikoon, etc. TPATOS Kai cikooTdés, etc.
30 TplakovTa TPIAKOOTOS
40 TETTAPAKOVTA TETTAPAKOOTOS
50 TEVTNKOVTO. TEVTNKOOTOS
60 EENKOVTO. EENKOOTOS
70 eBSounKovTa EBSouNnKOOTOS
80 oydonKovTa oyd5onKkooTos
90 EVEVT]KOVTA EVEVI]KOOTOS
100 EKATOV EKATOOTOS
101, etc. eis Kal ExaTov, etc. TPG@TOS Kal ExaTOOTOS, etc.
200 SIAKOO101, -A1, -& SIAKOG1OOTOS
102 9.1-5 Numerals
cardinal numbers ordinal adjectives

(one, two, three,.. .) (first, second,third, . . .)
300 TplakOo1ol etc.

400 TETPAKOOIOL
500 TEVTAKOO101
600 £EXKOO1OL
700 ETTAKOONIOL
800 OKTAKOO101
900 EVAKOO101
1000 xiAton, -a1, -& X1A100TOS

1001, etc. Eis Kal yiAlot, etc.
2000 SioxiAno1(lit. twice thousand )
10,000 uUpIOL, -al, -& UUP1IOOTOS
20,000,etc. Siouupiol, etc.
Outside classical Attic, the forms trevtexalSéxatos, EKKAISEKATOS, ETTAKAISEKATOS, OKTWKAISEKATOS,

1 : s s ¢ < : >
évveaka1dsexatos are also used.
Declension of Numerals
9.2 The declension of the first four cardinal numbersis as follows:
Eis one Suo two tpeis three téttapes four

masc. fem. neut. m/f./n. m/f. n. m./f. n.
nom. cis Lic EV duo TpEis Tpia TETTAPES TETTAPA
gen. &vds Mids EVOS Suoiv Tpldv Tpldv TETTAPWY TETTAPOYV
dat. évi uid Evi Suoiv tpioi(v) tpioi(v) téttapoi(v) tétTapor(v)
acc. va ulav EV Suo TpEis Tpia TETTApAS TETTAPA
9.3 Like eis is declined:

ovdsis, gen. otdevds; fem. otdepia, -&s; neut. obSev, oUSevds no one, nothing, no
so too unseis, pndepuia, undév, in constructions where un can occur ( 56).
Unlike eis, pia, gv, the forms otSeis and pndeis also have plural forms: otdéves,
otSévwv, ovdéo1(v), ovdSevas (these are infrequent, however). The non-
contracted forms oW8é cis, oUSé ula, USE Ev are also used, as emphatic variants:
not even one.
9.4 The numerals ending in -xdo101, xiA1o1, etc. and pupio1, etc. are declined like the
plurals of adjectives in -os, -&, -ov ( 5.1-2).
9.5 Other numerals are not declined:e.g. é&}ykovta kai Tevte veddv sixty-five ships (gen.
pl. fem.), dySojKovta kai Tévte éteo1 eighty-five years (dat. pl. neut.).
9.6-11 Further Particulars 103
Further Particulars
9.6 Complex numbers above 20 maybe ordered in two ways:

in the order units-tens-hundreds-thousands, in which case they must be connected by xai
(in Herodotus also te kai);
or, morerarely, in the reverse order, in which case they may but need not be connectedbyxai:
Tévte Kal eikool or eikoo1 (Kal) TrévTeE twenty-five
tévte (te) Kal Tevtakdo1a (neut.) five hundred and five
Also with ordinals: e.g. éte1 TeutTrt@ Kai teTTapaKooté in the forty-fifth year.
9.7 Our two-digit numerals ending in 8 or 9 (18, 19, etc.) can also be expressed by meansofthe
participle of £0 lack + Suciv and évds/&s, respectively:
Suoiv S ovta eikoowwETH eighteen years(lit. twenty years lacking two )
plas SEouoa TETTAPAKOVTE VINES thirty-nine ships(lit. forty ships lacking one )
Also with ordinals: e.g. tos évds Sov eikootdév the nineteenth year(lit. the twentieth year
lacking one )
9.8 There are also abstract and collective numeral nouns, endingin -ds, -&os: e.g. tf] Sexas decade,
ft pupias (a numberof) ten thousand. pupids is frequently used to express large numbers:e.g.
TEVTE Kal Eikoo1 WUpIddes dv8pAV twenty-five ten thousands of men (= 250,000).
9.9 Ancient grammarians madea distinction (in accent) between:
upto, -o1, -a ten thousand

wupiot, -a1, -a innumerable, countless (also singular, e.g. wupiov &y8os an endless burden,etc.)
For the oblique cases, however, rules of accentuation usually renderthis distinction void(e.g.
both have acc. pupious, 24.8-10). In such cases, the context (e.g. the presence of another
numeral) usually clarifies which meaning is meant: tpioyiAious Kai pupious thirteen thousand,
UTrép wupious more than ten thousand, * OSuccéa t Liougov 7 GAAous pupious Odysseus or
Sisyphus or countless others.
9.10 Note that Greek counts inclusively from a certain point of orientation, i.e. that point of
orientation is included in the number counted:e.g. tpitov tos touTi two years ago(lit. this is
the third year ; for touti, 7.18, 29.36).
9.11 Fractions are expressed e.g. by fyuious half (declined like nus, +5.21-2). Some examples:
T&AQVTOV Kai fuloU one and a halftalents
TO Tulou Tis SANS ploAadcews half of the whole rent
TOV TuloUV TOU xpdvou half of the time (acc.)
TAS Tloeias TdV vEeddv half of the ships (acc.)
Some other expressions: huitdAavtov half a talent; tprtnudpiov one third; tpitov yépos dv
t\uloeos one third instead ofhalf, tpitov fhpitéAavtov two and halftalents(lit. the thirdhalf ,i-e.
the one between twoand three = 24%); TeAotrovvtjoou té&v trévte Tas BUO poipas twofifths of the
Peloponnese(lit. the two parts ofthe five of ... )
104 9.12-13 Numerals
9.12 Multiplication is expressed by adverbs and adjectives:

adverbs: &tra once, Sis twice, tpis three times; all other adverbs are formed with the suffix
-&kis: TeTpakis four times, tevtdxis five times, etc. (cf. the adverb troAAdxis often):
Ta Sis Tévte Séxa éotiv two timesfive equals ten
adjectives: either formed with -1Aots,-1AA, -tAotv-fold: &trAots single, simple, SitrA0ts twofold,
double, etc. (for the declension, 5.5-6); or with -1Ado10s, -&, -ov: SittAdo1os double, twice as
great/much/many, tpitAconostriple, three times as great/much/many,etc.
9.13 The Greeks usually wrote out numbers in full. In manuscripts and inscriptions, two sign-
systems werein use:
(In inscriptions of the classical period:) a vertical stroke | for one unit, and theinitial letter of
words designating certain numbers, e.g. [7 = wévte = 5, A = Séxa = 10, Al = 11, FP = trevtdxis
Séxa = 50, H = éxatdv (hexatdv) = 100, X = xiA1o1 = 1000, etc. This system was used especially
to indicate value, weight and measure.
(In later inscriptions, papyri and manuscripts:) the letters of the alphabet as numbers in
a decimal system; these were often modified by an oblique stroke above andto the right of
the letter for numbers up to and including 999:
a B Y 5 e corp ¢ 1 9
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
v K A yw v & ° Tr Q
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
p o T! u p x y a a
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
(Theletters ¢ (stigma), ¢ (digamma/wau), 9 (koppa), and ~ (sampi), which were no longerin

commonuse, were introduced into this numeral system to supplementthe standardized 24,
insufficient by themselves to write all numbers up to 999.)
The sameletters were used with a stroke below andto theleft of the letter for numbers
starting with 1000: ,a = 1000, ,B = 2000,etc.
Complex numbers are formed by combiningthe letter symbols. Only the rightmostletter
(and the leftmost with numbers over 1000) havethestroke:
118 = 319 (any ordering was possible: +61 , 61 , etc.)

até = 1319
Until Hellenistic times, Greek had noletter-symbol for 0 ( zero ; the Hellenistic symbol
was ~>-). The corresponding item in written form was ovSév.
10
The Dual: Nominal Forms
Endings
10.1 Nominalforms of the dual number(referring to groupsof exactly two) are formed
in exactly the same manner as the forms treated in the preceding chapters.
Theonly respect in which they differ is their endings.
The dual endings for the different declensionsare as follows:
first declension second declension third declension

nom. -a -W -
gen. -Al1V -OL1V -Ol1lV
dat. -Qiv -Olv -Olv

acc. -& -) -
voc. = nom. = nom. = nom.
Forms
The Article
10.2 The forms of the dual article are as follows:
©} Ty TO
masc./fem./neut.
nom. TO
gen. Toiv
dat. TOV
acc. TO
Note 1: Occasionally the feminine dual article taiv is found, e.g. taiv ye1poiv the two hands
(gen./dat.). The nom./acc. form t& is not frequently found in Attic; modern editions often
correctit to tw, although this may notbejustified.
106 10.3-7 The Dual: Nominal Forms
Nounsand Adjectives/Participles
10.3 Examplesoffirst-declension forms:

Suoiv yapaiv two lands
Ova voo AcAeippeva the twoofusleft all alone (for va, see below)
10.4 Examples of second-declension forms:

TO GvOpaTIO, Tov dvOparTroiv the two men
Suoiv KaAoiv two goodthings (neut.)
TO Trapféve, Toiv Traphévoiv the two maidens
To Be, Toiv Geoiv the two goddesses (Demeter and Koré)
10.5 Examples of third-declension forms:

TO XEipe, TOIV XEIpOIV the two hands
&upe Toa 1dAce/To TrdAe1, &ugoiv Toiv both states
TrOAEol
TO QUAAKE KWAUOVTE the two guards, preventing
TOV TApdvTOIW TrpayEaTOIV the two present problems
Suoiv veoiv évavtiow TreprrAcovTes sailing around with twoshipsin different
directions
Pronouns
10.6 The personal pronounsofthe first and second person have separate dual forms:
personal pronouns
the two of us the two ofyou
nom. Voo Opa
gen. vooV OPav
dat. vav OMdv
acc. vod OMw
10.7. ~+Examples of other pronouns:

demonstrative pronouns:
TouToToiv SiabhyKaiv these two wills
éxelven TO Adyw those two arguments
TWSi Ta TpITTOSE these two tripodshere (for -i, 7.18)
10.7 Forms 107
(1) @eppov Kai wuxpov * Tive SUO To1loUTH (PI. Soph. 243d)
warm andcold, or any such pair of things
possessive adjectives:
TOI UpETEpolwTroAitav your twofellow citizens
&pui Toiv coiv Suopdpow Traidsoiv about your two unhappy sons
relative pronouns:
(2) ta yév otv S&SeApm atTH & ep éyeveoOnv Gyuqpw Strode éeteAcuTHoATny.
(Isae. 6.6)
The two brothers that were born to him both died childless. For the dual verb
forms éyevéoOnv and éteAeuTnodtny, 21.
(3) 8U ... TH8 &vp EAcEas, oiv eye | fkiot dv AOEANO dAwAdTOWKAUElv. (Soph.
Phil. 426-7)
You have named two menthere of whose death I would have least wantedto
hear.
indefinite/interrogative pronouns:
(4) 2Q. gotov 81) Tive UO... 2: TIP. 1s TOUTW Kal Tive Adyeis; (Pl. Phlb. 53d)
(Socrates:) There are two things. :: (Protarchus:) What do you mean? Whatare
these two? For the dual verb form éotdév, 21.
autos, GAAos, ETEPOS, AAAT|AY, etc.
GAAAoW each other

EKATEPW TO evel each of the two races
(5) SUo yévn Tivé AUTO, Td&v Lev TPIdVv GAAw (Pl. Soph. 254e)
two certain classes by themselves, separate from the other three
Note 1: Feminine nom./acc. forms of these pronounsin -& (e.g. T&S, TavTG, etc.) are not
normally found in classical Greek. The gen./dat. forms in -ow do occur (particularly in
Sophocles), but are rare.
11
Introduction to Verb Forms
Summary of the Greek Verbal System
present stem aorist stems
act. mp. act. mid. pass.

3g present indicative
= 1 sg. Tradeviad Tra1dsevouat
Z Tra1Seveis Traidever/-1
3 Traidevel Tra1seveTar
1 pl. Tra1Sevopev Tra1Sevdpeta

Z TTO1SEVETE Tra1deveoGe
3 tTa1sevouoi(v) TalsevovTar
< impertect aorist indicative

4 1 sg. éTraidevov éTrardevounv ETraidevoa eTradevoadunv eTraidsevOnv
3 2 ETTAIDEVES eTTALdSEVOU eTTASevoas ETTAIODEVO eTrardevOns
3 étraiSeue(v) étrarSeveTto étralSeuce(v) étraiSeuoato érrandSevdn

1 pl. ETTAISEVOLEV eTradevdyeba ETTAISEVTOPEV eTrasevoaueba eTrardevOnuev
2 ETTAISEVETE eTradeveoGe ETTALSEVOATE eTraiseuoaobe eTrardevOnrte
3 étTraidevov ETTALSEVOVTO eTraideuoav ETTALSEVTAVTO eTradevOnoav
= present subjunctive aorist subjunctive

4 1 sg. Tra1dseved TAIBEUOpar Traisevow TrALsevoupar TradevOa
2 Tra1devns Tradevn Tra1sevorss Traisevon Tra1dev6i}s

3 Tra1seun Tradeuntar Traisevon Trasevontat Tra1dev6f}
1 pl. TTASEUOPEV Tradeuapeba TTALSEUOupEev Traisevompeba TrarseuOdpev
2 Ta1dseunTE Tra1deuroGe TrALSEevonTE Traidevonobe Tradeubijte
3 Taideuwor(v) Ta1SevavTa Tra1seuowor(v) Tra1seuowvTar taidsevbdot(v)

= present optative aorist optative
© 1 sg. Trarsevoipt Trardsevoipny Traisevoaiyt Traisevoaiuny Tradeueinu
2 Tra1sevors TAIdEevo1o TAISEVOEIAS Traisevoaio Traideuseins
3 maidevor TWaisevoito traisevoeie(v) Taisevoaito madeuein

1 pl. Trasevoipev Trardsevoipsta TrAISevoaipev Traisevoaiveta Traideuseipev
2 Trasevoirte TrardsevoioGe TraIsevoaire Traisevoaiobe Traideuseite
3 Traisevorev Ta1dsevoivTo TIAISEUCEIAV Traisevoaivto Traideuseiev
6. present imperative aorist imperative

E 2 sg. Traideue Traidevou Traiseuoov Traiseuoal TradevOnt1
3 TTASEVETOO Tra1sevePw Traiseucdto Traisevocobw TradevOttw
2 pl. TWOLSEVETE TraideveoGe TAalsevoarte Tralseuoaobe TradevOnte

3 TadsevdvtTov Tra1deveoBao Traisevodvtov Traiseucodobuv TradseuBevtov
i presentinfinitive aorist infinitive

~ Traidseveiv Trardseveobar Traisetoa1 Traisevoaocbai TraidevFvat
a present participle aorist participle

me m. Trasevav, -ovtos traieudpevos, -ou traidevoas, -avtos traidevodpevos, -ou traideueis, -Evtos
f. Traisevouoa, -n5 TaISEevopevn, -15 Tralsevoaoa, -n5 Traisevoauevn, -ns tWa1dseuGcioa, -eions
n. tTraideov, -ovtos traideudpuevov, -ou traidetoav, -avtos Traldeuodpevov, -ou Traldeu@év, -Evtos
Summary of the Greek Verbal System 109
future stems perfect stems

act. mid. pass. act. mp.
J future indicative perfect indicative

c
1 sg. Traidevow Trasevoopar Traisev@toopat TreTraiseuKa TreTraideupar
2 Tra1devoeis Trandevoe/-1 Tradevtyoe1/-1 tetratSeukas TetralSevoar

3 Taldsevoel TaiSevoetal TadevonoeTan tetraideuKke(v) tTetraiSeutal
1 pl. TTAISEUOOPEV TradsevodpEeba TradsevOnodusba TrETTCISEVUKALEV TreTrarSeupeba
2 TIA1SEUOETE Trardsevoeode Tradev8noeode TETTALSEUKATE TreTraideuoBe
3 Ta1seUcouol(v) TalsevoovTal TadeusnoovTal tTeTraseuKao(v) tTetTraiSeuvtTat
pluperfect
E
= 1 sg. ETTETIOISEUKELV eTreTTALSeupNy
S
¥ 2 etreTTAISEVUKEIS étreTTAiSeuco
3 étreTrarSevKei(v) éqreTraiSeuto
1 pl. étreTra1SeuKepev étreTrarSeu peta
2 ETTETIOISEUKETE étreTTaideuob_e
3 ETTETIOLSEUKEDOV étreTTAIiSeuvTo
_" perfect subjunctive

5
mo 1sg. TETALSEUKCO TETTOISEULEVOS Cd
2 TeTraSevKns tis
3 TWETTALSEUKN 1
1 pl. TETPAISEUKGPEV TETTAISEULEVOL GOUEV
2 TWETPALSevKNnTE T\TE
3 TeTaseuKwor(v) a@oi(v)
o future optative perfect optative
o 1 sg. Traisevooip Trardevooiunv TraidevOnooipny TETIAISEUKOIL TIETTAISEUWEVOS EINV
2 TaISevoois TAISEVTOIO Traisev8rjoo1o TIETIAISEUKOIS eins
3 Ta1sevoo1 TaAISeVooITO Traidseu8joorto TeTTAISEevKo1 ein
1 pl. Traisevooipev Traidevooipveta TraisevOnooipsta TIETICISEUKOILEV TemaiSeupevor cipev
2 Trasevoorre Traidsevooiob_e TraisevOnooiode TETTOLSEUKOITE cite
3 Tra1devooiev TaIsevoovTo Traidsev8oowTo TETIAISEUKOIEV elev
ch perfect imperative
- 2 sg. TreTraiseuco
3 TreTrarsevobo
2 pl. TreTTAiSevobe
3 TreTra1SevoBoov
i future infinitive perfect infinitive
TIAISEevoeiv TrardsevoeoPat TraisevOnoeobar TETTOISEUKEVaL tTreTICALdetobar
a. future participle perfect participle

m. TAlSevowv, -ovTos TraisevodpEvos, -ou Traidev@nodpEvos, -ou TWeTra1dseuKas, -OTOS TrEeTTAISEUPEVOS, -oU
A, f f i
f. Traiseucouoa, -ns TToardsevoouevn, -ns tTraidevOnoouevn, -ns WetraiseuKvia, -as TreTraiSeupevn, -1n5
n. Traidsetooyv, -ovtos Traisevoduevoy, -ou traidevOnoduevov, -ou TreTraldeuKds, -OTOS TretTraiSeupevov, -ou
110 11.1-3 Introduction to Verb Forms
Note 1: For the forms of the future perfect, 20. For dual verb forms, 21. For the
remaining case forms of participles, 5.3-4, 5.17-20. For the formation of verbal
adjectives (in -tés or -té0s), 23.34, 23.29.
Basic Categories and Elements
Categories of the Verb

Finite versus Non-finite Verb Forms
Greek verb formsare eitherfinite (indicatives, subjunctives, optatives, imperatives)

or non-finite (infinitives, participles, and verbal adjectives in -1ds or -téos). Finite
verbs have a personal ending ( 11.15) and express person, number and mood; non-
finite verbs do not have a personal ending and do not express person or mood.
Categories Pertaining to All Verb Forms: Tense-Aspect and Voice
11.2 All Greek verb forms,i.e. both finite and non-finite forms (except verbal adjectives
in -tds or -téos), are marked for the categories of tense-aspect and voice.
11.3 Tense-aspect: Greek verb formsfall into four overarching systems, depending on
which stem of the verb is used ( 11.12); these four systems differ primarily in
their expression ofaspect, althoughin the case of the future stemstense is the more
important variable (these termsare treated in detail in 33):
the present-stem system, covering the present indicative (or primary present
indicative), the imperfect (or secondary presentindicative), the present subjunctive,
the present optative, the present imperative, the present infinitive, and the present
participle;
the aorist-stem system, covering the aorist indicative, the aorist subjunctive, the
aorist optative, the aorist imperative, the aoristinfinitive, and the aorist participle;
the future-stem system, covering the future indicative, the future optative, the
future infinitive, and the future participle;
and the perfect-stem system, covering the perfect indicative (or primary perfect
indicative), the pluperfect (or secondary perfect indicative), the perfect subjunctive,
the perfect optative, the perfect imperative, the perfect infinitive, and the perfect
participle.
Within these systems, tense is expressed by the indicatives, and byall formsof the
future-stem system. Aspectis expressed byall forms except future-stem forms.
Note1: For the rare future perfect (technically a fifth tense-aspect system), 17 and 33.46-7.
11.4-7 Basic Categories and Elements 111
11.4 Voice: all Greek verb formsalso express voice, treated in detail in 35. A basic two-
way distinction between different kinds of forms may be made:
active forms;
and middle-passive forms.
In the aorist-stem system and in the future-stem system, further sub-divisions
usually exist between different kinds of middle-passive forms, most often between
middle forms and passive forms.
Note 1: In the present-stem and perfect-stem systems, a single set of forms is thus used for
middle-passive voice (covering the entire range of meanings expressed by this voice). Present
formswill be identified below eitheras active (act.) or as middle-passive (mp.). The three-way
distinction between active , middle (mid.) and passive (pass.) forms in the aorist-stem and
future-stem systemsis traditional, but 35.8 29 for more accurate distinctions.
Categories Pertaining Only to Finite Verb Forms
11.5 All finite verb forms, in addition to belonging to one of the four tense-aspect
systems and being markedfor voice, are also markedfor the categories of person
and number, and the category of mood.
11.6 Finite verb forms express one of the following persons:

first person ( T/ we );
secondperson ( you);
or third person( he / she / it , they ).
Andthey express oneof the following numbers:
singular(T , you , he / she / it );
plural ( we , you , they );
in addition, Greek has a dual number, occurring only in the second andthird
person ( you two , the two of them , 21).
11.7 Finite verb forms also express one of the following moods (for the uses and
meanings of these moods, 34):
indicative; within this category a distinction may be made between primary
indicatives (expressing present or future tense) and secondary indicatives
(usually expressing past tense); both types of indicative occur in the
present-stem system (present indicative and imperfect) and the perfect-
stem system (perfect indicative and pluperfect); the aorist-stem system has
only a secondary indicative; the future-stem system has only a primary
indicative;
subjunctive;
optative;
imperative.
11.8 Some examplesoffinite verb forms and the categories they express:
Tra1devers: 2 sg. pres. act. ind.: you are educating a part of the present-stem system;
expresses second person, singular number, and indicative mood (primary -
indicating present tense), aspect and active voice;
Tra1seuapeta: 1 pl. pres. mp. subj.: let us be educated - a part of the present-stem
system; expressesfirst person, plural number, and subjunctive mood,as well as
aspect and middle-passive voice;
étralSevoe(v): 3 sg. aor. act. ind.: he educated a part of the aorist-stem system;
expresses third person, singular number, and indicative mood (secondary -
normally indicating past tense), aspect and active voice;
tTra1sevOnte: 2 pl. aor. imp. pass.: be educated! - a part of the aorist-stem system;
expresses secondperson,plural number, and imperative mood,as well as aspect
and passive voice;
étretradeuKeoav: 3 pl. plpf. (= sec. pf. ind.) act.: they had educated a part of
the perfect-stem system; expresses third person, plural number, and indi-
cative mood (secondary - normally indicating past tense), aspect and active
voice.
Categories Pertaining to Non-finite Verb Forms
11.9 Non-finite verb forms are marked for the following categories:
Infinitives only express tense-aspect and voice.
Participles express tense-aspect and voice, and,like adjectives, are also marked
for the categories of case, number and gender ( 2.1).
Verbal adjectives are only marked for the categories of case, number and
gender.
11.10 Some examples of non-finite verb forms and the categories they express:
Tra1sev@fjvor: aor. pass. inf. to be/have been educated an infinitive, part of the
aorist-stem system; expresses aspect and passive voice;
ta1sevouoal: nom.pl. fem., pres. act. ppl.: educating - a participle, part of the
present-stem system; expresses nominative case, plural number, feminine gen-
der, as well as aspect and active voice;
tTra1seutéos: nom. sg. masc. X must be educated - a verbal adjective (a gerundive,
37.2); expresses nominative case, singular number, and masculine gender.
Morphological Building Blocks: Stems, Endings, and Other Markings

Verb Stems and Tense-Aspect Stems
11.11 All formsof a certain verb share a verb stem,whichidentifies the formsas deriving
from that particular verb: for example, in any form of the verb traidevw (e.g.
11.11-12 Basic Categories and Elements 113
étraideuoe(v), étreTraiseuKeoav, Traiseuouoa), the verb stem traideu- identifies the

form as belonging to that particular verb (and thus expressing in some waythe
meaning educate).
ManyGreekverb stemsoccurin different variants due to ablaut vowel gradation
( 1.51-6): for example, the verb stem of the verb Acitres leave occursas either Aeitr-
(e-grade), Ait- (zero-grade) or Aoit- (o-grade). Different tense-aspect stems of
such verbsdiffer in the vowel-grade they show.
A particular commontype of variation in verb stems(originally also due to
ablaut, but greatly regularized in the language) is that between long and short
variants of the final vowel of a stem: n/& (orafter¢, 1, p: &/&, 1.57), n/e, w/o: for
example, the verb stem of tipdw honour occurs as either Tiy&- or Tiun-, the verb
stem of troigw make, do as either trois- or troin-, and the verb stem of SnAdw make
clear as either SnAo- or SnAw-.
For verbs which have variant verb stems, all variants are given below, where
required.
11.12 Through the selection of one of the variants of a verb stem and/or the addition of
various suffixes, a tense-aspect stem is formed. The tense-aspect stem identifies
the form as having a particular combination of tense-aspect and voice though
many tense-aspect stems are used for more than onevoice.
Seven different kinds of tense-aspect stems maybe distinguished;thesefall into
the four overarching systems described above ( 11.3):
present tense-aspect: present stems(act./mp.);
aorist tense-aspect: aorist stems (act./mid.) and aorist passive stems (@y-/n-aor.
stems);
future tense-aspect: future stems (act./mid.) and future passive stems;
perfect tense-aspect: perfect stems (act.) and perfect middle-passive stems.
Note 1: Twoadditional (but rare) tense-aspect stems are the future perfect stem (act.) and
the future perfect middle-passive stem. For these, 17.
Some examples:
TreTraidseukévan to have educated: the perfect stem tetraiSeux- (based on the verb
stem traideu-) identifies the form as deriving from the verb traidevw, belonging
to the perfect tense-aspect system, and expressing active voice.
étraiSeuoauev we educated: the aorist stem traiSeuo(a)- (based on the verb stem
traideu-) identifies the form as deriving from the verb ta1devw, and belonging to
the aorist tense-aspect system.
EAitre(v) (s)he left: the aorist stem Aitr- (one of the variants of the verb stem Aeit-/
Aoitr-/Aitr-) identifies the form as deriving from the verb Ait, and belonging to
the aorist tense-aspect system.
AeAortrotes having left: the perfect stem AeAortr- (based on oneof the variants of the
verb stem Aeitr-/Ao1tr-/Aitt-) identifies the form as deriving from Agitrw, belong-
ing to the perfect tense-aspect system, and expressing active voice.
The mechanisms involved in forming tense-aspect stems from verb stemsare
detailed in the individual chapters on the present ( 12), aorist (13-14), future
( 15-16), and perfect (17-19) stems.
11.13 In a few cases, entirely different verb stems are used to form different tense-
aspect stems of the same verb: for instance, with the verb aipéw take, the verb
stem aipn-/aipe- is used in the present, aorist passive (jpéOnv), future (aiptjoo),
perfect and perfect middle-passive (fpnxa/tpnua), but not in the aorist active
and middle, where the verb stem é/- is used (e.g. 1 sg. act. ind. eiAov). Such verbs
are called suppletive verbs.
11.14 Verbslacking certain tense-aspect stems altogetherare called defective verbs: for instance, the
verb eiwfa be accustomed lacks present-stem formsin classical Greek (ciw®a is a perfect, the
present #@w occurs in Homer), and has no formsof other stems(aorist or future) atall.
Endings
11.15 Every verb form also has an ending, which provides the information required to
identify the form aseither finite or non-finite, and usually its voice.
For finite verbs, the ending ( personal ending ) also expresses person, number
and sometimes(in the imperative) mood.
Infinitive endings merely express voice.
The endings of participles and verbal adjectives express case, numberand gender.
Some examples:
étraideuduny: the personal ending -ynv identifies the form asfirst person singular,
middle-passive.
yvaei: the personal ending -@: identifies the form as a second person singular
imperative active.
TreTraidevoGar: the ending -o6cidentifies the form as a middle-passive infinitive.
Tretradeupéva: the ending -(pev)a identifies the form as a nominative or accusative
plural neuter participle.
The endings are treated more fully below, 11.20-34.
Thematic Vowels, Optative Suffixes, Participle Suffixes
11.16 Some elements appear between the stem and the ending:
Many Greek verb formsinclude a thematic vowel(or: theme vowel ), either o
or 2, standing between the stem and the ending, e.g. troaiSevouev, Etrardeveo?e,
Aitrévtoov; for details, +11.18-19 below.
11.16-18 Thematic and Athematic Conjugations 115
Subjunctives are identified by a long thematic vowel, either w or n, e.g.

Traideurove, Aitraouev.
Optatives are identified by the suffix -1- or in somecases-1n-, directly preceding
the ending. The 1 always forms a diphthong (always short , 1.70 n.1) with
either a preceding thematic vowel, e.g. trodevoiyi, Traidevouev, or a preceding
stem vowel, e.g. tradeuGeivev, T1Heinv, iotaipeta.
Active participles and aorist passive participles are identified by the sufhx -vt-,
e.g. TralSevovtos, Tadeuevtoov; in several cases vt is notvisible in the form,e.g.
tTraisevouoa (<*1raiSevovt-ya, 1.77, 1.68): for the full declensions, 5.17-18.
However, perfect active participles are identified by -ot- (masc., neut.) or
-ut- (fem.) e.g. AeAorTé6Tas, TeTraiSeukvia: for the full declension, 5.19-20.
All middle-passive participles except aorist passive participles are identified by
the sufhix -pev-, e.g. Tetraideupevov, AiTropeva.
Augments and Prepositional Prefixes
11.17 Finally, some elements precede the stem:

Secondary indicatives (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect) include an augment, which
takes the form of an « directly preceding the stem (e.g. ZAitrov), or, if the verb
stem begins with a vowel, that vowelis lengthened(e.g. apoAdyouv). For details,
11.35-42.
Many compoundverbs begin with a prepositional prefix, an original preposi-
tion integrated into the verb form,e.g. éxtraiSeUw, atroAgittw (23.51). These
prefixes are alwaysthe first element of a form, preceding even augments and
reduplications ( 11.51-8).
A final consonant of such prefixes often assimilates to the following sound:
e.g. éA-Aeitrer but év-éAite (11.54). If the prefix ends in a vowel, this
vowel usually drops out before another vowel(elision, 1.35): e.g. étro-Baiver but
ATT-EPXETAL, AM-iNol.
Note 1: For reduplications (which are themselvespart of the perfect stem), 11.43-50 below.
Thematic and Athematic Conjugations

11.18 Greek verb forms are either thematic or athematic. Thematic forms include
a thematic vowel (0/e, subj. w/n) between the stem and the ending. Athematic
forms do not include a thematic vowel: thus in athematic forms endings are
attached immediately to the stem (only optative or participle suffixes can stand
in between):
Thematic conjugations: present-stem formsof-w verbs, the present optative of
-vuul verbs, some imperfects of -u1 verbs, aorist forms of the thematic type,all
future and future perfect forms, nearly all perfect active optatives. Moreover, as
subjunctives are identified by a long thematic vowel (n/w), all subjunctives are
thematic.
Athematic conjugations: present-stem formsof -y verbs (except subjunctives,
the optative of -vuyi verbs and some imperfects),all aorists of the sigmatic and
root types (except subjunctives), all aorist passive forms (except subjunctives),
all perfect forms (except subjunctives and active optatives).
Some examples with the verb Seixvumn show:
Seikvu-o1(v): 3 sg. pres. act. ind., athematic: the ending -o1(v) is added immediately
to the present stem Se1kvu-;
Seikv-o1-yev: 1 pl. pres. act. opt., thematic: a thematic vowel and optative 1 (merged
as diphthongo1) stand between the present stem andthe ending-pev;
Sei -e-Te: 2 pl. fut. act. ind., thematic: a thematic vowel stands between the future
stem 5e1§- and the ending -te;
Sé5e1k-tTai: 3 sg. pf. mp. ind., athematic: the ending -tafollows directly on the
perfect stem Se5e1k-.
Note1: It is misleading to call verbs as a whole thematic or athematic - for example, future
verb forms (no matter from what verb) are always thematic; perfect middle-passive forms are
always athematic. It is only in the present andin theaorist that a significant distinction exists
between verbs with thematic conjugations and those with athematic conjugations (for the
present: between -w verbs and -verbs).
11.19 Which thematic vowel (¢/n or o/a) is used depends on the sound followingit:
o/w is used before yp or v, and in the first person singular ending -w: e.g.
TAISEUW, TAISEVOUEV, TTAISEVOVTOYV, TrALdeU@pal, etc.
ois used before the optative suffix -1-/-1m- (so in all thematic optatives), forming
a diphthong with the following 1: e.g. toiSevois, To1SevoioGe, tretraSevKo1, etc.
in all other cases, ¢/y is used: e.g. Taidevete, Troadevno e, traideue, etc.
Note 1: With the exception of optatives, the division of thematic vowels among personsis
normally 1 sg. 0, 2 sg. ¢, 3 sg. ¢; 1 pl. o, 2 pl. , 3 pl. o. This rule is, however,a result ofthe rules
given above, andthereare further exceptions: note e.g. the difference between pl.pres.act.
imp. toiSeudvtov (preceding v) and its middle-passive equivalent toaidevéoov (also 3 pl.,
but preceding o).
Endings
Personal Endings
11.20 The personalendingsoffinite verb formsare either active or middle-passive, and

either primary or secondary (except for imperatives):
11.20-3 Endings 117
Active endings are used for all active forms, and for aorist passive forms.
Middle-passive endings are used for all middle and passive forms, apart from
aorist passive forms.
Primary endingsare used forall indicatives referring to the present or future
( primaryindicatives ), for all subjunctives, and for a few optatives. Secondary
endings are used forall indicatives referring to the past (those indicatives that
have an augment, secondary indicatives ), and for nearly all optatives.
Imperatives have their own set of separate endings.
11.21 The most common forms of these endings are set out in the tables below, with
examples per person/number.
Tables ofEndings
11.22 First person singular:
active middle-passive
primary secondary primary secondary
-w (them.) -ui (athem.) -v -"ar nv
* Includes a thematic vowel (ending and thematic vowel haveinextricably fused).
Examples:
active, primary: e.g. pres. ind. traiSevo, TW (<*-doo), Seikvup, eit; secondary:
impf. étraiSevov, éSeixvuv, pres. opt. troioiny, aor. pass. étraidevOnv
middle-passive, primary: e.g. pres. ind. toiSevoum, Seikvupor, SUvayou; pf. ind.
TetraiSeupor; secondary: impf. étroideudunv, plpf. éetroiSevpny, pres. opt.
TralSevoiynv
11.23 Second person singular:
-eig_(them.) -s° (athem.) -s° -oal -co

* Primary endingoriginally -oi (still visible in pres. ind. ei you are (<*éo-ot)); the
primary/secondary ending -6a is also sometimes found(e.g. pf. ind. oio@o0; impf.
Tjo8a).
> The o in these endings hasusually disappeared between vowels ( 1.83); see the examples
below.
Examples:
active, primary: e.g. pres. ind. traideveis, Tiwas (<*-deis), Seikvus, TiGns; impf.
étralSeues, éSeixvus, aor. ind. étraiSeuoas, pres. opt. toadevois, aor. pass.
eTraldevOns
middle-passive, primary: e.g. pres. ind. Seikvuoo, TroiseUn (<*-eoo), pf. ind.
Tetraideuool; secondary: impf. é¢ikvuoo, émoaiSevou (<*-eoo), aor. ind.
étraidevow (<*-caoo), plpf. étretraideuoo, pres. opt. taidevoio (<*-o100)
11.24 Third person singular:
-e1 (them.) -oi(v) (athem.) no ending -Tal -TO

Originally -1i(v) (still visible in pres. ind. éoti(v)).
Examples:
active, primary: e.g. pres. ind. traudeve1, TIW& (<*-de1), Seikvuor(v), TIGnor(v); sec-
ondary: impf. étraideue(v) (no ending; for movable v, 1.39), é5eikvu (no end-
ing), pres. opt. troadevor (no ending), aor. pass. étroiSev@n (no ending)
middle-passive, primary:e.g. pres. ind. toiSevetan, Seikvutat, pf. ind. tetraiSeuta;
secondary: impf. étra1deveTto, éSeixvuto,aor. ind. étraisevoato,plpf. étretraideuto,
pres. opt. traidevoito
11.25 First person plural:
-MEV -MEV -meba -meba
* In poetry, especially in lyric, sometimes -yeo8%.
Examples:
active, primary: e.g. pres. ind. troiSevopuev, Tipdpev, Seikvupev, gopev; secondary:
impf. étrardevouev, éSeixvupev, pres. opt. traSevomev, aor. pass. étradsevOnuev
middle-passive, primary: e.g. pres. ind. tradeudpeba, Serkvpeba, pf. ind.
TreTrardevpeta; secondary: impf. émaideudpeba, edSerkvipefa, aor. ind.
étrardevocueta, plpf. étretraiSevpeba, pres. opt. trardevoipeta
11.26-8 Endings 119
11.26 Second person plural:
-TE -TE -ofe -ofe
Examples:
active, primary: e.g. pres. ind. traidevete, TIW&te, Seikvute, ote; secondary: impf.
eTraidevete, edeikvutTe, pres. opt. traiSevoite, aor. pass. etTraidevOnte
middle-passive, primary:e.g. pres. ind. tadeveode, Seikvuode, pf. ind. tetraiSeuvoGe;
secondary: impf. étroideveoGe, eSeixvuobe, aor. ind. émraidetooobe, plpf.
etreTraidevoe, pres. opt. traidevoioGe
11.27 Third person plural:
-[v]oi(v) (them.) -aoi(v) (athem.) -v, -c&vor-ev -vTan -vTO
' Thefirst v in this ending has disappeared,resulting in compensatory lengthening

( 1.68-9) of the preceding vowel; see the examples below.
* -ev occurs only in the optative.
Examples:
active, primary: e.g. pres. ind. taiSevouor(v) (<*-ovoi(v)), Tipdor(v) (<*-covor(v)),
Seikvuaor(v); secondary: impf. étraidevov,aor. ind. étraiSeuoay; impf. éeikvuoay,
aor. pass. étraidev8noay; pres. opt. Traidevoiev
middle-passive, primary: e.g. pres. ind. toiSevovta, Seikvuvta, pf. ind.
Tetraiseuvtar; secondary: impf. émaidevovto, édeikvuvto, aor. ind.
étraldevoavto, plpf. étretraiSeuvto, pres. opt. ta1SevoivTo
Subjunctives
11.28 As noted above,all subjunctives are thematic (with a long thematic vowel), andall
have primary endings: thus all subjunctives are formed by adding -w, -ns, -n,
-WEV, -NTE, -woi(v) (act.) Or -wat, -n, -NTaL1, -wpeba, -nobe, -wvtai (mp.) to the
stem, no matter which stem is concerned.
Note1: 2 sg. mp.-7 is contracted from -nom(see on -oa above, 11.23).

Examples:
active: e.g. pres. toiSevw, tiwds (<*-dys5), SnAdTEe (<*-dnTe), Seikviy, aor.
Traisevowpev, BaAnte, aor. pass. tTadevGdoi(v) (<-gworl(v), <*-twor(v), 1.71)
middle-passive: e.g. pres. toiSeUn, Seikvuwvtoi, aor. ToiSevowmpal, Sapeto
(<Peapcba <*Onapeta, 1.71).
Imperatives
11.29 Separate endingsare used in the imperative:
2 sg. no endingor -for -s -oo
sigmatic aorist: -(a)ov (13.10) sigmatic aorist: -(o)o1 (13.10)
3 sg. -TW -o8w
2 pl. -TE -ofe
3 pl. -vTwv -cbwv
1 Theo in this ending has often disappeared between vowels ( > 1.83); see the examples below.
2 Later -twoav (active) and -cfwoav (middle-passive).
Examples:
2 sg. active: pres. toiSeve (no ending), tipa (<*-ae, no ending), Seikvu (no
ending); pres. io@1, aor. ot7j@1, aor. pass. (n-aor.) pdvnhi, aor. pass. (@n-aor.)
TradevOnt: (1.97 n.2); aor. 565, oyxés; Sigm. aor. Taideucov, pseudo-sigm.
aor. a&yyelAov (<*-eA-cov);
other, active: 3 sg., pres. TaSevéto, TATOO, SelkKVUTO, aor. TAISevodTw, aor. Pass.
TraisevOt}tw; 2 pl. pres. toiSevete, TIWaTe, aOr. pass. TraidsevOnte; 3 pl., pres.
TAISEUVOVTWY, AOL. TTAISEVOAVTOV;
2 sg. middle-passive: pres. toaidevou (<*traiSeveco), TW (<*-ceoo), Seikvuco; aor.
Bot (<*Béo0); sigm. aor. Taideuoai, pseudo-sigm. aor. &yyeidat (<*-eA-oan);
other, middle-passive: 3 sg., pres. troiSevéo8w, Tipdobw, SeikvioGw, aor.
tTraisevodobw; 2 pl, pres. tradeveo8e, Tipaobe, Seikvuobe; 3 pl. pres.
Traideueobov, aor. TaidseuodcoFov.
Note 1: The 2 pl. imperative of any stem is always identical to the 2 pl. indicative, except
for augments:e.g. pres. toidevete (ind./imp.); aor. éroa1sevoao8e (ind.)/masevoaobe (imp.).
Exceptions
11.30 Although the endings discussed aboveare present in most forms, a few exceptions
still remain. In particular, several endings in the perfect and pluperfect active
differ from those given above: 18.5.
11.31-6 Augments and Reduplications 121
Endings of Non-finite Forms

Infinitives
11.31 The endingsofactive infinitives are as follows:

Thematic: -ev; this contracts with the preceding thematic vowel « to form
-ew (with spurious «1, 1.23, 1.59), e.g. toiSevewv; this may then further
contract with the final vowel of a verb stem: e.g. Tipav (<*tipd-e-ev), SNAoGV
(<*8nAd-e-ev).
Athematic: -von (e.g. pres. Sexkvivan, S15d6vai, eival, aor. pass. TadevOfjivar) or
-evat (e.g. pres. igvon, aor. SoGvan (<*8Sdevan), pf. tetroiSeuKévat).
The ending in the sigmatic aorist is -(o)a1: e.g. tadetoo, ypayoar, &yyetAan
(<*-eA-oa1).
Note1: For the differences in accentuation betweene.g.aor.act. inf. taideGooand aor. mid.
imp. traideuoal, 424.20 n.1.
11.32 The ending of all middle-passive infinitives is -o@a1: e.g. pres. toideveo@ai,
SeixvuoGai, aor. TaiSevoaoba, pf. tretraiSeto#an.
Participles and Verbal Adjectives
11.33 The endingsof participles are those of adjectives of the first and third declensions
( 5.17-20).
11.34 Verbaladjectives (in -téos, -téa, -téov, and in -tds, -T1, -tév) have endingsof the
first and second declensions ( >5.1 2).
Augments and Reduplications
Formation of the Augment
11.35 Secondary indicatives (imperfect, aorist indicative, pluperfect) normally include

an augment, which immediately precedes the stem. The form of the augmentis
determined bythe initial sound of the (tense-aspect) stem.
With Stems Beginning with a Consonant
11.36 If the stem begins with a consonant, the augment takes the form ¢-:
Traiseva educate pres. stem traideu- impf. étraidevov
Aue loosen, release aor. stem Auo(a)- aor. ind. ZAuoa
Sidagive aor. stem 8w-/80- aor. E5aKa
BAdtrtw harm, damage aor. pass. (n-aor.) stem BAaBn- aor. pass. ind. BAGBnv
With stems beginning with p, that p is doubled after the augment:

bitte throw pres. stem p1TrT- impf. Eppitrtov
étyvupi (cause to) break aor. stem 6n (a)- aor. ind. gppnga
Note 1: This type of augmentis called syllabic (Lat. augmentum syllabicum), because
a syllable is added.
With Stems Beginning with a Vowel or Diphthong
11.37 Ifthe stem begins with a vowel, the augmenthasthe form of the lengthenedinitial
vowel ( 1.67-9):
&>n ayo lead, bring aor. stem c&yay- aor. ind. fyyayov
e>n éAtrifw expect pres. stem éAm- impf. 7jAmov
T>1 ixeteUw beg pres. stem IkeTeu- impf. ikéTevov
o>w dvoudlo name aor. stem dvopao(a)- aor. ind. avépaca
U>U UBpilw abuse aor. stem UBpio(a)- aor. ind. UBpica
Long vowels stay unchanged:
tryéouan lead, guide, consider pres. stem thye- impf. fyyoupny
agedtw benefit aor. stem ageAno(a)- aor. ind. apeAnoa
11.38 Stems beginning with a diphthonglengthenthefirst part of that diphthong:

aiticoual accuse aor. stem aitiao(a)- aor. ind. fmiacdunv
avEdvoo increase pres. stem atEav- impf. nUEavov
eikalo liken aor. stem eixao(a)- aor. ind. 7jKaoo
eupioxw find aor. stem etip- aor. ind. nupov
oixéw live pres. stem oixe- impf. dkouv
Note 1: The type of augment described in 11.37-8 is sometimes, somewhat unhelpfully,

called temporal (Lat. augmentum temporale), as it normally causes the initial
vowel/diphthong to be pronounced for a greater amount of time (vowel quantity,
1.18).
Further Particulars
11.39 Augments are not part of the stem, and occuronly in the secondary indicative:
1 sg. impf. act. jyov, but 1 sg. pres. act. opt. &youu, pres. act. ppl. nom. sg. masc. éyoov,etc.
1 sg. aor. act. ind. étraiSeuoa, but 1 sg. aor. act. subj. toiSevow,aor. act. inf. taiSeGou, etc.
11.40 Augmentation occurred before the disappearance of consonants rf, y and o ( 1.74-84).
Theresult of this is that some augments, althoughoriginally regularly formed, appearirregular
in classical Greek:
tya have, hold verb stem éy-/oy- (<*o(e)x-) impf. eixov (<*éeyov <*é-cexov); note aor.
é-oy-ov)
tao allow verb stem éa-/é&- (<*oefa-) aor. eiaoa (<*é-oefa-), impf. eicov
épyéCopa work verb stem épy- (<*fepy-) impf. cipyalounv (<*é-fepy-)

inur send, let go verb stem 1)-/é- (<*yn-/*ye-) aor. pass ei@nv (<*é-ye-)
In somesuchcases, the original augment seemsto have been n-, resulting (through quanti-
tative metathesis, 1.71) in augmented forms beginning with e&- or ew-:
é&Aioxovabe verb stem GA(w)- (<*faA(w)-) aor. EGAwv (<*7)-f&A-); cf e.g. inf.
captured GAdvau; aor. Av is also found)
dpa see verb stem dpa- (<*Fop&-),18- impf. Eapoaov (<*f-Fop-); also cf.
(<*ri8-), dtr- aor. eiSov (<*2-F18-)
(av)oiyvupn open verb stem oiy- (<*foty-) impf. dv-éwyov (<*-n-fory-);
rarely also jvoryov ( 11.57)
11.41 Observe the following further exceptions:

Sometimes, stems beginning with a diphthong(especially ci-) are not augmented; stems
beginning with ot- are never augmented:
eikalo liken pres. stem eikac- impf. eixaZov (next to fxaZov)
outélw stab pres. stem ovta- impf. ottalov
- With &w sing, the long diphthong 6- (<ée1-) is augmented to f- (<7e1-): e.g. impf. HSov.
With aipw lift, the aorist stem a&p- (<*&ep-) is augmented to 7-: e.g. 1 sg. ind. ha (cf. aor. inf.
&pai,etc.).
The verbs BovAopon, SUvapyor and yéAAw are found in fourth century andlater Greek with the
augment 7)- instead of é-: ABouAduny, HSuvySnv, TpyEAdAoy, etc.
The form ypij\v it was necessary - originally combined from the noun yp7 necessity and the
augmented form jw there was ( 12.44) - is often given an extra augment: éypijv.
11.42 The augmentis frequently omitted in epic poetry and occasionally in other poetry; in tragedy
the syllabic augment ( 11.36 n.1) is sometimes omitted in narrative passages (messenger
speeches,etc.). For the omission of the temporal augment ( 11.38 n.1) in Herodotus, 25.43.
Formation of Reduplications
11.43 Perfect stems are formed by the addition of a reduplication to the verb stem.
Reduplications either consist of a consonant+ ¢, or they are formed exactly like the
augment, depending ontheinitial sound of the verb stem.
Two Types of Reduplication
11.44 With verb stems beginning

with a single consonant (except p),
- or with a combination of stop + resonant(y,v, A, p):
reduplication = initial consonant + «:

tTraiseuw educate verb stem traidevu- pf. tetraideuKxo
Auw loosen, release verb stem Av-/AU- pf. AgAtKa
SiScpi give verb stem 8w-/50- pf. S25aKxa

yiyvoyou become, be born verb stem yev(n)-/yov-/yv- pf. yéyova, yeyévnuat
BAdtrtw harm, damage verb stem BAGB- pf. BeBAaga
KAiveo cause to lean verb stem xai(v)- pf. KéeKAika
With stems beginning with an aspirated stop (8/o/x), the reduplication uses the
unaspirated, voiceless stop (t/1/x, 1.97):
poveuw murder verb stem goveu- pf. tepdoveuka
tidnu put, place verb stem @n-/¢- pf. Té6qQKa
Apauve injure verb stem @pau(c)- pf. té8pavopan
11.45 With verbs whose stem begins

with 6-,
with two consonants other than stop + resonant (including @/&/w) or otp-,
- or with a vowel:
reduplication = formed like the augment ( 11.35-41):
&yw lead, bring verb stem ay- pf. Axa
(ntéw seek verb stem (ntn-/Cnte- pf. é@atnKa
Eevdouan entertain verb stem Eevw-/Eevo- pf. @&évoopcn
KTifw found verb stem xti8- pf. éktT1Ka
dp8dw straighten verb stem dp8w-/dp8o- pf. dpGaxke
otpatnyéw lead verb stem otpatnyn-/otpatnye- pf. ZotpathynKa
bitte throw verb stem pitr- pf. Eppipa
6tyyvuut (cause to) break verb stem pny-/pwy-/hay- pf. Eppwya
UBpiZe abuse, maltreat verb stem Ufpid- pf. UBpixa
Further Particulars
11.46 Reduplications, unlike augments, are part of the stem (even when formedlike an augment),
and thus occur both in non-finite and in finite forms (all moods):
1 sg. pf. act. ind. éotpathynka, pf. act. ppl. nom. sg. masc. éotpatnynkes; contrast e.g. the aor.
equivalents gotpathynoa (ind., with augment), otpatnytoas (ppl., no augment)
11.47 Reduplication occurred before the disappearance of consonants f, y and o ( 1.74-84).

The result of this is that some reduplications, although originally regularly formed, seem
irregular in classical Greek. For example:
inp send, let go verb stem 1)-/é- (<*yn-/*ye-) pf. eixa (<*yéye-)
&yvupt break verb stem é&y-/&y- (<*pay-/*fay-) pf. tayo (<*Féray-)
with Aéyo say, speak verb stem ép-/fn- (<*fep-/*Fen-) pf. elpnxa (<*rerpn-)
ueipouan obtain by lot verb stem pep-/pop-/pap- (<*our-, pf. etuaptan(3 sg.,
1.87) <*oeour-)
AauBdve get, take verb stem AnB-/AGB- (<*oAGB-/*oAGB-) pf. ciAnga (<*oeoAGB-)
Note also:
Aayxaveo obtain by lot verb stem Any-/A&X- pf. eiAnya (ei- by

analogy with ciAnga)
ouA-Aeyoo collect verb stem Aey-/Aoy- pf. ouv-eideypan
(ci- by analogy)
11.48 The following further exceptions may be observed:

The verbs iotnm, kt&opo, pipvijoKe and trimte though their verb stems begin with two
consonantsthat are not stop + resonant- get reduplications includingtheinitial consonant:
lotauai come to stand verb stem o1n-/ot&- pf. gotnKka
(<*ogotnka; 1.83).
ulvnoKe remind verb stem pvn- pf. mp. péuvnyuot
KT&opar acquire verb stem xtn-/KTa- pf. xextnyoa (also ékthar)
tittte fall verb stem treo-/t1(o)- pf. wéttTwoKa
Most verb stems beginning with yv- or yA- - though their verb stems begin with stop +
resonant - get reduplications formed like the augment:
ylyvacke know, recognize verb stem yvw- pf. yvooKxo
yvopilo make known verb stem yvopi6- pf. éyvapika
A few verb stems beginning with «a, ¢ or o followed by a single consonant, get a so-called
Attic reduplication, by duplicating the vowel and consonant, and lengtheningthe initial
vowel of the verb stem:
&Kkovuw hear verb stem &xo(u)(c)- pf. &xt}Koa

éyeipouai wake up, verb stem éyep-/éyop-/éyp- pf. gyjyepuan, also
be woken éyptyopa (note éyp-)
Suvupl swear verb stem du(o)- pf. duapoKe
with épxouai go, come verb stem éAev@-/éA(u)8- pf. éAjAuso
with pépw carry, bring verb stem évex-/évox-/éy- pf. évivoya
Reduplications Outside the Perfect
11.49 Various present stems show reduplication as well, in this case with 1: e.g. yi-yvaoKe
know, recognize (verb stem yvw-), ti-Onu1 put, place (verb stem @n-/@e-), i-otnp
make stand, set up (<*o1ot-, 1.83; verb stem otn-/oTG-).
11.50 Very few verbs have a form of reduplication in the aorist: e.g. with &yw lead, bring, aor. stem.
&yay- (verb stem &y-), aor. ind. jyyayov; with pépw carry, bring, aor. stem. éveyx- (verb stem
éyx-), aor. ind. tWwevyKov.
The Relative Position of Augments, Reduplications and Prefixes

Basic Rules
11.51 In compoundverbsthat include a prepositional prefix, any augmentor reduplica-

tion comesafter the prefix:
Tpoo-Baive go towards impf. teoocéBaivov pf. teooBeBnka

eio-c&yw lead into impf. eiofjyov pf. ciotjxa
11.52 Prepositional prefixes ending in a vowel drop that vowel before an augment (or
reduplication formedlike an augment), except in the case of trepi- and tpo-. When
trpo- is followed by«, this may contract to tpov- (by crasis, 1.43-5; also some-
times printed trpou- without coronis):
d&va-Baives go up impf. &véBaivov
étr1-Baives approach impf. éméBaivov
&tro-oTepéw rob aor. ind. étreotépnoo pf. ind. étreotépnKe
Sia-otpégoyan be distorted aor. ind. dieotpdqnv pf. ind. S1g0Tpappon
but:
Trepi-Baiveos go around impf. trepiéBaivov
Tpo-okeTrtoual consider aor. ind. tpoeoxeycunv pf. tpogoKeypou or
beforehand Or TpOvOKEyaunY TIPOUOKEMP
11.53 Before vowels, and hence before an augment (or reduplication formed like an
augment), éx- becomes é§- ( 1.41):
éx-Baive go away impf. 2& Baivov
éx-ptw flow out aor. ind. é&eppunv pf. &&eppunka
11.54 Prefixes whose final consonant assimilates to the first sound of the verb stem in
unaugmented/unreduplicated forms ( 1.90), are used in their non-assimilated
form before an augment(a reduplication starting with a vowel):
EuBaiveo go onto impf. évéBaiov
Eyypagw write onto impf. évéypagov
oupptyvupai break apart aor. ind. ouveppaynv pf. ind. cuvéppwya
ouAAeyw collect impf. ouvéAgyov pf. ind. cuveiAoya
11.55 Inthe pluperfect, the augment precedes the stem and thus the reduplication:
Traiseuw educate verb stem traideu- plpf. é-tretroiSevKerv
(pf. ind. tretraiSeuka)
Opava injure verb stem @pau(c)- plpf. pass. é-te8pavouny
(pf. ind. té8paucya)
However,if the reduplication is formed like an augmentor otherwisestarts with a
vowel, no extra augmentis addedin the pluperfect:
dp8dw straighten verb stem dp8w-/dp8o- plpf. apPaxerv (pf. ind.
aptwxa)
otpatnyéw lead verb stem otpatnyn-/ plpf. 2otpatnynxeiv
oTpaTnye- (pf. ind.
éotpattynka)
AapuBave get, take verb stem AnB-/AGB- plpf. ciAngerv (pf. ind. ciAnga)
Further Particulars
11.56 Only compoundverbs with prepositional prefixes get the augment between prefix and stem.
Compounds formed from other elements are augmented as normal,e.g. &31xéw act unjustly,
aor. ind. ASiknoa; SuoTuXéw be unfortunate, aor. ind.uotUynoa. For such verbs, 23.50.
11.57 The verbs xa@evbe, xa6npat, kabiZw, and &pqrévvupt are usually treated as if they were not
compounds, andthus get their augment/reduplication before the prefix:
KaO-nuar sit impf. éko8junv
Kad-evSoo sleep impf. éx&8evdov (but also kabnvdov)
Kab-ilo make sit down, sit down impf. éxa8iZov (but also xa8iZov)
&upi-evvupn envelop aor. ind. fugieoa
The verb étriotapan is never treated as a compound:

étriotayai know, be able impf. Amotaynv
11.58 Some compound verbs take a double augment, i.e. both the prefix and the stem are
augmented. For instance:
&v-gxoua endure impf. jveixouny, aor. tveoxounv

&ugi-yvotw be doubtful impf. jupeyvoouy, aor. hupeyvoroa
a&upio-Brytéw disagree, dispute impf. jupeoBrTouy,aor. hugeoBhTNHoa
12
The Present
Thematic (-w) and Athematic (-y1) Presents
12.1 Forms built on the present stem follow either a thematic or an athematic
conjugation.
- The thematic conjugation, comprising all verbs in -w, is much more common.
With these verbs, a thematic vowel (</o) stands between the present stem and
the endings: e.g. 1 pl. act. ind. maiSev-o-pev, 2 pl. t1roiSev-e-Te.
- The athematic conjugation comprises all verbs ending in -wi. The endings
follow immediately on the present stem (apart from some exceptions detailed
below): e.g. 1 pl. act. ind. Seixvu-pev, 2 pl. Seixvu-te.
12.2 Apart from the thematic vowel, there are two important points of distinction
between thematic and athematic presents:
- Endings: the endings of thematic and athematic presentsdiffer:
in the present indicative singular: thematic (including thematic vowels)-«,-e1s,
-e1, athematic -w, -s, -oi(v);
in the present third person plural: thematic (including thematic vowel) -ouvo1(v)
(<*-ovoi(v), 711.27), athematic -aoci(v);
in the imperfect third person plural: thematic -v, athematic: -cav;
andin the active infinitive: thematic (including thematic vowel) -e1w(= -év <*-e-ev,
11.31), athematic -vau.
Contraste.g. 2 sg. pres. act. ind. traiSeveis (thematic) with Seixvus (athematic);
pres. act. inf. toiSeveiv (thematic) with Se1xvuvan (athematic).
- Variation of vowel length in the stem: athematic presents use a stem with
a long vowelin the singular of the present active indicative, the singular of the
imperfect active, and in the subjunctive, but a stem with a short vowel elsewhere.
Contrast e.g. 1 sg./pl. act. ind. AUw/AUouev (thematic) with Seixvopi/Seixvipev
(athematic). For details, >12.37-8.
12.3 The Thematic Present 129
The Thematic Present
Overview of Forms
12.3 Active forms:
verbsin -w contract verbs

verbs in -éa verbs in -éo verbs in -déa
moardeveo educate toigw make, do Tindw honour SnAdw make clear
prim. sg. 1 traidevw Tod (<ée) TWA) (<dco) SNA (<deo)

ind. 2 Taideveis TOleis (<ée1s) TILES (<de1s) SnAois (<éeis)
(pres.) 3 wondSever Trotgi (<ée1) TING (<de1) SnAoi (<de1)
pl. 1 traiSevouev TOLoULEV (<éopev) Tipdpyev (<douev) SnAovpev (<dopev)
2 wodev_ete TolitEe (<éete) TIerTE (<deTe) SnAotte (<dere)
3 toaidsevouoi(v) toiotoi(v) (<éor.) tipdor(v) (<ddor) SnAovor(v) (<dd01)
SeC. sg. 1 étraiSevov étroiouv (<eov) éTiucov (<aov) éSt)Aouv (<oov)
ind. 2 étraideues étroieis (<ees) éTipas (<aes) éSt\Aous (<oes)
(impf.) 3 étraideue(v) éqroiel (<ee) éTipa (<ae) éSnAou (<oe)
pl. 1 étroiSevouev étroioUpev (<éopev) étipddyev (<couev) SqAOtEv (<dopev)
2 étraidevete éqroiite (<éete) éTiuate (<cerTe) éSnAotte (<oerte)
3 étraiSeuov étroiouv (<eov) étipoov (<aov) éSt\Aouv (<oov)
subj. sg. 1 traidevo Tro (<éoo) TILA (<de) SnAad (<deo)
2 Traisetns Trois (<éns) TILES (<dns) SnAois (<éns)
3 trade Troty} (<én) TIDe (<én) SnAoi (<6n)
pl. 1 traevopev TTOLGMEV (<éopev) Tipdpev (<depev) SnAdpev (<dcopev)
2 trodevnte TOLTE (<énte) TIerTE (<dnte) SATE (<énte)
3 Tra1dSeuwor(v) Troidot(v) (<éwor) tydor(v) (<daor) SnAd@oi(v) (<deoor)
opt. sg. 1 trodevoip To1oinv (<eoiny) tipanvy (<coinv) SnAoinv (<ooinv)
2 toadevois Tro1oins (<eoins) tipans (<aoins) SnAoins (<ooins)
3 Todevo1 To1oin (<eoin) Tina (<aoin) SnAoin (<ooin)
pl. 1 moiSevoipev TrO1oipev (<éowev) tydmev (<dowev) SnAotlvev (<dorpev)
2 troidevoite To1oite (<éorre) tys@te (<dorte) Sndoite _ (<dorte)
3 traiSevorev Tro1oiev (<éotev) tipdev (<dorev) SNAoiev (<ooiev)
imp. sg. 2 taideve Troiet (<ee) Tipe (<ae) StAou (<oe)
3 raiSeuétoo Tro1ito (<eéto) tipdtw (<aéTo) SnAoUTw (<o T)
pl. 2 toidevete TolitEe (<éete) TIerTE (<deTe) SnAotte (<dere)
3 taiSeudvTwv ToiouvTw@yv (<edvtov) ~TydvTov (<advtav) SnAotvTav (<odvTov)
inf. TroudSeverv Troieiv (<éév) TIPGV (<dév) SnAovv (<dev)
ppl. masc. traidevoov, TrO1@v, (<éov) Td, (<écov) SnAdv, (<dcov)
-OVTOS -OUVTOS -@QVTOS -OUVTOS
fem. TaiSevouca, To1ovod, (<éooa) tipdoa, (<ddc0a) Sndovoa, (<ddc0a)
-ons -ons -ons -ons
neut. TaidSetov, To1ouy, (<éov) TIU@Y, (<dov) SnAodv, (<dov)
-OVTOS -OUVTOS -@QVTOS -OUVTOS
1
Also troioipi/troiois/troi0}; TIWMp/TIps/T1yWO; SNAoips/SnAois/SnAot.
2 Also Troioinuev/troiointe; Tiu@nyev/Tip@nte; SnAoinuev/SnAointe.
130 12.4-5 The Present
12.4 Middle-passive forms:
verbs in -w contract verbs

verbs in -éa verbs in -cc verbs in -éa
Traidseuw educate troiuw make, do Tincoo honour SnAdoo makeclear
prim. sg. 1 trodSevouat Troiotpar (<éopan) TIVApaL (<éopon) SnAotpor (<dopa1)

ind. 2 wodedn/er (<*-e(o)1)~ tronfi/ei (<én/ée1) TIPE (<dn) SnAoi (<6n)
(pres.) 3 wandeveToar TOUITAL (<éeTan) TIWATO (<deTat) SnAotta1 (<dertat)
pl. 1 todeudpeba Trolotpsba (<edpeba) TIpapEsba (<adpeba) SnAoupsba (<odpe6a)
2 traidevecbe TroiioGe (<éeo@e) TIWaobE (<deoGe) SnAotoGe (<deobe)
3. walSevovTat ToivvtTar (<éovta) TIWHVTOL (<dovTat) SnAotvtar (<dovta)
sec. sg. 1 étrandevdunv étrolouuny (<edunv) éTIM@YNY (<adpnv) éSnAoUpNnv (<odunv)
ind. 2 émadsevou (<*-e(c)o) Etroi0od (<é6) ETIUG (<d6) ESnAOU (<66)
(impf.) 3 étrardeveTto éTroleiTO (<éeTo) ETIUATO (<deTo) éSnAotTo (<det0)
pl. 1 émadeudpeta éTrolounEa (<edpeba) ETIU@DHEDA (<adpeBax) éSrnAoUpEba (<odpeta)
2 étraideveo e étroiriobe (<éeoOe) éTipaobe (<ceorBe) éSnAotiobe (<decOe)
3 étralSevovto étroiotvto (<éovto) éTIU@VTO (<covTo) éSnAotvto (<dovto)
subj. sg. 1 troiSevcopar Trordapar (<éeopiaut) TIVApaL (<deopan) SnAdpar (<deopan)
2 Toaidsevy (<*-n(o)on) tront} (<én) TILE (<dn) SnAci (<6n)
3 twoaSeunTal TOMW|TAI (<énrat) TIWATO (<dnrat) SnA@tar (<dnran)
pl. 1 Todevapeba Trowmpeba (<edpeba) TIW@pEba (<adpefa) SnAwpEeba (<odpeba)
2 woideunods Trolfjobe (<énode) Tipaobe (<dnobe) SnAdobe (<dno@e)
3 TraidevoovtTan Toidvtar (<éwvrat) TIWAvTa1 (<dwovTat) SNAAvTar (<dwvTan)
opt. sg. 1 trodsevoipnv Toioiuny _ (<eoipny) TIMOUNY (<aoiynv) SnAoiuny (<ooipnv)
2 traigsetoio (<*-oi(c)o) Tro10i0 (<éoi0) TIU@O (<do1o) SnAoio (<do10)
3 traidevoiTto TO1wiTo (<éoito) TIU@®TO (<dorto) SnAcito (<do1T9)
pl. 1 TroSevoipeta TroioipeBa (<eoiveba) Tina@peBa (<acoipefa) SNAOipEfa (<ooipeba)
2 traidevoiobe Troiicbe (<éoicGe) Tip@obe (<doio e) SnAciobe (<dci06e)
3. traldevoivTo Toiwivto (<éovto) TIU@VTO (<doivto) SnAocivto (<doivTo)
imp. sg. 2 toidevou (<*-e()o) troiod (<éo) TILA (<do) SnAot (<o0)
3 tralSeuEcbw TroricGa (<etoe) TYWdo8w (<aéow) SnAovcbw (<oéoGe)
pl. 2 Todevects TroiioGe (<éeo@e) TIWaobE (<deoGe) SnAotoGe (<deobe)
3 tralSeuEoPov TrorioGav (<etobov) TIWdobwv (<aéo@wv) SnAoUaFav (<ofcbov)
inf. Traisevecdar TroiioBaar (<éeoBan) TipaoGar (<ceoPa) SnAotobar (<dec@ar)
ppl. masc. Tra1Sevdpevos Tro1oWpEevos (<edpevos) TiapEsvos (<adpevos) SnAOUEVOS (<odpEvos)
fem. TraiSevopevy Tolupéevyn (<eopevn) Ti@pevn (<acopiévn) SrnAoupevn (<oopévn)
neut. Tra1SevdpEevov Tro1oUpEsvov (<edpevov) Tipapsvov (<adpevov) SnAoUpEvov (<odpEvov)
1
For the ending of the 2 sg.pres. ind. (-n/-e1), > 12.7 n.1 below.
Non-Contract and Contract Presents
12.5 Two types of thematic conjugation can be distinguished, depending on the ending
of the present stem:
Present stems endingin1, u, a diphthongor a consonant,e.g. xpi anoint, AUw
loosen, release, taidevw educate, Aéyw say, speak. The thematic vowel and end-
ings follow on the stem.
Present stems ending in other vowels (typically ¢, a, 0), e.g. toig-w make, do,
tiuc&-w honour, SnAd-w make clear. The thematic vowel and endings contract with
the final vowelofthe stem: tro1é, Tin, SNAG. These are called contract(ed) verbs.
12.6-15 The Thematic Present 131
Endings
12.6 The endings of thematic present-stem formsarelisted in 11.20-33. The formsare

built as follows.
12.7 Present indicative: formed with primary endings: e.g. 1 sg. act. tra1Sev-w, 2 sg.
Traiseu-eis; 1 sg. mp. Trardev-o-pan.
Note the contraction in the 2 sg. mp., e.g. toiSeUn/-a1 (<*-e-(o)on), and com-
pensatory lengtheningin the3 pl. act., e.g. taiSevouo1(v) (= -dow <*-o-(v)o1).
Note 1: The older (and, given the rules of contraction ( 1.58-66), expected) form of the 2 sg.
mp.is toadevy <*1ro1Sev-e-(o)on. But from the fourth century onwards, the pronunciation of n
and 1 approximated each other and both were in use. Moderneditors differ in what they print.
However, both in modern editions and in ancient sources,it is nearly always BouAs you want,
oie: you think and Sée: you need(for the last form, also 12.17).
12.8 Imperfect: formed with the augment, and with secondary endings: e.g. 1 sg. act.
é-TraiSeu-o-v, 2 sg. é-Traideu-e-s; 1 sg. mp. é-tra1deu-d-pnv. Note the contraction in
the 2 sg. mp., e.g. étraiSevou (= -6<*-e-(o)o).
12.9 Imperative: the 2 sg. act. has no ending after the thematic vowel: e.g. traiSeu-e.
Note the 2 sg. mp., e.g. taiSevou (= -d<*-e-(o)o).
12.10 Subjunctive: formed with the long thematic vowelof the subjunctive and primary
endings, e.g. 1 pl. act. maiSeU-w-pev, 1 sg. mp. TraiSev-c-pan.
12.11 Optative: formed with the optative sufhx -1-/-1n- and (mostly) secondary endings,
e.g. 2 sg. act. TraiSev-o1-s, 3 pl. mp. taidev-o1-vto. Note the 2 sg. mp., e.g. TraiSevo1o0
(<*-o1-(o)o).
12.12 Active infinitive: formed with -ev, which contracts with the preceding thematic
vowel, e.g. act. tradev-ei (<*-e-ev).
Middle-passive infinitive: formed with -o6a, e.g. ta1Sev-e-o8an.
12.13 Active participle: formed with -vt-; for the declension, 5.17-18. E.g. gen. sg.
masc. traiSev-o-vt-os, nom. sg. fem. taidev-ouca (<*-ovtya).
Middle-passive participle: formed with -pev-; for the declension, 5.3-4. E.g.
nom.sg. masc. traideu-d-pEev-os, nom.sg. fem. taiSeu-o-pev-n.
12.14 The verb oiowan think is regularly thematic, but has some forms without the thematic vowel,
particularly 1 sg. pres. ind. oiua: and 1 sg. impf. dpnv.
Contract Presents
Simple Contraction Rules
12.15 The relevant contraction rules for each type of contract verb may be summarized
as follows (for a more elaborate treatment of contraction, > 1.58-63):
- with present stems endingin «:

e + ¢/ > e1 (Spurious, = é)
+ 0/6 > ou (spurious, = 6)
e + any other long vowel or diphthong: « merges with (disappears into) the long
vowel/diphthong
with present stemsendingin a:
a + [e]-sound (¢/é/n) > &
a+ (genuine) sor n >a
a + [o]-sound (0/6/00) > w
a+ oOl> ®
with present stems endingin o:

o + /é or o/d > ou (spurious, = 3)
o+nlw>o
o + (genuine) 1, n or ol > o1
Note 1: Ionic forms of verbs in -éw often do not contract; verbs in -&ow are conjugated in
various formsas verbsin -éw. For full details, +25.33-5.
12.16 The following points should be noted especially:

Since no1 or vu wasinvolvedin the formation of spurious diphthongs «1 and ou
( 1.23) in such formsas inf. act. taSeveiv (<-e-ev), 2 sg. imp. mp. tradevou
(<-e-oo), fem. ppl. act. maiSevouca (<*-o-vtya), corresponding forms of the
contract verbs also do not have diphthongs with 1/u (also 1.60, 1.62 n.2): thus
e.g. inf. tidy (<-a-e-ev), SnAov (spurious ou; <-o-e-ev); imp. TIW (<-a-e-co);
ppl. troiotioa (spurious ou; <*-¢-0-vtya), TIWoa (<*-c-o-vtya). But 2/3 sg. pres.
ind. act. toiSeveis and traidever have genuine diphthongs, and corresponding
contract verb formsalso have a genuine diphthong(e.g. Tipa&s, SnAot).
- The active optative singular of contract verbs usually has different endings
from those of the non-contract verbs, formed with optative sufhx -in-. But next
to troioinv/troioins/troioin we occasionally find troioty, troiocis, troioi; next to
Tip@ny/tipens/tipen occasionally tip@pi/tiwas/Tipa; next to SnAoinv/SnAoins/
SnAoin occasionally SnAcips/SnAois/SnAci.
The active optative plural of contract verbs usually has the same endingsas those of
the non-contract verbs. But occasionally we find forms with -im- in the first
and second person. Thus next to troiotpev/troioite we find troioinuey/troiointe;
next to Tipdpev/TIWaTE, we find tiu@nyev/tipente; and next to SnAoivev/SnAoite
we find SnAoinuev/SnAointe.
Further Particulars
12.17. Most verbs with a monosyllabic stem in « (originally in ef, 12.25 below) only contractif the
result is et: So, with 1Aéw sail (<*tAégfoo), pres. ind. TA, TAEis, TAI, TAgOMEV, TAEITe, TAEOUOL
(v); impf. étrAeov, étrAzts, etc.; subj. 1A, TAEns, etc.; opt. Ago, TAEots (forms with -1n- do not
occur); inf. 1Aetv; part. TA wv, TAE oUoG, TAEov. Similarly conjugated are e.g. tvew blow, pew
flow, xéw pour and 8éw lack, its middle Séouaask, need (note the 2nd person singular middle
Se) and impersonal8ei it is necessary (imperfect: @e1; participle: Séov).
However,this conjugation is not followed by Séw bind (<*8é-yw), which contracts regularly
like troigo.
12.18 The verbs x&w (older xaiw) set on fire and wA&w (older xAaiw) cry, weep do not contract
( 12.29).
12.19 There is a small numberof verbs whose stem endsin n: (iw live, Suphe be thirsty, eww be
hungry, yphoyouse, need. These verbs follow the conjugation of tude, except for the
following contraction rule: n + [e]-sound >
The paradigm is as follows:
verbs in -qw/-jhopat
Spibe thirsty xptopat use, need
prim. sg. 1 Spa (<1-«) XP@par (<%-opat)
ind. 2 Siyptis (<t-ets) XPT (<i-n)
(pres.) 3 diyfi (<n)-e1) XPFTo1 (<t-eTan)
pl. 1 Siwapev (<ty-opev) Xpapeda (<n-dpe8a)
2 Site (<1-eTe) XpijoGe (<1)-e00¢)
3 Sipdor(v) (<i)-do1w) Xpavtar (<i-ovtan)
sec. sg. 1 edipoaov (<n-ov) éypaunv (<h-ounv)
ind. 2 ediwns (<n-5) EXpa (<¥-6)
(impf.) 3 edsiyn (<n-e) éxpijto (<t-eTo)
pl. 1 éS1paouev (<n-opev) éypapeta (<n-dpebar)
2 eS1Tite (<1-eTe) éypfjobe (<n-eo8¢)
3 eSiwoov (<n-ov) Expavto (<t-ovto)
subj. sg. 1 Swe (<f-«) Xpapar (<t-pan)
2 Siwiis (<f-ns) XPhi (<h-n)
3 Sih (<i-n) XpAran (<-nTo1)
pl. 1 Sipdpev (<i-copev) Xpapeta (<n-cpe8a)
2 Siete (<H-nTe) XpiioGe (<q-no8e)
3 Sipdor(v) (<-aor) Xpavtar (<4-wvtan)
opt. sg. 1 Siwany (<n-oinv) XPoOunv (<n-oipnv)
2 Sipans (<n-oins) XP@o (<t-o10)
3 Sivan (<n-oin) XP@To (<-o1T0)
pl. 1 Sip a@pev (<ty-o1pev) Xxpapeta (<n-oipeba)
2 Sip@rte (<r-oiTe) Xp@oee (<h-o108e)
3 Sip ev (<r-o1ev) XPOVTO (<-o1vTo)
imp. sg. 2 Siwy (<n-e) Xpa (<1-d)
3 Sipjto (<n-éTw) xprjoGe (<n-éoOe)
pl. 2 Siw7jte (<t\-eT ) Xpijoee (<t)-e08e)
3 Sipavtoyv (<n-dvtev) XprjoGov (<n-éoPov)
inf. Sit (<t)- -ev) Xprjoban (<-eo8a)
ppl. miasc. Sid, (<t-cv) XPOpEVOS (<n-dpevos)
-@VTOS
fem. Sipyadoa, (<i-doa) XpopEevn (<n-opevn)
-O7S
neut. Siar, (<n-ov) XPOpEVOV (<n-dpevov)
-@VTOS
12.20 Two verbs have a present stem ending in w: i&pww sweat and pryww shiver. These verbs
contract to w (or w) throughout their conjugation: e.g. 3 sg. act. subj. 61y& (<-a-n), act. inf.
prydv (<-c-e-ev), dat. sg. masc. ppl. pres. act. iSpaévt1 (<-c-ovt1). Wealso find forms of these
verbs, however, which are conjugated in the same wayas -éw verbs, and manuscripts sometimes
vary (and f1yéo shiver also occurs).
12.21 In Attic, the verb Aouw wash, bathe, deriving from *Aoféw, behaves sometimes like an uncon-
tracted verb (e.g. Aovel, AovElv, AoudpEvor, Aoveoar), but in other cases, especially in earlier
authors, shows contraction (e.g. ZAotpEv, AotTa1, AcoFai, AoUpEVOs).
Thematic Present Stem Formation
12.22 Basic points on the formation of thematic present stemsare given in the sections
that follow. The formation of athematic present stems is treated separately,
12.39-44. For further details on present stem formation, 23.41-51.
12.23 In general, a distinction may be made between verbs whose present stem is
unelaborated (i.e. identical to (a variant of) the verb stem), and verbs whose
present stem is formed by the addition of one or more suffixes to the verb stem:
unelaborated present stems: e.g. toaidetw educate (verb stem traideu-), ypdquo
write (verb stem ypag-), etc.
present stems with elaborations: e.g. puAdttw guard (verb stem ouAak-),
ylyvooKke recognize (verb stem yvw-).
Note 1: Present stems formed with elaborations are sometimescalled characterized presents
(the present stem is characterized by one or more additions to the verb stem). The present stem
of such verbsoften differs significantly from all other tense-aspect stemsof a verb. Being aware of
the most commonelaborations makesit possible to derive the verb stem, and hence other tense-
aspect stems, systematically from the dictionary form (i.e. from the present stem) of a verb.
Presents without Elaboration
12.24 Withseveral verbs, the thematic present stem is simply identical to (a variant of)
the verb stem. Some examples:
verb verb stem
ypago write ypag-
Sépw skin dep-/5&p-
S1wKw Pursue S1@K-
Atyw say, speak Aey-/Aoy-, eitt-, ép-/pn-
Auw loosen, release Av-/AU-
Troaiseve educate Traiseu-
TrepTr send Treptt-/Troptr-
Treife persuade Tre18-/tro18-/1ri6-
tTpipe rub TpIp-/Tpip-
wevSw cheat weud-
Note 1: Most, but notall of these examples can be described as primitive verbs , meaning
that the verb stem is itself an unelaborated verbal root: for details on this, 23.2 with n.3.
12.25 With a few otherverbs, the present stem is identical to the (original) verb stem, but part of that
verb stem is no longervisible in the present conjugation due to sound changes. This holds
especially for verbs whose verb stem endedoriginally in o or ¢, both of which disappeared
( >1.74-84) in the present stem, but are often visible in other tense-aspect stems of the verb.
Some examples:
verb compare
oeiw shake <*oeio-w aor. pass. éoeioOnv; oeiouds earthquake
TAEw sail <*TrAEe-0 aor. éTAevoa
trvew blow <*trvép-w aor. ETVEUoa
Note 1: For the effect of the lost ¢ on the conjugation of mAéw, 12.17 above.
Presents with an Original Yod
12.26 Toa very large numberofverb stems a yod ( 1.31) was originally added to form the
thematic present stem. This yod has in manycasesleft traces in the present stem.
12.27 Verb stemsendingin a stop:

Verb stems ending in a voiceless velar or dental stop (x, x, T, 6) have a present
stem in tt (oo in Ionic, Koine, tragedy, Thucydides, etc.):
verb (present stem) verb stem + yod compare
puAdttw guard <*pUAaK-yo aor. puAata; puAaKt watch
TapaTtw confuse <*Tapdy-yoo aor. eta&paga; tapaxt| confusion
EPETTW TOW <*EpET-yw EpeTns rower
TAaTITw mould <*TAd8-yoo KopoTrAd#os doll-maker
Verb stemsendingin a voiced velar or dental stop (y, 8) have a present stem in Z:
cipal lament <*oip@y-yo oipwynt lament
éAtrifw hope, expect <*éATri8-yoo éAtris, gen. éAtridos hope, expectation
- Verb stems ending in a labial (1, 9, B), have a present stem in tt. Some
examples:
TUT hit <*TUTI-yo aor. tutrov(/Etuwa)
Kputrte hide <*kpUg-yo Kpugi) secretly
BAdtrtw harm, damage <*BA&B-yo BA&Bn damage
Note 1: A few verb stemsin y do notget Z, but tt: for example 1pdttw do, act <*tpdy-ywo
(cf. pf. tétpaya), and tdéttw array, appoint (<*t&y-yo, cf. tayds commander). This is
probably due to analogy with stems ending in voiceless velar stops(x, x).
Note 2: Verbs with a stem in yy also often get a stem in {, e.g. kA&lo scream <*KAdyy-yw
(cf. fut. KAdry§w), oaATtilw sound the trumpet <*oodtiyy-yw (cf. odAmiy trumpet, gen.
odAtiyyos). But note pféyyoua make a sound (stem 98eyy-), not formed with yod.
Note 3: Thesuffixes -iZw/-&a becameproductive in their own right (23.48), and therefore
occur often: for example, 61A-iZw arm, évayx-&lw force, ipy-&louo work, perform.
12.28 Verb stems ending in a resonant:

Verb stems endingin A have a present stem in AA:
verb (present stem) verb stem +yod compare
a&yyéAAw report <*hyyéA-yo fut. &yyere
BdAAw throw, hit <*BdA-yoo aor. -BaA-ov
- Yod-presents whose verb stem endsin v/p behavedifferently depending on the
vowelin front of the resonant. The following rules apply (also 1.78):
-&vyw > -aive; -Apyw > -aipw;
-EVYO > -Eive; -Epyo> -eipw;
-Ivy@ > -Tvw; -Ipyw > -ipw;
-Uvyw > -Uvo; -Upyw > -Upw
Examples:
verb (present stem) verb stem +yod compare
paives show <*pav-yo fut. pave
Kataipw cleanse <*kab&p-yo fut. kabapa
teiveo stretch, tighten <*tév-yw fut. teva; adjective &tevis tight
otreipw sow <*oTrép-yo otrépya seed
Kplve judge <*kplv-yoo fut. KpTve
oiktipw pity <*oikTip-yoo fut. oixtipé
d&puveo defend <*&uv-yoo fut. dptve
pupw mix <*pup-yo pupdnv mingled up
12.29 Most verbs whosepresent stem endsin a vowel(i.e. contract verbs) also belong to
the yod-presents. In this case yod simply disappeared, paving the way for contrac-
tion. For example: tiyd-w honour <*tipd-yoo; Troig-w do, make <*troigé-yo.
Note 1: With several such verbs, it is not only yod which has disappeared, but also o or Ff.
These may again bevisible in other tense-aspect stems(cf. TAéw, 12.25), and mayresult in
other peculiarities in the conjugation. For instance:
yeadoo laugh <*yeAdo-yo epic aor. éyéAaooa, fut. yeAaoouat
TeAgw finish <*TeAdo-yw aor. pass. éteA oOnv, epic aor. éTéAeooa
aidéoyua1 be ashamed <*oiS¢o-youal pf. mp. 7Seopan, epic fut. aiSgooopan
Kaw set on fire <*Kaf-yo aor. EKQUOG, pf. KEKQUKG
To x&w compare KAd&o cry, weep; these verbs also have the form Kxaiw/KAaiw. Note that they
do not contract ( 12.18 above).
Note 2: With some other verbs, the vowel is the elaboration. For example, S0xéw may be
analysed as S0x-é-w (cf. aor. 50§a).
Note 3: Manynewverbsin -éw were formed after the disappearance of yod: 23.44, 23.50;
their conjugation is identical to older -éw verbs (the conjugation of the -dw, -éw and -d0
types wasstrongly regularized).
Presents with a Nasal Infix
12.30 Numerouspresent stems were formed with a nasalinfix (-v-/-av-/-v-av-):

verb (present stem) verb stem compare
TEU-v-c cut Tey-/TuN- aor. -TEu-ov
aug-av-w increase aue- fut. av&-hoow
dgA-ioK-&v-~ become a debtor dga- fut. dpA-how
Aa-v-8-cv-w go unnoticed An8-/AGB- aor. £-Aaé-ov
Aa-u-B-av-o take AnB-/AGB- aor. #-AaB-ov
Aa-y-x-av-w acquire by lot Anyx-/A&x- aor. -Aay-ov
Tu-y-x-av-w hit upon, happen to teuy-/Ty- aor. &-TUX-oVv
also éAa-U-v-w drive gAG- aor. TAa-oa
Note 1: For y/y in AapBave/Aayxyavw, 1.90.

Note 2: With a few verbs,the nasal suffix is extended to some(butnotall) other stems,asifpart
of the verb stem:e.g. xpiveo decide, judge (<*xpi-v-yw, 12.28 above), aor. Expiva (<*#-Kpiv-oa,
13.24), fut. kptve (15.32), but @n-aor. éxpiény, pf. Kéxpixa, pf. mp. Kéxpiyor. Similarly
KAiveo cause to lean, aor. ?xAiva, fut. KAivé, n-aor. éxAivny, but 6n-aor. éxATOny, pf. KéxAixa, pf.
mp. xékAipou. Also 18.17, 19.30.
Presents with the Suffix -(1)ox-
12.31 A numberofpresents are formed with the suffix -(1)oK-:

eup-iox-w find eup- fut. eup-tow
dpA-ioK-&v-w become a debtor dga- fut. dpA-how
Yl-yv@-oK-w recognize yvo- aor. E-yVvoo-v
TaoXo suffer (<*tra8-oK-, 1.96) trev6-/trov8-/1r&8- aor. étra8ov
Reduplicated Presents
12.32 A numberof present stems were formed with a reduplication, consisting of the
first consonant of the verb stem plus1:
Yl-yYvOoKw recognize yvo- aor. E-yVvoo-v
yi-yvoyuoi become yev(n)-/yov-/yv- aor. é-yev-dunv
ti-ktw give birth (<*ti-TK-w) teKx-/ToK-/TK- aor. -TEK-OV
ti-1T0 fall treo-/T1(w)- aor. -Treo-ov
138 12.33 The Present
The Athematic Present
Overview of Forms
Verbs in -vupt
12.33 Active and middle-passive forms:
verbs in - vupn
Seixvipt show
stem Se1kvu-/Serkvii-
prim. Sg. 1 Seikvuu SeikvUpar
ind. 2 Seikvus Seikvuoal
(pres.) 3 Seikvuon(v) SeikvUTal
pl. 1 Seikvipev Serxvipeda
2 SeikvUTE SeikvloGe
3 Serkvuaor(v) Seikvlvtat
Sec. sg. 1 éSeikvuv éSerkvunv
ind. 2 eSeiKvus é5eikvUcO
(impf) 3 éSeikvu eSeikvUTO
pl. 1 éSeikvijev éSeikvixeda
2 eSeikvUTe edeikvuiobe
3 eSeikvloav eSeikvUVTO
subj. Sg. 1 SerkvGoo SerkvGoopat
2 Seikvinys Seikvun
3 Seikvi7y SerkvUnTal
pl. 1 SerkvUaopev Serkvumpeta
2 SerkvUnte Serkvunove
3 Serkviwor(v) SerkvUavTat
opt. Sg. 1 Serkvioipl SeikvUoiunv
2 Seikvuois SE1lKVUOIO
3 Seikvo1 SeikvUoITO
pl. 1 Seikvloipev dSeikvuoipeta
2 SeikvuoiteE Seikvuoiobe
3 Seikvuolev SeikvUoIvTO
imp. sg. 2 Seikvi dSeikvlco
3 SerkvUTo Serxviiobeo
pl. 2 SeikvlTeE Seixviiobe
3 SerkvvTov Serxviicbov
inf. Seikvuval Seixvucbat
ppl. masc. Seikvus, -vuvTOS Serkvjpevos
fem. Serkvioa, -vuoTs Serkvpevn
neut. Serkvuv, -vUvTOS SerkvupEevov
In the active, some thematic variants occasionally occur ( 12.54).

12.34 The Athematic Present 139
Reduplicated Verbs
12.34 Active forms:
verb stemsinn/& tidnu input Sidcopt

fotnui make stand tiénun put, place inuisend, let go StSwyngive
stem iotn-/iot&- stem T18n-/T16e- stem in-/ie- stem 8150-/5150-
prim. sg. 1 ToT Ti6hw iri SiScoul

ind. 2 ToTNs TiBNs ins Si8a5
(pres.) 3 fotnoi(v) Ti6noi(v) inoi(v) SiSwor(v)
pl. 1 ToT&pev Tideuev Tewev SiSopuev
2 loTaTe tiBete ieTE SidSote
3 iot&o(v) (<-&&ow) TIBE&o1(v) Tao(v) (<-éaow) 81856%01(v)
sec. sg. 1 ToTHv éTidny Tel é5i50uv
ind. 2 TOTS eTideis TE1S &5i80us
(impf.) 3 ioTN éTider 1é1 £5150u
pl. 1 TOTOMEV étiBeuev TEUeVv éSi5ouev
2 IOTATE étidete TeTE eS5150TE
3 loTaoav eTibecav TECav é5i500av
subj. sg. 1 ioT& T1865 idd 518
2 loTTs TIF\s ifs 51505
3 loTf} TIF] if} 5150
pl. 1 ioTGpEv TIPApev iddyev S1S5GpEv
2 ioTi\TE T1O7\TE ifjte S1d@TE
3 ioT@o1(v) TI8d01(v) ido1(v) $15001(v)
opt. sg. 1 ioTainv T18Einu leinu d1doinv
2 ioTains T18Eins icing d180ins
3 ioTain T18ein icin d180in
pl 61 ioToipEv TI@eTHEV leTyev dS1S0ipEev
2 ioTaitE TiGeiTE ieiTE d150iTeE
3 ioTaiev T18eiev ieiev d18o0iev
imp. sg. 2 ioTy Tider tet Sidou
3 1OTATO TIGETWO 1 TO d150Tw
pl. 2 loTate TiBete lete didote
3 ioTAVTOOV TIGEVTOOV l VTOOV S1d6vToOv
inf. ioTdvai TiPévai igvou S15dva
ppl. masc. ioTAS, -AVTOS T18Eis, -EVTOS igis, -EVTOS d150us, -OvTOS
fem. loTGhoOa, -o7s TIBEioa, -ons ieioa, -onS d150U0a, -o75
neut. ioTAV, -AVTOS TIGEV, -EVTOS 1 V, -EVTOS d5150v, -OVTOS
Some thematic variants occurin the pres. ind.: e.g. T18eis (instead of ti ns), iei (instead of ino1): 12.55.
140 12.35 The Present
12.35 Middle-passive forms:
verb stemsinn/a rtifnpr inut Side

iotnui make stand ti8nu put, place inulet go SiSeui give
stem iotn-/iotG- stem ti0n-/Ti8e- stemin-/ic- stem 8150-/8150-
prim. sg. 1 TOTAAL TIGELaL TEMOu SiSopar

ind. 2 loTacat Tifeoat leva SiS0ca1
(pres.) 3 loTaTal Tieton i TOL SiS0Ta1
pl. 1 ToTaueta TiPgucba igueba S1Sdyeba
2 iotaoe TideoGe ieoOe dido008¢
3 loTavTat Tidevton TevTat SisovTar
Sec. Sg. 1 loTaunv éTi8gunv Téunv é515dunv
ind. 2 ioTACO étibeco Teo é5i5000
(impf.) 3 IOTATO eTifeTo TeTO é5i50To
pl. 1 loTa&ueba éTibgucba Tépebar 25156ue8a
2 loTaoGe eTibeabe TeoOe e5i5006¢
3 IOTAVTO éTiBevTo TevTO éS5iS0vTo
subj. sg. 1 ioTyan TIP#Gpar ida §15apa1
2 lott} T1867) if 5150
3 ioTijTa1 TIGFTOL ifjton S1d@TaL
pl. 1 ioT@pEba TIPapE8a iapEeda S1S5apeda
2 liotijo8_e Ti87joGe ifjoBe d15008¢
3 ioTOvTa1 T1IG4vTa1 idvTaL S1davtTatr
opt. sg. 1 ioTaiuny T1GEiunv leiunv d1soipnyv
2 ioTaio T18¢ei0 igio 515010
3 ioTAITO T18eiTO iciTO S150iTO
pl. 1 ioTaiveta Tideiveta iciueBar SiS0ipeba
2 ioTaioGe T18eioBe icioBe 515010Ge
3 idTAIVTO T18eivToO igivTO S1S0ivto
imp. Sg. 2 ioTaco Tifeco leoo Sids0g0
3 ioTaobw TBEBa igoBw 15008w
pl. 2 lotaode TiGeo8e teo8e did008¢
3 ioTaoBuwv TIBEoBaov igoBoov 515608av
inf. iotacGat Tibeobat leoPon SiS006ai
ppl. masc. ioTH&UEVOS TIBEUEVOS i uEVvOS S1SOUEVOS
fem. ioTapévn Tifeuévn ieuévn] S150pévy
neut. lOTHMEVOV TIGEUEvov i uUEvoV S1IDOLEVOV
12.36 The Athematic Present 141
Root Presents
12.36 Formsofeipi be, eis go, and pnyisay:
tipi be eit go gnusay, claim

stem 2(o)- stem ei-/i- stem on-/o&-
prim. sg. 1 eipi eit oni
ind. 2 ei ei ens/@ris
(pres.) 3 goTi(v) eioi(v) onoi(v)
pl. 1 éopev ipev papev
2 EOTE ITE pate
3 eioi(v) iao1(v) oaoi(v)
sec. sg. 1 Hv) Tev/tha Eon
ind. 2 Toba Ters/Te10Ba Epnoba/pns
(impf.) 3 Ty fer(v) zon
pl. 1 TMEV Tuev EQOMEV
2 T\TE TyTe EMATE
3 Noav Tjoav/Teoav EMaoav
subj. Sg. 1 a too 9a
2 ns ins fis
3 n in ofl
pl. 1 GOUEV Toouev QOLPEV
2 TTE inte piitE
3 @oi(v) iwoi(v) oaoi(v)
opt. sg. 1 einv ioinv/iom gainv
2 eins io1s pains
3 ein 101 gain
pl. 1 ciuev/einuev TOIMEV paipev/painueyv
2 eite/einte 1O1TE painte
3 elev/einoay lo1ev paiev
imp. Sg. 2 iofh 161 poe
3 EOTW iT@ OAT
pl. 2 OTE ite parte
3 ZoTOOV idvTov pavTov
inf. elvan i von pavan
ppl. masc. dv, SVTOS iwv, idvTOS paoKoy, -ovTos /
MAS, PAVTOS
fem. ovioa, ovions iovoa, iotons pauoKouog, -ons /
PACA, POTS
neut. dv, SvTOS idv, idvTos paoKov, -ovTos /
PAV, PAVTOS
For the accentuation ofthe pres. ind. of ciui be and gnui, 24.34.
Present Stems with a Long and Short Variant

12.37 The present stem of -y1 verbs nearly always has two variants, one with a long and
one with a short final vowel:
verb present stem
Seikvuul show Seikvu-/Seikvu-
iotnu make stand, set up iotn-/iotG-
TiOnpr put, place T10n-/T18¢-
inp send, let go in-/ie-
Sidagive 5150-/5150-
onul say, claim on-/pa-
12.38 The long variant appearsin:

singular formsofthe active indicative (but for thematic formsof the imperfect,
12.53);
- all formsof the subjunctive.
The short variant appearsin all other forms (including all middle-passive forms
except the subjunctive).
Types of -y1 Verb; Present Stem Formation
Verbs in -vupt
12.39 Anumberof athematic present stems are formed with the nasal infix -vu-. Most of
these verbs have a verb stem ending in a velarstop,or in the case of verbs in -vvujn,
a verb stem originally ending in o (there are some others). E.¢::
verb stems endingin a velar stop:
Seikvuul show Seik- aor. cia
Ceuyvupi yoke Ceuy-/Ciy- aor. éCeuEo
uelyvupl Mix pery-/uty- aor. éueiga
Tthyvupi affix, fasten thy-/tay- aor. étnga
Onhyvupi (cause to) break pny-/pwy-/pay- aor. Eppnga
verb stemsoriginally endingin o:
Kepdvvuul mix (<*kepdao-vu-p1) Kepa(o)-/Kpa- aor. éképao(o)a
Kpendvvuul hang up (<*kpeuco-vu-p1) Kpevre(o)- aor. ékpéuao(a)a
oBévvumn quench, put out (<*oBéo-vu-m) oBn-/oBe(o)- aor. pass. goBéoOnv
Xavvuul heapPp upup (<*yao-vu-u)
X w(o)-/yo-
XOX aor. Pp pass. £ywobnv
X
12.39-43 The Athematic Present 143
other verbs
OuvuUUl Swear du(o)- aor. @poou
SAAuui lose (<*SA-vu-p1) 6A(e)- fut. 6Ad
Reduplicated Verbs
12.40 A few important athematic present stems are formed by reduplication ( 12.32
above):
t-oTnu make stand, set up (<*oi-ota1) oTn-/oTa- aor. EoTHOa
Si-Seoul give Sw-/dSo- aor. é5wKa
ti-Onui put, place 8n-/e- aor. 8nKa
i-nur send, let go (<*yi-ynur) t-/é- aor. tka
12.41 More complexis the formation of tiptAnuw, tiptrpn, and dvivnu, which have a nasalinfix in
addition to reduplication. Theyare all conjugated in the presentlike fotnu:
Ti-p-TeAnut fill TAN-/TAG- aor. éTAnoa
ti-u-tenu burn tpn-/tpa- aor. éTpnoa
d-vi-vnuhelp, benefit dvn-/dve- aor. dvnoa
Root Presents
12.42 Finally, there are several athematic root presents (or primitive verbs ), whose
present stem is an unelaborated verbal root ( 23.2 with n.3):
verb (present stem) verb stem
eiul be éo- (eivi = éul <*éoui, 1.68)
Eipl go ei-/1-
onui say, claim en-/oa-
Tul say, speak i-
Note 1: The verb fui say occurs primarily in the past-tense forms fw I said, 4 he/she said,
normally in the speech formulas jv 8 éyw and I said and 7 8 és andhesaid.
12.43 To this category also belong a few verbs with only middle-passive forms (thus only a short-
vowel stem is used in the present conjugation, 12.38):
verb (present stem) verb stem
keipan lie KE1-
(k&@)nyar sit n(o)-
&yapoar admire, love aya-
étriotayai know, be able eTrIOTN-/ETIOTE-
Suvauabe able Suvn-/Suva-
Kpéuauai hang Kpeua(o)-
Note1: kein is conjugated like middle-passive Seixvuyan; the subj. and opt. use the stem xe-,
e.g. 3 sg. subj. Kenta, 3 pl. opt. KéowTo.
The present/imperfect forms of xeipa serve as the perfect/pluperfect passive of the verb
tin put, place, particularly its compounds: e.g. SiaTifnun dispose, put in a certain state;
Sidxeoar be disposed, be in a certain state.
Note 2: &youo, étriotapa, Sivoo, and kpéuapuar are conjugated in the presentlike iotapan
(although thereare, with SWvoyon, étriotapyan and xpéuapan, a few differences in accentuation,
e.g. 3 pl. opt. SUvaivto/iotoivto).
Note 3: (k&@)nucn is conjugated like middle-passive Seikvupcn, but with subj. xaGdpo, xaf},
etc.; opt. ka®oiuny, etc. The original o of the stem is visible in 3 sg. impf. ka®joto (next to
éxa@rnto, see below).
The present/imperfect forms of x&@nuosit serve as the perfect/pluperfect of the verb
KadéZouan sit down.
It is frequently treated as a simplex verb in the imperfect (augment éxa®fynv rather than
Ka8rnv; 11.58).
The simplex (non-compound)verb fa occurs sometimes in poetry, not in prose.
12.44 Most forms of impersonal xpn it is necessary derive from combinations of the noun yeh
necessity and formsofeipi be: subj. yet (<xpt f), opt. xpein (<xpr ein), inf. xpfjven (<ypr ivan),
part. ypéwv (<ypr dv, 1.71). The imperfect is yprv (<p fv) or éxpfiv (with an additional
augment).
Endings
12.45 The endings of athematic presentsare listed in 11.20- 33. Present-stem formsof-y1
verbs are built as follows.
12.46 Presentindicative: formed with primary endings. E.g. 1 sg. act. SeikvU-un, TION-I, 2
sg. act. Seikvu-s, TiOn-s; 1 sg. mp. Seixvi-pon, TiGe-pcou. Note that the o of the 2 sg. mp.
does not disappear: Seixvti-oo, tife-coi. The root presents have several irregular
forms (see the overview of forms).
Note 1: Occasionally, the o of the 2 sg. mp. does disappearafter a: e.g. Suva (more regularly
Suvacan), étriora (étrictaca).
12.47 Imperfect: formed with the augment, and with secondary endings.E.g. 1 sg.act.
é-Seixvu-v, 2 sg. act. é-Seixvi-s; 1 sg. mp. é-Se1kvu-pnv. Note that the o of the 2 sg.
mp. does not disappear: é-5eixkv-co. Some singular active forms are thematic,
12.53 below. The root presents have several irregular forms (see the overview
of forms).
Note 1: Occasionally, the o of the 2 sg. mp. does disappearafter a, followed by contraction:
e.g. iriotw (more regularly ATIoTaG0), vw (25Uvaco), lotw (iotaco).
12.48-53 The Athematic Present 145
12.48 Imperative: the 2 sg. act. is usually formed without ending (some are thematic),
but the root presents have ioth, if1, pao. Other imperatives: e.g. 2 pl. act. Seixvi-te,
2 sg. mp. deixvt-oo.
12.49 Subjunctive: formed with the long thematic vowelof the subjunctive and primary
endings. In reduplicated -u1 presents and in x&@nyuo, the long thematic vowel
contracts with the preceding (long) vowel: e.g. 1 sg. act. 8180 (<*-a-«), 2 sg. act.
51865 (<*-o-n5), 1 sg. mp. 818d5p01 (<*-c-c-yar), 2 sg. act. ifs (<*in-75), 2 pl. mp.
iotijoGe (<*ioth-n-o8e).
Note1: For the forms built on stems ending in n and with subjunctive long thematic vowel w,
which involve quantitative metathesis, 1.71: e.g. 1 sg. act. id (<igwo <*if-w), 1 sg. mp.
T1PBpar (<T18gapoar <*1167)-«-par), 1 pl. act. iotdyev (<iotéwpev <*iott-a-yeEv).
12.50 Optative: the optatives of -vuyi verbs, k&@nyo and Keio are thematic, 12.53.
Others are formed with the optative suffix -1n- in the singular, with optative suffix
-1- in the plural and all middle-passive forms, and with secondary endings. The iota
formsa diphthong with the preceding short stem vowel. E.g. 1 sg. act. 8150in-v, 1 pl.
act. 8i507-yev, 1 sg. mp. 8150i-pnv; 1 sg. act. T18ein-v, 1 pl. act. T18ei-yev, 1 sg. mp.
Tidei-unv.
Note1: In the optative of cipit be and pnui say, plural forms with -1n- occur frequently, next to
forms with (e.g. einuev next to civev, painuev next to poiyev; 2 pl. poite does not occur in
classical Greek, perhaps by chance).
Note 2: There is, in classical Greek (as transmitted), one probable case of an athematic
optative of a stem in vu, tnyviTo (PI. Phd. 118a, with the optative suffix contracted into v).
Homeric Greek has more u-optatives, e.g. Stpev (1 pl. aor. opt. of SUopandive).
12.51 Active infinitive: formed with -vai. E.g. act. Sexxvi-von. But the inf. of eis go ends
in -evou: i-evan.
Middle-passive infinitive: formed with -o6a. E.g. deikvi-o8a1, Kei-obon
12.52 Active participle: formed with -vt-; for the declension, 5.17-18. E.g. gen. sg.
masc. Se1kv-vt-os, nom.sg. fem. Seixvioa (<*-tvtya).
Middle-passive participle: formed with -pev-; for the declension, 5.3-4. E.g.
nom.sg. masc. Se1kvl-yev-os, nom.sg. fem. Seikvi-pév-n.
Thematic Forms
12.53 Someforms of -verbs are regularly thematic:

most formsof the singular impf. act. of Ti6qun, inu, and SiScopn: e.g. ters (formed
like étroieis), 25i50uv (formedlike 251Aouv);
all subjunctives (with long theme vowels): e.g. 1 pl. act. SexxvUanpev, TBdSpEV (<
T1Pémpev <*T181)-cpev, 1.71), opev (< Eopev);
all optatives of the verbs in -vuy, of citi go, and of K&@nuar and xeipau: e.g. 2 sg.
act. Seixvuors, 1 pl. Sexxvvoev, 3 pl. ioiev, 1 sg. kaBoiuny, 3 pl. KéowwTo;
2 sg. act. imp. of Ti6qun, inut, SiScour:e.g. Tie: (formed like troie1), 5iS0u (formed
like S1yAov);
participles of ivi be (with no visible stem in Attic) and ein go; e.g. with eipi, nom.
pl. masc. dvtes, nom./acc. pl. neut. évta; with cipi, nom. pl. masc. idvtes, nom./
acc. pl. neut. idvta.
Note1: For the Ionic participle of cipi (éav, etc.), 25.40.
12.54 In the active of -vupi verbs, alternative thematic forms are found next to the regular
athematic forms, especially from the fourth century onwards: e.g. 3 sg. pres. ind. Se1xvuei, 2
sg. imp. Seixvue, inf. Seixvueiv, nom. sg. masc. act. ppl. Seikvuev, gen. SeikvuovTos.
Note 1: The thematic forms of these verbs are frequent in Ionic, 25.38.
12.55 Similarly, thematic variants occur of (primarily) second- and third-person formsin the pres.
act. ind. of reduplicated athematic verbs:icis, ici; t18eis, T18ei; S1S0is, S150; iotds, tote (the
thematic alternatives are formed like troieis, SnAots, tipd&s, etc.).
Note 1: These forms occurparticularly often in Ionic, 25.38.
12.56 The verb pnui say uses some thematic forms built on the stem @acx- (for -ox-, 12.31):
in Attic prose, the regular formsof the participle are pa4oxwv, paoxovtos, etc. (in poetry and
Ionic prose, pds, pavtos,etc.);
the imperfect packov, etc. occurs regularly;
someother formsoccur, e.g. 1 sg. opt. p&oxorn, 3 pl. subj. pdoxwou.
13
The Aorist: Active and Middle
Types of Aorist (Active and Middle) Stem
13.1 Aorist (active and middle) stems are formed in one of three different ways:
- Sigmatic aorists (the most commontype): aorist stems are formed by adding
o (and a, 13.6-7) to the verb stem. E.g. with troiSeUu educate (verb stem
tra1deu-): aorist stem traidevo(a)-, 1 sg. ind. aor. act. étraiSeuoa; with Seixvopn
show (verb stem Se1k-): aorist stem 5e1 (a)-, 1 sg. ind. aor. act. ea.
With verb stems ending in a resonant the sigma disappeared with compensa-
tory lengthening of the vowel preceding the resonant: the so-called pseudo-
sigmatic aorist. E.g. with dyyéAAw report (verb stem d&yyeA-): aorist stem
a&yyeiA(a)- (<*é&yyedoa-), 1 sg. ind. aor. act. hyyeiAa; with paives show (verb
stem pa&v-): aorist stem pnv(a)- (<*pa&voa-), 1 sg. ind. aor. act. Epnva.
- Thematic aorists: a group ofaorists is formed by adding a thematic vowel and
endingsdirectly to the aorist stem (normally identical to (a variant of) the verb
stem), which ends in a consonant. E.g. with AapPdaveo get, take (verb stem AnB-/
AGB-): aorist stem AGB-, 1 sg. ind. aor. act. -AaB-o-v; with Aeitre leave (verb stem
Aeitt-/Aoitr-/Aitr-): aorist stem Aitr-, 1 sg. ind. aor. act. -Artr-o-v.
Root aorists: a small numberofverbs hasaorists formed by directly adding endings
to the aorist stem, which always endsin a vowel. E.g. with y1yvaoKxe know, recognize
(verb stem yvo-): aorist stem yvo-, 1 sg. ind. aor.act. -yveo-v; with totapon come to
stand (verb stem otn-/ot&-): aorist stem otn-, 1 sg. ind. aor. act. -oTn-v.
Note 1: Thus sigmatic aorist stems are formed by an addition (-oa-) to the verb stem, while
in the case of both thematic and rootaorists, the stem is usually identical to (a variant of) the
verb stem. The difference between the latter two is that forms of the thematic aorist (stems
usually ending in a consonant) are formed using a thematic vowel, whereas root aorists
(which have stems ending in a vowel) are not: contrast e.g. -Aitt-o-v with é-yvo-v.
Note 2: Sigmatic aorists are often called first or weak aorists; thematic and rootaorists are
often called second or strong aorists. For these distinctions, see the section
On Terminologyat the start of this book.
13.2 The verbs SiSeop1 give, Ti@npr put, place and inui send,let go have a distinct conjuga-
tion in the aorist, mostly of the root type but with somepeculiarities. > 13.51-62.
13.3 Although most verbs have only onetypeofaorist, there are a few that have more than one, in some
cases with important distinctions of meaning. For these verbs, 13.63-4.
148 13.4 The Aorist: Active and Middle
Sigmatic (and Pseudo-Sigmatic) Aorists
Overview of Forms
13.4 Active forms:
verb stems end- verb stems verb stems end- verbstems verb stems
ing in1, vu ora ending ina,«, inginalabialor endingina ending ina
diphthong o or velar stop dental stop resonant
Tradeeducate tywdwhonour tpiPw rub Kopileo éryyéAeo report
stem troiSeuo(a)- stem tiyno(a)- stem tprw(a)- convey stem éryye1A(a)-
stem Kouto(a)-
ind. sg. 1 étraiSeuoa étipnoa ETpiya eKdUloa hyysetra
2 ETTAISEVOAS ETiunoas ETPIVAS EKOMIOOS hyyeas
3 étraiSeuoe(v) étiunoe(v) Etpiwe(v) éxduioe(v) tyyeiae(v)
pl. 1 ETTALSEVOEV ETIUTIOMHEV EeTpiyapEv EKOMIOOUEV thyysiAauev
2 ETTAISEVOATE ETIUTIOCTE eTpiyate EKOMIOATE hyyeidate
3 eTraidseuoav ETiunoav ETPIVAaV EKOLIOAV hyyéivav
subj. sg. 1 Tro1Sevow TINO Tpiwa KOUIow a&yyeiAe
2 Tradevons TIUNOT!S TpivT|s KOONS ayyeiAns
3 Traisevon TILTON Tpiyn KOUIOT| ayyeiAn
pl. 1 TIAISEVOCOEV TIUNOWHEV TpIyouEv KOPIOWPEV ayyeiAwpev
2 TIA1Sevonte TIUNONTE Tpiynte KOMIONTE ayyeiAnte
3 taiseuowor(v) TIUnowor(v) Tpiyworv) Kouloworv) a&yyeiAwon(v)
opt. sg. 1 TaLsevoalpl TIUNOAILL Tpiyort KOpioalpt ayyeira
2 TTAISEUOEIAS TIUNOELAS Tpiyeras KOMIOELAS ayysireias
3 TraiSevoeie(v)~ Tnoeie(v) Tpiweie(v) Kouioeie(v) eyyeiAie(v)
pl. 1 TIALSevoalpeEv TIUNOAILEY Tpiyaipev KopioaipeEev ayyeiAatpev
2 TA1SevoateE TIUNOAITE Tpivarte KOpioaiteE ayysiAarte
3 TIA1SEUCEIAY TIUNOELAV Tpiweiav KOpioElav ayysireiav
imp. sg. 2 Traidseuoov Tipnoov Tpiwov KOMIOOV ayyeldov
3 TrAISEvVoaTH TIUNOATW TPIYATw KOMIOATO ayyEelAato
pl. 2 Tralsevoate TIUNOATE Tpiyvate KOMIOATE ayyseiAate
3 TAISevoavTwv TIUNOAVTOV TPIYaVTOV KOMIOGVTOV ayyEeldavTav
inf. Tra1seGoat Tipfjoa Tpiyat Kopioal ayyeiAvat
ppl. masc. TAISEVOaS, TIUTN|OGS, Tpivas, Kouioas, ayysiAas,
-AVTOS -AVTOS -AVTOS -AVTOS -AVTOS
fem. Tralsevoaoa, TIUN|Oaoa, Tpiyaoa, Kovioaoa, ayyseiAagca,
-GOns -4ons -GOns -GOns -GOns

neut. Traldetoay, Tintjoay, Tpiyav, Kouioay, ayysiAay,
-AVTOS -AVTOS -AVTOS -AVTOS -AVTOS
1
Also -oais, e.g. Taidevoais, Tiptoais, etc.
* Also -om,e.g. tarSevoai, tpiyan, etc.
> Also -oanev, e.g. Traldevoaiev, ayyeiAaiey, etc.
13.5-7 Sigmatic (and Pseudo-Sigmatic) Aorists 149
13.5 Middle forms:
verb stems end- verbstemsend- verbstemsend- verb stems verb stems

ingini,vora ingina,z,oorn inginalabialor endingina ending ina
diphthong velar stop dental stop resonant
traideuw educate Tide honour tpipe rub Kouifw convey ayyéAAw report
stem tradevo(a)- stem tiyno(a)- stemtpiy(a)- stemxopio(a)- stem dyyeiA(a)-
ind. sg. 1 émodevodynv eTIUNOGUN ETPIVaLNY EKOMIOGUNY nhyyeiAaunv
2 étraldevow ETIUT]IOW ETpiwoo EKOMIOW tyyeiAw
3 étraSevoato ETIUT]OATO eTpivato EKOUIOaTO nyysiAato
pl. 1 éranSevodpeba eTIUNOapEBa ETpIpapEba EKOMIOGNEBa nyysirdcpeba
2 étraldevoaobe EeTIUTN|OAGE eTpipvaobe Exopioaode nyysiracte
3 étraSevoavto ETIUT|IOAVTO EeTpiyavTo EKOMIOAVTO nyysiAavto
subj. sg. 1 traidevowpan TIUNOWU Tpiyouat KOPIOWAL ayyeiAwpar
2 tradevon TIUTN|ON Tpiyn Kovion ayysiAn
3 taidsevontal TIUNONTAL Tpiyntar Kouiontal ayysiAnrat
pl. 1 toSevompeta TIUNO@pEBa Tpipapeta KoOUIOM@pEBa ayyeldapeta
2 tradevonose Tiunonove Tpiynode KopionoBe ayysiAnode
3. TraidevoovTar TIUNOWVTAL TpipywvTar KOMIOWVTAaL ayysiAwvtat
opt. sg. 1 mtraidevoaipny TiIunoaipny Tplyaipny Koploaiuny ayysiAaipny
2 Traidevoaio TIUNOaIO Tpiyaio Kopioalo ayysiAaio
3. TraidSeUoalTo TIUNOAITO Tpiyaito Kopioalto ayysiAaito
pl. 1 modevoaipeta Tipnoaipeta Tpipaipeta Koploaipeta ayysidaipeta
2 mTradevoaobe Tipnoaiobe Tpipaiobe Kopioaloe ayysidAaicbe
3. TaideUoalvTo TIUN|OaIVTO Tpipaivto KopioalvTto ayysiAaivto
imp. sg. 2 traidevoa Tipnoat Tpiyat KOMIOaL ayyelaAat
3 Traidevoccobw TILNTaoBw TpIpyaobw KOMIGaoa ayysiAaobw
pl. 2 mToisetoacbe TIunoaobe Tpipaote Kouloaode ayysidacbe
3 Traideuocobov TILNOaoBV TpIpaoFav KOLOaoPav ayysiAaobov
inf. Traldevoaoba1 TipnoaoGal Tpipacbal Kopioacba1 ayysiAacbai
ppl. masc. TTALSEVOGEVOS, TIUNOGUEVOS, TPIYauEVOS, KOULOQUEVOS, ayyElAauEvos,
-OU -OU -OU -OU -OU

fem. TTALSEVOQUEVN, TIUNOQUEVN, TPIWaHEVN, KOMIOQUEVT, ayyslAauevn,
TNS 1S TS 1S TNS
neut. TTA1SEVOGUEVOV, TIUNOGUEVOV, TPIyauEvoy, KOMIOGUEVOV, ayyelAduevoyv,
-OU -OU -OU -OU -OU
Sigma and Alpha
13.6 As the namesuggests, sigmatic (and pseudo-sigmatic) aorists feature a sigmain the
stem (thoughthis o has disappearedin the case ofpseudo-sigmatic aorists, 13.24).
13.7 In addition,nearlyall forms of the sigmatic aorist have an alpha. This & goes back to
an original 1 sg. ending *-m (final *-m changed to -& after consonants ( 1.86),
150 13.7-10 The Aorist: Active and Middle
e.g. &-5e1&-& < *é-5ei-m; it changed to -v after vowels, 1.73, contrast e.g.
E-AaB-o-v < *-o-m). The alpha was then generalized throughout the conjuga-
tion, so that sigmatic aorists in general may be recognized by the combination
o& (or merely & in the case of pseudo-sigmatic aorists): in essence, the alpha
has becomepart of the aorist stem. Note, however, that the alpha is absent in
the 3 sg. act. ind. (e.g. étraideuoe), the 2 sg. act. imp. (e.g. aiSeuoov), all aor.
subjunctives (e.g. 1 sg. mid. taiSevowpan), and some optative forms (e.g. 2 sg.
act. toidevoeias). Below, aorist stems are therefore given with the alpha
between parentheses.
Endings
13.8 The endings of (pseudo-)sigmatic aorists differ in some cases from thoselisted in
11.20-33, particularly in imperative, optative, and infinitive. They are detailed
below.
13.9 The aorist indicative, as a secondary (past-tense) indicative, is formed with the
augment ( 11.35). The endings per personare:
- The 1 sg. act. ind. ends in -a as described above ( 13.7): e.g. é-traiSeuca,
nyysia.
All other indicative forms add the regular secondary endings to the stem with
the alpha: e.g. 2 sg. act. ind. é-traiSeuoa-s, 1 pl. act. ind. hyyeiAa-pev, 1 sg. mid.
ind. é-traidevod-pny, 3 pl. mid. ind. jnyyeiAa-vto. The ending of3 pl. act. ind.is
-V, .8. -TAISEUTa-v.
However, in the 3 sg. act. ind. the alpha is not used; it ends in -e(v): e.g.
é-traiSeuo-e(v), tyyyetaA-e(v).
- Note the 2 sg. mid. ind., where the ending -cohaslost its o, and ao and o have
contracted:e.g. é-traiSevow (<*é-Traidevoa-(o)o).
Note 1: The 2 sg. mp. does not contract in Ionic, 25.6, 25.32.
Note 2: Note that the augmentis used only in indicatives (contrast e.g. 1 sg. act. ind. étatSeuoa
with 1 sg. act. subj. tro1Sevoo, inf. roidetoan).
13.10 Imperative:
the 2 sg. act. imp. does not have the alpha and endsin -ov: e.g. taideucov,
ayyelrov;
the 2 sg. mid. imp. endsin -an: e.g. traiSeuom, &yye1Aan;
all other imperative forms add regular imperative endings ( 11.29) after the
alpha: e.g. 3 sg. act. imp. déyyeiAd-Tw, 2 pl. imp. mid. ta1sevoa-oFe.
13.11 Aorist subjunctives do not have a. The long thematic vowelof the subjunctive and
primary endings are used. E.g. 1 pl. act. subj. toiSevo-w-pyev, 1 sg. mid. subj.
Tra1sevo-w-pa, 3 sg. mid. subj. dyyeiA-n-Ta1.
13.12 Aorist optatives use the optative suffix -1-, which forms a diphthong with the
preceding alpha of the stem ( 11.16); secondary endings are added ( 11.22-7).
E.g. 1 pl. act. opt. d&yyeidai-pev, 1 sg. mid. opt. traidevoai-unv. The 1 sg. act. opt.
uses the primary ending-1, e.g. ToiSevoai-m.
Morefrequent alternative formsexist for the 2 sg. act. opt. (tra1Sevoeias next to
Traisevoal-s), 3 sg. act. opt. (TraiSevoeie(v) next to taidevoa1) and 3 pl. act. opt.
(traiSevoeiav next to Traidevoat-ev).
13.13 Theactive infinitive ends in -cn: e.g. taidetoa1, &yyeiAan.

The middle infinitive ends in -o6a:: e.g. taldevoa-ofa, &yyeiAa-o8an.
Note 1: For differences in accentuation between different forms ending in -(o)a, 24.20
n.1.
13.14 Active participles add -vt- to the stem:e.g. gen. sg. masc. 1ra1Sevoa-vT-os, gen. sg.
fem. traidevodons (<*-o&vty-). For the entire declension, 5.17-18.
Middle participles add -yev- to the stem: e.g. nom. sg. masc. &yyelAd-pEv-os,
nom.sg. fem. &yyeiAa-pév-n. For the entire declension, 5.3-4.
Stem Formation of Sigmatic Aorists

Verb Stems Endingin 1, vu or a Diphthong
13.15 Verb stems endingin 1, u, or diphthongs stay unchangedbefore the added o. Some
examples:
verb verb stem aorist stem 1 sg. ind. inf.
xpiw anoint Xpl- xplo(a)- Eyploa Xpioal
KAU hinder KGOAU- K@AUO(a)- éxkoAuoa K@AUCO
taiw strike Tal- Taio(a)- ETATa Toical
Taue stop Tau- Tauo(a)- eTAUTa Tatcal
Taiseue educate traidev- Taisevo(a)- éetraissucoa traidetoai
&koue hear &Kko(u)(o)- &kouo(a)- NKOUCa é&Kovoal
Verb Stems Endingin «, « or o (or n or w)
13.16 With verb stems ending(in the present) in ¢, « or o (i.e. contract verbs), the aorist
stem is built on the long variant of the verb stem ( 11.11):
pres. stem e: aor. stem 7;
pres. stem & (or n): aor. stem n (but & after ¢, 1 or p);
pres. stem o: aor. stem w; a few verbs with a verb stem ending in w have
a similarly formed aorist.
Some examples:
verb verb stem aorist stem _1 sg. ind. inf.
toige make, do Troin-/Troig- Troino(a)- étroinoa Torjoal
tryéouan lead, consider hyyn-/tye- tyno(a)- fhynodunvy§ Hytjoaofar
Tinaw honour Tn -/T1pe- Tiuno(a)- étiunoa TIWoa1
KT&opa acquire KTN-/KTE- KTNO(a)- ékTnodunvy KtThoactar
Spaw do Spa-/Spa- Spao(a)- Spaca Spaoat
SnAdw makeclear SnAw-/SnAo- Sndwola)- etAwoa SnAdoat
Xptjouai use, need XPnN- xpno(a)- éypnodunv yproacta
TITPHOKwW wound TPW- Tepwo(a)- ETpwoa Tpdoal
13.17 Similarly, with -y: verbs that have variant verb stems ending in n/& ( 12.37-8),
the long variant of the verb stem is used:
iotnut makestand, set up otn-/oté- oTno(a)- gOTNOA OTijoa1
TivtAnut fill TAn-/TAG- TAno(a)- eTAnoa TARoa1
dvivnur benefit dvn-/dva- dvno(a)- avnoa dvijoai
13.18 Someverbsin -& and -éw that had a verb stem ending in o do not have a long vowelin the
aorist (the original o is visible in the Homeric/epic aorist in -ooa, and often in other tense
stems):
Zéw boil (verb stem Ze(o)-) aor. éleou (<#Zecoa, epic) inf. Céoor
TeAEw finish (verb stem teAe(c)-) aor. étéAcoa (<étéAcooa, epic) inf. teAéoo
yeA&w laugh (verb stem yeA&(o)-) aor. éyéA&oa (<éyéAt&ooa, epic) inf. yehioon
In somecases such verbsdid notoriginally have a stem in o, but were absorbedinto this type
by analogy ( 1.49), based on anepic aorist in -ooa:
KaAgow call (verb stem K&As-/KAn-) aor. éxdAeoa (éxdAcooa, epic) inf. kaAgoo
Verbs in -&vvumi and -évvupi also had a stem in o:
Kepavvuul mix (<*kepao-vuut) aor. éxéptoa (<éxép&ooa, epic) inf. kepioa

&uoi-évvumn Clothe (<*-%o-vupt) aor. nugicoa (<-éooa, epic) inf. &ugigoo
13.19 A few otherverbs have only a verb stem with a short vowel (and novariant with a long vowel);
these verbs thus have a short vowelin the aorist:
(étr)aivéoo praise (verb stem aive-) aor. fveon inf. aivéoo

&pxéow suffice (verb stem d&pxe-) aor. HpKeoa inf. &épxéoor
13.20 A few verbs in -&o and-éw that originally had a verb stem ending in ¢ (12.25, 12.29 n.1)
have an aorist in -auoa or -euoa, respectively:
Kaw (also kaic) set on fire (<*ké&fyw) aor. Exkavoa (<*Ekapoa) inf. katoo
TAEge sail (<*mAgfoo) aor. éAguoa (<*éAepoa) inf. tAeGoon
trvew blow (<*tvéfa) aor. érvevoa (<*énvefoa) inf. tvetoo
Verb Stems Ending in a Labial or Velar Stop
13.21 Verb stems endingin labial stop get an aorist stem in w(a) (11r/B/p + o = wy). Some
examples:
Téa send teptt-/Toptm- twenw(a)- emeypywa Tréuwan
tpiBw rub TpiB-/TpIP- Tpiy(a)- ETpIWa Tpiyat
ypape write YPaQ- yeay(a)- Eypaya -ypayan
Note especially verbs that have a present in -trtw ( 12.27):
BAdtrte harm, damage BA&Bp- BAaw(a)- EBAawa BAdwau

KpUTrTw hide KpUg-/KpUB- Kpuw(a)- Expuwa KeUWal
13.22 Verb stemsendingin velar stops get an aorist stem in &(a) (x/y/y + o = § ). Some
examples:
verb verb stem aorist stem 1sg.ind. inf.
Siakw chase S10K- SicE(a)- eSiwEa S1dEar
Atlyw cease Any- An (a)- gAnEa AnEaI
a&pxo rule, begin c&py- &p&(a)- nNpea &pEon
Note especially verbs that have a present in -tTw, and a few in -@w ( 12.27):
puAdtta guard QUAGK- purag(a)- epuAaga urdan
TATTOO array, appoint ToYy- Ta (a)- eTaba T&EaI
cipal groan oiuwy- OiuwE(a)- Hpwka oipaEar
And note that a number of -vupi verbs have verb stems ending in a velar stop
( 12.39). For example:
Seikvuul show Selk- Se1 (a)- e5e1 a SeiEar
Tthyvuul affix, fasten Ty-/taey- Tne(a)- eTrnga TEC
Verb Stems Ending in a Dental Stop
13.23 With verb stems ending in a dental stop (1/8/6), that dental stop disappears
before o in the aorist:
d&vutw complete é&vii(t)- é&vuo(a)- Avuoa é&vuoal
wevSouanlie weud- wevo(a)- éwevodunv wevoaoFat
TrelBw persuade qrei8-/tr018-/t1i8- tre10(a)- eTe1oa Teioal
Note especially verbs that have a present in -w, and a few in -ttw ( 12.27):
&pydloo/appdtta &pyod-/&pyot- apyoo(a)- fhpyooa &pydoar
fit together
AoyiZouai count Aoyid- Aoyia(a)- éAoyiodunv AoyicacFar
Kopileo convey KOUTO- Koulo(a)- ekdplon KOUIoOL
vouileo believe VOUS - voulo(a)- évduica vouioat
éogTTw TOW épeT- gpeo(a)- tpeoa épgoal
TAdTT mould TAGE- TAao(a)- eTAAoa TAGCAL
The Pseudo-Sigmatic Aorist - Verb Stems Ending in a Resonant
13.24 With verb stems ending in a resonant(nasal (p,v) or liquid (A, p)) consonant, the
sigmaof the aorist has disappeared (hence the term pseudo-sigmatic aorist); the
alpha remains. The disappearance of the sigma led to compensatory lengthening
of the vowel preceding the resonant.
E.g. with paivew show (verb stem gnv-/pav-): 1 sg. aor. act. ind. épnva (<*%pava
<*?-p&v-oa), aor. act. inf. pfjvan (<*pav-oan).
E.g. with &yyéAAw report (verb stem dyyed-): 1 sg. aor. act. ind. fyyetda
(<*tyyedA-oa), aor. act. inf. &yyeiAai (<*ayyéA-oan).
Some other examples:
yeveo stay, (a) wait UEv- ueiv(ar)- EMELVOL UEIvar
véuw deal out Veu- vei(a)- EVEIUO VEIL
Séuw build OEU- Seiu(a)- ESEIUA SETH
Note especially verbs that have a present in -AAw or in -aivw/-aipw, -eiveo/-eipoo,

-ivw/-Ipo, -Uveo/-Upo (12.28):
oTéAAw dispatch oteA-/oTGA- oTElA(a)- EOTELA oteiAat
opdArw cause to stumble oQaA- oonr(a)- EoonAa ogra
é&tro-Kteive kill Ktev-/Ktov-/KT&v- KTE1v(a)- CQTT-EKTELVO QTTrOKTEIVa
Ulaives stain UIav- u1av(a)- Euiava Iavar
Kabaipw cleanse Katap- Kadnp(a)- exabnpa KadTpar
&puveo defend, QuUUv- é&uuv(a)- TWUVa Guuvar
SUCCOUr
Kpive decide, judge Kpi(v)- Kptv(a)- EKPIVa Kpivat
But note:
aipoo lift ap- (<*dep-) &p(a)- pa &par

13.25-7 Thematic Aorists 155
13.25 The present stem of these verbs is often different from the verb stem as well, usually due to the
disappearanceofy. In somecases, the present andaorist have the same vowelasa result,e.g. with
verb stem xtev-, pres. &troxteive (<*&troxtév-yoo), aor. &tréktewa (<*dtréextev-oa): > 1.68-9.
As a result, the 3 sg. impf. act. and 3 sg.aor. act. ind. of some verbs maybeidentical: cf. e.g.
impf. é&créxteie (<*é&cr-é-Ktev-ye) with aor. &tréxtetve (<*écr-é-KTEV-o8).
13.26 This type of stem is sometimescalled sigmatic aorist improper , or liquid first aorist .
Thematic Aorists
Overview of Forms
13.27 Active forms:
regular forms EX gipw (mixed thematic/ a-conjugation)

AapPdveo get, take have, hold carry, bring
stem A&B- stem ox- stem éveyK(a)-
ind. sg. 1 EAaBov EOXOV iWveykov Or tveyKa
2 EAaBes EOXES TWeykas
3 ZAaBe(v) Eoye(v) iweyke(v)
pl. 1 EAGBouev EOKOUEV TWeykapev
2 éAaBeTe EOXETE TWeyKate
3 EAaBov EOKOV TWeyKav
subj. sg. 1 AdPo oxe eveyKO
2 AaBns oxtis eveyknis
3 AaBn oxi EVvEyKT|
pl. 1 AdPoauev oXGpev EVEYKOOEV
2 AaBnte oxi\Tte EVEYKT|TE
3 AéBwor(v) oxaoi(v) évéyKwor(v)
opt. sg. 1 A&Boit oxoinu EVEYKOI
2 AaBois oxoins éveyKols OF EveyKas
3 A&Bo1 oxoin évéyKol OF éveyKal
pl. 1 Ad&Boipev oXoipEv EveyKOIeEV OF EVEYKAILEV
2 AaBorte OXOITE EVEYKITE
3 AaBotev oxoiev évéyKolev Or EveyKalev
imp. sg. 2 AaBe OXES EVEYKE
3 AaBeToo OXETO EVEYKATO
pl. 2 Adete OXETE EVEYKATE
3 AaBovtav OXOVTOV EVEYKAVTOV
inf. AoPeiv oxeiv éveykelv
ppl. masc. AaBoov, -OvTos OXOV, -OVTOS EVEYKOV, -OVTOS OF EVEYKAS, -AVTOS
fem. AaBotioa, -ovonss oxovoag, -ovons EVEYKOUOG, -OUOTS OF EvVEyKaoG, -AaonsS
neut. AaBov, -ovTos OXOV, -OVTOS EVEYKOV, -OVTOS OF EVEYKQV, -AVTOS
13.28 Middle forms:
regular forms gipw (a-conjugation)

AapPé&veo get, take carry, bring
stem A&B- stem éveyx(a)-
ind. sg. 1 éAaBounv fWweyKaunv

2 eAaBou TWVEYKw
3 EAGBETO T\VEYKATO
pl. 1 EAaBopEeba fweyKdepesa
2 eAaBeode TyeyKaode
3 EAGBovTO TWEyKavTo
subj. sg. 1 AdBoyar EveyKOUOI
2 Aabn eveykT]
3 AaBntai EVEYKTTAl
pl. 1 AoPaopeba eveykKouEta
2 AaPnote eveyknove
3 AaBovtai EVEYKOVTAL
opt. sg. 1 AaBoipny éveykalunv
2 AaBoto EVEYKALO
3 AaBorto EveyKAITO
pl. 1 AaBoipeta éveykaipetax
2 AaBorode évéyKatode
3 AaBowto EveKALVTO
imp. Sg. 2 AaBot eveykou
3 AaBEoboo eveykKaodw
pl. 2 Ad&Peobe éveyKkaove
3 AaBeobav eveyKaobuv
inf. AaPEoBan évéykaobat
ppl. masc. AaBdoueEvos, -ou EVEYKGUEVOS, -OU
fem. AaBouevn, -T)5 eveyKauevn, -15
neut. AaBouEevov, -ou EVEYKOUEVOV, -OU
Stems and Endings
13.29 The aorist stem ofverbs with a thematic aorist is always different from the present
stem, in three possible ways:
because it has a different variant of the verb stem from the present: e.g. with
Agitreo (verb stem Aeitr-/Aoitr-/Aitr-): aorist stem Aitr-;
because the present stem is the result of changes/additions to the verb stem
( 12.30): e.g. with AopBaveo (verb stem AnB-/AGB-): aorist stem AGB-;
in somecases because an entirely different verb stem is used for the aorist than for
the present (suppletive verbs, > 11.13): e.g. with aipgw (verb stem aipn-/aipe-, éA-):
aorist stem £A-.
13.30 The endings and thematic vowels used are those listed in 11.18-34, and are thus
exactly the same as those used with the present system of -w verbs ( 12.3-13).
Note that the aorist indicative, a past tense, uses secondary endings(these are thus
the sameas those of the imperfect of -« verbs).
E.g. AopBdvoo: act: ind. zAaBov (cf. impf. ZAdpuBavov), opt. AdBon (pres. opt.
AouBadvoipt), imp. AaBé (pres. imp. AduRave), ppl. AaBoov (pres. ppl. AapBaveov), etc.
Note 1: Since the endings of thematic aorists are identical to those of the present
system of -w verbs, the only difference between present and aorist forms of these verbs
is in the stem used; this is sometimes only a small difference. Contrast e.g. 1 sg. impf.
act. éAertrov with 1 sg. aor. act. ind. gArrov, and pres. act. inf. Agitrer with aor. act. inf.
Aitreiv, etc.
Note 2: For differences in accentuation between thematic aorist forms and present-stem
participles and infinitives (e.g. aor. act. inf. Aitreiv vs. pres. act. inf. Aeitretv), 24.20. For the
accentuation of imperatives such as Aafé and éveyxot, 24.17.
Trregular Forms
13.31 The verb @xw have, hold has someirregular formsin the aorist (built on the stem
oy-): 2 sg. aor. act. imp. oy-é-s, and sg. aor. opt. oy-oin-v, ox-oin-s, ox-oin.
13.32 Several verbs with a thematic aorist nonetheless have forms with « (analogousto
the sigmatic aorist) in their conjugations:
- The aorist of pépw carry, bring formed with stem éveyx-, has a mixed thematic/
a-conjugation; « predominates, particularly in the middle. E.g. 3 pl. aor. act. ind.
ieyxay, | sg. aor. act. opt. évéyKou, etc. See the overview of forms, > 13.27-28.
- In the aorist of A¢yw say, speak, formed with stem sitr-, several forms with a are
found alongside thematic ones. Alongside eitrov, citres and imp.eitrétoo,eitreTe
also occur: eitra, eitras, eitratw and citrate. In Herodotus also alongside inf.
eitreitv and ppl. eitresv: inf. citron, ppl. eitras, -avtos. Over time, the a-formsof this
aorist gradually replaced the thematic ones.
In addition, the verb yéw pour has sg. aor. act. ind. yea, with (in compound formsonly)
inf. -yéo, 3 sg. aor. imp. -xekto, etc. (These forms derive from a stem *yer-, e.g. Eyeo
<*éyer-m, cf. Homeric éxeua).
Note 1: For other aorists with an a-conjugation, e.g. émpidunv, émtdunv, 13.50.
The difference with such aorists - root aorists is that the a in étpiduny, etc., is
(considered to be) part of the stem, and used consistently throughout the conjugation.
The Most Common Thematic Aorists

Verbs with Vowel Variations between the Present and Aorist Stems
13.33 A number of verbs show different ablaut grades ( 1.51-6) in the present and
thematic aorist stems (the zero-grade is normally usedin the aorist):
Etrouan follow ett-/omr- oTt- EoTTOUNY oreoban
Eye have, hold éy-/ox- ox- EoXOV oxeiv
Acittw leave Aeitt-/Aoin-/Aitt- Artr- EALTTOV Autreiv
treiBopan believe, obey qrei8-/troi8-/ari8- 8- émiddunv tridgcban
Tpétrouar turn around (intr.) tpett-/tpott-/Tpatt- tpaTr- éTpaTréunv tpatréo@ai
pevyw flee peuy-/puy- ouy- Epuyov guyEilv
13.34 But several verbs with a reduplicated present stem have the zero-grade in the
present stem, and normal e-gradein the aorist stem:
yi-yv-opoi become, be born yev(n)-/yov-/yv- yev- éyevounv yevéotai
tixtw give birth (<*ti-tK-w) teK-/toK-/TK- TEK- eTEKOV TEKETV
ti-tt-w fall teo-/rt(w)- TES- e1regov sTLEGEV
Other Differences between the Present and Aorist Stems
13.35 Several presents formed with a nasal infix ( 12.30) have thematic aorists:
Verbs ending in -&ve/-&vopat:
aioPavopual perceive aia®8- aiog- notouny aioteobar
AUapTaved Miss, err Quapt- AUAPT- TUapTOV apyapTeiv
étr-ex8dvouaincur hatred 28- éy@- atnyGdunv acreybéoGai
Aayxave obtain by lot Anyx-/Aa&y- Aax- EAov Aayeiv
AayuBdaveo get, take AnB-/AGB- AaP- eAaBov AaPeiv
Aavedve go unnoticed An8-/AGB- Aad- gAaBov Aabeiv
uavédve learn, understand wae- ua- guatov uaeiv
Tuv@dvoyar inquire, learn trev®-/Tr@- trué- étru@dunv tuégcbat
tTuyxave hit upon, happen to tevy-/tuy- Tuy- ETUXOV TUXEIV
- Otherverbs with a nasal infix:
Kauve toil, be sick KoU-/KUN- KaU- EKAUOV KQUEIV
tives drink to-/to-/ Ti- ETT1OV T1eiv
1-/tri-
Téuved cut Teu-/Tun- TEL ETEUOV TEMEIV
AMIKVEONAL Arrive 1K- 1K- AQ-1KOUNVY daop-1KEoal
13.36 A few verbs whosepresent stem is formed with the suffix -(1)o«- have thematicaorists:
é&tro-8vtjoKe/ 8av-/Ovn- Bav- a&tré-Bavov d&ro-
-OvtjoKw die Baveiv
BAwoKw come HoA-/(u)BAc- UoA- #uoAov UoAsiv
eupioxw find eup- eup- nUpov eupeiv
TACK suffer trev@-/trové-/T&8- Trad- etrafov traéeiv
( 1.96)
13.37 Twoverbs show otherdifferences between the present and aorist stems:
&yw lead, bring &y- &yay- (11.50) fyayov ayayeiv
BdAAw throw, hit Baa-/BAn- BaA- EBaAov BaAsiv
( 1.78)
Suppletive Verbs
13.38 Finally, a numberof verbs have an aorist stem built on an entirely different verb
stem from the present stem:
aipéw take aipn-/aipe-, gA- éA- eiAov éAciv
Epxouat go, come épy-, éAeuO-/2A(U)8-, ei-/t- 2A8- NABov éA0eiv
gpwTdaw ask ép-, EpwTn-/épwta- ép- Npounv épéofon
godin eat EoOl-, pa&y-, E5e-/ 50-/ 5- pay- Epayov gayeiv
Aéyw say, speak Aey-/Aoy-, eitt-, ép-/Pn- _ eitr- but eitrov/ eitreiv/
also: AcE(a)- eAcEa AgEan
dpa see 6pa-, 18-, dtr- i8- eiSov iSeiv
TpEXw run TpeX-, SPGyu- Spayu- eSpayov Spaueiv
pépw carry, bring gep-, évex-/évox-/éyk-, éveyk- (13.28) fweyKov éveyxeiv
OiT-
Note 1: Observe that the aorist stem of A¢yo is eitr- (cf. inf. citretv). In the ind. citrov the
augmenthasbeen absorbedinto the opening diphthong. The «1 in eiSov (aor. with dépde) and
eiAov (aor. with aipgw), however,is different from the stemsi8- (cf. inf. iSeiv) and éA- (cf. inf.
éAciv), due to augment é- ( 11.40).
Note 2: Of the two aorists of A¢yw say, speak, cittov is more common, while éAeEa is in the
classical period used especially in contexts in which its proper meaning argue, explain has
some force (e.g. in the introductions of long directly reported speeches).
In compoundverbs the difference between the two aorists is more marked. Compounds
with -AeEa typically belong to A¢yw in its meaning gather, whereas compounds with -eitrov
have meaningsrelated to say, speak. Compoundswith the same prefix correspondto different
presents: aorists with -citrov are suppletive to presents with -oyopevw or -gnui. For instance:
&tréAcEax with dtroAgyw pick out d&treittov with dtayopetw forbid

e eAcea with éxAéyw pick out é elTrov with é&ayopetw declare, make known
KatéAegax with katoAgyw reckon (mid. Kateitrov with katayopetw denounce, speak
draw up list) against
ouvéAcga with ouvArgyw collect ouveittov with ouvayopeto/ouponut agree,
speak in support of
For other verbs with more than one type of aorist, > 13.63.
Root Aorists
Overview of Forms
13.39 The conjugation of root aorists is as follows:
stems ending inn stem ending in « stemsendinginw stems ending in

lotapat come to &crro-315pdcoKw yltyvookw know, Suoyar
stand run away recognize dive
aorist stem otn- aorist stem dpa- aorist stem yvw- aorist stem du-
ind. sg. 1 éotnv a&tt-E5pav Eyvoov e5uv

2 EOTNS ar- 5pas5 EYVOS ESUS
3 EOTN ar- 5pa EYVOO Edu
pl 1 EOTTNMEV atr-é5papev EYVOOMEV edUUEV
2 EOTNTE am-e5pate EYVOOTE ESUTE
3 goTNOav am-eS5pacav EyYVaoav ESt00aV
subj. sg. 1 o1T& &t10-8pa yva Sua
2 otitis GTt0-5pas yas Suns
3 oti &tr0-5p& yve Sun
pl. 1 otépev é&tr0-Spauev yvapev SUUEV
2 ~ sotijte &1ro-Spate yvate Sunte
3 =otdor(v) &110-Spao1(v) yvaoi(v) Suwot(v)
opt. sg. 1 oTainv atro-Spainu yvoinv
2 oTains atro-Spains yvoins
3 oTain atro-Spain yvoin
pl 1 oTaipev &1r0-Spoipev yvoiuev
2 otoite atro-dpaite yvoite
3 oTaiev ar0-Spatiev yvoiev
imp. sg. 2 oti ard6-Spah yvabr Suet
3. othTo &1r0-Spatw YVOTO SUTO
pl. 2 otijte &116-5pate yvate Site
3. oTdvTwV &tr0-Spavtov yvdvtov SUvTov
inf. OTivan é&tr0-Sp&van yvaevan Sivan
ppl. masc. OTS, -AVTOS a&r0-Spas, -avtos yvous, -OvTos SUs, -UvTOS
fem. oT&oa, -Gons &tr0-Spaoa, -Gons yvotioa, -ovons Stioa, -Uons
neut. OT&V, -AVTOS a&tr0-Spav, -avtos yvdv, -dvTos Suv, -UvToOS
1
Also -inuev, e.g. otainuev, atroSpainuev.
* Also-inte, e.g. otainte, yvointe.
> Also yvoinaavy.
13.40-1 Root Aorists 161
Stems
13.40 The aorist stem of verbs with a root aorist is always an unelaborated verbal root
( 23.2 with n.3), usually different from the present stem,in one of three ways:
because a different variant of the verb stem is selected: e.g. with Baiveo go, walk
(verb stem Bn-/P&(v)-), aorist stem Bn-;
or because the present stem is the result of changes/additions to the verb stem
( 12.25): e.g. with yryvaokw know, recognize (verb stem yvw-), aorist stem yvo-;
or, in one case, because an entirely different verb stem is used for the aorist than
for the present(a suppletive verb, 11.13): Cw live (verb stem Zn-), aorist stem
Biw- (verb stem Biw-).
With Suoumdive (verb stem 5U-/85v-) the present stem and aorist stem differ only
in vowel length (Svopai vs. 25Gv); with puoucn grow (verb stem gi-), the aorist and
present stemsare identical (9v-).
13.41 Only a handful of verbs have a root aorist. Their stems endeitherin n (& after p), u,
or w. The most frequent verbs and their stemsare:
Stems ending in n (-&):
verb verb stem _aorist stem 1 sg. ind. inf.
lotauor come to stand otn-/oTGa- oTn- EOTTV OTTVval
&tro-818paoKw run away pa- Spa- é&tr-g5pav &tr0-Spa&von
Baives go, walk By-/B&(v)- Bn- EBnv Bivan
(tAdw) endure, dare to TAn-/TAG- TAN- eTAnv TAFVal
- Stems endingin w:
G&Aioxoyar be captured &A(w)- d&Aw- EdAcwv/hAwy dAdvor
yiyvaocke know, yvo- yvoo- Eyvoov yvavai
recognize
Cilive Cn-,Biw- Riw- éBioov Biddvon
Stems endingin v:
Stiouai dive 8u-/80- Su- gSuv Sivai
puopal grow QuU- QuU- Zpuv puvai
Note 1: For a few other, muchless frequent root aorists, e.g. ZoBnv (oPévvupan go out, be
quenched), EpOnv (pave befirst), 22.9.
Note that ZoBnv is not exactly conjugated as Zotny, particularly in the opt. and ppl. (opt.:
oPeiny,etc.; ppl. oBeis, etc.; the n of the stem does not derive from &, but is the long variantof¢).
Note 2: For aor. étrpicunv (suppletive with avéouo buy), 413.50.
Endings
13.42 The endings used in the conjugation of root aorists are those detailed in 11.20-33.
Note that no thematic vowel is used in conjugating the root aorist. The following
additional points should be noted.
13.43 Indicative: formed with the augment and secondary endings. The 3 pl. endingis
-oav. E.g. -Bn-v, -Br-s, é-Bn, -Bn-pev, -By-Te, é-Bn-oov.
13.44 Subjunctive: with aorist stems ending in a, n or w (but not u), the subjunctive
endings have contracted with the preceding vowel, e.g. 1 sg. B& (<*Br-o), 2 sg. Bris
(<*Br-ns5); 1 sg. d&tro-5pe& (<*5pa-w), 2 sg. Spas (<*5pa-n5); 1 sg. yd (<*yvo-o),
2 sg. yvas (<*yve-ns); but S0-a, 50-75, etc.
13.45 Optative: formed in the singular with optative suffix -1n-, in the plural with
optative suffix -1-. The iota forms a diphthong with a shortened stem vowel
( 1.70 n.1). Secondary endings are used: e.g. 1 sg. Bain-v, 1 pl. Boi-pev; 1 sg.
yvoin-v, 1 pl. yvoi-pev; etc.
However,in the plural, alternative forms with optative suffix -m- are found,e.g.
1 pl. Bain-pev, 2 pl. yvoin-te.
Note 1: The optative of stems ending in u appears not to occur, but 12.50 n.2.
13.46 Imperative: the 2 sg. imp. endsin -®1: e.g. Bij-61, yvd-1, 50-81. Note that the vowel
of the stem is shortenedin the 3 pl. imp.: e.g. B&-vtav, yvd-vtwv, 5U-vTav ( 1.70).
13.47 The infinitive ends in -vou: e.g. Bij-von, dTroSpa-van, pv-van.
13.48 In the participle the long stem vowelis shortened before -vt- ( 1.70): e.g. gen.
sg. masc. B&-vt-os, gen. sg. fem. Baons (<*Bavty-); gen. sg. masc. yvd-vT-os,
nom.sg. masc. yvous (<*yvovts). For the entire declension, 5.17-18.
13.49 Apart from the verbs 8181, ti@np, and inu (treated below, -13.51-2) and étpiduny,
érrté&unv ( 13.50), root aorists use only active endings. Note, however, that the root aorists
Eotny, 5uv and épuv go with the middle (senses of the) verbs iotapya, 5Uouan and gvouon(for
details, 13.64), respectively, and that éxAwv goes with middle-only éAioxopa. For such voice
distinctions more generally, 35.
13.50 A root aorist with only middle formsis étrp1&pnyv, suppletive aorist with the verb avéoucn buy:
e.g. 1 sg. ind. étrpiduny, 2 sg. ind. étrpiw; 1 sg. subj. teiwpon, 1 sg. opt. tpiaiuny, inf. teiacton,
nom. sg. masc. ppl. meidpevos. Note 2 sg. imp. trpiw (<*trpiaco).
Similarly, the verb tétoyafly has a middle root aorist é1té&unv, next to a thematic aor.
értéunv, as well as a rare (active) root aorist é1tnv.
13.51 SiScoui, Tn. and in 163
Sideu1, TIONand inut
Overview of Forms
13.51 Active forms:
Sidept TiOnpt inp

give put, place send, let go
stem 50-/50- stem 6n-/6¢- stem 7)-/é-
ind. sg. 1 ESWKa eOnka Ka

2 ES@KAS eOrKas kas
3 Z5eoxe(v) g6nke(v) AKe(v)
pl. 1 EOOUEV e@euev eiuev
2 Z50TE Oete cite
3 Z5000v £eoav eioav
subj. sg. 1 5a 869 oO
2 5a3¢ Of\s fs
3 8 en i
pl 61 S@pev OdpEv GOMEV
2 S@TE O7\TE TyTE
3 Sdo1(v) 8d01(v) aoi(v)
opt. sg. 1 Soinv Beinv einv
2 Soins Beings eins
3 Soin Gein ein
pl. 1 Soipev Gcipev- eluev"
2 Soite Ocite cite
3 Sotev® Ociev® elev
imp. sg. 2 50s BEs ES
3 SOTHO BETO ETO
pl 2 SOTeE Oéte ETE
3 SOVvTwV BEVTOV EVTOOV
inf. Sotvai Gcivon eivat
ppl. masc. Sous, -dvTOS Beis, -EvTOS gis, EvTOS
fem. Sotioa, -ouons Beioa, -eions eioa, clons
neut. SOv, -OVTOS Bev, -EVTOS EV, EVTOS
Also -xaupev, e.g. GaKapev, 20t)}Kapev.
=
Also, -xate, e.g. 2akate, fKaTE.

NH
W
Also -xayv,e.g. Z6nKkav, AKav.

Also -inuev, e.g. Soinuev, Geinuev.
F
nN
Also -inte, e.g. Sointe, Geinte.

Also -inoay,e.g. Soinaoay, einoav.
Dn
13.52. Middle forms:
Sidwut Ti6HeI Inu

give put, place send, let go
stem 8w-/80- stem 6n-/@- stem 1-/é-
ind. sg. 1 éd6unv eGéunv eiunv

2 e50u eBou Eico
3 E50TO eGeTo eiTo
pl. 1 é5ducba eGéucba eiueba
2 e5000¢ eGcoGe ciofe
3 E50vTO e@evTo eivTo
subj. sg. 1 Sapa 8a100 COMA
2 8 ef A
3 SOTaL OTOL HTa1
pl. 1 Sapueta Papyeba Gueta
2 SoG Ofjo8e node
3 SOvTal GOvTar @VTAL
opt. sg. 1 Soiunv Geiunv elunyv
2 Soio Gcio gio
3 Soito Gcito eiTo
pl. 1 Soipeba Geiveba eiueba
2 SoioGe Gciobe ciofe
3 SoivTo Gcivto eivTo
imp. sg. 2 Sou Got ou
3 d008w BéoBw Eo8w
pl. 2 Sd08¢ Ge00e Eode
3 S00Gav BéoCav EoBuwv
inf. Sd08a1 Géo8a1 EoOat
ppl. masc. SOMEVOS, -OU BEUEVvoS, -OU EMEVOS, -OU
fem. Souevn, -75 Beyevn, -1S éuévn, -15
neut. OOMEVOV, -OU GEUEVOV, -OU EUEVOV, -OU
Stems
13.53 The verbs SiSep1 give (verb stem Sw-/50-), TiGnur put, place (verb stem 6n-/#¢-)
and inur send, let go (verb stem 7)-/é-) have a distinct conjugation in the aorist:
- Most formsare built on the short variant of the (unelaborated) verb stem, and
follow the root aorist pattern.
However, a numberare built on the long variant of the stem, and formed
differently.
13.54-8 8SiScoui, TiGnur and in 165
13.54 Observe that these verbs have a middle conjugation in addition to an active one (unlike the
root aorists treated above).
13.55 In prose, the verb tifnu occurs most often in compoundforms(itrotién, etc.), the verb inu
almost exclusively: their corresponding root aorists, accordingly, also occur most often in
compounds.
Endings
13.56 In the indicative:
The singular formsofthe activeare built on the long form ofthe stem (8w-/@n-/7-),
and followed by a kappa and alpha-endings-a, -as, -¢(v): -8w-xKa, &-50-Kas,
-Sw-Ke(v); -8n-Ka, -On-Kas, é-On-Ke(v); H-Ka, N-Kas, T-KE(v).
- The plural formsof the active andall forms of the middle are built on the short
form of the stem (S0-/@¢-/é-), and are formed like root aorists, e.g. 1 pl. act.
é-50-pev, 1 sg. mid. é-86-pny, 1 pl. mid. é-86-peGa; 1 pl. act. é-@e-pev, 1 sg. mid.
é-Gé-uny, 1 pl. mid. é-6¢-yeba; 1 pl. act. ei-pev, 1 sg. mid. ef-uny, 1 pl. mid. ci-peba.
However, alternative kappa/alpha-forms are sometimes found for these latter
formsas well, e.g. 2-8c-Kapev, -8n-Kav,t\-KavTo.
- The second singular middle indicative has lost the o of the ending -oo
( 1.83), and the forms have contracted, in the case of ou (<*é-80-(a)o)
and é@ou (<*é-@e-(o)o), but notin eigo.
Note 1: Observethe different results of augment + stem with inu: sg. Axa (<*é-(y)n-Ka) and
eiuev (<*é-(y)e-yev): 411.40.
13.57 The subjunctive endings contract with the preceding long vowel, sometimes
after quantitative metathesis ( 1.71): e.g. 1 sg. act. 84 (<*8a-w), 2 sg. act. 545
(<*8e-75), 1 sg. mid. Spor (<*8a-w-par); 1 sg. act. @ (<éw <*i-w), 2 sg. act. ts
(<*#-75), 1 sg. mid. cpon (<éwopar <*f-«-pa).
13.58 Optatives are formed with optative suffix -in- in the singular, with optative suffix -1-
in the plural and all middle forms. The iota forms a diphthong with the preceding
short stem vowel. Secondary endingsare used. E.g. 1 sg. act. Soin-v, 1 pl. act. Soi-pev,
1 sg. mid. Soi-unv; 1 sg. act. Gein-v, 1 pl. act. Gei-yev, 1 sg. mid. Bei-pnv.
In the first- and second-person plural active, alternative forms with optative
sufhx -in- are found,e.g. 1 pl. @ein-yev, 2 pl. Gein-te. See the overview of forms,
13.51.
Note1: Isolated thematic optative formsof these verbs occasionally occur,e.g. 1tpootto (3 sg.
aor. mid. opt. of tpoinui sendforth), ém@oivto (3 pl. aor. mid. opt. of émiti@nut put, place on).
13.59 The subjunctive and optative forms differ from the corresponding forms of the present
( 12.49-50) only by the absence of the present reduplication: compare 2 pl. act. subj. Sate,
Of\Te, He with present 51SHte, T187\TE, ifjte; 3 sg. mid. opt. Soito, BeiTo, cito with present S1S0iTo,
T10ciTO, isitTo.
13.60 The imperativeis built on the short variant of the stem. The secondsingularactive
imperative endsin -s: 86-s, @ -s, é-s.
In all three verbs, the second singular middle imperative lost the o of its ending
-oo ( 1.83), and the form has contracted: S00 (<*86-(c)o), 800 (<*8é-(o)o), ot
(<*£-(c)o).
13.61 The active infinitive is built on the short variant of the stem, and endsin -evoan, the
e of which contracts with the preceding short vowel: Sova(<*86-evar), Geivan,
Elva.
The middle infinitive ends in -o@ca1 as normal: 54-c@a1, §¢-o8au, ¢-ofa1.
13.62 Active participles use the short variant of the stem before the suffix -vt-: e.g. gen.
sg. masc. 8é-vT-os, gen. sg. fem. Seions (<*#evty-); gen. sg. masc. é-vT-os, Nom.sg.
masc.eis (<*évts). For the entire declension, 5.17-18.
Middle participles also use the short variant of the stem before -pev-: e.g.
nom.sg. masc. -yev-os, nom.sg. fem. Ge-yév-n, NOM. sg. Masc. é-pEv-os, NOM.sg.
fem. é-yév-n. For the entire declension, 5.3-4.
Verbs with More Than One Typeof Aorist

13.63 Most verbs have only one type ofaorist, but there are a few exceptions. Typically
the different types of aorist are built on different variants of the verb stem or
different verb stemsaltogether (suppletion, 11.13):
verb verb stem aorists
gpwtdw ask ép-,épwitny-/épwta- sigm.: Ap~HTHoa them.: (mid.) jApdynv
AEyw say Aey-/Aoy-, eitt-, p-/ sigm.: éAeEa them.: citrov (also eitra,
én- 13.32)
(dtro)kteivan Tev-/KTov-/KT&v- -pseudo-sigm.: them.: @xtavov(in poetry)
kill (ctr)éxtewa
Tpétw turn tpett-/tpot-/tpat- sigm.:étpeya them.: étpatrov(in
poetry)
Tretopat fly wet-/t1t-/1T(&)- them.: értéunv root: étrt&uny/enthy
13.64 In several othercases, different aorist stems also representa significant difference
of meaning, especially in the middle (for such differences of voice, 35, and
13.64 Verbs With More Than One Type of Aorist 167
observe that similar meanings are also often expressed by @n-/n-aorists; for fuller
details on these individual verbs, 22.9):
Sue submerge (verb stem 8u-/8v-)
with act. 8a sigmatic aor. (act.) uoa: submerged X
with mp. Suopar dive root aor. é5uv: dived
éyeipw wake, rouse (verb stem éyep-/éyop-/éyp-)
with act. éyeipw pseudo-sigmatic aor. (act.) 7jyeipa: woke X
with mp. éyeipoyon wake up thematic aor. (mid.) tTyypéunv: woke up
(also nyép8nv, 35.17 with n.2)
totnut make stand, set up (verb stem otn-/ot&-)
with act. fotnut sigmatic aor. (act.) Zotnoa: made X to stand
with mp. iotapon come to root aor. ~otnv: came to stand, stoodstill
stand
Trel8e persuade (verb stem trei8-/tro18-/Tri8--)
with act. treiGc sigmatic aor. (act.) éteioa: persuaded
with mp. treifopucn believe, thematic aor. (mid.) ém@dpnv: believed,
obey obeyed(also @n-aor. étreio8nv, 35.19 with
n.1)
tpétre turn (verb stem tpett-/tpotr-/tpa&tr-)
with act. Tpétre sigmatic/thematic aor. (act.) étpewa/étpatrov:
turned X
with mp. tpétropan turn thematic aor. (mid.) étpatréunv: turned
around(intr.) around(also étp&trnv/étpépOnv, 35.17
with n.2)
puw cause to grow (verb stem v-)
with act. pu sigmatic aor. (act.) puca: caused X to grow
with mp. gvouon grow (up) root aor. épuv: grew (up), was born
14
The Aorist: Passive (6n-/n-)
Types of Aorist Passive Stem

14.1 There are two types of stem which are commonlycalled aorist passive :
stems formed by adding the suffix -@n- to the verb stem, e.g. with tadetw
educate (verb stem traideu-), aor. pass. stem traidev8n-; with Seixkvupn show (verb
stem Se1k-), aor. pass. stem Se1x8n- (for x8, 14.19 below);
stems formed by addingthe suffix -n- to the verb stem,e.g. with ypdqw write
(verb stem yp&q-), aor. pass. stem ypagn-; with BAdtrtw harm, damage (verb
stem BAGB-), aor. pass. stem BAaBn-.
The commonelementofboth stems,then,is the vowel n. Most verbs have only one
of the two stems, andtheaorist in -@n- is the much more commonone. Someverbs
have both stems: e.g. with paiva show (verb stem onv-/pav-), pavOn- and gavn-.
Note 1: The passive aorist has passive meaning only whenit is formed from active
and some middle verbs which take an object or complement ( 26.3): e.g. with
Taideeducate, étroaisevOnv was educated; with Seikvum show, eeixO8nv was shown;
with aitidouat accuse, trTid@nv was accused. With other verbs, however, the passive
aorist does not have (or rarely has) passive meaning. Thus with BovAoua want, prefer,
there is nothing semantically passive about the aorist éRouAjfnv wanted. Of the
passive aorists formed with -n-, in fact, only a minority (regularly) has passive
meaning. Below, therefore, these aorists are called @n-aorist or n-aorist , and with
several verbs the meaning of the @n-/n-aorist is added forclarity.
Forfull details about the meanings and formsof the passive aorist, and the development
of its use in Greek, 35.
14.2 Conjugation of 6n-Aorists and n-Aorists 169
Conjugation of @n-Aorists and n-Aorists
Overview of Forms
14.2 @n-aorists:
verb stems verb stems verb stems verb stems verb stems
endingint.uv endingin ending ima labial endingina ending ina
or a diphthong «, 2,0 orn or velar stop dental stop resonant
Tradeviao TWO Seikvupl Kopileo ayyéArw
educate honour show convey report
stem traidseu8n- stem tipn8n- stem de1yOn- stem Kopio6n- stem cyyeA@n-
ind. sg. 1 émadevOnv éTiunony eSeixOnv éxouiobnv nyyéaAenv

2 étrardevOns eTIUNONS edeixOns EKoioOns nyyersns
3 errardevdn eTIUNON edeixOn EKOLiobn nyyéeAen
pl. 1 érondSevOnuev eripnOnuev eSeiyOquev exouioOnuey nyyéAGquev
2 étrardevOnte ETIUNONTE edeixOnte éexouio@nte nhyyéAnte
3 étrardevbnoav éetTnOnoav éedelyPnoav exoniobnoav nyyéAbnoav
subj. sg. 1 tradevdd TIUNO Se1y0 KonoBH a&yyerbe
2 Traideudtis TIUNOTS de1yxOf\s KooOT}s ayyeAdtis
3 TraidevOt} TILNOT Se1xOF} KOOOF} ayyerbh
pl. 1 troiSev@dSpev tipnOdpyev SryPddpev Kopiobdyev keyyeAOuev
2 traidsev6ijte TIMNOTTE Se1yOTE KOLOBij\TE ayyeAdiTe
3 traiseuv@dor(v) Tipnédoi(v) Se1y8dor(v) KoplobG@oi(v) a&yyeAGdor(v)
opt. sg. 1 tradeudeinv TINGeinv Se1yeinu KonoGeinv ayyeAeinu
2 tradeuseins TINBeins Se1xGeins Konoeins ayyerGeins
3 tradevbein TINGein Se1xyGein KoulOGein ayyerGein
pl. 1 tondev@civev tipnOeivev SeryOeivev KouloGeipeyv eyyeASeipev
2 tadeubeite TisnGeite SeryBette. KOOOeiTE ayyeAseite
3 tradeuBeiev TIpNGeiev SeryGeiev KouOeiev ayyeAseiev
imp. sg. 2 trodevOnti TIpNnont1 SelyxOnt Kopio8nt1 ayyeAsnti
3 traisevOjTH TIBNOTTO dSe1xOrt KonoOTe ayyeAbTTo
pl. 2 toiSev@nte TIUNONTE SelyOnte Kopiobyte ayyeAOnte
3 TraideuBevtwmv TipnbevtTwmv deiySevtov KOUIOBEVTMOVY ayyEADEVTOV
inf. Tra1devOTjvar TIUNOfVvo1 SexOFjvar KouloSfvor &yyeABTjvan
ppl. masc. traideuéeis, Tiunveis, de1xGeis, KoveGeis, ayyeAveis,
-8evTos -BevTos -8evTos -8evTos -BévTos
fem. toideubeioa, TipnOcioa, Se1y8cioa, Kopiobeion, cayyedGeioa,
-Oeions -Beions -Beions -Beions -Geions
neut. traideudev, TiunGEv, SexBev, KoloBEV, ayyervev,
-8evTos -BevTos -8evTos -8evTos -BévTos
' Also -Geinuev, -Geinte, -Beinoay, e.g. TadeuOeinuev, TaldeuGeinte, Troardeu8einoav.

170 14.3-5 The Aorist: Passive (8n-/n-)
14.3 n-aorists:
1-aorists
paiva show
stem gavn-
ind. sg. epcvny
-
epavns
KN
WH EMAVT|
pl. EMAVTYEV
K&
EMAVT|TE
NH
Epavrnoayv
WH
subj. sg. paved

KH
pavn|s
NY
part
WH
pl. PAVaPEV
KH
MAVT|TE
NY
gpavésci(v)
DH
opt. sg. paveinu

KB
paveins
NO
pavein
WO
pl. paveipev
BSB
paveite
NHN
paveiev
OW
imp. sg. paver

NO
PAVT|TO
OW
pl. Pavryte
NHN
PAVEVTOOV
MW
inf. pavijvar
ppl. masc. paveis,
-EVTOS
fem. paveion,
-Eions
neut. Paver,
-EVTOS
1 Also -einuev,-einte, -einoav.
Endings
14.4 @n- and n-aorists have active personal endings ( 11.20).
14.5 Indicatives are formed with the augment ( 11.35-42), and active secondary
endings ( 11.22-7): e.g. 1 sg. é-traiSevOn-v, 2 sg. é-SeiyOn-s, 2 pl. é-ypdon-te, etc.
The endingof3 pl. ind.is -oay,e.g. é-traidev8n-oav.
14.6-11 @n-Aorist Stems 171
14.6 Imperative: the 2 sg. imp. ends in -f1: e.g. 2 sg. imp. pdvn-h, KataKAivn-&. With
8n-aorists, however, the ending changes to -t1, e.g. toiSevOn-t1 (instead of
expected t-tnhi <*-8nfi ( 1.97), by analogy with e.g. toiSevOnte, 2 pl.).
Other imperatives have the regular (active) endings: e.g. 2 pl. ma1Sev@n-te, 3 pl.
pavé-vtwv (<*-tvtav, 1.70)
14.7 Subjunctives are formed with the long thematic vowel of the subjunctive
( 11.16) and primary endings; these contract with the n of the stem, sometimes
after quantitative metathesis ( 1.71). E.g. 1 pl. Se1y8Gpev (<-Béapev <*-Oroopev), 2
pl. ypagfire (<*-Aze).
14.8 Optatives are formed with the optative suffix -1n- in the singular, with the optative
suffix -1- in the plural (-in- is found occasionally also in the plural). The iota forms
a diphthong with the n of the stem, shortened to ¢ ( 1.70 n.1). Active secondary
endings are added. E.g. 1 sg. pavein-v, 1 pl. troideu@ei-pev.
14.9 Theinfinitive ends in -von: e.g. AeipO7j-van.
14.10 Participles add -vt- to the stem, which is shortened to -(@)e- ( 1.70): e.g. gen. sg.
masc. TraiSeu8é-vt-os, gen. sg. fem. ypageions (<*-evty-). For the entire declension,
5.17-18.
@rn-Aorist Stems
Formation of @n-Aorist Stems

Verb Stems Ending in u or a Diphthong
14.11 Verb stems ending in u or a diphthong stay unchanged before the added -@n-
(although there may be variations in vowel length). Some examples:
verb verb stem @n-aor. stem 1sg.ind. inf.
Bue sacrifice Gu-/80- TUAn- (1.97) étuénv TUBTVvan
iS8pUe found, establish 1Spu- 1Spu0n- TSpuenv 1Spudfvar
Auw loosen, release Av-/AG- AUEn- éAuénv AuPFvat
unviuw reveal, make known unvi- unvuén- gunvuény unvu®fjvon
Tato strike Ta- Tra1dn- eTraiOny Tra18fvar
Traidseveo educate Taideu- traidevOn- eTraidevOnv traideutivar
Aovw bathe Aou- Aoven- éAouénv AoubFjvan
Note 1: With monosyllabic stems which have long w in the present stem, the @n-aorist has
a short U. See e.g. 8Uw, AUw.
14.12 The 6n-aorist of x&w/kaiw set on fire, which originally had verb stem *x&p- ( 12.29), is
éxavOnv. The 6n-aorist of xéw pour (original verb stem *yef-/yi-) is ZxvOnv.
Verb Stems Ending in Other Vowels
14.13. With verb stems ending in 1/e, n/&, w/o (ie. contract verbs), -@n- is added to the
long variant of the verb stem ( 11.11):
pres. stem ¢: @n-aor. stem 7;
pres. stem &: @n-aor. stem n (but& after ¢, 1 or p);
pres. stem o: @n-aor. stem w; a few verbs with a verb stem ending in w have
a similarly formed @n-aorist.
Some examples:
verb verb stem On-aor. stem 1 sg. ind. inf.
Toige make, do Toin-/to- troinén- étroinony Troin8fvan
Tipae honour Tipn-/TIPE- TIUNOn- eTIUNONV TIUNOTVvaI
Treipdopan try TrEIpG-/ Teipadn- étreipasny tried teipadtjvai
TTEIDG-
aitiaouar accuse aitia-/aimia- aitiaén- AMIGOnv was aitiabhvai
accused
&E16w deem worthy &&iw-/&E10- é&&108n- NEi@onv iwtvat
omlopai escape ow- owén- éomOny escaped owftivan
TITPHOKW wound Tpo- Tpwén- ETp@Onv Tpw8Tvai
14.14 The alternation between & and n also occurs with the passive-only -y1 verbs
SUuvapat have the power(to), be able (to), aor. uvySnv was able (also, morerarely,
éSuvacbnv, 14.27), and étriotayat know (how to), understand, aor. tmotnhSnv
knew.
14.15 With the verbs iotnus, ti nut, inur and SiSe1, the 6n-aorist is built on the short
variant of the stem:

iotnu make stand, otn-/ot&- ot&On- goTaOny oTabfvat
set up
TiOnu put, place 8n-/e- tefn- (1.97) étéOnv teAtjvat
inp send, let go t-/é- é0'1n- el@nv (11.40) é8fvon
Sidagive dw-/d0- 508n- e5d8nv SoGfjvat
Note 1: The simplex forms of ini are rare, especially in prose; the verb normally occurs in
compoundformslike &geiény, trapeibny.
14.16 Several verbs in -&a and -éw, which have a verb stem ending in a o ( 12.29 n.1), retain that o
before the added 6n:
verb verb stem On-aor. stem _ 1 sg. ind. inf.

aiSgopuar stand in awe aide(o)- aidso@n- 1Séo08nv stood aidcobiivat
in awe
Zpauai love épa&(o)- épacén- hpaobny fell in épacbivan
love
TEAEw finish TEAe(o)- TeAecoOn- éteAgonv TeAcoBfvan
Also note verbs in -dvvumi and -égvvuyi (which have a stem in o):
KEepa&vvuul mix Kepa(a)-/Kpa- Kepaoen- éxepcoOnv Kepaobfvar

oPévvupt quench, oBn-/oBe(o)- ofBeo@n- éoBéoOnv oBeoOhvan
put out
Someverbs which do nothavethis o as part of their stem nevertheless haveit in their 6n-aorist
(a so-called parasitic o). So e.g. with yryvaoxw know, recognize (verb stem yvw-), yvaoOny.
For these verbs, 14.27 below.
14.17 Observe the following further exceptions with verbs in -éa:

verb verb stem 6n-aor. stem _ 1 sg. ind. inf.
aivéw praise aive- aivebn- Tebnv aive8ijvan
aipéw take aipn-/aipe-, A- aipeOn- HpéOnv was taken aipebivan
also mid. aipgopuon choose was chosen
Séw bind Sn-/Se- Se6n- é5 6nv SeGfivar
KaAgo call, summon KGAe-/KAN- KAnén- éKAnOnv KANOFvat
aGéw thrust, push atn-/c6(e)- aobn- (14.20) &aobnv aobivat
Verb Stems Ending in a Labial or Velar Stop
14.18 Stems endingin a labial stop get a @n-aor. stem in @@n (11/B/p + On > On):
Acittw leave Aertt-/Aoitr-/Attr- AeipOn- eAcipOnv AeipOtjvan
Téa send Tept-/Tout- treupOn- eTreuMOnu TreoOtivar
TpiBe rub Tpip-/tpip- TpIpOn- ETPIPENv TpIpOtivai
AauBdve get, take AnB-/AGB- Ang?n- eAnoeny Angefvar
Note especially verbs that have a present in -trtw ( 12.27):

dittte throw éitr- pip8n- éppipOnv bipOfjvon
BAdtrte harm, damage BA&GB- BAagén- EBAA@ENV BAagéijvan
KpUTITw hide KpUo-/KpUB- Kpug@n- éxpuoény Kpug@fjvar
Note 1: For the more common1-aorists (with passive meaning) étpiBnv was rubbed (tpiPa),
éBA&Bnv was harmed (BAdtr1), éppionv was thrown (pintw), 714.30.
14.19 Stems ending in a velar stop get a 6n-aor. stem in x6n (K/y/yx + On > x6):
verb verb stem @n-aor. stem 1 sg. ind. inf.
SiaKke chase O1@K- Siwy6n- edimyOnv Siwx8Tjvar
&yw lead, bring ay- &yOn- Hyonv ayOFjvon
Aéyw say, speak Aey-/Aoy-, AexOn- éAeyOnv Aex8fjvon
SiaAgyoual converse eitt-, ép-/ pn- SieAexOnv discussed S10AeyOven
ouAAEyoual come ouveAexOnv came ouAAexOfjvan
together together
a&pxo rule, begin a&py- &px8n- TpxXOnv apyOfivon
Note especially (almost all) verbs that have a present in -ttw/-ttoyo ( 13.22),
a few in -@w, and several in -vuu:
&tradAdttopo depart &AAay- GAAaXOn- &r-NAAayOnv aTaAAayBfjvat
departed
TATTW array, appoint tay- TayOn- eTAXONY TayOtvar
dputta dig opuy- opux@n- apuyény opuxOfivai
Sailw cleave daiy- dSaixOn- edaixEnv SaixOfvai
Seikvuul show Se1K- Se1xOn- éSeixOnv Se1xOva
u(e)iyvup mix yery-/pty- u(e)ix8n- En(e) ixOv u(e) xOFjvon
Note 1: Besides éAgy@nv (Agyw), the aorist éppyénv (suppletive, 11.13) occurs frequently
(e.g. open it was said).
Note 2: For the more common1-aorists ouveAéynv came together (ovAAEyouan), aTNAAaYyTV
departed (&tr-adAd&ttoa; -nAAc&ynv is more frequent in prose, -nAAd&yOnv in poetry), éuiyny
was mixed, had intercourse with (uetyvupn), 314.30.
14.20 Stems endingin a dental stop get a @n-aor. stem in o6n (1/8/8 + 6n > o8n, 1.89):
weudsoual err weud- weuodn- éwevoOnv erred wevoOfva1
TSopai enjoy no- noen- f\o8nv enjoyed no@8rvaa
Trelbw persuade Tre18-/troi8-/Tri8- Treio8'n- etreloOn TrE1oOTvar
Note especially most verbs that have a present in -@w/-Coyo, and a few in -ttTw
( 13.23):
Kopilo convey KOUTS- Kou8n- Ekouio8ny KOMLOOT val
vouileo believe VOUTS- vouio8n- Evopio8nv vounio8fvar
Aoyifouacount, Aoyid- Aoyic8n- eAoyio8nv was Aoyiobtivar
reckon counted
&pyoloo/appotta &pyods-/apyot- &ppoo8n- TppooAny appooPfjvai
fit together
TAaTTtw mould TTAGE- TrAao8n- eTTAGoOv TAA8fvar
Note 1: With yevdw cheat, deceive, sigmatic aor. mid. tyevodunv = lied; 8n-aor. éyevo@nv =
was mistaken, was deceived, erred.
Note 2: Next to étreiofnv was/became persuaded, there is also a thematic middle aorist
émri8dunv believed, obeyed ( +13.64). émeio@nv is more regular in prose, and became
progressively more common.
Verb Stems Ending in a Resonant
14.21 Verb stems ending in a resonant (nasal/liquid) stay unchangedbefore -6n-. Note
especially verbs that have a presentin -Adow in -aiveo/-aipoo, -eiveo/-eipoo, -tveo/-Ipeo,
-Uvoo/-Upo, (12.28). Some examples:
aicytvouabe aioyuv- aioxtv8n- noxuvdnv was aioyuvdtivar
ashamed ashamed
ayyeArw report ayyeA- ayyeAdn- nyyeaAdnv ayyersiivai
TIAA pluck TIA- TIAON- eTiAdny TIABFVAI
aipoo lift ap- &pAn- Tpanv é&pbivat
éyeipouan wake up éyep-/éyop-/ yepOn- ThyepOnv woke up éyepOfjvon
éyp-
ulaives stain LIav- wiaven- EuravEny wiavetvar
paives show onv-/pav- pavén- epavOnv pavfjvan
Note 1: With gaive show, épdvOnv = was shown (pass.), n-aor. épdvnv = appeared, seemed
( 14.30).
Note 2: Next to nyépOny (éyeipoua wake up), there is also a thematic middle aorist tyypdunv
woke up ( 13.64). tryép8nv is normal in prose, and on the whole more common.
14.22 Observethe aorist passive of teive stretch:

telveo stretch tev-/T&- (1.86) T&6n- etaOnv tTabfvar
14.23 Someverbswith a present stem endingin a nasal do not havethatnasalin the aorist passive(it
wasnotoriginally part of the verb stem, but a sufhx addedin the present stem ( 12.30), even
though this was sometimes extended to other stems):
KAivouar lean KAi(v)- KATOn- éxAiénv leaned KALBFvan
Kpive pick out, decide «pi(v)- Kpién- éxptOnv Kptéfjvoa
For the more common 1-aorist -exAivnv leaned (xAivw, but only in compounds), 14.30.
14.24 Numerousverbswith a stem in a nasal or liquid have an n-aorist: + 14.30. Several other verbs
which have a stem in a nasal or liquid form a 6n-aorist with an extra n intervening between
stem and 6n: e.g. with véua deal out (verb stem veu-), éveunOrnv. For these verbs, > 14.28.
14.25 The @n-aor. of eupioxw find (verb stem eup-, cf. inf. aor. act. eup-eiv), is nupébny.
Suppletive Stems
14.26 Witha few frequently occurring verbs the stem of the @n-aor.is wholly unrelated to
that of the present stem ( 11.13):
Aéyw say, speak Aey-/Aoy-, eitt-, ép-/pn- Anén- éppnenv Onetvoa
opaw see 6pa-, 15-, oTr- opén- ageny opbivan
EPH CATTY, pep-, Evek-/évox-/éyK-, vexOn- TexOrv evexOtivar
bring oit-
Note 1: For éAgy@nv as alternative to éppnénv (Aéyw), 14.19 above.
14.27 Numerousverbs with a stem ending in a vowelget a parasitic o between the verb stem and
the 6n-sufhx (contrast 14.16, verbs with a stem ending in an original o; this o spread to other
vowel-verbs). For instance:

&yapor admire aya- é&yao8n- hydaotnv admired ayaodiivat
ylyvaoke know, YVvo- yvaotn- eyvoodny yvwobfjvai
recognize
Spaw do 5pa-/Spa- Spaodn- edpao8nv Spaoc@fvat
Suvauabe able Suvn-/Suva- Suvacen- éSuvdo6nyv was able SuvacEval

EAkw draw, drag éAx(i)- éAkuo6n- eiAkuoOnv (11.40) eAkuoOfjvar
tobia eat eoOl-, pay-, ede00n- TSEOOv ede0Ofivar
5¢-/250-/25-
KEAEUw order KEAEu- KeAeuoOn- éxeAeuoOrv KeAguoOtivar
KAaiwo/KAdo cry, weep KAa(u)- KAauo@n- éexAauoOv KAauo@fjvai
KAT\~o/KAEion close KAn-/KAE1- KANo8n-/ exAnjoOnv/ KAno@fva1
KAgio8n- EkAeioOnv KAgloBfvan
ulvioKopar remember Lvn- uvnodn- éuvno8ny uvno8tiva1
remembered
Ouvuul Swear ou(o)- dyoo8n- aydoOny, also oyooSfjvai
ayoeny
Tau stop TAU- Trauvo8n- étrauobny, also Travoiva
eTravény
TiptAnut fill TAN-/TAG- TAN8n- eTrANo8nv TrAnoBia
tiutpnu burn Tpn-/Tpa- Tpno8n- eTrpnoOny TrpnoPfvat
ode draw, tear OTa- oTao8n- goTracOnv oTrac@fjvat

Xptjouar use, need XP1N- xpnotn- expnoOny xpnostvai
Xpio anoint XPt- xpio6n- ExpioOnv XpioB8fvar
For é5uviOny, the more frequentalternative to @5uvéo@nv (Suvapa), 714.14 above.

14.28-30 n-Aorist Stems 177
14.28 Various verbs with stems ending in a consonant havean additional n between the verb stem
and the @n-suffix. For example:
stems ending in a dental stop:
auaptave miss, err QuUapt- Guaptnén- TNuapTnéeny aguaptneivar
stems ending in a resonant:
BovAoua want, prefer Boua- BouAnén- éBouansny wanted BouAnfjvan

véuw deal out VEU- veunon- éveunOnv veundfvar
stems ending in or w:
auégava, avE increase aué- avénen- nuénenv avénsiivar
yw boil éw- éynen- Awhenv Eyndfivar
Note 1: With yiyvoum, thematic aor. mid. éyevéunv = became, was born; 8n-aor. éyevnOnv =
was born. éyeviPnv is much morefrequentin later Greek.
n-Aorist Stems
Formation of n-Aorist Stems
14.29 n-aorists occur only with stems ending in a consonant. The suffix -n- is added
immediately to the verb stem, which may show different vowel grade from the
present stem (see below).
Verbs without Vowel Differences between the Present and n-Aorist Stem
14.30 The following verbs have the same vowelin the present and n-aorist stems:
verb verb stem n-aor. stem 1 sg. ind. inf.
BAdtrtw harm, BAGB- BAaBn- EBAGBnv BAaBivan
damage
TUTTH hit TUTT- TUTIN- éeTuTTY TUTTFVaN
KOTTw hit KOTT- KOTTN- éxoTrnv KOTIT|VaL
yeaa write yeap- ypagn- eypagny ypagijvar
dittte throw éitr- pipn- éppionv bipijvan
KpUTITw hide KpUg-/KpUB- Kpugn- éKUOnV KpUQFVan
Batrte bury Aao- tagpn- (1.97) étédonv TAMTVan
(kat)&yvupat ay-/ay- ayn- KaT-ekyny KaTay7jvan
break (intr.) broke(intr.)
ATOAAGTTOLAI GAARY- aAAayn- am-nAAayny dairadAaytivor
depart departed
178 14.30-31 The Aorist: Passive (@n-/n-)
TANTstrike TAny-/TAGy- TAnyn- eTAnynV TAnyTVvai

ouAAgyoua come Aey-/Aoy- Aeyn- ouv-edeynyv came ovudAAgytivai
together together
KOTAKATVOLAL KAT(v)- KAwn- KAT-EkKAivTV KATAKAIVTVaL
recline reclined
opaAAoual OMaA- opaAn- EOMaANv OpaAtva
stumble stumbled
Uaivopal rage unv-/pav- Mavn- éudvnv raged Mavt}vor
paivoual appear, pnv-/pav- pavn- EMavnyv pavtvar
seem appeared
xyaipeo rejoice Xap- Xapn- éxcpnyv rejoiced yaptiva
Note 1: Manyofthese verbsalso have a 6n-aorist: BAaTITw, FatTrT0, PiTrTw, KEUTTTO, GAAATTOO,
OUAAEYO, KAivo, paivo. > 14.18-19.
Verbs with Vowel Differences between the Present and n-Aorist Stems
14.31 Verbs that have vowel-variation (ablaut, 1.51) between the present and n-aorist
stems (the n-aorist uses the zero-grade):
verb verb stem n-aor. stem 1 sg. ind. inf.
Ceuyvupi yoke Ceuy-/Ciy- cuyn- eCuynv Cuyfvar
KAETITO Steal KAett-/KAoTI-/ KAGTIN- EKAGTINV KAaTrTva1
u(e)iyvupi/ioya ery-/pTy- uryn- eulyny wlytyvaa

Mix
Thyvupar become THy-/Tey- TOyN- érraynv became
> i
TayTval
solid solid
éxTrAnttopuat be TAny-/TAGy- TAaYyN- é -ertAcyny lost my éxtAayijvar
panic-stricken wits
bw flow be-/pi- éppunv flowed puTvar
xm
<3
ényvupar break pny-/poy-/ éppaynv broke paytivar

I
(intr.) pay- (intr.)

oTreipw SOW otrep-/oTt&p- oTapn- eoTTaApNV oTaprvat
oTteAAouan set out oteA-/oTGA- oTaAn- eoTaAny set out
>
oTaATvat
oTpepopar turn otpeg-/atpog-/ OoTPAgN- éotpdonv turned OoTPAagTvar
around(intr.) OTPAQ- around
THKOLaL melt THK-/TAK- TAKN- étaxnv melted TAKT|VAI
> i
(intr.)
TpeTropal turn tpett-/tpotr-/ TPaTTN- étpatrny turned TPATITVal
around(intr.) Tpatr- around
14.31 n-Aorist Stems 179
Tpépopal grow (up) Bpeg-/Bpog-/ TPaQN- eTpaony grew (up) tpagiivar

8pao- ( 1.97)
dia-pbeipopar p8_ep-/pbop-/ pvapn- d1-epbapnv pbaptivai
perish peap- perished
Note 1: Someofthese verbsalso have @n-aorists, e.g. éu(e)ixOnv (uetyvupt, 714.19), eryEnv
(ryyvupan), gotpéepOnv (otpépouan), étpépOnv (tpetrouar), epep~Env (tpégw, instead of
expected tétpépOnv, 1.97).
15
The Future: Active and Middle
Types of Future Stem

15.1 The future stem of nearly all verbs is sigmatic,i.e. it is formed by adding a o to the
verb stem:
Most verbs add this o immediately to the verb stem:e.g. with ta1dSevw educate
(verb stem traidev-), fut. stem traidevo-; with Seixvupn show (verb stem Se1k-), fut.
stem dei -.
However, verbs with a stem in a resonant, or with a polysyllabic stem in 18- (i.e.
most verbsin -iZw/-iZowa1), have a so-called Attic future, formed with an ¢ and
having lost the sigma: e.g. with &yyéAAw report (verb stem dyye-), fut. stem
&yyene-; with kouife convey (verb stem kopid-), fut. stem. Kouie-.
Note 1: The formation of the sigmatic future stem thus greatly resembles that of the sigmatic
aorist stem ( 13.15-23). Compare:
verb verb stem future stem aorist stem

Ta1seue educate Ta1seu- Ta1seuo- Ta1sevo(a)-
tipdw honour TIpN-/TWE- TIuNo- Tiuno(a)-
tpipa rub tpip-/tpip- Tpiy- tpiy(a)-
SiwmKw chase Siwk- Siw - Siw (a)-
KoA&lw punish KOAGS- KOAGao- KoAao(a)-
But the formation of Attic futures diverges from that of (pseudo-)sigmaticaorists:

&yyédAw report &yyea- &yyene- &yyeiA(a)-
Kouileo convey KOUIS- KOMIE- Kouio(a)-
Conjugation of the Future
Overview of Forms
Sigmatic Future
15.2-3 Conjugation of the Future 181
15.2 Active forms:
verb stems ending verb stems ending verb stems ending verb stems ending
ini,uv oradiphthong ina, ¢,oorn in a labial or velar stop in a dental stop
Toaiseuw educate tina honour tpiBe rub KoAéla punish
stem traideuo- stem Tipno- stem tp1w- stem KoAao-
ind. sg. 1 traisevow TIUT|OO Tpiwa KoAGow

2 Trardevoets TIUNOELS Tpiwers KOAGOEIS
3 trarsevoet Tlunoet Tpiwer KOAdOE1
pl. 1 moSevoopev TIUTOOUEV Tpiwopev KOAGGOLEV
2 traievoete TIUNOETE Tpiwete KOAGOETE
3 tmarsetoouor(v) Tiut)oouai(v) tTpiyouor(v) KoAdaouot(v)
opt. sg. 1 traidevoorp TIUNOOIL Tpiyoiyl KOAGOOIL
2 Traidevoois TIUN|OOIS Tpiyols KOAGOOIS
3. Traidevoo1 TIUN|OO1 Tpiyol KoAdool
pl. 1 toSedooipev TIUT|OOIMEV Tpivolpev KOAGOOIMEV
2 tadevooite TIUNOOITE Tpiyoite KOAGOOITE
3 Traidevoo1ev TIUN|OOLEV Tpivolgv KoAdGoolEev
inf. Traidevoeiv TIUNOEW Tpierw KOAGoEtV
ppl. masc. TTA1ISEUTWV, -OVTOS TIUT|OWV, -OVTOS Tpiyov, -OVTOS KOAGOWY, -OVTOS
fem. TAIseUTouUGA, -oUOTS TluTCOUGG, -oUONS Tpipouda, -ovOTS KOAGGOUGR, -oUONS
neut. TALSEVOOV, -OVTOS TIUT|OOV, -OVTOS TpiIyoV, -OVTOS KOAGOOYV, -OVTOS
15.3 Middle forms:
verb stems ending verb stems ending verb stems ending verb stems ending
ini, v oradiphthong ina, ¢,o orn in a labial or velar stop in a dental stop
toaidseuw educate tinaoo honour tpipa rub KoA&la punish
stem traideuo- stem Tipno- stem Tpiy- stem KoAao-
ind. sg. 1 traisevuoouat TIUN|OOUAL Tpiyopar KOAdoouat

2 tradsevoe/-7 Tiptoer/-T tpiet/-n KoAdoet/-1
3 taisevoetar TIUNOETAL TpipeTar KOAGOETOI
pl. 1 tadsevodpeba TipnoopEeta TplpoyEeba KoAacopuEba
2 tratsevoeobe TiunoeoGe Tpipveote KoAdoeobe
3. tatsevcovtat TIUNOOVTal TpiyovTal KOAGOOVTal
opt. sg. 1 traisevooipny Tlunooipny Tplyoipny KoAacoipnv
2 Taldsevooto (<*-cor-oo) TIUT|JOO10 Tpiyolo KOAGOO10
3. Traldeuoo1To TIUN|OOITO Tpiyolto KOAGGOITO
pl. 1 trodsevoocipsta TiunooipEeta Tplyoipsba KoAaooipeta
2 tadevooiobe Tipnoolob_ Tpivoicbe KoAdoolo_
3. TraldevoolvTo TIUT|OOWTO TpiyoivTo KOAGOOIVTO
inf. TraidevoeoBar TinocoGan Tpipveo@ar KoAdoeoPai
ppl. masc. TTA1ISEUGOLEVOS, -OU TIUNOOLEVOS, -OU TPIWOUEVOS, -oU KOAGQOOHEVOS, -OU
fem. TTAISEUTOHEVT, -1)5 TIUNOOHEVN, -15 TPIWOHEVN, -15 KOAQGOHEVT), -15
neut. TTQ1ISEUGOLEVOV, -OU TIUNOOUEVOY, -oU TPIWOUEVOYV, -oU KOAGOOHEVOV, -OU
182 15.4-5 The Future: Active and Middle
Attic Future
15.4 Active forms:
verb stems ending in a resonant polysyllabic verb stems endingin 15-

ayyéAAw report KOUIC@ Convey
stem ayyeAe- stem Kopte-
ind. sg. 1 ayyera (<-éo) KOLO) (<- w)

2 ayyacis (<-dets) KOUIEIS (<-ée1s)
3 ayyerei (<-de1) KOUIEI (<-ée1)
pl 1 &yyedotipev (<-dopev) Koplotpev (<-gopev)
2 ayyeAgite (<-deTe) KOMLETTE (<-éeTe)
3 &yyedotion(v) (<-gouo1v) Koplovon(v) (<-gouow)
opt. sg. 1 é&yyedoiny / -oipi (<-eoinv) Kopoinv (<-eoinv)
2 é&yyedoing / -ois (<-eoins) Koploins (<-eoins)
3 &yyeroin / -ot (<-eoin) Kopioin (<-goin)
pl. 1 a&yyeAoipev (<-gompev) KOMLOTPEV (<-éoipev)
2 ayyeAoite (<-éorte) KOWLOITE (<-éorte)
3 ayysAoiev (<-éotev) KOWLOIEV (<-éouev)
inf. ayyedciv (<-deev) Kouletv (<-éeev)
ppl. masc. a&yyedav, (<-éov) KOMIOY, (<-éov)
-oUVTOS (<-govtos) -oUVTOS (<-govtos)
fem. ayyedotioa, (<-gouoa) Kop1ovGR, (<-gouoa)
-ouons (<-eovions) -ouons (<-eovons)

neut. ayyeroty, (<-gov) Kopioty, (<-éov)
-oUVTOS (<-govtos) -oUVTOS (<-govtos)
15.5 Middle forms:
verb stems ending in a resonant polysyllabic verb stems endingin 15-

ayyéAAe report Koulleo convey
stem ayyeAe- stem Kopie-
ind. sg. 1 ayyeAotpar (<-éopian) KOPIOUpat (<-éopai)

2 &yyeAet / -F (<-ée(o)an) Koutet / -7j (<-ée(o)an)
3 &yyeAeiron (<-éetau) KoptetTron (<-éetan)
pl. 1 &yyeAoupeta (<-edpe0a) KoploupEta (<-edpe6cr)
2 a&yyeAciobe (<-éeoe) Kopletobe (<-éeo0e)
3 &yyeAotvtat (<-éovtan) KoprotvTat (<-éovtat)
opt. sg. 1 &yyedoiuny (<-eoipny) KOMLOINY (<-eoipnv)
2 &yyeAoio (<-go1(c)o) KOMLOTO (<-o1(o)o)
3 &yyedoito (<-éoito) KOpLOTTO (<- oito)
pl. 1 a&yyedoipeta (<-eoipeBa) Kouloipeta (<-eoipeda:)
2 a&yyedoiabe (<-éoi0e) KopiotoGe (<-éoic6e)
3 ayyeAoivto (<-gowTo) KOLLOIVTO (<-éoivTo)
inf. a&yyeAciobon (<-éeo8an) KopletoBon (<-éeo8an)

ppl. masc. a&yyEeAouEVvos, -ou (<-edptev05) KOMIOUMEVOS, -OU (<-edpevos)
fem. a&yyeAoupévn, -15 (<-eopévn) KOMIOULEVN, -15 (<-eopevn)
neut. ayyEAOULEVOV, -OU (<-edpevov) KOMIOULEVOYV, -oU (<-edpevov)
15.6-15 Sigmatic Future Stems 183
Endings
15.6 The active and middle future is always thematic ( 11.18). The endings are identical
to those used in the presentof -« verbs ( 12.3-16). This meansthat the conjugation
after the stem is identical to that of the present of troideUw; but with Attic futures, the
conjugation after the stem is identical to that of the present of troigw.
15.7 Indicatives: formed with primary endings, e.g. 1 sg. act. tToiSevo-a, 2 sg. Ta1Sevo-els,
1 sg. mid. troiSevo-o0-pan; Att.: 1 sg. act. &yyeA® (<- -0o), 2 sg. &yyeAeis (<- -e15), 1 sg.
mid. &yyeAotpar (<- -0-yar).
15.8 Optatives: formed with the optative suffix -1-/-1n- and (mostly) secondary endings,
e.g. 2 sg. act. Toidevo-o1-s, 3 pl. mid. traiSevo-o1-vto; Att. 2 sg. act. &yyeAoins
(<-e-oin-s), 3 pl. mid. &yyeAoivto (<-é-o1-vTo).
15.9 Infinitives: formedin the act. with -ev and in the mid. with -o@a1,e.g. act. tadevo-e1v
(<-e-ev), mid. traidevo-e-o8a; Att. &yyedciv (<-é-e-ev), &yyeAeioGan (<-é-e-ofat).
15.10 Active participles: formed with -vt-; for the declension, 5.17-18. E.g. gen. sg.
masc. Troisevo-o0-vt-os, nom.sg. fem. traidevo-ouca (<*-ovt-ya); Att. gen. sg. masc.
&yyedotvtos (<- -o-vt-os), nom. sg. fem. &yyeAotoa.
15.11 Middle participles: formed with -yev-; for the declension, 5.3-4. E.g. nom.
sg. masc. troiSevo-d6-pev-os, nom. sg. fem. traidsevo-o-pév-n; Att. nom. sg.
masc. &yyeAoupevos (<-e-d-pevos), nom. sg. fem. &yyeAoupevn (<-e-0-pEVN).
15.12 There is no future imperative or subjunctive.
15.13 A few Attic futures have a conjugation whichis identical to that of the present of tiuéw. For
these verbs, 15.38.
15.14 Quite a few verbs with an active present have a future with only middle forms. E.g. with dxovw
hear, 1 sg. fut. ind. &kovooua1. For these verbs, 15.40.
Sigmatic Future Stems
Stem Formation
Verb Stems Ending in 1, u or a Diphthong
15.15 Verb stemsendingin1, vu, or diphthongs stay unchangedbefore the added o. Some
examples:
verb verb stem future stem 1 sg. ind.
Xpiw anoint Xpt- Xplo- Xpiow
Stouadive 8u-/80- Suo- SUcopan
Auw loosen, release Au-/Av- Auo- AUow
KAU hinder KAU- K@AUO- KWOAUOO

taiw strike Ta- TALG- Taig
Traue stop Tau- Tauo- TAUGW
Ta1sevueo educate Ta1deu- TaLsEeuo- TraASevow
AoUw bathe Aou- Aouo- Aovow
é&Kkouw hear é&Ko(u)(c)- &KOUG- &KOUCOLAI
15.16 With verb stems ending in n/e, n/&, w/o (i.e. contract verbs), o is added to the long
variant of the verb stem ( 11.11):
pres. stem e: fut. stem n;
pres. stem & (or n): fut. stem n (but & after ¢, 1 or p);
- pres. stem o: fut. stem o; a few verbs with a verb stem ending in w have
a similarly formed future.
Some examples:
Toimake, do Troin-/trote- Troino- TOW
tryéouar lead, consider nhyn-/fye- hyno- tytjoopar
Tipae honour TiIpn-/TIpe- TIUNO- TINO
KTGoMal acquire KTN-/KTE- KTNO- KTT}OO"a1
Spdo do 5pa-/Bpa- Spao- Spaow
SnAdw make clear SnAw-/SnAo- SnAwo- SnAwow
Xptjouar use, need XPN- Xpno- XPTIOOpaL
TITPHOKW wound Tpw- TpWwo- TPAC
15.17 Similarly, with -y1 verbs that have variant verb stems ending in n/6, n/e, or w/o
( 12.37), the long variant of the stem is used:
Sidagive 8w-/d0- SwWo- SHOW
Suvauai be able Suvn-/Suve- Suvno- Suvijoopat
étriotauai know, beable émortn-/émota- émotno- eTMOTHOONAL
inp send, let go -/é- t\o- How
iotnut make stand, set up otn-/oTa- oTNo- OTNOW
TivtAnut fill TAN-/TAG- TANG- TATOW
tidnput, place 6n-/#e- 8no- Ano
15.18 The verbs Baive and p@avw also use a stem with long n (as opposed to &):
Baives go, walk Bn-/Ba(v)- Bno- Bryoopat
pbdveo be first pon-/pba- peno- potjow
15.19 A few verbsin -éw and -&w whichoriginally had a verb stem ending in a o (or were absorbed
into that type, 13.18) do not have a long vowelin the future:
&pxto suffice &pxe(o)- &pKeo- &pKéow
yed&w laugh yera(o)- yer&o- yed&ooun
Céw boil le(o)- leo- Céow
KaAge call K&AE-/KAN- KOAEO- KaAgow (but for the much
more commonfuture
KAA®, 15.35)
TEAEw finish teAe(o)- TEAEO- teAgow (but for the more
commonfuture
tek, 315.35 n.1)
Also note the short vowelof:
(étr)aivéw praise aive- aiveo- (tr) aivéow
Similarly formed (i.e. with a short vowel) are the futures of verbs in -&vvum or -évvupn
(which have a stem in o), as well as ciyi be:
eiul be éo- éo- Eoouat (3 sg. ind. Zotar)

Evvuut put on (clothing) é(o)- éo- to(o)o
(kata)oBévvup quench oBn-/oBe(o)- oBeo- (kata)oBéo(o)w, but
also (&1ro)oBt\jcopan
15.20 A few verbs in -&w and -éw that originally had a verb stem ending in ¢ ( 12.29 n.1) have
a future in -avow and -eviow, respectively:
Kao (also kaioo) set on fire Ka(u)- (<*k&e-) Kauo- KUO
KAdw (also KAaio) cry, weep KAa(u)- (<*KA&e-) KAauo- KAaUoopat
TAEw sail TAe(u)- (<*trAee-) trAeuo- TAEUCOUal
trvéw blow trve(u)- (<*trvef-) trvevo- TVEUTONaL
15.21 The future of the -éw verbs S0xéw seem, think, and @$éw thrust, push is built on the stems Sox-
and w@-, respectively: 56&0, dow ( 15.27), the latter mostly in &ét1aow. Occasionally, how-
ever, Soxtjow and dfrjow are found.
Verb Stems Ending in a Labial Stop
15.22 Stems ending in a labial stop get a future stem in w (1/B/p + o = yw). Some
examples:
TreuTT send Teptt-/TouT- Tepw- TrELo
Etrouan follow étt-/omr- Ew- EWOuol
TpiBw rub Tpip-/tpip- Tpiw- Tpiwo
ypagpe write YPaQ- yYpay- Ypayoo
Note especially verbs that have a present in -ttw ( 12.27):

KAETrTo Steal KAett-/KAoTT-/KAGT- KAEW- KAEWoo
BAdtrte harm, damage BAGB- BAaw- BAd&Woo
KpUTtrTw hide KpUo-/KpUB- KpuUW- KPUWoo
15.23 The future of AapPdve get, take (verb stem AnB-/A&B-) uses the long variant of the verb stem,
and has middle endings (15.40): future stem Any-, 1 sg. ind. Ajwouan.
Verb Stems Ending in a Velar Stop
15.24 Stems endingin a velar stop get a future stem in (x/y/y + o = §). Some examples:
SiaKe chase S1aoK- Siw - Saw
Anyyo cease Any- Ané- Angw
&yw lead, bring ay- &E- GEwo
pevyw flee peuy-/puy- pEeve- pevEoual
a&pxo rule, begin a&py- &pE- c&pEw
Note especially verbs that have a present in -ttw ( 12.27), and a few in -Zw
( 12.27):
puAatta guard QUAGK- puAaé- puAdéo
TATTW array, appoint TaYy- Tag- Ta
dputta dig dpuyx- dpué- dpueoo
oipaleo groan oluwy- oipwé- oiU@goual
KAa&Coo scream KAayy- KAay - KAay oo
And note that a number of verbs in -vip: have a stem ending in a velar stop
( 13.22). For example:
Seikvupi Show Se1k- 5e1 - Sei co
Ceuyvupi yoke Ceuy-/Ciy- CevE- CevEw
Thyvuul affix, fasten tmny-/tey- né- TIhEw
15.25 #y@ have, hold has two future stems:

tya have, hold éy- (<*(o)ex-, 1.97) é- tae
oX- oxno- oxnow (cf. aor. Zoxov)
For the alternation between rough/smooth breathing, > 1.97 n.1. For the added n in oyno-,
15.30 below.
Ew is considerably more commonin Attic prose. The difference between the two forms
appearsto be primarily aspectual: #0 will have/hold, imperfective aspect; cynjow will get (also
will hold back/restrain), perfective aspect; for such aspectual distinctions, >33.4 7, 33.43 n.2.
15.26 The future of tuyxdvw hit upon, happen to (verb stem teuy-/tUy-) uses the e-grade of the verb
stem, and has middle endings ( 15.40): future stem tev§-, 1 sg. ind. teU§opan.
15.27 With most stems ending in a dental stop the stop disappears before the o of the
future (1/8/68 + o = o, 1.91); the stems may show vowel and othervariations:
&vUtTa@ accomplish &vii(T)- &vio- é&viiow
wevSoualie, cheat weud- Weuo- WEUOOUAl
oida know cid-/0i8-/i8- eio- eioopan
TACK suffer trev0-/trov8-/1&8- TrE1O- Treioouan (<*1révoopan)
TreiBe persuade Tre18-/tro18-/Tri8- TrE1O- Treiow
Truv@cvoual inquire, trev@-/Tu8- Treuo- TrEUOOLAL
learn
Note especially verbs that have a present in -@w (and somein -ttw) (12.27):
&pydlao/&pydotte &pyod-/apyot- &pyoo- &pydow
fit together
TrapacKkeualo OKEUgO- OKEUAC- TTAPATKEUAGO
prepare, provide
KTifw found KTI6- KTIO- KTIOW
oxile split, cleave oyi5- oX10- oxlow
Note 1: teicouar can be the future both of middle-passive trei@oya believe, obey and of
Taosuffer.
15.28 Verbs in -iZ@w with a verb stem with more than onesyllable - unlike xtiZw and
oxifw, which have a monosyllabic verb stem - have an Attic future: 15.33
below.
Suppletive Verbs
15.29 In a few cases the future is built on a different stem from that of the present and/or
other tenses (suppletive verbs, 13.38):
EPXOLal go, come épy-, EAcuO-/2A(U)8-, EAeuo- éAcUooual
ei-/1-
dpdw see 6pa-, 15-, oTr- dw- Swouat
pepe carry, bring pep-, évex-/évoK-/2yK-, oio- oiow
oiT-
Further Particulars
15.30 Various verbs with a verb stem ending in a consonant have an additional n between the verb
stem and the o of the future. For example:
QUapTaved Miss, err QuUapT- auapTno- auaptynoopar
(2)8éAw be willing (2)@eA- éfeAno- éfeAnow
eupioxe find eup- eupno- euptiow
uavedveo learn uaéd- yabno- yuabtj}couar
aio8avouat perceive aio®- aio8no- aio8nooual
BovAoua want, prefer BouA- BouAno- BouAnoopat
15.31 Thefuture of péwflow (<*Héea, verb stem e(F)-/6-) is built on the zero-grade of the stem + n:
pttjooua. Cf. aor. gopunv, 714.31.
Attic Future Stems
Stem Formation
15.32 With most verb stems ending in a resonant (nasal (p, v) or liquid (A, p)), an « is
added to the verb stem. Originally, this « was followed by -ow,-oeis, etc., but in
classical Greek the sigmahas disappeared: *-éo0w > -éw, which in Attic contracted
to -&. This is called the Attic future (or contract future ). It is conjugated like the
present of contracted verbs in -g (troiéw, 12.3-4).
Note 1: The name Attic future derives from antiquity; it does not refer to a dialect
phenomenonperse (this type of future also occurs in Ionic), but to the fact that this
future is not much usedin later Koine Greek.
E.g. with d&yyéAAw report (verb stem &yyeA-): future stem &yyeAc-, 1 sg. fut. act. ind.
d&yyere (<dyyedtw <*ayyedtow), 1 pl. &yyedotyev (<d&yyeAdgouev), inf. &yyerciv,
(<*éyyeddeev) gen. sg. masc. act. ppl. &yyeAotvtos (<&yyeAEovtos).
E.g. with B&AAw throw, hit (verb stem BaA-): future stem BaAe-, 1 sg. fut. act. ind.
Bord (<Paréw <*BPareow), 1 pl. BadAotpev (<Badgouev), inf. Bareiv (<PoAéeiv), gen.
sg. masc. act. ppl. Badotvtos (<BaAgovtos).
Note2: The origin of the < in these futures is a matter of controversy. With B&AAw and some
other verbs, a variant of the verb stem in (i.e. BaAe-) can safely be reconstructed; the use of
the ¢ in the future of this verb may then have been generalized across verb stems ending in
a resonant. However, the « mayalso have an independentorigin.
15.32-3 Attic Future Stems 189
Other examples:
verb verb stem future stem 1 sg. fut. ind.
even stay, (a)wait Uev- UevE- uve (<-ga)
véuw deal out VEU- VELE- ved (<-ga)
é&trofvijoKw die 8av-/8vn- Ba&ve- étrofavotpat
(<-gopian)
&TrdAAUI destroy oA(e)- dAE- &TTOAD (<-éw)
Téuved cut Tep-/TEN- TEME- TEU (<-éw)
Note especially verbs that have a present in -AAow or in -aive/-aipa, -eiveo/-eipw,
-Ivw/-Ipe, -Uveo/-Upo (12.28):
opdAdrw cause to stumble oaa- opaas- TQGAD (<-Ew)
oTéAAw dispatch oteA-/oTG&A- OTEAE- OTEAD (<-Ew)
paiva show onv-/pav- pave- paved (<-go)
teiveo stretch tev-/T&v- TEVE- Teva (<-go)
étroxteives kill Ktev-/Ktov-/KT&v- KKTEVE- d&troKTevad (<- w)
Siapbeipw destroy gbep-/pbop-/pbap- SiapGepe- Siapbepa (<-éw)
otteipw SOW otrep-/oTr&p- OTTEPE- oTrep@ (<-éw)
Kpive decide, judge Kpi(v)- KpIveE- KpIved (<- w)
15.33 The future in -gw (-6) is also found with polysyllabic stemsin -15- (i.e. most verbs
in -iZw/-iZouen), without the & of the verb stem.
E.g. with kopifw convey (verb stem xopid-): future stem Koupie-, 1 sg. fut. act. ind.
Koa (<Kopieo), 1 pl. komotpev (<Kopieouev), inf. Kopieiv (<Kopléetv), gen. sg. Masc.
act. ppl. kopiotvtos (<Kopigovtos).
The future of such verbs was probably regularly sigmatic at an earlier stage
(kouiow, with 8 disappearing before o, 15.27); after the sigma dropped out
between vowels ( 1.83), the forms were given the same conjugation as other non-
sigmatic (Attic) futures like Badd (i.e. as -éo verbs).
Other examples:
verb verb stem future stem 1 sg.ind.
vouile believe vouis- VOMIE- VoLIe (<-gw)
Badile walk, go Badid- Badie- BaSiotpar (<-goyar)
é&ywviopa contend &ywvid- &yovie- &yoviotpar (<-goyar)
AoyiZouan reckon Aoyi6- Aoyle- Aoy1otpar (<-gopan)
Note 1: Regularly sigmatic forms of (some) of these verbs also occur, especially in later
Greek,e.g. with éAtrifw hope, expect, fut. ZAtriow next to éAm.
Note 2: The verb xa@iZw make sit down, sit down also hasa future of the Attic type (xa@id
<-éw), analogous to other verbs in -iZw, although its verb stem did not originally end in 18
(the stem is 1Z- < reduplicated *oi-o8-).
Other Attic Futures
15.34 In a few cases an Attic future is built on a different stem from the present or other
tenses (suppletive verbs, 11.13):
Aéyw say, speak Aey-/Aoy-, eitt-, Ep-/Pn- epe- £p@ (<-éw)
TPEXO run TPEX-, SPAU- OpaueE- Spapovpan (<-goyan)
15.35 There are also a few verbs with a present stem in ¢ that does not alternate with n,as
in troigw/troinow/étroinoa, but retains the ¢ in future and aorist active (for these
aorists, 13.18). In the future this results in forms that are formally identical with
Attic futures, and are usually also called Attic :
verb verb stem future stem _1 sg. ind.
KaAgw call, summon K&As-/KAn- KQAE- KOAG (<-0 <*-¢00)
youéw marry yau(e)- yaue- youd (<-ga)
Note 1: teAgw finish has both a future in -ow (15.19) and an Attic future, Tero.
The conjugation of the Attic future teA® is identical to the present, as is that of
KOA® and yaud.
Similarly, in addition to xaAd&, the future kaAgow ( 15.19) occasionally occurs.
15.36 Some otherverbs have an Attic future:
pc&xouan fight (verb stem pay(e)-), fut. stem poye-, 1 sg. ind. payotpyor (<-gouan), cf. aor.
EUAKEOAUNV;
titte fall (verb stem treo-/11(w)-), fut. stem treoe-, 1 sg. ind. tecotpya (<-gopat);
Kxad-eZoucn sit down (verb stem é8-), fut. stem é5e-, 1 sg. ind. ka@eSotpor (<-gopat).
15.37 The future of duvupi swear (verb stem du(0)-) is duoGpo (<*dudcoua, cf. aor. dyooa). But this
future wasreinterpreted as an Attic future in -géopar the 3 sg. ind. fut. is dueitan.
15.38 There are also someverbswith an Attic future in -&a (conjugated like tide, 12.3-4). The most
importantare:
#Aatveo drive, ride (verb stem 2A&-), fut. stem éA&-, ind. 2A&, Ads, etc., inf. 2A&v (cf. aor.
HAaoa);
verbs in -&vvuyn (with a verb stem originally in o, 12.39): e.g. oxeS&vvuprscatter, disperse
(verb stem oxed&(o)-), fut. stem oxeda-, ind. oxe5, oxeda&c, etc., inf. oxeS&v (cf. aor.
éoxe6&0a); So too Kpevavvuur hang up, fut. ind. kpeud, Kpepds, etc.; teT&vvuspread out,
fut. ind. tet&, tretGs, etc.
15.39-40 Verbs with a Middle Future 191
Other Futures
15.39 With the verbs éo@iw eat and rive drink, the future is formed without sigmaor any other kind
of suffix; the future uses a different stem than the present:

zoPiw eat éoGi-, pa&y-, &e-/ 50-/ 5- 2B - ESoual
tives drink wo-/to-/T11- Ti- tiovor (forms with
ti- also occur)
These futures are conjugated simply as the present middle-passive traiSevouo ( 12.4).
Note 1: These were based on an older form ofthe subjunctive, using short thematic vowels o/c.
Verbs with a Middle Future
15.40 There are numerous verbs with an active present which have only or predomi-
nantly middle forms in the future. These verbs tend to belong to oneof a few
specific semantic categories:a list of the most frequent verbs with a middle future,
arranged according to these semantic categories, is given here.
The list is not exhaustive; information about further individual verbs may be
foundin dictionaries. Several of the verbs in the list have irregularly formed future
stems; some have suppletive stems. These are treated in moredetail in thelist of
principal parts, 22.9.
- Verbs of uttering sounds/speech (and their opposites, of keeping silence):

verb future (1 sg. ind.)
Kado Sing AOOUAI
Bode shout, call on Botjooua
yeadoo laugh yeAcoopai
eyKwulace praise éyKwmpicooual (but also éyxwpicow)
ETTAIVED Praise étraivécouai (but also étraivéow)
gowtde ask gonoouai (but also gpwttow)
oiualo groan oiu@eoual
Ouvuul Swear Ovuoupat, -7
o1yaw keep silence, bestill; keep o1lyTjoopal
secret
o1ntdw keep silence, be still; keep ClWTINOOLAl
secret
192 15.40 The Future: Active and Middle
- Verbs of grasping, taking (in), obtaining, both mentally and physically (and
their opposites, of missing):
&Kxoue hear AKOUCOUAL
GAuUAPTAVG MiSs, err AUapTHNooual
&troAauw benefitfrom, enjoy aTroAauooual
g&pTralw seize, snatch &ptrcaoouai (but also dptréow)
BAgtreo look, see BAgwouan (but also BAgwa)
ylyvooke know, recognize YVOoouar
Saxve bite oNSopar
Aayxave obtain by lot Angopar
AauBave get, take Anwouat
uavedve learn uabroopal
oida know EIOOUGL
Opaw see OWOual
oKoTréw/oxétrtopai look, examine OKEWOUAI
tuyxavw hit upon, happen to TEUEOHAL
- Verbs of taking in food/drink:

BiBpwmoKke eat Bpaocopat
cobic eat EOOUAL
tives drink TIOual
~ Verbs of movement:
atTravtaw meet, oppose ATAVTNOOUaL

Radio walk, go Badiovpa, -7
Baives go, walk Bnoopa
BAwoKw come HoAotua, -T
(d1r0)S1SpdoKe run away (&tro) Spdcopat
SiaKe chase Sia opan (but also Siw)
TAgw sail TTAEUGOLOL
tittte fall TTECOULAL, -T]
péw flow puTooual

TPEXw TUN Spavoupal, -T
pevyw flee peugouar
pbdve be first p8noonat
XWPEwW give way, Zo xoproopuan (but also ywphow)
- Verbs of bodily conditions and affections:

eiul be Eoouat (3 sg. ota)
Ci\o/Bidw live Biacouatl
(atro)8vioKke die (atro)Pavotpa, -7
Kauve toil, be sick KQMOUUGL, -T
15.40 Verbs with a Middle Future 193
TaOK suffer TrEIOOual

trvew breathe, blow TIVEUCOUAL
tikte give birth téEopai (but also Tg)
Verbs expressing various emotions:

Sé501ka / SeiSe (Ion.) fear Seioouar (not in Attic)
Paupdlo wonder, marvel at Baupaooual
otrouddla be eager (about) oTTOUSaooLal
16
The Future: Passive (6n-/1-)
Types of Future Passive Stem

16.1 Based on the aorist passive in -@nv or -nv ( 14) Greek developed a passive
sigmatic future in -@yeouar and -noouat, respectively. The stem is formed by
adding a sigmato the 6n-/n-aorist stem:
@n-future (with verbs with a @n-aorist):
e.g. with traiSeve educate (verb stem traideu-, 8n-aor. stem Tra1dev6n-): 6n-future
stem traldevOno-;
e.g. with Seikvupi show (verb stem Se1k-, On-aor. stem Se1x67-): @n-future stem
de1xOno-.
n-future (with verbs with an n-aorist):
eg. with ypdqow write (verb stem ypag-, n-aor. stem ypagn-): n-future stem
yeagno-5
e.g. with gaiveo show (verb stem onv-/pav-, n-aor. stem gavn-): n-future stem
pavno-.
Note 1: The passive future, like the passive aorist, has passive meaning only whenitis
formedfrom active verbs taking an object: e.g. with taiSevw educate, taiSev}oopuI will be
educated; with Seixvupi show, Se1x8tooucn I will be shown. With manyotherverbsit has
a change-of-state meaning: e.g. with paiva show, cause to appear, paviooucnI will appear;
some other meanings occur with passive-only verbs. Forall these features, 35. Below, the
meaning of the 6n-/n-future is added with several verbsforclarity.
On the whole, the meaning of a future passive stem correspondsto that of the aorist
passive stem on whichitis built.
Note 2: The middle future ( 15) may also express the meanings expressed by the @n-/n-
future: e.g. tTiujoopuo I will be honoured (passive), pavotua I will appear (change-of-state
meaning, 35.17). With n-aorists with change-of-state meaning in particular, the
correspondingfuture is often the middle rather than an n-future: e.g. with tpétroyanturn,
aor. étpdtrnv I turned around, fut. tpéyoua I will turn around. For details, also on the
diachronic development of this phenomenon, 35.30.
16.2 The conjugation is thematic; the indicative uses primary endings: this meansthat
the sigmais followed by the endingsthat are identical to those of the future middle
(15.3): -coun, -o¢1/-on, -oeTa,etc.
Aswithall future stems, there is no imperative or subjunctive.
16.3-4 Conjugation of the Future Passive 195
Conjugation of the Future Passive
Overview of Forms
16.3 @n-futures and n-futures:
§n-future n-future
Toa1sevueo educate gaivoual appear, seem
stem tra1deu8no- stem pavno-
ind. sg. 1 TALdeusTOOUaL pavnoopar

2 tradevOhoe/-n pavijoer/-n
3 TraidevOnoeTtar PAvToEeTal
pl 1 TradsevOnodueba pavnodoucta
2 TraideubnoeoGe pavijoeode
3 TraideuGnoovtat ~avtjoovTal
opt. sg. 1 Tradev8nooiunyv gavnooipny
2 TraidevOrco10 gavrnooio
3 TadevoTooito PAVT|COITO
pl. 1 TraidevOnooipeta pavnooiveta
2 TraidevOroo10Be gavrooiobe
3 TraidevenooivTo PAVT|COIWTO
inf. Tra1dseubijoeoGa pavijoeobat
ppl. masc. TTAIdEUBNOOLEVOS, -OU PAVTOOLEVOS, -OU
fem. TaiSev@noouévn, -15 PAVTNOOLEVN, -115
neut. Tra1devBnoouEVoV, -ou PAVNOOLEVOV, -OU
Particulars
16.4 Some further examples of @n-futures:

verb 67-aorist 6n-future
Auw loosen, release gAuenv AUEnoopat
Tipaew honour eTITAnv TIUNnPnoopal
TrodiopKew besiege étroAiopKnenv ToAlopKnonoopal
tidnur put, place éTéOnv TeOrjooual
BaAAw throw, hit éBAnEnv BAn8noopat
Opaw see agen opOrooua
Aéyw say, speak gpenenv pnerjoopai
196 16.5-6 The Future: Passive (6n-/n-)
16.5 Some further examples of n-futures:

verb n-aorist n-future
BAdtrte harm, damage éBAGBnv BAaBrcopat
TANTT strike éTrATyTV TANyoopat
éxTrAnTTopal be panic- éEeTrAdynv éxtrAaytjoouawill be frightened
stricken
opdAAopan stumble gopaAnv opaAnooua will stumble
Sia-pbeipopar perish Si-eg@cenv Sia-pbaprhoopa will perish
16.6 Notall verbs with 6n-/n-aorists form the corresponding futures. Note in particular
the following two:
BovAopon want, prefer éBouATenv BouAnooua(middle) will want
treiBopan believe, obey étreloOnv teicouai (middle)
(older: é1ri6dpnv) will believe, obey
Also 16.1 n.2.

17
The Perfect (and Future Perfect):
Introduction
Perfect (and Future Perfect) Stems
Types of Stem
17.1 There are two types of perfect stem (many verbs have both, some haveonly one):
A perfect active stem. There are three types: x-perfect, aspirated perfect, and
stem perfect. In addition, there are some verbs which have a mixed perfect. For
details, 18.
A perfect middle-passive stem. For details, 19.
For the meaningsof the perfect stem, 33.11-12, 33.34-42.
17.2 There are also two types of future perfect stem:

- A future perfect active stem, formed by addingo to the perfect active stem. These formsare
very rare, and occur with only a few verbs.
- A future perfect middle-passive stem, formed by addingo to the perfect middle-passive stem.
These formsalso occur infrequently.
For details, +20. For the meaningsof the future perfect stem, 33.46-7.
17.3 All perfect and future perfect stems (except those of oi5a know) include
a reduplication. For the rules governing the formation of perfect reduplications,
11.43-8.
17.4 Some examples of perfect and future perfect stems:

with traiseUw educate (verb stem traidev-):
pf. act. stem tretraideux-: Tte- Traideu- K-
reduplication verb stem kappa
with Seixvupi show (verb stem 5Se1k-):
pf. act. stem SeSe1y-: Se- Se1x-
reduplication verb stem (Se1n-) + aspiration
198 17.4-7 The Perfect (and Future Perfect): Introduction
with vikdo educate (verb stem vikn-/viké-):

pf. mp. stem vevixn-: vE- viKT|-
reduplication verb stem
with Auvw loosen, release (verb stem AU-/AU-):
fut. pf. mp. stem AcAvo-: Ae- rv- o-

reduplication verb stem sigma
Periphrastic Forms
17.5 Perfect forms mayalso be periphrastic: a periphrastic construction consists of
a perfect participle and an auxiliary form of eipi - as opposed to single,
synthetic forms. This occurs especially with the perfect middle-passive, where
in some cases only periphrastic forms occur ( 19.8-9); but active periphrastic
formsare also found, especially in the subjunctive and the optative.
17.6 The formsofeipi (12.36) used in periphrastic constructionsare:

For the periphrastic perfect indicative: the pres. ind. of cipi: e.g. dqprypévor
cioi(v) 3 pl. pf. mp. ind. of d&gixvéoua arrive; yeyovui& éoti(v) instead of
yéyove(v), 3 sg. pf. act. ind. of yiyvouai become, be born.
For the periphrastic pluperfect: the impf. ofcit: e.g. yeypaupévor joav3 pl. plpf.
mp.of ypadpow write; Se5axoos tv instead of 2e5coxei, 3 sg. plpf. act. of SiSap1 give.
For the periphrastic future perfect indicative: the fut. ind. ofeipi: e.g. Eyvaoxas
zotai, 3 sg. fut. pf. act. ind. of yryvwoxw know, recognize.
- For the periphrastic perfect subjunctive: the pres. subj. of ciyi: e.g.
Trapeokevaopévov7) 3 sg. pf. mp. subj. of tapacKeudlw prepare.
For the periphrastic perfect optative: the pres. opt. of cipi: e.g. metroinKass cin
instead of tretroit)Ko1, 3 sg. pf. act. opt. of trol make, do.
For the periphrastic perfect infinitive: the pres. inf. civon: e.g. teTpaypeva ivan
instead of tretrp&y8a1, pf. mp. inf. of tedtte do, act.
17.7. The participle in periphrastic constructions agrees in number and gender with
the subject ( 27.7): e.g. oi vduo1 yeypaupévor eioiv the laws have been written,
t) plobwor1s HY yeypaupevn the contract had been written.
18
The Perfect: Active
Types of Perfect Active Stem

18.1 All perfect stems (except oiSa know) include a reduplication,either in the form of
a consonant+ ¢ or formed in the same way as the augment; for the rules governing
reduplication, 11.43-8.
18.2 Apart from reduplication, perfect active stems are formedin oneofthree different
ways:
«-perfects: with most verb stems ending in a vowel, resonant or dental stop, a k
is added to the verb stem. E.g. with traiSev educate (verb stem traideu-): perfect
stem tTretra1deuk-.
Aspirated perfects: with most verb stems ending in a labial or velar stop,
the perfect stem is formed by using the aspirated variant of that stop
(p or x). E.g. with BAdtrtw harm, damage (verb stem BAGB-): perfect stem
BeBAag-.
Stem perfects: with a number of verbs (whose verb stems always end in
a consonant), no additions other than reduplication are made to the verb stem
in the perfect stem; in most cases, such perfect stems differ from the present
stem becauseof ablaut ( 1.51-6). E.g. with Aeitr leave (verb stem Aeitr-/Aoit-/
Nitr-): perfect stem AeAort-.
To this category belongalso the verbsoi8a, Zo1ka and eiwfa, which have some
irregular forms.
Thereare, in addition, a few mixed perfects, formed partly like x-perfects, partly
like stem perfects: Sé501ka fear, ~otnKa (iotayar come to stand), téOvnKo
((dtro) 8vtjoKke die), and BéBnxa (Baiveo go, walk).
Note 1: x-perfects and regularly formed aspirated perfects are a relatively late
development of the language, and are younger than stem perfects, from which they
derive their conjugation. For verbs that formed a x-perfect in addition to an already
existing stem perfect (normally with a distinction in meaning), 18.26.
Note 2: Stem perfects are often called second or strong perfects: for this terminology, see
the section On Terminology at the start of this book.
200 18.3 The Perfect: Active
x-Perfects, Aspirated Perfects, Stem Perfects: Conjugation
Overview of Forms
18.3 x-perfects:
verb stems ending verb stems verb stems verb stems

in 1, u or & ending in ending in a ending in a
diphthong a 2,00r nh dental stop resonant
traidseuw educate tude honour xopile convey éyytAdw report

stem tretraideuK- stem TetTInK- stem KeKopik- stem fhyyéAxk-
prim. sg. 1 mtetraidseuKa TETIUNKA KEKOLIKa tyyeAka

ind. (pf.) 2 tetraidseuKas TETIUNKAS KEKOUIKOS hyyeAkas
3 tetraiSeuKe(v) TeTipnke(v) KekOuIke(v) HyyeAke(v)
pl. 1 tetroiSevKopev TETIUTKOEV KEKOUIKQUEV NyyéAkauev
2 tetraiseuKate TETIUTKATE KEKOLIKATE NyyéAKate
3 twetraiSevKaor(v) TeTIUNKACI(V) Kekouikao(v) hyyéAkaoi(v)
sec. sg. 1 étretraideuKeiv ETETIUT|KELV EKEKOUIKELV nNyyéAkelv
ind. 2 eTTETTAIOEUKEIS ETETIUTKEIS EKEKOUIKELS NYYEAKEIS
(plpf.) 3 étretraidevxei(v) éteTIunKel(v) éxexouixer(v) hyyéAxei(v)
pl. 1 étetrondevKeuev eTeTIpTKEuEV éxekouikepev NyyéAkeuEv
2 eétreTraiseuKeTe étetimtykete EKEKOMIKETE TYYEAKETE
3 étreTradeuKeoav éteTiutKecov Exexoplikeoav nNyyéAkeoav
subj. sg. 1 tetroadSevKo TETIUTKO KEKOUIK hyyéAKko
2 TetraideuKns TETIUTKTIS KEKOMIKT|S nyyéAkns
3 WetraldseuKy TETIUT|KT KEKOUIKT nyyéAkn
pl. 1 metoSeUKopev TETIUTKOOMEV KEKOUIKQEV NYYEAKOUEV
2 TetraiSeuKnte TETIUNKTTE KEKOMIKTTE NyYYEAKnTE
3 tetraSeuKwor(v) TeTIUNKwWOI(V) KEKoHikwor(v) hyyéAKwor(v)
opt. sg. 1 tetaidevKoipl TETIUNKOIUL KEKOMIKOIML NYYEAKOIUI
2 TetraisevKo1s TETIUNKOIS KEKOUIKOIS NYYEAKOIS
3 TetraisevKo1 TETIUNKOL KEKOUIKOI TyyéAKo1
pl. 1. tetroSevKoipev TETIUTKOILEV KEKOPIKOIMEV NYYEAKOIMEV
2 TWetroisevKoite TETIUNKOITE KEKOUIKOITE NYYEAKOITE
3 Tretra1devKolev TETIUNKOLEV KEKOUIKOIEV nNyyéAkolev
imp. Se
inf. TETIOCISEUKEVaL TETIUNKEVOL KEKOUIKEVOL NyYéAKEval
ppl. masc. tretraideuKas, -OTOS TETILTKWS, -OTOS KEKOUIKOS, -OTOS TyyEAKGs, -OTOS
fem. tretraiSeuKuia, -vias TETIUNKUIC, -UlasS KEKOLIKUIG, -Ulas nyyeAkuia, -vias
neut. tretraideuKds, -OTOS TETIUNKOS, -OTOS KEKOIKOS, -OTOS NYYEAKOS, -OTOS
Also (older) -«n, e.g. étretrarSevKn.

Also (newer) -Ke1pev, -KeITE, -KEloay, e.g. EtreTTaISEUKEIpEV.
The pf. subj. is very rare: often periphrastic (e.g. tetra1SeuKas &)
The pf. opt. is very rare: often periphrastic (e.g. tetraiSeuKaosenv)
The pf. act. imp. does notexist: only periphrastic (e.g. twetraiSeuKeos io1)
18.4 x-Perfects, Aspirated Perfects, Stem Perfects: Conjugation 201
18.4 Aspirated perfects, stem perfects, oiSa:
verb stems ending ina stem perfects oida

labial or velar stop
(aspirated perfects)
TpiBe rub pevyo flee olda know
stem TeTpi9- stem trepevy- stem ¢i$-/oi8-/18-
prim.ind. sg. 1 Ttétpiga TrEMEUYO oida

(pf.) 2 TETPIMAS TEMEUYOS cioba
3 -rétpige(v) Trégeuye(v) oide(v)
pl. 1. tetpipapev TTEMEUYOLEV TOMEV
2 Ttetpipate TTEMEUYATE 1OTE
3 tetpipaor(v) Trepevyaoi(v) ioaon(v)
sec.ind. sg. 1 étetpigew ETTEMEUYELV TON OF Tdeiv
(plpf.) 2 éteTpigets ETTEMEUYEIS NonoBa or ders
3 étetpigei(v) étrepevye(v) HSe1(v)
pl 1 étetpipepev étrepevryeuev Tloyev or Seuev
2 étetpigete étrepevyeTe Tote or dete
3 éteTpipecav étrepevyecav jjoav or jSeoav
subj. sg. 1 tetpipa TrEPEUYOO ida
2 Ttetpigpns TTEPEUYTIS eidtis
3 tetpion Trepevyn eidt
pl. 1. tetpipopev TTEMEUYCOUEV eidapev
2 Ttetpipnte TTEMEUYNTE eidfite
3 tetpipwon(v) Trepevywouy) eisdo1(v)
opt. sg. 1 Ttetpipop TTEPEVYOIL eideinuv
2 TETpiMols TTEMEUYOIS Eldeins
3. TETpipor TEPEVYOI eidein
pl. 1. tetpipoiperv TTEPEVYOILEV eideivev
2 Tetpipoite TTEMEUYOITE eideiTE
3 TEeTpipolev TTEMEUYOIEV eideiev
imp. sg. 2 io®t
3 1oT@
pl. 2 ioTe
3 loTOOV
inf. TETPIMEVA TEMEUYEVAL eidévan
ppl. masc. TETPIMWS, -OTOS TTEMEUYOS, -OTOS cides, -OTOS
fem. TETPIOVIA, -uUlas Tepeuyuia, -vias eiduia, -uias
neut. TETPIMOS, -OTOS TTEPEUYOS, -OTOS £1505, -OTOS
Also (older) -n, -ns e.g. étetpipn, étreqevyng, etc.

Also (newer) -eipev, -erTe, -e1cay, e.g. étrepevyeite, TSeipev.
The pf. subj. is very rare: periphrastic forms(e.g. tetpipas a) are more common.oiSa does have
regularly used separate forms.
Thepf. opt. is very rare: periphrastic forms(e.g. tetpipas einv) are more common.oiSa does have
regularly used separate forms.
The pf. act. imp. does not exist (except with oia): periphrastic forms do occur(e.g. tetpipas io).
202 18.4-9 The Perfect: Active
Note 1: iofi (2 sg. pf. imp. of oiSa) is identical to the imperative of eivi be (12.36); hoav
(3 pl. plpf. of oi8a) is identical to the imperfect of ein go (12.36).
Endings, Periphrastic Forms
18.5 The primary and secondary indicatives(i.e. the pf. ind. and plpf.) have different
sets of endings from thoselisted in 11.20-33. Theyare as follows:
primary secondary
1 sg. -o - lv
(also, older: -n (<-ea))
2 sg. -XS - 15
(also, older: -ns (<-eas))
3 sg. -e(v) -er(v)
1 pl. -&pev -EMEV
(mixed: -pev) (also, newer: -eiuev)
(mixed:-pev)
2 pl. -&TE -ETE
(mixed: -te) (also, newer: -e1T¢)
(mixed: -te)
3 pl. -aor(v) -£0QV
(also, newer: -eicav)
(mixed: -cav)
Pluperfects also have an augment ( 11.35-42, 11.55).

E.g. 1 pl. pf. act. ind. tetraiSevx-apev, 1 pl. pf. act. ind. (mixed): 5 81-pev; 2 sg. plpf.
act. é-tretraideuK-ers (older étretraiSevxns).
18.6 Perfect active subjunctives and optatives are thematic, and have the usual end-
ings (resulting in subjunctive -a,-n5, -1, etc.; optative -o1, -o1s, -o1, etc.). E.g. 2 sg.
act. subj. tretroidevx-75, 3 pl. act. opt. tetroaiSeUK-o1ev. These forms, however, are
exceedingly rare: often wefind periphrastic forms instead, which use a participle
and formsof civi (3 17.5-7).
18.7 The perfect active imperative occurs only with a few verbs, 18.23, 18.30.
18.8 The ending of the perfect active infinitive is -évat, e.g. tetraiSeuK-évau.
18.9 Perfect active participles follow the pattern masc. -as, gen. -étos; fem. -via,
gen. -uias; neut. -ds, gen. -dtos. E.g. dat. sg. masc. tetroiSeuxdti. For the
entire declension, 5.19-20.
18.10-11 «-Perfects, Aspirated Perfects, Stem Perfects: Stems 203
«x-Perfects, Aspirated Perfects, Stem Perfects: Stems
Stem Formation
18.10 Verb stems ending in 1, u or a diphthong stay unchanged before the added x,
although the stems may show variations in vowel length. Some examples:
verb verb stem perfect stem 1 sg. ind.
Xpiw anoint Xpt- KEXPIK- KEXPIKO
Geo sacrifice 80-/80- TEBUK- TéBuUKO
Avw loosen, release Av-/AG- AEAUK- AEAUKO
unvuw disclose Unvu- MELT)VUK- MEUT)VUKa
traio strike Tra- TETTOIK- TETTOIKO
Tra1seveo educate Traiseu- TETTOISEUK- TrETTAISEUKa
Aovw bathe, wash Aou- AeAouk- AgAouKa
Note 1: With monosyllabic stems that have long t in the present stem, the perfect active has
a short u; cf. the @n-aor., 714.11 n.1.
18.11 With verb stemsendingin n/e, n/&, w/o (i.e. contract verbs), «x is added to the long
variant of the verb stem ( 11.11):
pres. stem e: pf. stem n;
pres. stem & (or n): pf. stem n (but & after ¢, 1 or p);
pres. stem o: pf. stem «; a few verbs with a verb stem ending in w have similarly
formedperfect.
Some examples:
Troi make, do Troin-/troie- TETTOINK- TeETTOINKa
otpatnyew be general otpatnyn-/ gOTPATNYNK- goTpaTTyNKa
OTPATNYE-
Tipaew honour Tipn-/TWE- TETIUNK- TETIUNKA
Spaw do dpa-/5pa- SeSpak- SeSpaka
Trewbe hungry Tevn- TLETET]K- TreTrElyyKa
SnAdw make clear SrnAw-/SnAo- eSTAwk- SeStAwKa
ylyvwokw know, recognize yvw- EyVOokK- EYVOKO
owlw save ow- OEOWK- CEOWKA
18.12 Similarly, with -u1 verbs that have variant verb stems ending in n/&, n/e or w/o
( 12.37), the long variant of the verb stem is used:
TiptAnut fill TAn-/TAG- TTETTANK- TETANKa
TiOnput, place 8n-/#e- tefnk- (also teBerk-) TéOnKa (also TéBeika)
Sidagive 8w-/d0- SeS0ok- S 500ka
But the verb inuses the short verb stem in the perfect:
ini send, let go -/é- eix- (11.47) Elka
18.13 Some other verbs have a short stem-vowel in the perfect (these verbs usually also have
a short vowel in the aorist and future stems; 13.18-19, 15.19). For example:
aivéo praise pf. ind. fvexa
teAéw finish (verb stem TeAe(o)-) pf. ind. tetéAexa (note the loss of o)
Séo bind pf. ind. SéSexa (but aor. ind. é5noa)
18.14 A few verbs in -éw and -éw that originally had a verb stem ending in ¢ ( 13.20, 15.20, 19.17)
have a perfect in -auxa and -euKa, respectively:
Kao (also kai) set on fire (<*x&fyo) pf. ind. xéxauKa (<*KéxGeKa)
TAEw sail (<*TAEFo) pf. ind. tétrAcuKa (<*réTrAEpKar)
trvéw blow (<*tvéfo) pf. ind. tétrveuKxa (<*trétrverKa)
18.15 With verb stems ending in a dental stop (7/8/ ), that dental stop disappears
before x in the perfect:
dvitw complete &vii(t)- T\VuUK- TWuKa
TreiGw persuade strert@-/troi8-/Tri@- Tretreik- TETTEIKO
Note especially verbs that have a present in -@w or -ttw (12.27):
&pydlw/a&pydttwm cdpyods-/dpyot- nhpyoK- TpyoKa
fit together
KopIleo convey KOUTS- KEKOUIK- KEKOLIKO
vouileo believe VOUTS- VEVOLIK- VEVOLIKO
ovouala name OVOUGS- GOVOUAK- GVOMAKA
TAaTtw mould TAGA- TTETTAQK- TETAAKA
18.16-19 x-Perfects, Aspirated Perfects, Stem Perfects: Stems 205
18.16 Verb stems ending in a resonant stay unchanged before the added x. Some
examples (note especially verbs that have a present in -AAow or in -aive/-aipo,
-eiveo/-eipe, -Uveo/-Gpw, 12.28):
ayyéAAw report ayyea- nyyéaAk- HyyeAKo
aipoo lift c&p- TpK- T1pka
Note that v before x is spelled y (angma , 1.29 n.1):
paives show pnv-/pav- TEDaYK- TEMAYKO
Manyliquid-stem verbsuse the zero-grade variant of the verb stem in the perfect.
This usually results in a stem with & ( 1.53):
Sia-pbeipw destroy ptep-/p8op-/p8ap- Si-epbapx- S1-EpbapKa
oTéAAw dispatch oteA-/oTGA- gOTOAK- OTAAKG
Several other verbs add n between the resonantandx: for such verbs, > 18.24.
18.17 Someverbs with a present stem endingin a nasal do not have that consonantin the perfect(it
was notoriginally part of the verb stem, but a suffix added to the present stem, and then
sometimes extended to other stems; 12.30 n.2):

KAiveo cause to lean KAi(v)- KEKAIK- KEKAIKO
Kpive pick out, decide, judge _ «pi(v)- KEKpIK- KEKpIKa
(éx)tive pay, atone te1-/Ti- TETEIK- (2x)tétTEIka
18.18 Observethe perfect of teive stretch

teiveo stretch tev-/t&- (<*tn- 1.86) Tet&K- rTéTAKa
The Aspirated Perfect - Verb Stems Endingin a Labial or Velar Stop
18.19 With most verb stemsthat end in a labial stop (11/B/9), the perfect stem uses the
aspirated version ofthat labial stop: o (those with o remain unchanged). There are
often vowel changes between the perfect stem and other tense stemsas well. Some
examples:
Without vowel change (between the perfect and present stems):
TpiBw rub tpip-/tpip- TETPIQ- TETPIOA
yeaa write YPaQ- YEYPAQ- yeypaga

KOTTo hit KOTT- KEKOQ- KEKOga
ditttes throw éitr- Epplo- EPpIpa
With vowelchange (often with 0, 1.56):
KAgTTTw steal KAetr-/KAoTr-/KAaTr- KEKAOQ- KEKAoga
AauBave get, take AnB-/AGB- eiAng- (11.47) eiAnga
Tréutre send Trewtt-/ToOpT- TETTOUQ- TETTOUGO
Tpépw nourish, rear tpeq-/tpog-/tPaQ- TETPOQ- TETPOOA
18.20 Similarly, with most verb stemsthat end in a velar stop (x/y/y), the perfect stem
uses the aspirated version of that velar stop: x (those with y remain unchanged).
Again, there are often vowel changes between the perfect stem and other tense
stems as well. Some examples:
Siw@Kw chase Siwk- SeS10X- Sediaxoa
&yo lead, bring ay- nix- Xa
a&pxo begin, rule &pX- TIPX- TIPXa
puAdttw guard QuAaK- TEQUAQY- TEQUAAYa
TATTW array, appoint Tay- TETAY- TETAKA
Of the -vum verbs that have verb stems ending in a velar stop ( 12.39),
only Seixkvup: has a regular aspirated perfect in classical Greek (for
(av)otyvup1, 18.25):
Seikvupi show Selk- Sedelx- Sede1ya
With vowelchange (often with 0, 1.56):
Aayxaveo obtain by lot Any-/Aay- eiAny- (11.47) eiAnyo
pépw carry, bring pep-, évex-/évox-/éyK-, oiT- évnvox- (11.48) évtvoya
ouA-Aéyw gather Aey-/Aoy-, eitt-, p-/p1N- -E1hox- ouveiAoya
Stem Perfects
18.21 Stem perfects have a perfect stem which, apart from the reduplication,is identical
to the verb stem. Manyof these verbs have vowel change between the perfect stem
and other tense stems (ablaut, 1.51-6; the o-grade is frequently used in the
perfect stem). Several active stem perfects correspond to a middle-passive present
(with a change-of-state meaning, 35.17; the meanings of these perfects are
given below).
18.21 x-Perfects, Aspirated Perfects, Stem Perfects: Stems 207
The most commonstem perfects are the following:

&trdAAupan perish oA(e)- dAwA- (11.48) (&tr) dAwAa have perished
Ttyyvupai become tny-/Way- TETINY- tetya be stuck
solid
pevyo flee geuy-/piy- TEMEUY- TEMEUYO
With vowel change (often with 0, > 1.56):
é&Kkouw hear &Ko(u)- &KtKo- (11.48) &xt}Koa (<*&xnKkofa))

(<*&xor-)
&troxteiveo kill Ktev-/ktov-/ - KTov- &TEKTOVa
KTOV-
yiyvoua become, yev(n)-/yov-/ s-yeyov- yéyova be (born)
be born yv-
SiagpGeipouai perish gbep-/pbop-/ -EpBop- SiepGopa have lost
peap- one s wits
éyelpouai wake up éyep-/éyop-/ éypnyop- (11.48) éypiyopa be awake
eyp-
EPXOUAL ZO, come Epy-, EAcu6-/ eAnAué- éAnAuba have come
en(U)0-, ( 11.48)
ei-/1-
Aavédve go And-/AGE- AcAné- AEANa
unnoticed
Acitrw leave Aeitt-/Aoitr-/ AeAoitr- AEA
Aitr-
palvouarage unv-/pav- MEUnv- weunva be furious
TdoXo suffer tevé-/trov8-/ tretrov6- TETIOVER
Tad-
teifoucbelieve, Te18-/tr018-/Tri8- Tretro18- tétroida believe, trust
obey
Otyyvuuar break ony-/pwy-/ éppwy- Eppwya be torn
(intr.) pa&y-
oTpegoual turn otpeg-/ EOTPOQ- Eotpoga have
around otpog-/ turned around
OTPAQ-
tiktw give birth tek-/ToK-/TK- TETOK- TETOKO
paivouaappear, gry-/pav- TETV- tépnva have appeared
seem
Note 1: There is no real difference between aspirated perfects and stem perfects if the verb
stem itself ends in a -9 or -y already. E.g. with ypdqw (verb stem ypa&q-), pf. ind. yéypag-a.
Irregular Stem Perfects: Zoixa, ciwfa, o1Sa
18.22 The verbs goixa be likely and eiwa be accustomed, of which no corresponding
presentsexist, are conjugatedlike other stem perfects, except for the following points:
no subjunctive or optative forms of these verbs occur;
zoixa hasparticiple eixes, -dtos (next to goikas, -dTos); it has infinitive cixéven
next to éo1kévan;
the infinitive of ciw®a (eiaGévar) is very rare.
18.23 The verb oi8a know, of which no corresponding present exists, has an irregular
conjugation, built on the verb stem ¢i8-/oi8-/18- (<*Fe18-/*Fo18-/*F18-):
E.g. 1 sg. pf. ind. oi8-a, 2 sg. oica (<*oi5-8a, 1.89), 2 pl. iote (<*15-Te); 2 sg.
imp. io@: (<*i8-61); 1 sg. plpf. 75-1 (ei8- with augment); inf. i8-évan.
Full forms are given in the overview, 18.4. Note that unlike most perfects,
oida has imperative forms (as well as subjunctive and optative forms, which are
also absent from manyperfects). It behavesin all respects like a present.
Further Particulars
18.24 A numberof verbs that in other tenses use a verb stem which ends in a consonant, have
a perfect stem with an additional n. For example:
stems ending in a dentalor velarstop:
&uaptaves miss, err &uapt- TuapTnk- Tucetnka (cf. aor. Huapt-ov)
txhave, hold éx-/ox- goXT]K- Zoxnka (cf. aor. #-oy-ov)
uavOdve learn, understand a&0- pepadnk- usuaOnxa (cf. aor. g-pad-ov)

eupioxe find cup- nupnk- nupnka (cf. aor. nup-ov)
even stay, (a) wait UEv- Wepevnk- yevevrka (cf. pres. pév-co)
véuw deal out VEeU- VEVEUTK- vevépnka (cf. pres. véu-c)
av&dve, at&w increase avg- nugnk- nvEnka (cf. pres. at§-w)
Eyoo boil éy- Awnk- Hwnxea (cf. pres. fy-a)
18.25 The verbs é&v-otyw (also: dvoiyvup) open and tpdttw do, act have both an aspirated perfect
(dvéwoyxa and trétrpaya, respectively), and a stem perfect (dvéwya and tétpaya, respec-
tively). étrpaya is typically construed with an object (have done something), tétpaya with
an adverb (have fared a certain way).
For the reduplication in évéwya/davéwya, 11.40.
18.26-7 Mixed Perfects (S¢501Ka, ZoTnKa, TEBvnka and BéBnka) 209
18.26 Several verbs have both x-perfect and stem perfect forms. The x-perfects are a later develop-
ment, and tend to have a different meaning, especially if the stem perfects correspond to
a middle-passive present with a change-of-state meaning (for full discussion, 35.17):
&1r-OAAupt destroy (verb stem 6A(e)-)
with act. a7déAAupI x-pf. &troA@AEKa: have destroyed X
with mid. émdéAAuyanperish stem pf. éaréAwda: be ruined
51a-pbeipw destroy (verb stem obep-/pbop-/pbap-)
with act. S:ap8eipw x-pf. SiépPapKa and stem pf. S1épGopa: have destroyed X
with mid. Si:ap8eipopucn perish stem pf. S1ép8opa: have lost one s wits, be corrupted
(Homerandlate prose only)
éytipw wake, rouse (verb stem éysp-/éyop-/éyp-)
with act. éyeipe (in later Greek:) x-pf. 2yiyepxa: have woken X
with mid. éyeipouai wake up stem pf. éyptyyopa: be awake (in later Greek also mp.pf.
(intr.) éytyyeppat)
gaivw show (verb stem onv-/pav-)

with act. paiveo (rare) x-pf. tépayKxa: have shown, have caused X to
appear
with mid. paivouan appear, stem pf. 1épnva: have appeared
seem
Mixed Perfects (Sé501Kka, goTnKa, TéfvnKa and PéEBrnKa)
Overview of Forms
18.27 The following perfects have some distinct forms:

Sé501Ka fear (verb stem Se1-/S01-/8i-; no corresponding present occursin classi-
cal Greek): perfect stems Se501k-/5e(1)81-;
(a1ro)OvijoKe die (verb stem @&v-/Ovn-): perfect stems teOvnK-/tebva- be dead;
iotapor come to stand (verb stem otn-/ot&-): perfect stems éotnk-/éota- stand;
Baiveo go, walk (verb stem Bn-/Ba(v)-): perfect stems BeBnx-/BeBa- stand (firm).
These verbs have regular x-perfect forms built on the long variant of the stem.
Other formsoccur, however, which are built on a short variant of the stem, and use
slightly different endings. The following tables give the most frequently occurring
short-stem forms (note that these perfects, unlike most active perfects described
above, have imperative forms):
Se5o1ka fear té8vnka be dead goTnKa stand BéBnxa stand

(firm)
(no present) (dcro)8vioKe die iotauoi come to stand Baive go, walk
stem 8¢(1)81- stem te6va- stem éota- stem BeBa-
prim. ind. 1 pl. Sédipev, 3 pl. te8vaoi(v) 2 pl. eotate, 3 pl. BeBaor(v)
(pf.) 2 pl. dé5rt¢, 3 pl. éot&ori(v)
3 pl. SeSiaow
also: 1 sg. 8 81a,
3 sg. Sedtev
sec.ind. 1 pl. é5é8ipev, 3 pl. étébvacav 3 pl. Eotacav
(plpf.) 2 pl. é5 8ite,
3 pl. 25 81(e)oav
also: sg. @5eSiew,
éSeSileis, 25eSie1(v)
subj. 3 sg. SeSin,
3 pl. SSi«or(v)
opt. 1 sg. teOvainv,
3pl. teOvatiev,etc.
imp. 2 sg. 5 d161 2 sg. Tebvath, 2 sg. Eotahh,
3 sg. TebvaToo 3 Sg. EOTATW
inf. SeS1évart teObvavat éoTavat
ppl. SEd106, -OTOS Teves, -OTOS EOTOS, -COTOS BeBaos, -Tos
Sed1vuia, -vias TEbvEDo, -WOTS EOTHOA, -WOT/S BeBdoa, -wons
55106, -OTOS TeOveds, -OTOS EOTOS, -COTOS BeBoos, -dTos
Particulars
18.28 In the indicative (perfect and pluperfect):

Most formsare built on the long form of the stem (Se5o01x-/te@vnk-/ oTnx-), and
conjugated like x-perfects. Thus pf. ind. 5é801Ka, Sé501Kas, Sé501Ke(v); TEBVIKG,
etc.; ZoTnKa,etc., plpf. @Sedoixeiv, 25eSoixeis, SeSoixe; EteOviyxery,etc.; EoTrhKetv,
etc.
Someforms, however,especially 3 pl. forms, are built on the short form of the stem
(Se51-/te@va-/éota-): thus. e.g. pf. ind. 5 81-yev, S 81-Te, Sedi-aor(v); teGvaor(v)
(<*teOvd-aot); tot&oi(v) (<*éotd-ao1).
However,alternative x-formsare often found for the short-stem formsas well, e.g.
SeSoixauev, TebvryKaor(v), etc.
Note 1: In the pluperfect of éotnka, x-forms regularly begin with ei- (with visible augment)
rather than é-: for example, ciot?}kn (next to otyKn), ciothKeoav (next to othKecav/Eotacav).
18.29-32 Mixed Perfects (8¢501ka, EoTnKka, TEOvNKa and BEBnxa) 211
18.29 Short-stem forms of the subjunctive and optative are rare (the subj. and opt. are
rare altogether), although optative te@vainv (etc.) does occur occasionally.
18.30 Imperatives (very infrequent) are built on the short variant of the stem.
The second singular active imperative ends in -61: e.g. 5¢81-61, Té@va-61, EoTa-61.
18.31 The infinitive is normally built on the short variant of the stem, and endsin -évan
(SeS1éven) or -van (teBvavan, Eotdvar). However, x-forms are also found alongside
the short-stem forms, e.g. Se5oikévan, TebvnKéevan, EoTHKEvan, BeBrKEvan.
18.32 Theparticiple is normally built on the short variant of the stem (e.g. 5e5100s, -dTos),
and has someirregular forms:
with té@vnxa: masc. Tebvees, -Tos; fem. tebvedoa, -wons; neut. teOveds, -Tos;
with gotnxa: masc. éotws, -tos; fem. iotd&oa, -aons; neut. otTas, -@TOos;
with BéBnxa: masc. BeBors, -@tos; fem. BeBdoa, -wons; neut. BeBas, -dTos.
However, alternative x-forms are also found alongside the short-stem forms,e.g.
SEdoiKkas, TEBvKwS, EOTNKS, PERrKas, etc.
Note 1: The verb yiyvouc become, be born occasionally has a similarly formedpf. ppl. in
poetry: yeyas, fem. yeydoa.
19
The Perfect: Middle-Passive
The Perfect Middle-Passive Stem
19.1 All middle-passive perfect stems include a reduplication (just like active perfect
stems), either in the form of a consonant + ¢, or formed in the same way as the
augment. For the rules governing reduplication, 11.43-8.
19.2 Apart from reduplication, perfect middle-passive stems have no additions to the
verb stem. Thuse.g. with the verb traiSeU educate (verb stem traidev-), the perfect
middle-passive stem is tretraideu-; with Seixvupi show (verb stem Se1k-), the perfect
middle-passive stem is 5e8e1k-.
19.3 With verb stemsthat occurin different ablaut vowel-grades, the middle-passive perfect stem
normally showsoneofthe following:
e-grade, sameas the present stem butdifferent from the active perfect stem: e.g. with téutre
send, pf. act. stem tretoug-, pf. mp. stem tretreutt-; with Agitro leave, pf. act. AeAoitt-, pf. mp.
stem AsAeitr-;
in somecases, particularly with stems in liquids: zero-grade, normally resulting in a stem
with & ( 1.53, 1.87); different from the present stem, but sameas the active perfect stem:
e.g. with otéAAw, pf. act. stem éotaAk-, pf. mp. stem éoToA-.
Conjugation of the Perfect Middle-Passive
Overview of Forms
19.4 The perfect middle-passive is conjugated as follows:

19.4 Conjugation of the Perfect Middle-Passive 213
verb stems endingin 1, u, verb stems endingin a,¢, verb stems ending in v
diphthongsorliquids oorn
Traideueo educate TIuaw honour paivoual appear, seem
stem tretTraideu- stem Tet1un- stem trepav-
prim.ind. sg. 1 tetraideupa TETILNYAL TEQAOUAL

(pf.) 2 wetraiSeucar TeTtipnoal Tépavoat
3. WetraiSeutar Tetipnrat TEMQAVTA
pl. 1 emoadetueta TETIEN MEF Trepdopeta
2 mTetraidsevo8_e Tetipnosve TrEpavGe
3 wetraiSeuvtar Tetipnvtat Tepacpévor cici(v)
sec. ind. sg. 1 étretroiSevpnv eTETIUNUNY éTTEQaoUnV
(plpf.) 2 étetraiSeuco éteTtiunoo éTreMaVaO
3s EtreTraideuTO ETETIUNTO ETTEMAVTO
pl. 1 éretronBetpeta ETETIUNECE ETTEQAOLEGA
2 =étretraideuoe eTEeTIunoGe eTre~avee
3 étretraideuvto eTETIUNVTO TEMAGHEVOL Noav
subj. sg. 1 tetraiSeupévos @ TETIUNMEVOS @ TEMpacpévos @
2 fis Ns fis
3 n q n
pl. 1 wetoSeupévor adpev TETIUNHEVOL GEV TE~acpévot GuLrEV
2 TTE TTE TE
3 @o1(v) @ot(v) @o1(v)
opt. sg. 1 tretraideupevos einu TETIUNMEVOS Ein TIEPAOMEVOS ~ _EITV
2 E1T|S EIN|S E1N|S
3 Ein Ein ein
pl. 1 tetraSeupévor eivev TETIUNMEVO! Eig TTEPACHEVOL EIMIEV
2 cite cite cite
3 elev eiev ratay
imp. sg. 2 tretratdeuco Tetiunoo TEMAVTO
3 tretTrardevoba TeTipnoba Tregaveoo
pl. 2 wematdevobe tetipnode Trépavée
3. tretTrardeucbwv TeTiIpNnoBoav Tregavoov
inf. TeTraisetobat TeTIPTOAA1 Tepavean
ppl. miasc. TTETTAISEUPEVOS, -OU TETIUNMEVOS, -OU TIEPAGHEVOS, -OU
fem. TreTra1Seupevn, -N5 TETIUNMEVN, -T15 TEMACHEVN, -1S
neut. TrEeTTAISEVUPEVOY, -OU TETIUNMEVOV, -OU TIEPAGLEVOV, -OU
214 19.4-5 The Perfect: Middle-Passive
verb stems ending in verb stems ending in verb stems ending in

labial stops velar stops dental stops
tpipeo rub Se{kvupt show Kopileo convey
stem tetpip- stem Sede1k- stem Kexoyid-
prim. ind. sg. 1 TETPIUat Sederyyar KEKOUIOUat

(pf.) 2 TETPIVaL SedeEan KEKOUIOAL
3 TETPITITAL SedeikTat KEKOUIOTOL
pl. 1 TeTpippeba Sedeiyyeda KeKopiopEeta
2 TETpIPbe Sede1yOe KEKOUIOPE
3 TeTpIppEevot ciot(v) SeSeryyevor cioi(v) KeKoulopevorcici(v)
sec. ind. sg. 1 ETETPINNV ededeiyunv EKEKOMIOUNY
(plpf.) 2 ETETPIWO E5 5E1E0 EKEKOMIOO
3 ETETPITITO ESESELKTO EKEKOMIOTO
pl 1 ETETpippEba ededelypeta EKEKOMIOEDR
2 ETETPIOVE ed de1xOe EKEKOMLOGE
3 TETPILMEVOL Oa SeSeryuevor Noav KEKOMIOYEVOL OAV
subj. sg. 1 TETPIULEVOS @ Sederyuevos = KEKOMIOLEVOS @
2 fs tis is
3 1 1 q
pl. 1 TETPIULEVOL GEV SeSerypevol DEV KEKOUIOEVOL @ULEV
2 TTE TTE TyTE
3 a@oi(v) aoi(v) @o1(v)
opt. sg. 1 TETPIUMEVOS EI Sedelryuevos inn KEKOMIOMEVOS ENV
2 eins eins eins
3 Ein Ein ein
pl 1 TETPIUWEVO! _ Eilev SeSeryuevor eipev KEKOUIOMEVO! EINE
2 eiTE cite cite
3 eiev eiev eiev
imp. sg. 2 TETPIYO Sede1f0 KEKOUIGO
3 TETpipbw SedeixGoo KEeKopio8a
pl. 2 TETpIPbe Sede1yOe KEKOUIOPE
3 TEeTpigbav Sedeixov KEKOpIioPav
inf. TETPIPoal dedeixGa KEKOLIoPal
ppl. masc. TETPIUMEVOS, -OU Sederyyevos, -ou KEKOUIOLEVOS, -OU
fem. TETPILMEVN, -NS Sederyuevn, -15 KEKOMIOMEVT), -15
neut. TETPIUMEVOV, -OU Sederyyevov, -ou KEKOUIOLEVOY, -OU
Endings
19.5 All perfect middle-passive forms are athematic: endings follow immediately upon
the stem. The regular endingslisted in 11.20-33 are used in the perfect middle-
passive, but the following points should be noted.
19.6-11 Perfect Middle-Passive Stems 215
19.6 Endings beginning with of (e.g. second person plural -o@¢ or infinitive -o6a1) lose
their o with all perfect middle-passive stems except those ending in a vowel or
diphthong ( 1.94): e.g. tretraiSeu-o8e but éppig-6e (forthis latter form, also > 19.7).
19.7 The final sound of perfect middle-passive stems ending in a consonant often
changesby assimilation ( 1.88-93) to the ending: e.g. BéBAap-ya, BéBAaTr-To1
with stem BeBAaB-. For an overview of such changes, 19.10.
19.8 The third person plural indicative exists as a synthetic (single) form only with
perfect middle-passive stems ending in a vowel/diphthong (e.g. étretraiSeuvto);
with all other verbs, periphrastic forms are used (the perfect middle-passive
participle and a form ofeipi be, +17.5-7), e.g. SeSerypevor eioi(v).
Note 1: For the Ionic 3 pl. ind. endings -aton (pf.) and -ato (plpf.), >25.39.
19.9 Middle-passive subjunctives and optatives do not exist as synthetic (single)

forms: in their place periphrastic forms are used ( 17.5-7).
Overview of Middle-Passive Perfect Stem Changes Before

Different Endings
19.10 Thefollowing table presents an overview of the changesof the final sound of a verb
stem before different perfect middle-passive endings:
verb stems ending with endings beginning with

o T (o)0
vowels/diphthongs/liquids no change nochange nochange no change

e.g. TaLdeu- TreTraiSeupan Tetratdevoar tetraiseutar tetraidevode
v (-up- or) -op- no change no change -v@-
e.g. Pav- TEPACHAL TEPaVOAl TEPAVTAI TrE~avde
labial stops -Mp- -w- -1TT- - 6-
e.g. Toip- TETPILPat TETPIYOaL TETPITITAL TETpIOBE
velar stops -YH- -§- -KT- -x6-
e.g. Seik- S Seryyat Sedeiar S d5eikTal Sede1xGe
dental stops -Op- -o- -oT- -o6-
e.g. weud- EWEUCLAL EWEUOMIL EWEUOTOL eweuode
Perfect Middle-Passive Stems
Stem Formation
19.11 Verb stems endingin 1, u, or a diphthong do not change. Some examples:

verb verb stem perfect mp. stem 1 sg. ind.

Toauseuw educate Tra1deu- TETTALOEU- TETTAISEULAL
xpiw anoint Xpl- KEXpI- Kexpipan (also Kéypiopo, 19.32)
Auw loosen, release AU-/AU- AeA- AATYAN
KAT|}o/KAgio close KA-/KAEI- KEKAEI- KekAeipan (also KéxAeiopa, 19.32)
Traue stop Trau- TrETTAU- TETTAULOL
Kpouw strike Kpou(ca)- Kekpou(c)- KéKpoupa, also KéKpoucual
Note 1: With monosyllabic stems which have long t in the present stem, the perfect middle-
passive has a stem with short U; also >14.11 n.1, 18.10 n.1.
19.12 These verbs add all the endings as normal, including -o@e and -o@a. There are
synthetic forms ( 17.5) for the whole conjugation except subjunctives and
optatives (where periphrastic formsare always used).
19.13. With verb stems endingin n/e, n/&, w/o (ie. contract verbs), the long variantof the
verb stem is used (11.11):
pres. stem ¢: pf. mp. stem 7;
pres. stem & (or n): pf. mp. stem n (but a after ¢, 1 or p);
- pres. stem o: aor. stem w; a few verbs with a verb stem ending in w have
a similarly formed perfect middle-passive.
Some examples:
verb verb stem perfect mp. stem 1 sg.ind.
toige make, do Troin-/Troig- TTETTOIN- TEeTOINUal
tryéouai lead, consider hyn-/nye- nyn- hynyuo
Tina honour TIN -/T1We- TETIUN- TeTipnpat
VIKa® WIN vikT]-/VIK&- VEVIKT]- VEVIKNMQL
aitidoyal accuse aitia-/aitia- TTIG- Hriauat
SnAdw makeclear SNAw-/SnAo- SeSnAw- SeSTAwyaL
EVAVTIOOUAL Oppose Evavtio-/EvavTio- TWvavti- TNVAVTICOLaL
xptjouai use, need XPn- KEXPT/- KEXPT)]MAL
TITPHOKwW wound TPw- TETPW- TETPOOPAL
19.14 With several -41 verbs that have variant verb stems ending in 1/6, n/e or w/o
( 12.37), the short variant of the verb stem is used in the perfect middle-passive:
iotnut make stand, set up otn-/oTa- éota- (11.48) EOTOMAL
inpi send, let go f-lé- ei- (11.47) cian
Sidapl give dw-/80- d d0- dedsouar
But triptrpnur uses the long verb stem in the perfect middle-passive:
tiptenu burn Tpn-/Ttpa- TTETTPN|- TETpNat
And tiénuhas the irregular perfect middle-passive stem te@e1- (cf. pf. act. Téeika,
18.12; note, however, that forms of xeipa are often used as the perfect passive of
tiénui, 12.43 n.1):
tidnur put, place 8n-/@e- teet- TéPeat
19.15 A few verbsin -d&and-éw that originally had a verb stem endingin o (or weretreated as such,
13.18) have that o in the middle-passive perfect (except before endings which themselves
begin with o):
aidgopatfear (<*aidéo-(y)ouor, >12.29n.1) pf. mp. ind. jSeopo1
TEeAéwfinish (<*teAgo-(y)o, 12.29 n.1) pf. mp. ind. tetéAeopan (but tetéAeom<*-E0-ca1)
Also note verbs in -évvuyn and -&vvupi (which have a stem in o):
&upievvupar dress oneself (<*-éovupar) pf. mp. ind. 7jieopcn(for the reduplication,
11.57)
For Zyvmoua, tétpnopa, etc., which havea parasitic o, >19.32 below.
19.16 (étr)ovéw praise, whichin all other stems uses a short vowel(e.g. aor. jWveoa, pf. act. fvexa, 715.19,
18.13), has a long stem vowel in the middle-passive perfect: (@1)hvnqya.
19.17 A few verbsin -c« (also -aic) and -éw that originally had a verb stem ending in ¢ ( 13.20, 15.20,
18.14) have a middle-passive perfect in -aupa and -eupon, respectively:
Kao (also xaio) set on fire (<*k&fya) pf. mp. ind. xéxauyat (<*kéx&yuan)
TrAEw sail (<*tAEFw) pf. mp. ind. métmAgupon (<*tréTrAefya)
trvéw blow (<*trvéfo) pf. mp. ind. wétrveupon (<*trétrverpa)
19.18 These verbs addall the endings as normal, including -o@e and -o@ai. There are
synthetic forms ( 17.5) for the whole conjugation except subjunctives and
optatives (where periphrastic forms are always used).
Verb Stems Ending in a Labial Stop
19.19 With mostverb stemsthat endin a labial stop (11/B/), that stop changes before the
first sound of the ending, in the following way:
labial + p > py: e.g. with tpifw, verb stem tpiB-/tpip-, pf. mp. stem tetpiB-
(both 7 and 7 are found), 1 sg. pf. mp. ind. tétpiypor (<*tétTpIB-yo1), nom.
sg. masc. ppl. tetpippevos (<*tetp1B-yEvos);
labial + o > w (only -oaand -oo,for -(o)e and -(o)8a1 see below): e.g. 2 sg.pf.
mp. ind. tétpiyau, 2 sg. plpf. mp. ététpiwo;
labial + + > tt: 3 sg. pf. mp. ind. tétpitto(<*téTPIB-Tax);
labial + @ > p@ (-ofe and -o@alose o): e.g. pf. mp. inf. tetpipGaa/tetpipFan
(<*tetpiB-(c) Aan).
Some examples:
Tpipa rub TpiB-/tpiB- TeTpip-/teTpIB- TéTPIEYOL
ypapa write YP&Q- YEypag- yeypappan
Acitrw leave Aeitr-/Aoir-/Attr- AgAentt- AEAgIpua

BAdtrte harm, damage BAG&B- BeBAaB- BéBAaupat
ditttes throw éitr- éppitr- ZOPIUEaL
Patrtw bury 8a- TEbag- Téfaupat
19.20 If a stem has a u preceding the labial consonant, and the ending starts with y, the resulting
combination pup is simplified to up: e.g. with tréutre, pf. mp. stem tretreutr-, 1 sg. pf. mp.ind.
TTETTEMUOL.
19.21 These verbs always use a periphrastic form in the third person plural indicative
and all subjunctives and optatives, e.g. tetpippévor eioiv 3 pl. pf. mp. ind.
Verb Stems Ending in a Velar Stop
19.22 With verb stemsthat end in a velar stop (x/y/x), that stop changesbefore thefirst
soundof the ending, in the following ways:
- velar + wp > yp: e.g. with Seixvuyn, verb stem Seix-, 1 sg. pf. mp. inf. SéSerypyou
(<*8é5e1k-par), nom. sg. masc. ppl. pf. mp. SedSerypévos (<*Se5e1K-pEvos);
- velar + o > (only -omand -oo, for -(o)@e and -(o)@a1 see below): e.g. 2 sg. pf.
mp. ind. 5é8e1 cu, 2 sg. plpf. mp. é5 5e1 0;
- velar + t > xt: e.g. with tdttTw, verb stem ta&y-, 3 sg. pf. mp. ind. tétaxto
(<*tétTay-Ta1);
- velar + @ > x@ (o is lost from -ofe and -o@a1): e.g. pf. mp. inf. SedetyPon
(<*8£5e1k-(o) Pan).
Some examples:
&yw lead, bring oy- ny- Typo
&pxo begin, rule a&py- TIPX- TIpyyat
TAEKw plait, weave TAEK- TETTAEK- TETTAEYWal
Note especially (almost all) verbs that have a present in -ttw/-ttoyo1 ( 12.27),
a few in -@w, and several in -vuu:
TAaTTw array, appoint Tay- TETAY- TETAYUAL
puAdtta guard QUAGK- TTEQUAGK- TTEQUAGYUa
aivittouai speak in riddles aiviy- qWiy- Wiypou
Seikvupi show Selk- Sedety- SeSeryyar
19.23 If a stem has a y preceding the velar consonant, and the endingstarts with yp, the resulting
combination yyu is simplified to yu: e.g. with éAéyyw test, prove, pf. mp. stem éAnreyy-
( 11.48), 1 sg. pf. mp. ind. éafAeypou.
and all subjunctives and optatives, e.g. Se5erypévoreioiv 3 pl. pf. mp. ind.
19.25 With verb stems ending in a dental stop (1/8/8):

- dental disappears beforeo, e.g. 2 sg. pf. mp. ind. Zyeuoa(<*éweud-oa1), 2 sg. pf.
imp. mp. 2weuoo (<*#weus-oo);
- or becomes o itself before other sounds, e.g. 1 sg. pf. mp. ind. tyevopa
(<*wevd-yar), 3 sg. Eyevotar (<*épevs-Tat).
Some examples:
wevSouanlie weud- éweud- EVEL
Treifoo persuade Tre18-/tro18-/tri8- -Tretre16- TTETTELOUAL
Note especially most verbs that have a present in -@a/-Coyoa, and a few in -ttw
( 12.27):
&yowvilouacontend, fight &yavid- fhywvid- TY@VIoOpat
KopiCo convey KOUTO- KEKOUIO- KEKOUIOUAL
G&ppdlw/apydottw fit together dppod-/a&ppot- pyot- Tpyoopal
TAdTT mould, shape TAGEO- TreTtAad- TETTAGOaL
and all subjunctives and optatives, e.g. éyevopEévor cioiv 3 pl. pf. mp. ind.
19.27 Verb stems ending in a liquid consonant (A/p) stay unchanged (except for
reduplication) before the endings (e.g. with d&yyéAAw, verb stem d&yyea-, 1 sg. pf.
mp.ind. 7jyyeA-pau). Note that o is lost from the endings -o@e and -o6a(e.g. with
&yyéArw, pf. mp. inf. jyyeAGan). Note especially verbs that have a present in -AAw
or in -aipw/-eipw (12.28).
Some examples:
pupw mix, defile oup- TTEMUP- Tépuppat
ayyéedAw report ayyea- TyyeA- AyyeAuant
ToiKkiAAw embroider TTOIKYA- TTETTOIKIA- TetTroikiAual
Kafaipw cleanse Kabcp- KEKabap- KeKaBapyat
aipe lift ap- Tip- Tpyan
Manyliquid-stem verbs use the zero-grade variant of the verb stem in the perfect
middle-passive. This usually results in a stem with & (1.56):
Sia-pbeipw destroy 8_ep-/ptop-/ d1-epbap- d1-Epbapyat
peap-
oTreipw SOW otrep-/oTrap- éotrap- EOTTAPUAL
otéAAw dispatch oteA-/oTGA- gOTOA- EOTAAUOL
19.28 With verb stems endingin v:

- vt+p>up: e.g. with dg0ve sharpen (verb stem d tv-) 1 sg. pf. mp. ind. S§uppan
(<*@ uv-yor), nom. sg. masc. ppl. pf. mp. a&uppevos (<*aEuv-pévos). Most of
these verbs, however, get an irregular perfect mp. stem ending in o before (i.e.
v +p gives op), notably paives (verb stem pnv-/pav-): 1 sg. pf. mp. ind. tépacpan,
nom.sg. masc. ppl. pf. mp. tepaopeévos (ou was probably imported from dental
stems by analogy, 19.25).
v stays unchangedbefore other sounds:e.g. 2 sg. pf. mp. ind. tépavoan, pf. mp.
inf. tepadvGai. (Note that o is lost from the endings -o e and -o @a1).
Some examples:
verb verb stem pf. mp. stem 1 sg. ind.
aicxuvoyon be ashamed aioyiv- foxuv- ToYuLat
paiva show pnv-/pav- TEMaV- TEPACHAI
Suva make pleasant Hdiv- tduv- fSuopat
onuaives signify onuav- OEOTNMAV- OEOTIUACHAL
19.29 Verbs with a stem endingin a resonantalwaysuse a periphrastic form in the third
person plural indicative, and all subjunctives and optatives, e.g. jyyeApEévoreioiv,
Tepaopévor cioiv 3 pl. pf. mp. ind.
19.30 Someverbs with a present stem endingin v do not havethe nasal in the perfect (it was not
originally part of the verb stem, but a suffix added to the present stem, and then extendedto
someother stems; 12.30 n.2):
verb verb stem pf. mp. stem 1 sg. ind.

KAtvew cause to lean KAi(v)- KEKAI- KEKAILOL
Kpiveo pick out, decide, judge xpi(v)- KEKI- KEKPIUAL
19.31 Observe the perfect middle-passive of teiveo stretch:

telveo stretch tev-/T&- TETO- TéETOPAL
(<*tn- 1.86)
19.32 Several verbs with verb stems ending in a vowel mayget a parasitic o between stem and
ending in the perfect middle-passive (also often in the aorist passive, 14.27). Whetherthis
parasitic o is used in a particular verb may vary from authorto author, although some verbs
always haveit. For example:
verb verb stem pf mp. stem. 1 sg. ind.
ylyvaoke know, recognize yvo- eyvoo- EYVOOUAL
EAkw draw, drag éAk(t)- eiAkuo- eTAKUGUAL
KAtjo/KAEio close KAN-/KAE1- KekAei(o)- KEKAEINAL OF KEKAEIOUAL
tiptpnu burn Tpn-/Tpa- Tretpn(o)- TETPNYAL OF TéTPNOYAI
owl save ow- oeow(o)- ofoWpal Or ogowopual
19.33 A numberof verbs that in other tenses use a verb stem which ends in a consonant have
a middle-passive perfect stem with an additional n (these verbs also have this n in the perfect
active, 18.24). For example:
stems ending in a dentalor velarstop:
&uaptaves miss, err &uaor- fuaptn- huc&ptnuat (cf. act. huc&pthnKa)

éyw have, hold éx-/ox- éoxn- Eoynuat (cf. act. Zoynka)
uavOdve learn, understand ucé- penadr- ueuaOruant (cf. act. uweucbrnKa)
BovAoyuawant, prefer Boua- BeBouan- BeBouAnuat

véuc deal out VeU- veveyny- vevéunuan (cf. act. vevéunka)
avEdven, at&w increase av g- nugn- nuEnuan (cf. act. nuEnKa)

eyo boil éw- Awn- Ayan(cf. act. hwnKka)
20
The Future Perfect
Formation of the Future Perfect
General
20.1 The future perfect stems (active and middle-passive) are formed by adding o to
the relevant perfect stem:
- active: e.g. with (d&tro)@vjoKxw die (verb stem @&v-/Ovn-), perfect active stem
teOvnk-: future perfect active stem Te@vné-;
- middle-passive: e.g. with ypdgw write (verb stem ypaq-), perfect middle-
passive stem yeypag-: future perfect middle-passive stem yeypay-.
20.2 Active future perfects are conjugated like active futures, e.g. 1 sg. ind. te@vt§a
I will be dead, 2 sg. te@vn ers, inf. te6vnferv, etc. However, moreoften a periphrastic
construction is used ( 20.5 below).
Middle-passive future perfects are conjugated like middle futures,e.g. 1 sg. ind.
yeypawoua, 2 sg. yeypdwer/-n, inf. yeypdweo@au, etc. They normally have passive
meaning (yeypawetonit will have been written).
20.3 For the meanings and usesof the future perfect, 33.46-7.
Future Perfect Active: Particulars
20.4 The active future perfect is very rare. Regularly formed future perfects are
practically confinedto:
iotayoi come to stand, pf. ZoTnKa stand, future perfect éottEw will stand;
and (dro)@vtjoKw die, be killed, pf. té@vnxa be dead, future perfect te8vyEw I will
be dead.
20.5 Moreoften the active future perfect is expressed by a periphrastic construction

( 17.5-7), which combinesthe formsofthe active perfect participle with formsof
the future of cipi be (Eoouc, éoei/-n, ZoT:, etc.). For instance:
with ytyvmoxe know, recognize (pf. yvwxa): 3 sg. fut. pf. act. ind. éyvaxKas ~otou
he will have recognized;
20.5-7 Formation of the Future Perfect 223
with d&gaipéw take away (pf. donenxa): 1 pl. fut. pf. act. ind. &pnpnKkdtes éodpeba we
will have taken away;
with yiyvopyan become, be born (pf. yéyova): 3 sg. fut. pf. act. ind. yeyovess Eotan he
will have become;
with Sicgive (pf. 5¢5axKa): fut. pf. act. inf. ZreoGa SeSaxas to be going to have
given.
Future Perfect Middle-Passive: Particulars
20.6 The middle-passive future perfect is more commonthantheactive, althoughstill

rare. Some examples:
verb pf. mp. stem fut. pf. mp. stem 1 sg. ind.
Tina honour TETIUN- TETIUN|O- tetiutoopai will have been
honoured
aipgéw take Hen- tipno- Hpnoouawill have been chosen
( 35.9)
Acittw leave AeAeitr- AEAElW- AcAcivouot will have beenleft
KT&OMaL acquire (x)exTn- (x)extno- KEKTTOONAL, EKTHOOUaL Will
possess
ULVTOKOLA UEuvn- UEUVTnO- ueuvtiooua will remember
remember
TraUe stop TETTOU- TETTXUG- tetravoopuawill have stopped
Aéyw say, speak eipn-/AecAey- eipno-/AcAe - eipnoopar/AcAgEoucn will have
been said
Note 1: Perfect middle-passive stems ending in a short vowel lengthen that vowel in the
future perfect, just as in the future active and middle:
Séw bind SeSe- Sednj0- SeStjoouat
20.7 The middle-passive future perfect may also be expressed by a periphrastic con-
struction ( 17.5-7), which combines the forms of the middle-passive perfect
participle with forms of the future of cipi be (Zoopo, éoei/-n, goto, etc.). For
instance:
with wevSouanlie, be mistaken (pf. Zyeuopan): 3 pl. fut. pf. ind. Eyeuopevor Zoovtan
they will have lied;
with kataotpépopan subdue (pf. katéotpappar): 2 sg. fut. pf. ind. kateotpappEevos
éoe1 you will have subdued;
with tattw array, appoint (pf. mp. tétayyar): 3 sg. fut. pf. mp. opt. goorto
tetaypevn (that) it would have been appointed.
21
The Dual: Verb Forms
Endings
21.1 Dual verb forms(verb forms whosesubjectis a group of exactly two) are formedin
exactly the same wayas verb formstreated in the preceding chapters: they use the
same stems, thematic vowels, augment, optative/subjunctive markers, etc.
The only respect in which theydiffer is their endings.
Like the other endings of the verb ( 11.20-34), dual endings may be divided
between:
- primary endings(used in the indicative present, future and perfect, and in the
subjunctive), secondary endings (used in secondary indicatives - imperfect,
aorist and pluperfect - and in the optative), and imperative endings;
active endings(used in active forms and formsof the @n-/n-aorist) and middle-
passive endings (used in middle-passive forms).
21.2 Overviewof endings:
primary secondary imperative primary secondary imperative
ldu (-uefov)
2du. -tow -Tov -Tov -ofov -ofov -ofov
3 du. -tTov -Tnv -TWV -afov -ofnv -ofwv-
' The 1 du. middle-passive ending -pe@ov is exceedinglyrare, e.g. AeAginpeGov (1 du. pf. pass. ind.
Aeitteo, the two of us have beenleft; Soph. El. 950).
In the second person,the primary, secondary and imperative endingsare identical.
-tnv is also, but rarely and only in poetry, used as a second-person secondary ending.
Note that in the third person middle-passive, the imperative ending of the dualis identical to that of
the plural (11.29)
21.3 Somefurther points:

Thematic dual forms always use the thematic vowel ¢ or (subj.) n, except in the optative
(always o before the 1 of the opt.);
Present-stem dual forms of -y1 verbs are built on the short variant (12.37) of the stem
(e.g. 8150-Tov, not 180-).
21.4 For the endings of dual participles, 10.1.

21.5-7 Examples of Dual Forms 225
Examples of Dual Forms

21.5 Examples of dual forms in each of the tense-aspect stems are given below.
21.6 Present stem ( 12):

-w verbs
QUAGTTETOV 2/3 du. pres. act. ind. puAdtt the two ofyou/them guard
2 du. pres. act. imp. guard (you two)!
eTpATTETHV 3 du. impf. act. tedtte the two of them did, acted
é&vnpeiobov 2 du. impf. mid. dvaipew the two ofyou took up for
yourselves
éTréTtav ylyvnosov 2/3 du. pres. mid. subj. yiyvouon when the two ofyou/them become
EVSAIMOVOTTOV 2 du. pres. act. opt. eVSaipovew may you two be happy
eUTUXOITHY 3 du. pres. act. opt. eUtTuxéo may the two of them be successful
xaipetov dupa 2: du. pres. act. imp. yaipw greetings to both ofyou
ETIEOBCoV 3 du. pres. mid. imp. étroua the two of them mustfollow
C@vTE nom./acc. du. masc./neut. pres. living
act. ppl. Chew
TIYOULEVOo nom./acc. du. masc./neut. pres. leading, considering
mid. ppl. fyéouo
ylyvouevaiv gen./dat. du. fem. pres. mid. ppl. becoming
yiyvopar
-u verbs
TpoSiSotov 2/3 du. pres. act. ind. rpoSiSap1 the two ofyou/them betray
2 du. pres. act. imp. betray (you two)!
EOTOOV 3 du. pres. act. imp. cipi the two of them must be
TapovToiv gen./dat. du. masc./neut. pres. being present
act. ppl. trépeipn
Note 1: Zotov and étréofoovare also 3 pl. imp.: they must be, they mustfollow ( 21.2 n.3).
21.7 Aorist stem (active and middle, 13):

(pseudo-)sigmatic:
tpkéoatov 2 du. aor. act. ind. d&pxéw the two ofyou sufficed
eeAnodatny 3 du.aor. act. ind. é@éAw the two of them were willing
éverucoOnv 3 du. aor. mid. ind. véuco the two of them divided between them
piAtjoatév pE 2 du. aor. act. imp. g1Ago kiss me (you two)!
Travoaotov 2 du. aor. mid. imp. travopan stop (you two)!
QTOKTEIVAVTE nom./acc. du. masc./neut. aor. having killed
act. ppl. dtroxteives
226 21.7-9 The Dual: Verb Forms
thematic:
&IrEequyeTov 2 du. aor. act. ind. dtrogevywo the two ofyou escaped
eiAgoOnv 3 du. aor. mid. ind. aipgw the two of them chose
éTréTAv 2/3 du. aor. mid. subj. &yo when the two ofyou/them lead
a&ydaynotov (in your/their own interest)
ovK &v yevoiofnv 3 du. aor. mid. opt. yiyvouon the two ofthem could not become
eABeTov 2 du. aor. act. imp. épyouar come (you two)!
AaBopeveo nom./acc. du. masc./neut. aor. having taken for themselves
mid. ppl. AapuBdveo
root:
ebgoOnv 3 du. aor. mid.ind. tiénw the two of them placed in their own
interest
a&vtaTroboitov 2. du. aor. act. opt. dvtatrodidcou1 may you two return the favour
yEeteTov LE 2. du. aor. act. imp. petinut let me go (you two)!
SiadSuvte nom./acc. du. masc./neut. aor. having slipped through
act. ppl. S:105vopor
21.8 Aorist passive stem (8n-/n-aorist, 14):

@n-aorist:
étTav ouprxSijtov 2/3 du. aor. pass. subj. ouppeiyvunar whenever the two ofyou/them are
mixed together
SiaAgxOntov 2 du. aor. pass. imp. SiaAgyouon converse (you two)!
Bacaviotevtow gen./dat. du. masc./neut. aor. pass. having been putto the test
ppl. Bacavifao
n-aorist:
étav ouptrayfitov 2/3 du. aor. pass. subj. ouptyyvup: when the two ofyou/them are
formed
TpagéevTeE nom./acc. du. masc./neut. aor. pass. having been reared
ppl. tpeqa
21.9 Future stem (active and middle, 15):

sigmatic:
OUVOICETOV 2/3 du. fut. act. ind. cuppépw the two ofyou/them will bring
together, benefit
tpootnoeofov 2/3. du. fut. mid. ind. trpototapan the two ofyou/them will stand up
before
émr1d5ei ovte nom./acc. du. masc./neut. fut. about to/in order to display
act. ppl. émSeixvupn
21.9-12 Examples of Dual Forms 227
Attic:
&troAioBov 2/3 du. fut. mid. ind. émdAAupar the two ofyou/them will
perish, go to ground
a&trofaveioBov 2/3 du. fut. mid. ind. &tro8vjoKkw the two ofyou/them will die
21.10 Perfect active stem ( 18):

n-perfect:
SeSpakatov 2/3 du. pf. act. ind. Spcc the two ofyou/them have done
aspirated perfect:
yetetAnpatov 2/3 du.pf. act. ind. petaAapBdve the two ofyou/them have
acquired a share of
stem perfect:
loTov 2/3 du. pf. act. ind. oiSe the two ofyou/them know
2 du. pf. act. imp. know (you two)!
mixed perfect:
TéBvatov 2/3 du. pf. act. ind. (étro)@vjoKxw the two ofyou/them are dead
EoTaTHV 3 du. plpf. act. iotapcn the two of them stood
Sed16Te nom./acc. du. masc./neut. being afraid
pf. act. ppl. S 501Kka
21.11 Perfect middle-passive stem ( 19):

yeyévnobov 2/3 du. pf. mid. ind. yiyvouen the two ofyou/them have
become/been born
d&rypéevoo gopév 1 du. pf. mid. ind. (periphras- the two of us have arrived
tic) dgixvéopan
a&treotepnuevow gen./dat. du. masc./neut.pf. having been robbed of
pass. ppl. &trootepéw
Note 1: As with the endings -ofe and -o6a, the o of the dual ending -o ov drops out in forms
of perfect middle-passive stems ending in a consonant ( 19.6), e.g. &giyBov (<*-iy-o8ov) 2/3
du. pf. mid. ind. the two ofyou/them have arrived.
21.12 Future perfect stem ( 20):
éKTETUT|OEOPOV 2/3 du. fut. pf. pass. ind. éxtéuve the two ofyou/them will have
been cut out
22
Principal Parts
22.1 The principal parts are divided into two lists (numbered consecutively):
the first contains the principal parts of verbs without irregularities; the listed
verbs may serve as examples of specific types of verb stem;
the secondlist contains principal parts with irregularities/peculiarities.
Both lists give the 1 sg. ind. active of the present, aorist, future and perfect stems,
followed by the 1 sg. ind. aorist and perfect passive. Someverbs(as a whole or their
individual tense stems), however, only occur in one voice (e.g. BowAopa want,
prefer, which is a passive-only verb, 35.6, 35.26), whereas other verbs are not
foundin all tense stems(e.g. dpxéw suffice, which does not occurin the perfect
tense in classical Greek). The future passive is omitted unless it cannot be derived
from theaorist passive.
Thelists also include the meaning(s) of the verb, the verb stem(s), and, under
particulars , additional information about irregularities and, where useful, alter-
native forms that are found in poetry and/or Ionic prose. Indications of vowel
length ( ~ or ~ ) are given for a, 1 and v in the verb stems, and for other verb forms
only if variations in vowel length occur.
A dash ( ) indicates that the verb form is very rare or not found in classical
Greek, and therefore not includedin thelist.
Regular Principal Parts

22.2 The overview below ( 22.3) gives the principal parts of examples of regular
verbs, with verb stems endingin:
- vora diphthong;
n/& (or &/&), n/e, w/o: contract verbs ( 12.3-5, 12.15-21);
labial or velar stops (tr, B, 9; «, y, x)3
dental stops(z,5, 8);
resonants(A, p; y,v).
Note 1: The present stem ofthese verbs was usually formed with a yod(e.g. koUTrTw <*Kpu@-yo,
QuAdttw <*puAdK-yo, Kabaipw <*xadp-yo; for details 12.26-9); such formations are
considered regular below.
22.2-5 Regular Principal Parts 229
The verbsin the list share the following characteristics:

a sigmatic aorist in -oa, or, in the case of verb stems ending in a resonant,
a pseudo-sigmatic aorist in -o;
an aorist passive in -®nv (@n-aorist);
asigmatic future active in -o,or, in the case of verbs ending in resonants and in
-ifw, an Attic future with contracted endings (-0,-is, etc.);
ax-perfect (active) in -xa, or, in the case of verbs endingin labial or velar stops,
an aspirated perfect in -pa or -ya;
a perfect middle/passive in -pa.
22.3 Verb stems ending in vu or a diphthong:

verb (present) verb stem aorist future perfect
TaLSEevod Taideu- ETAISEUTA TTALIOEUTH TETTAIOEUKO
educate eTrardevOnv TETTOISEULAL
Avo AU-/AG- gAuoa Auow AEAUKa
loosen, release éAuénv AeA La
22.4 Verb stems ending in n/& (or a/&), n/t or w/o:

verb (present) verb stem aorist future perfect
TILA Tipn-/Tipa- EeTiUNnoOa TIUNOW TETIUNKA
honour eTIUNONV TETIUNOL
TTOLEO) troin-/tro1e- eTroinoa TOINTW TETTOINKa
make, do eTroInenv TETTOINUaL
SNAGw SnAw-/SnAo- eonAwoa SnAwow SedsTNAWKA
makeclear eOnAwény SeOTNAW"AL
All stems except the present stem are built on the long variant of the verb stem
(31.11).
Observethat verb stems endingin ea, 1a and pa have long & in all stems ( 1.57),
e.g. ecouar gaze, view, fut. Pexcoua, dvidw grieve, aor. Tviaoa, Spdw do, pf.
S Spaka
Note 1: For regular n-contract verbs (e.g. yproua, Sipe, eww) and w-contract verbs
(e.g. Spa), -12.19-20.
22.5 Verb stems endingin a labial or velar stop:

verb (present) verb stem aorist future perfect particulars
TPB tp1B-/tpip- eTpIya TpPIWO TETPIPa also (more frequent)
rub eTpIpOnv TETPIUUAL n-aor. éTpIBNv; both
1 and 7¥ found in
pf. mp.
230 22.5-8 Principal Parts
KPUTITW KpUg-/KpuB- EKNUYa KPUYo pres. <*xpug-yw;also

hide expugony KEKPUHUGL n-aor. éxpUqny (rare;
in later Gk. frequently
éxeuBny); pf. kexpuga
onlyin later Gk.
op apX- Tp§a &pEco TIPXo
rule, begin Hpxenv Tpyyat
QUAGTTYH PUAaK- EMuAaga purAdgoo TrepuAaya pres. <*puAdK-yoo
guard EQuAdyOnv TEQUAGYPal
22.6 Verb stems endingin a dental stop:

ovoualw OvouGS- @VOATAa OVOUGOU GVOUAKA for -dZw, 23.48
name avouao8ny GVOUACHAL
vouiloo vopis- Evouloa VOUIO, -EIS vevOuIKa pres. <*voptd-yoo
believe évouio8ny VEVOLIOLON
22.7. Verb stems endingin a resonant:

ayyedAo ayyeA- TryyyelAa ayysrd, -eis tyyeAka pres. <*ayyéA-yoo
report nyyeAdnv NyyeApat
Kabaipw Kabap- exadnpa Katapd, -Eis pres. <*xaddp-ya;
cleanse exabapeny KexaOappon pf. act. xexabapka
only in later Gk.
aicyive aioyiv- HoxUva aicyuvd, pres. <*aioyiiv-yo;
disgrace hoyuveny -cis Hoyuypon pf. act. oyuyKa
mp.be only in later Gk.
ashamed
Laived ULcav- Eulava lave, - 1Ig pres. <*ui&v-yo;
stain Eulaveny usuiaocpoar pf. act. uepiayKa
only in later Gk.
Principal Parts with Peculiarities

22.8 The principal parts of the most commonverbswith peculiarities are listed below
( >22.9) in alphabetical order.
Note 1: Verbs which rarely occuras simplex (uncompounded) formsarelisted alphabetically

under the simplex form, but with the most common prefix added in parentheses(e.g.
(étr)aivéw praise; simplex aivéw is rare). If the simplex form does notoccurat all, the verb
is listed as a compound(e.g. &tr-ex8avouaincur hatred; simplex éy8&voyodoes not occur).
22.8-9 Principal Parts with Peculiarities 231
Typical peculiarities are the following:

changes in vowels between the tense stemsdueto ablaut, e.g. pres. 1éutre send,
pf. tétroppa ( 1.51-6);
tense stems havedifferent etymological derivations (suppletive verbs), e.g. pres.
Opa see, aor. cidov (stems d6p&- and i8-) (11.13);
an athematic (-y1) present, e.g. Ceuyvupn yoke ( 12.33-56);
a thematic aorist, e.g. aor. {BaAov with pres. B&AAw throw, hit ( 13.27-38);
a rootaorist, e.g. aor. 2yveov with pres. yryvaoxw know, recognize ( 13.39-50);
also aorists in -xa, e.g. aKa with SiScp give ( 13.51-62);
an aoristpassive in -nv (n-aorist), e.g. aor. Zypdgnv with ypadgow write ( 14.29-31);
an unexpected Attic future, e.g. fut. youd, -cis with pres. yapyéoo marry ( 15.34-7);
an Attic future in -do, e.g. fut. 2A, -&s with pres. ZAatvw drive, ride (15.38);
a stem perfect, e.g. pf. dtréxtova with pres. &troxteives kill ( 18.21-3);
a mixedperfect, e.g. pf. ré@vnxa,pl. té8vapev with (dro)8vtjoKw die ( 18.27-32);
the verb is passive-only, e.g. aor. fjo@nv, fut. hobhooum with Souq enjoy
(35.6, 35.21-9);
tense stemsare different in voice but not in meaning,e.g. pres. dxouw hear, fut.
&kovoopai (future middle) I will hear; verbs that have a middle future but no
other anomalies(e.g. SicoKw chase, fut. 1001) are not includedin thelist (for
an overview of the most frequent of these verbs, 15.40);
an (original) stem ending in o ( 12.29 n.1) as well as some verbs which were
absorbed into this type ( 13.18); the o is indicated within brackets: e.g. pres.
TeAEw finish, verb stem TeAe(o)-;
a parasitic o addedto certain tense stems: e.g. pres. pisvnoKw remind (verb stem
uvn-), 8n-aor. uvnoOny; the parasitic o is not indicated in the verb stem; verbs
that in one or more stemshavea parasitic o but no other anomalies(e.g. keAeUwo
order, 8n-aor. pass. éxeAevo@nv, pf. mp. KexéAeuouan) are not includedin thelist
(for more examples of verbs that have a parasitic o, 14.27, 19.23);
vowels are addedto certain tense stems,e.g. pres. dgeiAw owe, be boundto (verb
stem dge(1)A-), fut. dpeiAt}ow (12.29 n.2, 14.28, 15.30, 18.24, 19.33);
irregular formation of the augment or reduplication due to disappearing
consonants, e.g. aor. eiaoa (<*éogfa-, from ékw allow) ( 11.40);
a perfect with Attic reduplication,e.g. pf. 6uapoKa (Suvipr swear) (11.48).
Note 2: Verbs whose active forms have a causative sense, and whose middle-passive forms
(may) express a changeofstate or a (change of) mental state, are given a separate middle-passive
entry in the list when the latter meaning is expressed by separate aorist, future and/or perfect
forms. Thuse.g. with causative iotnpt makestand, set up, there is a separate entry for (change-of-
state) lotauai come to stand, because a separate aorist (fotnv I came to stand) and perfect
(gotnka I stand) express the change-of-state sense. For details on such verbs, 35.4, 35.17-20.
22.9 List of principal parts:

1 eyapar aya- hycodny e&yaoouar _ pass. only; athem.pres.; parasitic
admire o in @n-aor.
2a (kat)é&yvupt &y-/&y- (Kort) a§ax/-F}§x (Kart)&§co = augm./redupl. go- (verb stem

(cause to) break < fay-); athem.pres.
2b (kat) é&yvupor (kat )éeynv (kat) éaya n-aor.; act. stem pf. (katéaya be
break (intr.) broken); lon. pf. -énya
. (amr)ayopetw AEyoo
3 ayo &y- Tyyayov ao axa them. aor. with redupl. 11.50
lead, bring AXOnv Fyuor
4 aidSéopat aiie(o)- HSeodunv/pSto8nv aiS¢oopian TSeouan pass. only, but also occasionally
be ashamed, fear mid. aor.; fut. mid.; verb stem in
> o (hence short ¢ outside pres.)
5 (é)avéw aive- (211) hveoa (2m)awgow (et)tex in Att. short ¢ outside pres.,
- 2 A ys except in pf. mp.; simplex verb
praise (211) nvé8nv (é1)Hvnuen rare in Att. prose
6 aipgw aipn-/aipe-, &A- iAov aiptjow enka suppletive; them.aor.; augm.in aor.
take: So¢Ony éonuca ei- (verb stem <*o¢A-); short ¢ in 6n-
. > npevn) nlenw aor.; Ion. pf. épaipnka, épaipnyuat
mid.: choose
7 aipo &p- Tpa pd, - is Apa verb stem <*&ep-; pres. deipw and
lift Hp@nv Fpuen 8n-aor. hép8nv in Ion. and poetry
8 aiobdvopar aic8- To8ounv aio8foouat Tjo8nuar them.aor.; n added in fut. andpf.

perceive
&KoOU &Ko(u)(c)- i\KoUTG &KOUoONaL &KhKoa verb stem <*é&xKor(c)-; fut. mid.;
stem pf. (-Koa <*-xofa); Att.
hear TKovony
redupl.; pf. mp. #xovopononly in
later Gk.
10 GAsipa dAzip-/aAip- TAeipa GAsipoo GANAIpa mostly in direct-refl. mid.
GAeipouen anoint oneself 35.11;
anoint TAeipOnv GANAIYOR
stem pf.; Att. redupl.
ll AEC GAex-/dAe§- TiAeEa/HAEENoa GAEEo/GAEEtO~ n added in aor. AAgEnoa and fut.
GAEtow
ward off
12a GAioKoyar &A(w)-/EA0- EdAv/tAov GA@oopar EdAwKa/fAwka pres. with suffix -10x-; augm./
redupl. éa- (verb stem <*f&A(c)-);
be captured
act. root aor. and pf. (é&Awv was
12b &v-GAioKoo/av-GAdo avinwoa avaAwow evt|wKka captured, té&Awxa have been
spend avnwdny evtAw@par captured)
13a GAAaTTOO GAGy- Traka GAAKEC TAaya n-aor. morefrequentin prose; 8n-
aor. mostly in Ion. and poetry
(ex)change NAAGynv/HAAGYOHV TAAaypor
13b act-aAAaTTH arnAraga ctrardEoo amrtyAAaya
remove; erndAcynv/ amarpan
mp.: depart carnaraOnv
14 G&AAopar HAdunv/Adunv GAotpal, -F them. aor. (next to pseudo-sigm.
aor.)
leap
(Continued)
15 Guaptdave &uapt- Tyuaptov GuapTHoopar TUapTHKA fut. mid.; them. aor.; n added in
. , a @n-aor., fut., and pf. stems
miss, err TapTHenv TuapTYat
16 av8avw &8- Eadov/hoa dbijou = augm. éa- (verb stem <*ofad-);
them.aor.
please
17) &vayo/évaya aveoy- avoya poetic; all other tenses derived
from pf. aor. fve§a and fut.
command one
éve§o in epic Gk.
18 dtr-exP&vopin ex8- amnx8ounv atrex8t}oopan arOnyar them. aor.; n addedin fut. and pf;
incur hatred in poetry occasionally x8 hate
19 d&papioxw &p- fpapov/t|poa _ &papa redupl. in them. aor.; pres. stem

based on aor., with suffix -10x-;
fit together aor. ppl. &pyevos; stem pf. with
Att. redupl.; mostly in poetry
20 &péoKe &pe- Tipeoa apéow _ pres. with suffix -ox-; short ¢ in
aor. and fut; §n-aor. opt.
please épeoGetn in Soph.
21 apKéw aipxe- TipKeoa apKéow _ short ¢ in aor. andfut.
suffice
22 Gppdleo/appdttoo Gppod-/appot- Tipyooa apydow Tipuoka pres. &pydtto regular in prose,
fit together fpyoonv fppoopen &pudmore frequent in poetry
23 adEdveo/ati§oo aug- nugnoa avétow nugnka pres. with nasal suffix -ov-; n
addedin stemsoutsidepres.
increase; nugnenv nugquar
mp.: grow
24 &xBout &x8-/dyx8e(o)- TXbEoOnv ayPEoopar pass. only; verb stem in o used
outside pres; fut. also
be angry x8eo8t}oopar
25 Baivoo Bn-/Ba(v)- éBnv Broopot BéBnKax pres. <*Bav-yw; root aor. mixed
pf; causative (35.4) aor. =Bnoa
go, walk
madego andfut. Bhjow will make go
26 Badrw Ba&A-/BAn- éBadov Bard,-eis BeBAnKa pres. <*BaA-yoo; them.aor.
throw, hit EBANnOnv BeBATon
27 Batrte Bao- EBaya Bawouat n-aor.; fut. mid.
dip eBagnv BeBappon
28 Bipaloo PiBad- eBipaoa Bid, -&s Att. fut. in -é0o; causative (35.4)
of Baives
cause to go EBiBaoOnv BeBiBaopar
29 BiBpacKe Bpoo- BéBpwoxa pres. with redupl. and suffix -ox-;
mostly Ion. (Att. uses éo@ieo); aor.
eat EBpwdnv
EBpwoa and fut. Bpaow in epic
Gk.; root aor. Bpav and pf. ppl.
BeBpods, -tos in poetry
30 BAdcatte BAGB- EPAapa BAd&woo BeBAaga n-aor. and 6n-aor. both used
harm, damage EBAGBv/eBAaHEnv BeBAauYCA
(Continued)
31 BAaotdven BAc&ot- éBAaotov BAaothow BeBAcotna pres. with nasal suffix -av-; them.
sprout aor.; n addedin fut. and pf. stems
32 BAdoxKes uoA-/(u)BAw- ZuoAov Lorotpan, -F) peuBAwKa BA- <*pA- 1.93; pres. with suffix
come, go -ox-; them.aor.; fut. mid.; only in
§ poetry
33 BowAopar Boua- EBouAnOnv BouAthoouar BeBouAnuaa pass. only; fut. mid. impf.
NPouvAdunv 311.41
want, prefer
34 -yapuéw yeule)- éynya ape, -eis yeyaunka Att. fut. (identical to pres.)
marry (a woman); yeyaunuoar
mid: marry (a man)
35 -yeAdoo yed&(o)- éyéAaoa yeAd&oouar fut. mid.; verb stem in o (hence
laugh éyedoOnv short & in aor. andfut.)
36 -ynbéw yne(e)- éynOnoa ynotow yéynta nearly exclusively pf. (be glad,
rejoice 33.37) in class. Gk.
37. ytyvoyen yev(n)-/you-/yv- éyevdounv/éyeviOnv -yevtjoouen yéyova/yeyévnyor pres. redupl.; them. aor.; 6n-aor.
become, be born and act. pf. (éyevi8nv was born,
> yéyova be, have been born); pf.
ppl. yeyas in poetry > 18.32 n.1;
Ion. yivoyor 25.14
38 oytyvaoKe yvoo- éyvoov yvaoouar éyvooKa pres. with redupl. and suffix -ox-;
know, recognize éyvaodny éyvoopar root aor.fut. mid. parasitic o in
8n-aor. and pf. mp.; Ion. yivasoxe
25.14
39 pape ypag- éypaya yeayo yéypapa n-aor.
write éypagny yéypappor
40 Saxvoo 8nk-/8&xK- é5akov SN§opar pres. with nasal suffix -v-; them.
aor.; fut. mid.
bite e87xOnv Se5nypar
41 (8 501Ka) 8e1-/S01-/81- ESe100a Se801ka mixed pf.; forms, 18.27; fut.
Sefcoucn not foundin classical Gk.
fear
42 Sépe Sep-/8&p- éSe1pa depdd, -eis n-aor.; S&p- <*8r-
skin éSapnv Sé5appar
43 Sée (i) 8n-/Se- Stow SeBexa pres. <*&é-yo; short ¢ in
@n-aor. and pf. stems
bind SéSeuar
See (ii) de- Seqow Sedéenxa pres. <*8ép-w; n added outside
pres.
lack
44b Sei Senoer SeSenxe(v) impers. 36.3
it is necessary
Séopan eSenOnv Seqoouar SeSéquaa
ask, need
45 d1SdoKe 818&(o)k- e5180fa S18aEeo SediSaxa pres. redupl. 81- and suffix -ox-
generalized throughout other
teach e15axOv SediSaypar
stems
(atr0) S18paoKe Spa- (dtr) é5pav (ato) 8paocopar (aro) 55paxa pres. with redupl. and suffix -ox-;
rootaor.; fut. mid.; stem in & after
run away p; simplex 8:18pcoxKeo very rare
(Continued)
47 SiScopr 8e-/80- ESaoKa Sao SéBaKxa pres. redupl.; athem.pres.; ka-aor.

give 2500nv Se5opar
48a Soxéo Sox(¢)- E50fa 8d§o 8é50Xa stem Soxe- used onlyin pres.; in
seem, think SéSoyyor PoeiowpfSe8éenee
48b So0xei #50§e(v) 8o e1 8é5oxTa1 impers. (for uses 36.4)
it seems(right)
49 SWvapor Suvn-/Buva- eSuvnOnv Suvtjoopan SeSUvqyar pass. only; fut. mid.; athem. pres.;
be able (2uvdoOnv) imprMeuvdunw aor. nBuvhBny
50a S00 80-/80- #5000 8i0w Suveo also used

submerge 25UOnv 8501
50b Stiopar z0v Sooper 8E80Ka act. root aor. and pf. uv dived,
dive Sé5uKa be under
51 tw e-/26- ciaca tow eloKa augm./redupl. ¢i- (verb stem

allow eicOnv elapon < oéfa-)
52a éysipw éyep-/éyop-/éyp- tyyeipa éyepe,-eis _ Att. redupl.; act. pf. 2yhyepxa only
wake, rouse AyépOny in later Gk.
52b zyeipopent Hyéptnv/hjypopny éyptyopa them.aor.; act. stem pf. 2yphyopa
wake up be awake; Att. redupl.; pf. mp.
gyhyepuat only in later Gk;
hypouny rare
£0 toi
53a (xa®)éZopor -£8-/-{C- (2xa8)eZounv/ (ka®)eSo00pou, -F (x&nyo) <*oe8-, pres. <*oebSy-, redupl. aor.
<*oe-08; them.aor.; pres. K&6quci
sit (down) (ka)eZounv
used as pf.; simplex not in prose;
for the augm. 11.57
53b (xa8)iZeo éxadioa/-e1oa Kaha, -Eis redupl. pres. <*o1-o8-, with aor.
éxé@ioa and fut. derived from the
makesit down,
pres; for the augm. 11.57;
sit down(intr.) simplex {@ mainly in poetry,
iZouon in Ion. prose
54 (2) 8éAw (2)@eA- TBEANOA é8eAtjow TBEANKa n addedoutsidepres.
be willing
55a eiul Eoouar for the conjugation of pres. and
impf., + 12.36
be 3 sg. ZoTon
55b #eot1(v)/ZoT1(v) egotoi/totat impers. 36.4
it is possible,it is
permitted
56 eit el-A- for the conjugation of pres. and
impf. 12.36; %pxoycn; pres.
go with fut. value
57 (ciwBa) @0- cinta Ion. %6a; stem pf; no pres.;
18.22
be accustomed
(Continued)
58 {AaUve éNG- Taoa £00, -&s eANAaKka pres. with -uv-; Att. fut. in -éc;
drive, ride HAGOnV entAcpon At redupl; pf mp. éijhaouar
59 éNtyyxwo éheyX- iieyEa EAey§o _ Att. redupl.
test, prove NAéyxOnv éANAeyyar
60 ZAkw éAx(u)- etAkuoa Ew efAKuKa augm./redupl. «i- (verb stem
oo <*oeAx-); stems outside pres. and
draw, drag eiAkUoOnv eiAKkuopar fut. add vu (Ion. fut. xioo):
parasitic o in 6n-aor. and pf. mp.
6la dugi-évvupn e(o)- Tupleca Gugld, -eis _ verb stem <*feo-; athem. pres.;
clothe with augm./redupl. before prefix
11.57; simplex only in poetry,
61b dugi-évvupcn Tuplecaunv Gupiécouar Tupieopar with fut. £o(c)co
dress oneself in
62 (Zo1Ka) eix-/oik- (Gita) Zoua <*péforxa; stem pf., no pres.; plpf.
+ Zoxn; ppl. eixas; Ion. oika
be like(ly) (without redupl.) 25.43; often
impers. goie(v) it seems, it is
reasonable
63 étiotapuat émortn-/émots- moTHON ETLOTHOOYAL _ pass. only; athem.pres.
know,be able
64 éTrouar ént-/ot- EoTroOUnV Eyouar _ middle only; impf. eitounv with
augm. ei- (<*éoe-)
follow
65 Eptre éptr-/EpTrud- eipttuca/fpya epyo augm.ci- (verb stem <*oeprr-); Att.
forms in -vo- based on pres.
walk, go ptr (only in Hom.); mainly in
poetry
66 EpXopar épx-, éAeu@-/ TAGov éAeUoouat/eipt éAnuba suppletive; them. aor. (in poetry
go, come (0)0-, ei-A- sometimes #Au8ov); stem pf;
Epxouca mainly =in___spres.
indicative, for other forms ein
go, 12.36
67 Epwtaa ép-, Epatn-/ Npatnoa/hpouny Epwttow/ Tpatnka suppletive; them. aor.; Ion. pres.
ask EpwTa- elpouon, impf. and aor. cipounv
éptjoouar
TpotnHenv TpoTnpar
68 éobic to8i-, pay-, ee-/ Epayov é5opa1 25750Ka suppletive; them. aor.; fut. mid.;
eat 280-/86- Att. redupl.; act. %c rare; in
TSEo8nv 287Seopar
poetry and Ion. prose pf.
BéBpaxa, BéBpwopar
69 (xad)evSoo e05- (Ekad)evEnoa (xa®)evEjow impf. éxéGevSov and xabndSov; 7
addedin aor. andfut.; aor. rare in
(go to) sleep Att.; simplex mainly in poetry and
Ion. prose
70 eupiokw eup- nUpov euptjow nupnka pres. with suffix -10x-; them. aor.;
aor. and pf. also ev- (without
find nupEeony nupnpon augm./redupL; eGpnxa,etc.)
(Continued)
7la_ xo ex-/ox- éoXov Fw/oxhow éoxnka verb stem <*o(e)y-; pres. éx- <*x-
. . opte av * 1.97; them. aor.; impf. cixov
have, hold; aor.: get; éoyxéOnv Zoynyar (<*¥-ctyov) 11.40; aor, imp.
mid:be held oxés
71b dv-gxoucn Teoxounv ave§opian them. aor.; double augm. and
endure, bear redupl. 11.58; impf. Averxounv
71c Umoyvéopan UtreoXSunv UTrooXhoopar UTréoxuar them. aor.; pres. with suffix -ve-
: (hence e-contract)
promise
72 Cevyvumt Ceuy-/Ciy- éCeuga CevEoo _ athem. pres.; occasionally 6n-aor.
yoke eluynv eeuypar eevxénv
73 léw fe(o)- eleoa Céow _ verb stem in o (hence short ¢
boil outside pres.); @n-aor. @éo8nv
andpf. pass. {@eouor in later Gk.
74 Tho fn-, Biw- EBieov/éPiooa Bicdoopan BeBiooxa suppletive; pres. Bidw gradually
: 1 more frequent; (iw n-contract;
live BeBiconcn root aor. éBicv; fut. mid. but
occasionally act. Brasco
75 Ceovvupt lao(o)- ELwoa Cou = athem.pres.; verb stem in o
gird &doOnv ZZaouar
76 Soper 7d- fo8nv Hobthoopar _ pass. only
enjoy
77 («x&8)nuoa -A(0)- _ _ _ athem. pres; used as pf. to
sit KabéeCouon; impf. usually
éxadhunv, 11.57
78 PattTe eoaya Bayo pres. <*@dq-yw; tag- <*Bag-,
1.97; 6n-aor. é6apOnv rare
bury éTagny TéEBoppar
BéAw EBEAW
79 Bc 8e(u)- Eevoa Bevoopar verb stem <*6ef-; fut. mid.

run
80 Bryydveo 8iy- é8iyov A1Eopor them. aor.; fut. mid.; mainly in
poetry
touch
81 (tro)8v}oKeo/-BvjoKe 8&v-/8vn- (dtr) é8avov (dro) Pavotpa, -F TébvnKa AvioKe <*8vn-iox-«; fut. mid.;
tébvnxa be dead; simplex
die
OvijoxKe/OvijoKe only in poetry
82 Boo 80-/80- é0U0a Bow TEKa tuOn- <*8uén- 1.97
sacrifice éTuOnv TéBUOA
(xa8)iZeoo >(Kad)éZopan
i-lé- z z.
verb stem <*yn-/*ye-; pres. <*yiy-
83 inut Ka E1Ka
x (pres. redupl.); athem. pres.; Ka-
send, let go el6nv eiyar
aor.; augm./redupl. «i-; in prose
mostly in compounds
iAd&oKopar iN&(o)- iaodyunv iAd&ooua pres. iA- <*oioA- (pres. redupl.)
and with suffix -ox-; long
appease i generalized in other tenses
(Continued)
85 (aq)iKvéopan ik- (&@)ikopnv (&@)iEopon (&q)iypon them.aor.; pres. with suffix -ve-
arrive (hence e-contract); simplex
ixvéouon mainly in poetry
86a totnut otn-/ot&- éoTnoa oThow pres. <*oi-ot- (redupl.), pf.
Hyd, =j
makestand, set up goT&Onv oTabt}copat goTopan < oé-or-; athem.pres.; in prose

mostly in compounds
86b totapor éoTny oTHOOaL fotnka act. root aor. andpf. Zotnv came to
cometo stand stand, fotnKa stand
87. (kata)Kaiveo Kov-/k&v- (kat)éxavov (kaTta)Kavd, -eis (KaTa)KéKova them. aor.; stem pf.; kaive mainly
kill in poetry; xataxaive Doric for
Att. &troxtetves (adopted by Xen.)
88 Katieo/Kaoo Ka(u)- Exavoa Kavow KEKQUKa pres. <*kép-yw; Kéo does not
set onfire éxavOnv/exonv kékaupar contract; nraor. éxanv rare,
mainly in poetry
89 KaAgoo kaAe-/KAn- éxaAcoa KOA, - Is/KaAEow KEKANKa pres. and Att. fut. are identical;
call, summon ae
eKAnOnv 1
KéKAnyor aor. and
verbs fut.stem
with xaAgow
in o analogous
13.18 to
90 Ka&Uvoo kau-/kun- EKQUOV Kaypotpal,-F KEKUNKa pres. with nasal suffix -v-; them.
aor.; fut. mid.
toil, be sick
91 keipat KEel- keloovar athem.pres.; used as pf. pass. of
tidqui 12.43 n.1
lie, be put
92 KEpavvupl Kep&(o)-/Kpa- éxépaoa verb stem in o; athem.pres.
mix ExepdoOnv/expadnv kékpapor/
KEKEpaoual
93 KAatico/KAGoo KAa(u)- éxAauoa KAatoouat/ KéKAauKa pres. <*KA&-yoo; pres. KA&o does
notcontract; fut. mid.; parasitic o
cry, weep KAGrow
in @n-aor.
éxAavoOnv KékAau(o) por
94 KAETITOO kAett-/KAoTt-/ ExAepa KAgWoo KéKAopa n-aor., in poetry and Ion.
KAGoTr- occasionally éxAép@nv; stem pf.;
steal exAdtrnv KEKAEUC
«AGT <*k|TT
95a KAiveo KAi(v)- éxAiva KAivo, - i5 KEKAIKa pres. (<*kAiv-yoo) with nasal suffix
-v-, extended to aor., fut. in
causeto lean; exAiOnv KéKATHOL
poetry also 6n-aor. éxAivénv
mp.: lean
95b KaTaKAtvouat KatekAtvny KaTaKAIvHOOLAL KATOKEKATHOL n-aor.; @n-aor. KateKAisny also
found
recline
96 KOTIT@ KOTT~ EKopya Koyo KEKOpa n-aor.
hit éxoTTny KEKOUAL
97 (ava)Kpaloo Kpary-/Kpa&y- (av)éxpa&yov KekpaEouar (dva)Kéxpaya them. aor. stem pf. xéxpaya
scream, fut. pf. xexpd oucr used
shout as regular fut.; pres. rare until
later Gk., which also has aor.
(av)éxpata, fut. (ava)xpageo
(Continued)
98a Kpeucvvupt Kpepa(o)- expeuaoa KpEUO, -Gs verb stem in o; athem.pres.; Att.
hang up expepcoOnv KeKpépaopcn fut. in -éc; mostly in compounds
98b kpguapcn _ KpEutoouar _ athem. pres. (conjugation

hang analogousto fotapat)
99 Kpiveo Kpi(v)- éxpiva Kpived, - is Kekpika pres. (<*kpiv-yoo) with nasal suffix
decide, judge explOnv kéKpTyar ~v> extended to aor., fut.
100 xtd&opon KTN-/KTa- éxtTnodunv KTToO"aN éxktnpar/ pf. &ktnycn mainly Ion. and Pl.
acquire KEKTNOL
101 (&tro)xTeiveo xtev-/kTov-/Kt&v- (tr) éxTEiva/ (Gro) KTeve, -eis (Gtr) ExTovar stem pf.; them. aor. (&t)éxtavov
kill (&m)éxtevov in poetry; also athem. a&troxtivvupn
in prose
102 Aayxdveo Anx-/ASX- EAaXOVv Anfopar eiAnxa pres. with nasal suffix -y-av-;
obtain by lot ei on them. aor.; fut. mid.; pf. with
y YB redupl. ci-; in poetry occasionally
pf. Aedoyyxa
103) AapBavoo AnB-/AGB- EAaBov Anwoua eiAnoa pres. with nasal suffix -u-av-;
and them. aor.; fut. mid.; redupl. ¢i-;
get, take ernpOny eiAntnon pf. mp. AéAnyuuon in tragedy; in
Hat. @n-aor. ZAc&upSny andpf. act.
AehaBnka
104a Aavédveo And-/AGO- éAaBov Anjou AéAnba pres. with nasal suffix -v-av-;
-
go unnoticed and
éAjoOnv :
AEANopar them. aor.;
also pres. stem
RyGeo, pf. in poetry
NyBonen
104b émdavédvoua étreAabounv éTrIANoopar éTr1AEAopa
forget
105a Aéyo Aey-/Noy-, eitt-, Ae§a/eitrov AtEw/épdd, - is eipnka suppletive; them. aor. (for eita/
ép-/pn- eitrov 13.32; for ZAeEa vs. eitrov,
say, speak £A xOnv/éppHenv eipnuan/AgAeypor
13.38 n.2); redupl.ei- <*ferp-
105b Sia-Agyouar Si-eAéxOnv/ SiaAgEopan Si-eiAeyyor fut. mid.; fut. Si0Aex8hoouat is
occasionally found
converse Si-eAgynv
105c ouA-Agywo ouveAga ouAAggo ouveidoxa n-aor.
collect; mp: come ouveadyny/ ouveiAeypor
together ouveAexOnv
105d at-ayopevo éyopeu-, eitr-, crreitrov ecrepdd, - is ccreionka them. aor. occasionally aor.
ép-/pn- amtyopevoa; simplex _verb
forbid, give up ecrepptonv écreipnuca
&yopevw proclaim only in pres./
impf. in Att.
106 Aittoo Aertr-/Aort-/Attr- éArtrov Agiyoo Adora them. aor.; stem pf.
leave eAcipOnv AgAgpar
107 paivopot unv-/pav- éuavnv Havotpyal,-f Heunvar n-aor.; in poetry causative
(435.4) aor. gunva made mad
rage
occasionally; act. stem pf. (ugunva
be furious)
108 pavOdveo uad- Euabov pabtoopuar pEeecOnKa pres. with nasal suffix -v-av-;
them.aor.; fut. mid.
learn, understand
(Continued)
109) udcxopar ue(e)- Euayeodunv poxotpot, -f pepenyo aor. with short¢; Att. fut.; n added
fight in pf. stem; Ion.fut. poxqoopar
110 u(e)iyuvpi/pioye uery-/ty- zu(e)iga pei co athem. pres.; n-aor.; Homeric

mix éutynv/éu(e)ixeny uéu(e)rypcn pres. pioyo sometimesalso in Att.
Illa (2m)péAopen/ peAn-/peA(e)- (2rr)epeAnOnv (211) peAoopan (2mm) pepéACA pres. -goyi more common than
(2m) ueAgopen ~onan
take care
111b péAre éuéAnoe(v) weAtjoer uepeAnke(v) impers. +36.15
it is of concern
112 usAAw ueAA- eusAAnoa usAAToo _ impf. jyeAAov 11.41; n added
be about to, delay outside pres.
113 péva mev- éueiva evdd, -eIs pepevnKka 7 addedin pf.; in poetry also pres.
stay, (a) wait uiuyve (with redupl.)
114 utvtoKe uvn- éuvnoa uvtjow _ pres. redupl. and suffix -(i)ox-;
remind; EuvtjoOnv Héuvnor parasmostly bn-aor, compounds;
mp.: remember
115 véuo vep- évelpa veudd, - i5 vevéunka 7 addedin 6n-aor. andpf. stems
deal out éveunOnv VevéunYar
116 véw ve- éveuoa VEUOOUCL véeveuKa eu-formspossibly by analogy with
swim Ago; fut. mid.
117 (vitttw/)viZeo vitr- évipa viyoo pres. vile <*viy-yo; other stems
wash avipauny vévippon (and newerpres. vito) built on
vitr-
118 (av) otyvupi/(av)otyoo oiy- (av) dE (av) oto (av) éwya/ athem. pres.; stem pf. 18.25;
augm./redupl. 11.40
open (av)é@ya
(av)ecoOnv (éo)éeoyen
119 (01a) e18-/0i8-/i8- eloopar 01a verb stem <*fe15-/*fo18-/*FiS-; no
pres.; for conjugation 18.4; fut.
know
mid.
120 oiouat/oipar oitjoouat pass. only; fut. mid; oiyen and
é@ynv without thematic vowel; n
think
added in 6n-aor. andfut.
121 oiXopan oix- oixfoopar oXaoKa/oixaKa no aor.; n added in fut.; act. pf.
oixwxa in Ion. and poetry, but
depart, be gone
also S10fxnyor in Hdt.
122a (at)dAAuEL oA(e)- (ar) dAcoa (tr) oAd, -eis (a&tr)oAdAeKa stem with ¢ in sigm.aor., pf. (and
Att. fut.); athem. pres.; Att.
destroy
redupl.
122b (dar)dAAupon (dar) oAdunv (dtr)oAotpan, -F (ar) dAwAa them.aor.; act. stem pf. dAwAa be
ruined
perish
123 Suvupr 6u(0)- Opooa opotpua, -7 OU@POKA athem.pres., but also them. forms
(duviw, etc.); fut. mid. Att.
swear @pdo(o)Onv OpapouCt
redupl. 11.48; occasionally pf.
mp. dpapoopar
(Continued)
124 dvivnu ovn-/dve- dvnoa dvtjow athem. pres.; root mid. aor.
. a a&vqunv/Svéunv; impf. supplied
benefi 5 covfyOny by ageréw benefit, help; mostly in
mid.benefitfrom poetry
125 dpdu Opa-, 18-, otr- eidov Spouar tdpaxa/émpaka/ suppletive; opa- <*fopa-; i8-
see brea <*fi8- (cf. ofS); impf. éampav
(augm. 11.40), also é&Spev; fut.
agony eopapar/édpapyor/ mid.; stem pf. Strata
pon
126 dpUttTw optx- apuga Opugao _ Att. redupl.; n-fut. -opuxno- in Ar.
dig @puxony opopuypat
127 dgeidw Sge(i)A- a@petAnoa/dpedov SeE1Atjouw apelAnka pres. d@¢éAAoo in poetry; them. aor.;
owe, be bound to also impf. and aor. dgeA(A)ov; 7
, addedin various stems
128 dgAioxdveo oa- A&pAnoa/apaov dpAtow apAnka pres. with suffixes -10x- and -av-;
: » them. aor; n added in various
incur a charge, lose epAnyar stems
(a case)
129 Tdoxw trev-/trov8-/ étrabov Treicopan TréTIOVvOG pres. <*16-ox-w 1.96; fut.
suffer 1a8- <*rév8oouor; them. aor. fut.
mid; stem pf.
130a_ treiba trei8-/troi8-/18- ETrEID treiow TETTELIKA in poetry occasionally aor. émGov
persuade étteioOv TIETTELOMAL
130b treifopor émBdunv/étreioOnv Tretoopar trétro1bax them. aor.; act. stem pf. (1rétro18a
trust)
believe, obey
131 TEUTTOO treutt-/TropTT- eeu TELWo TrETIONQa
send eTreupOnv TETTE BCL
132 TeTavvupL TreT&(o)- éTreTATA TET, -AS athem. pres.; poetic alternatives
tritvnyl, Titvdeo; verb stem in o;
spread out étreTaoOnv
Att. fut. in -é0 (-éo0w found in
TETTONAL poetry); mostly in compounds
133 TrETOMAL tret-/1t-/ értounv/értéuny/ TrThoopa/ occasionally athem.pres. 1étopon;
a1(&)- them.aor.; in poetry also root aor.
fy erty TETT}OOMAL
émtauny (13.32 nl, 13.50,
13.63); root aor. értnv (rare)
134a TINYyVupL tny-/te&y- étrnga TINE athem.pres.
affix, fasten
134b TTyyvupon étraynv/éemhyonv TayToopar TreTIHya act. stem pf. (1rétnya beset, fixed)
become solid
135 TipTrAnL TWAN-/TAG- étrAnoa TAO TETTANKa pres. redupl.; athem. pres. in
fill étrAno8nv TréTTAN(o) you
poetry occasionally mid. root aor.
énAnuny filled myself, parasitic o
in 6n-aor.
136 (éy)triptrpnyn trpn-/Tpa- (év)étrpnoa (eu)tphow (éu)1rétpnKa pres. redupl.; athem.pres.
burn (év)etrpjoOny (éu)tétrpj(o)pon
137 Trives tre-/tt0-/T11-/t1i- éttiov Triopat TETIOKa pres. with nasal suffix -v-; them.
aor. with short7, but imp. 16);fut.
drink éTroOnv TETTOUOL
mid.
138 TITpaoKe TIpa- TETTIPAKa pres. with redupl. and suffix -ox-;
étrpaOnv pres. and aor. usually supplied by
sell TETIPGUaL
&rro8iSopan, pres. and fut. also by
TrMAgw
(Continued)
139 titrto are0-/T11(co)- étrecov Trecotpa, -f} TETTOKA pres. redupl. (m-1t-); in poetry
fall occasionally pres. titve; them.
aor.; fut. mid.
140) TAgéKw TrAeK-/TAGK- ETrAcEa TrAEEwo _ n-aor. (in Ion. also érAéxnv)
plait, devise érrAdnv/érAexOnv TrETIAEYHO
141 TAéw Ae(u)- éTrAevoa TAeUOOa TrETAEUKa. pres. <*Aégpo; fut. mid. Ion.
sail TA@e
142a TAnTTA TAny-/TAay- éTrANEa TATE TreTTANya n-aor.; stem pf.

strike émAnynv TAnyhoopar TETANY Lat
142b (2x) TAnTTe (8§)émrAnga (8) TAN§o (éx)téTANya n-aor. with short stem (1A&y-);
frighten; (2§)eTAdynv (2x) tréTrANypou Sn-aor. EerrAHXOnv rare
mp.: befrightened
143 trvéw trve(u)- éTrveuoa TrveUoouan TEeTVEUKa pres. <*tvépw; fut. mid;
blow occasionally fut. mvevow and
TrveuooUpan,-7}
144 (tropov) trop-/Trpao- étropov _ _ them. aor.; aor. and pf. only;
give; pf. pass.it is TETIP@OTOL poetry only
destined
145 mpdatTw Trpay- éTrpata Trpagoo TrETTPaXa/ stem pf. trétrpa&yos Ion. tpjoow
do, act TréeTIPayA
TeTPayyan
146 truvédvoua trev-/1r0- étrufounv TEVOOLaL TETTUOLAL pres. with nasal suffix -v-av-;
them.aor.
inquire, learn
147 6£0 pe(u)-/pt- éppunv putjoopuar éppunKa pres. <*fépa; impf. Eppeov; n-aor./
fut; aor. %ppevoax and fut.
flow Pevoouan/-gouen rare; n added in
pf.
148a pryvupi pny-/pwy-/pay- Eppnga athem.pres.
cause to break
148b piyvupcn Eppayny Eppwya n-aor.; act. stem pf. (Eppwya be

torn)
break (intr.)
149 pittw pitr- éppiya Eppipa n-aor. (with short i and 9)
throw eppipOnv/éppigny Eppiypan
150) pevvun pa(o)- Eppwoa athem. pres.; verb stem in o; fut.
poow in later Gk.
strengthen; EppwoOnv Eppopar
mp.: have strength
15la_ ofévvupi oBn-/oBe(o)- éoPeoa oPéow athem. pres.; verb stem in o;
usually in compounds
quench, put out éoPeoOnv ofeoSooper éoBeopuar
151b ofévvupan éoBnv oftjoouar éoBnka act. root aor. and stem pf. (oBnv
went out, éoBnxa be out)
go out, be quenched
(Continued)
152a ont ont-/oat- éonya onyeo act. formsvery rare

makerotten
152b ontropen goatrny oamtoopar ogonmra n-aor.; act. stem pf. (ogonta be
rot rotten)
153) oxatrtw oKeQ- goKapa oKdwpoo ~oKagpa n-aor.

dig éoxaqnyv Zokaupar
154) oxeSavvupn oxeba(o)- goxtSaoa oKedo, -5 _ athem.pres.; verb stem in o; Att.
di. 2 ad fut. in -dw; poetic alternative
isperse; éoxedao8nv Eoxedaopar , ;
oxiSvnui; often in compounds
mp.: spread out (intr.)
155 oKxotréw/oxKétrTOpan oxett-/oKoTre- goxepaunv oKéyouor EOKEMPOL later Gk. has tense stems derived
: from oKorréw
look, examine
156 otdw oTr&(o)- toTraca odo EoTrAaka verb stem in o (hence short & in
draw, tear goTraonv ZoTracpat aor. and fut.)
157 otteipw ottep-/oTr&p- EOTTEIDA oTrepd, - is éoTTAapKa n-aor.; oT1ap- <*oTr-
sow éoTreépny EoTrappat
158 ottévd0 omrevd- éoTre1loa ottelow _ omteio- <*oTtevdo-
pourliquid, libate; ZoTrelopan
mid.: make a treaty
159 otéAAw oteA-/oTGA- éoTelha OTEASS, - i5 EOTAAKa n-aor., oTSA- <*oTl-
dispatch; mp.: journey goTaAnv ZoToApan
160 otdpvumi/otpavvumn otop(ec)-/otpw- éotdpeca/totpwoa otop&/oTpacw athem.pres.; also otopévvupt
cover, makelevel éotopéoOnv/ éoTopeopai/
éoTpabny EoTP@PAL
oTpépa otpeg-/otpog-/ zoTpEpa oTpéyoo EoTpopa n-aor.; stem pf. Eotpopa rare;
oTpaQ- oTpag- <*oTr9-
turn (around); mp.: turn éoTtpapny/ ZoTPALYAL
around(intr.) éoTpEepOnv
162 opaAdw gognra OPaAd,-is EoQoAKa n-aor.

cause to stumble; éopaanv éopoAuar
mp.: stumble
163 opattw/opaloo zoqata opageo n-aor.; opattw Att., opalw Ion.
andin poetry; pf. opaxa in later
slaughter éopaynv/éopaxOnv éopaypat
Gk.
164a oalo ow- Eowoa otowKka pres. <*ow-ile; aor/fut. also

sometimeswritten owo-
save
164b o@lopuat otow(o)yor céowpuar regular in poetry,
oéowopain prose
escape
165 Tteives tev-/T&- TEVO, - i5 TETAKA T&- <*Tp-
stretch TETOYOL
166 TEhéo TeAe(o)- étéAeoa TEAgow/TEAD, - i5 TETEAEKa stem in o (hence short ¢ outside
pres.); Att. fut. identical to pres.
finish éteAgoOnv TETEAEOLAL
167 (ava)TéAAw TeA-/THA- (av)éte1Aa (ava)TEAS, -eis (ava)téTOAKa TGA- <*tl-
(cause to) rise (ava)téTOApar

168 TEUVOD tep-/TEN- ETELOV TEU, - I5 TETUNKA them.aor.; Ion. té&uveo, them.aor.
ET&pOv
cut étunOnv TETENYAL
(Continued)
169a HK TyK-/TEK- ernga THgo _

cause to melt
169b tHhKopat étaKny TéTNKA n-aor.; act. stem pf. (tétnKa be
melt melted)
170) Tiéqu @n-/Be- ZOnKa 8t}ow TéONKa/TEBEIKA athem.pres.; pres. redupl.; xa-aor.;
ut, place étéOnv TéBe1por/Keipor TiO-/reB- <"O10-/"G28- 71.975
put, p 7 H H xeipor used as pf. pass. often in
compounds
171 tixtw tex-/toK-/Tk- éteKov TEOMA TETOKa pres. <*ti-txe (redupl.); them.
ive birth aor; fut. mid; in poetry
§ occasionally @n-aor. étéy8nv and
fut. Té§oo
172 tive tei-/TI- ETEIO Tteiow TETEIK pres. with nasal suffix -v-; pf. only
pay, atone; réteiopen found in compoundéxtives pay off
mid.: make pay, avenge

173 (étAnv) TAn-/TAG- étAnv TANoopat TETANKA pres. tAée not found (ToAuées is
endure, dare to used); root aor.; mostly in poetry
174 tITpa@oKw Tpw- ETPWOa Tpadw TETPOKA pres. with redupl. and suffix -ox-
wound étpdOnv TéTPoOpat
175a TpéeTTO tpett-/tpott-/ étpeyo/étp&trov Tpeyo TETPOPA them. aor. étpatov mostly in
Tpat- poetry; stem pf.; tp&t- <*tr-
turn étpepOnv TETPaUaL
175b TPETTONaL étpdtrny/ Tpépouar TETPaUaL n-aor. and them.aor.
turn around (intr.) étpatrouny
176 TpEQO 8peg-/Ppog-/ eOpeya Bpewoo TETPOGa tpep- <*Bpegp-, Tpop- <*@pog-
8paq- 1.97; n-aor.; epéponv rare;
nourish, rear; étpagny TéEBpauar
Opaq- <*Orp-; stem pf.
mp.: grow (up)
177 TpéXw TpEX-, BPGp- ESpayov Spapotyan, -7 SeSpaunka suppletive; them. aor.; in poetry
also rarely aor. 2@pe§a; fut. mid.
run
178 TuyXavoo Tteux-/tUX- éTuxov TeEvgouar TETUXNKA pres. with nasal suffix -y-av-;
them. aor.; fut. mid.
hit upon, happen to
179 TUTTO TUT TUpo/TUTTTHOW n-aor.; occasionally them. aor.
étutrov for Erupa
hit TETUMPaL
180a paiveo onv-/pav- pave, -eis TEPAYKa pf. act. and mp. rare and mostly in
compounds
show TEPACLAL
180b paivouar pavryoopai/ TEQTVa n-aor.; act. stem pf. (1épnva have
appeared)
appear, seem pavotpat, -f
181 pepo gep-, évex-/évox-/ iveyKov/tveyka oiow évtvoxa suppletive; them. aor. for aor.
éyk-, oit- fweyka 13.27, 13.32; Ion. aor.
carry, bring TexOnv éviveyyar
fweixa; stem pf. with Attic
reduplication
(Continued)
182 gpevyw geuy-/pity- épuyov pevEouan Trégeuya them. aor; fut. mid; fut.
flee gevgovpar, -f occasionally in
poetry
183 gnpi/pdcoxw on-/p&- zpnoa gnow athem.pres.; impf. 2pnv 12.36,
say, claim 12.42; oaoxw not found in pres.
ys ind., but supplies ppl. p&oxv,
impf. pacxov,etc. (12.56)
184 9@dvw On-/pea- Eplaoa Orjoopar EpbaKa pres. with nasal suffix -v-; also
be first rootaor. Zp@ny; fut. mid.
185a (81a) pepo pbep-/pbop-/ (81)épderpa (Sia)pbepa, -eis (Bi) EpBapKa g8%p- <*pOr-
destroy o8ep-
185b (81a) p8eipouar (Si)epOapnyv (81)ép8opa/ nraor; act. stem pf. (Siép8opa
perish (81)ébapyon have lost one s wits)
186a gia gu- Epuoa uow usually gi- before vowels, gu-
cause to grow before consonants
186b guvopa épuv puoopan TEQUKa act. root aor. and pf. (Epuv grew,
trépuKa be (by nature))
grow (up)
187 Xaipoo xap- Xarptjoo KeXapnka n-aor. (with act. sense); fut. built
on pres. stem, with added n; in
rejoice
poetry occasionally pf. mp.
KEéXOPHa, Kexa4pNLOL
188 xéo xe(u)-/xu- xéo KEXUKa pres. <*xéfo; in poetry also rarely
aor. 2xeva and éxupnv
pour kéyupat
189 Xe@vvupt/xdoo x@(o)-/xo- Xoow KéxoKa athem. pres.; verb stem in 0;pres.
xe occasionally in Att., Hdt.
heap up kEX@OHaL
190 abo a6n-/6(e)- @Oow/ddo0 augm./redupl. g- (verb stem
<*fwd-)
thrust, push
191 @véouar avn-/dve-, TPT @vioopat augm./redupl. usually é- (verb
stem <*fav-); for suppletive
buy
émrpidunv 13.32 n.1, 13.50
23
Word Formation
Introduction
23.1 Ancient Greek had a wide variety of means to form new words. Two main
processes of word formation maybedistinguished:
Derivation: the addition of suffixes to a root ( 23.2) to derive a new nominal
or verbal form.In English,cf. e.g. singer, writer, driver, formed with the suffix -er
added to a verbal root (sing, write, drive) to form nouns indicating someone
(habitually) performing the activity of ... (so-called agent nouns , see below);
childish, foolish, formed with the suffix -ish added to nouns(child, fool) to form
adjectives; childishly, foolishly, with -ly to form adverbs from adjectives; child-
ishness, foolishness, with -ness to form nouns from adjectives indicating the
condition of being . .. ; etc.
Composition: the combination of two (or more) nominal or verbal roots to
form a new nominal or verbal form. Compoundformsare opposed to simplex
(non-compound) forms.
In English,cf. e.g. sunrise (sun + rise), headache (head + ache); washing machine,
car radio, etc.
23.2 The basis for word-forming processes are not wordsas such, but roots. Thus, the
Greekrootxp1- (signifying decision , judgement is the base of the derived nouns
1) Kpiotsjudgement, decisive moment, 4 pittsjudge, To kpitnpiov meansforjudging,
court; of the adjective xpitixés,-n, -6v critical, judging; and of the verb xpivw decide,
judge (<*xpi-v-yo, 12.28, 12.30 n.2).
Similarly, the compound noun6 vautrnyés shipbuilder is composed of the two
roots vau- and tny-, also present in the noun * vats ship and the verb mhyvupn
affix, fasten.
Note 1: Strictly speaking, nouns such as xpiois and xprtjs5 combine the root xpi- with the
suffixes -o1-/-ce(y)- and -1a-, respectively, followed by the nominal case ending -s (itself
originally a suffix). The parts xpio1-/kpice(y)- and kpita&- are (nominal) stems. Below, endings
are treated as part of derivational suffixes. For nominal stems and endings, 2.
Note 2: In addition to derivation and composition (and the introduction of entirely new
words,i.e. new roots), the vocabulary of a language also changes by the addition of new uses
and/or meanings to existing words; these are not discussed here.
23.2-6 Nominal Word Formation 261
Note 3: Although they often overlap, roots may be distinguished from nominal or verbal
stemsin that the latter can have elaborations. Thus, the verb stem traideu- which servesas the
basis for all forms of the verb troSeUw educate, and whichitself is elaborated in specific
tense-aspect stems, such as aor. taiSevo(a)-, aor. pass. ToiSeu8n-, pf. act. tetrardeux-, etc.,
derives from the root trai8- ( child ) and an elaboration -eu-. In the case of certain types of
verbal conjugation, such as the present of primitive verbs ( 12.24 n.1, 12.42) and root
aorists ( 13.40-1), the stem used is an unelaborated root without any kind of suffix (e.g.
root aorist ¢-otn-v, using the root otn- as aorist stem).
23.3 The greater part of the Greek vocabulary consists of words that are in one way
or another the product of word formation along the lines discussed above. Few
words, in fact, consist of just a root (and case endings, where applicable).
Examples of such root nounsare: * yeip hand, arm, 16 tipfire, * yi land,
earth, 6 iy@ts fish (with nom. sg. ending -s), 6 yuw vulture (with nom.sg.
ending-s).
The main suffixes and principles involved in Greek word formation are treated
below.Forfuller treatments, the works referenced in the Bibliographyat the end of
this book may be consulted.
Nominal Word Formation
Nominal Word Formation by Meansof Derivation
23.4 The following sections deal with the derivation of nouns and adjectives: some
specific terminology concerningdifferent kinds of nounsis treatedfirst.
Some Terminology Concerning Nouns
23.5 Abstract nounsrefer to ideas, emotions, concepts, etc., not to physical entities; in
English e.g. love, justice, kingship.
Concrete nouns refer to specific entities (typically, but not necessarily,
physical entities which can be observed by the senses), in English e.g. lover,
judge, kingdom.
23.6 (De)verbal nounsare nounsthat are derived from a verbal root. Such nouns may
refer, amongotherthings:
to an action, process or eventitself: action/event nouns, in English e.g. inves-
tigation (from the verbal root investigat-), the building of the wall (from the root
build-);
to the entity performing an action: agent nouns,e.g. investigator, builder;
to the result or effect of an action: result/effect/object nouns, e.g. dent, scratch,
a stone building.
262 23.7-9 Word Formation
List ofDerivational Suffixes
23.7 Belowfollowsa list, in alphabetical order, of the most commonsuffixes that are
involved in the derivation of nouns and adjectives. The list predominantly con-
tains suffixes that are foundin classical Attic prose and in Herodotus. Someless
frequent suffixes are printed in smaller type.
Note 1: If the accentuation of a particular type of (simplex, i.e. non-compound) derived

nounor adjective is regular (and persistent, 24.21), this is usually indicated below (on the
suffix itself or in the accompanying explanation).
Note 2: The suffixes of participles and infinitives are not included systematically in thislist;
for their formation, 11.16, 11.31-3. Verbal adjectives in -téos and -tés, however, are
treated in this chapter: 23.29, 23.34.
23.8 -a/-n (accentuation varies): forms feminine action nouns:

a&pxn reign; beginning (&pyw reign, rule; begin)
ypagn writing, indictment (ypdqgw write, yp&qoucnindict)
uaxn fight(ing) (ud&yopon fight)
Gea seeing, sight (Gecopai gaze, view)
If the corresponding verb shows e-grade ablaut in the present stem, the noun
usually shows the o-grade ( 1.55):
(S1a)pbopa destruction ((S1a)p8eipe destroy)
Trout escort, procession (tréuttw send, conduct)
otroudt haste, speed (otreUSa make haste)
Tpogn nurture, rearing; nourishment (tpépe nurture, rear, cause to grow)
but guyn flight, exile (zero grade) (pevyw flee, escape)
23.9 *-ye: frequent sufhx forming feminine formsof the following types of adjectives
andparticiples:
adjectives in -us ( 5.21-2): e.g. HSeia sweet (<*Sée-yo; with masc. Sus, - os);
v-stem adjectives ( >5.23-4): e.g. péAaiva dark (<*yéAav-yo; with masc. péAas,
-avos); also with the adjective udxap blessed (stem in p), poetic paxaipa
(<*udKap-yo; 5.32);
vt-stem adjectives/participles ( >5.15-18): té&oa every, all (<*ta&vt-ya; with
masc. 1r&s, Travtds);
perfect active participles ( 5.20 n.1).
*-v& also forms feminine counterparts to masculine agent nouns,ofdifferent types
(these nounsareall recessive, 24.27):
consonant stems: e.g. &vacoa queen, lady (<*é&vax(t)-ya, cf. masc. d&va§
lord), Doivicooa Phoenician woman (cf. masc. Moivié Phoenician; in later
Greek -1ooa became a frequent sufhx in its own right, e.g. Bacidiooa
queen);
nounsending in -es ( 23.15): e.g. Baoina& queen (<*PaoiAng-ya, cf. BaoiAEets
king), iépeia priestess (cf. iepevs priest);
nouns ending in -thp ( 23.30): e.g. owteipa (female) saviour (<*owtep-ya,cf.
owtTtp saviour).
23.10 -&s, -&5os: forms masculine and feminine agent nouns, e.g. puyds fugitive, exile (pevyw flee,
escape), ai KuxAd&&es (vijoor) the Cyclades ( the encircling islands ).
23.11 -i& (Ion.-ein):

- This suffix forms (mostly abstract) action nouns, alongside verbsin -evw:
tTraseia training and teaching, education (traiSeve educate)
troAiteia administration, (form of) government (troAitevo, -ouar be a citizen, govern)
Baoilsia kingdom, monarchy (Baoilevw be king, rule)
Also, feminine abstract nouns from third-declension adjectives in -1\5 were
formedoriginally in -ei&: in Ionic this changed to -ein ( 25.15 n.1), but in
Attic these nouns end in -1& (they were analogically assimilated to fem. forms
such as 15ei&, Racine):
GAnGe1& truth(fulness), Ion. &AnPein (&Anbrs true)
doéBeia impiety, Ion. doeRein (doeBrs impious)
These nounsare recessive (24.13, 24.27).
23.12 -eiov: forms neuter nouns denoting a location, from nominal stems:
KaTrnAeiov shop, tavern (x&trnAos dealer)
xaAxeiov forge, smithy (xaAxeus (copper)smith)
23.13 -e1g, -eooa, -ev (declension 5.25): suffix forming adjectives expressing rich in... or . . .-ful ;
mainly poetic: e.g. Saxpudeis tearful (S&xpu/Saxpuov tear), titers honoured (ti) honour).
23.14 - 05, -E&, -Eov: See -oUs, 23.26.
23.15 -eus, -Ews (declension 4.84 5): forms masculine agent nouns, from nominal
stems; the general meaning of -evs is (professionally) occupies himself
with ...:
iepeus priest (ieo& offerings)
ouyypageus prose writer (cuyypagn prose writing)
xaakeus (copper)smith (xaAxds copper)
Note 1: A few nounsin -evsare primitive , i.e. non-derived agent nouns,e.g. BaoieuUsking,
epunveus interpreter.
Note 2: The suffix -evs is also found in proper names: Atpeus, AyiAAeus, OSucceus, Tudeus,
etc., and in adjectives indicating geographical origin: Adixapvaocoels from Halicarnassus,
Meyapeus from Megara, Ayapveus from (the deme of) Acharnae.
23.16 -ia: forms abstract nouns denoting qualities or properties, from other nouns or
from adjectives:
éAeuGepia freedom, liberty (éAeUBeposfree)
ttyevovia leadership, authority, supremacy (yyepooruler, guide)
cogia cleverness, wisdom (cogds wise)
Note 1: Where a corresponding verb exists, forms in -i& may also have action noun or
result noun meaning,e.g. in &8ixia unjust act (as well as injustice) (&81xéw act unjustly).
23.17 _-1Kds, -n, -6v: productive suffix used to form adjectives from nouns, with the
general meaning pertaining to ... , often skilled in ... , occupying oneself
with ...:
ypapyatixds expert in letters; grammarian (ypduue letter)
itrtrikds of a horse; skilled in riding (itrtros horse)
Trointikds capable of making, creative (trointis maker, poet)
puoikds natural, concerning nature, (qUois nature)
physical
Feminine forms (in -1x/) often have the meaning the art of ... , with or without
téxvn added: 4 ypappatixn (téxvn) (the art of) grammar,* ittrixh (téxvn) the art of
horse riding, } tointixn (téxvn) the art ofpoetry, etc.
23.18 -10v: forms neuter nouns from nominal roots, with various meanings: place
where , part of, made of. The general meaningis: denotes an object or action
related to ... (cf. -10s below). These nounsare recessive if they have more than
three syllables (accentuation varies in trisyllabic nouns):
t& Atovwoia festival ofDionysus (Aidvucos Dionysus)
a&pyupiov silver coin, money (4pyupossilver)
xpuciov piece ofgold (xpuods gold)
yupvaoiov exercise; (gymnastic) school (yupvaortts trainer)
ouutrooiov drinking-party (ouptréotns fellow-drinker)
-.ov is also used as a diminutive suffix: alone, or with enlargements (-cpiov,-i810v,
-UAMov), the suffix forms diminutive nouns, denoting a small specimen or used as
a term of affection or depreciation:
Ankuéiov small oil-flask (Anxu8os oil-flask)

oixidiov small house (oixia house)
traisiov small or young child (trois child)
taisdapiov small child (traits child)
éTruAAiov short (epic) poem (étros word, epic poem)
23.19 -10§, -1a, -1ov (also -aios; -e10s, Ion. -tyios): forms adjectives from a variety of
nominalroots. The general meaningofthe suffix is: belongingto . . . , pertaining
>
to...:
tatpios derived from one s fathers, hereditary (matip father)

dvaykaios necessary, inevitable (dvayxn necessity)
Sixatos lawful, just (Sixn justice)
duoios like, resembling (duds one and the same)
oixeios of the house, personal, private (oixos house)
23.20 -ioxos, -ioxn: forms diminutive nouns (cf. -10v, 23.18), e.g. &vOpwtricxos little person
(&vOpewtros person), veavioxos youth, young man (veavias young man), tradsioxn young girl,
youngfemale slave (traits child, slave).
23.21 -wa, -yatos (declension 4.40): a frequent sufhx which forms neutereffect/result
nouns; often in the form -nua. As neuter third-declension nouns, theyare recessive
( 24.28):
ypauua line (drawn), (written) character, letter (ypdqow write)
ud@nua (what is learnt) lesson (uavédveo learn)
tTpa&yya deed, thing, affair (1rpdtte do)
xpiiya thing (used); esp. pl. yequata (yptjouan use)
property, goods, money
23.22 -4os, -yoU: forms masculine action nouns, particularly from verbs with a stem in
a velar consonant:
Siwyyds chase, pursuit (SiaKw chase, pursue)
droAuypds loud cry (SAoAUZw cry out)
The suffix also occurs frequently in the form -oyoés with nounsderived from verbs
in -&@o or -ifw (i.e. with a stem in 8: -5uds > -opds, 1.90):
évGouoiaopds inspiration, frenzy, (év8ouo1dloo be inspired/inspire)
enthusiasm
Aoyiouds counting, calculation; (AoyiZopan calculate)
reasoning
undiopds conspiracy/sympathy (undiZeo conspire/sym-
with the Persians pathize with the Persians)
From the late fifth century onwardit was especially frequent in the form -10p0s5
(corresponding to verbs in -iZw), notably in technical terms (from medicine,
philosophy,linguistics, literary and historical studies, etc.):
attikiopds loyalty to Athens;later: (att1Kifw side with the
Attic style Athenians; later: use Attic)
BapBapiopds use of a foreign language (BapBapife use a foreign language)
(2&)d0Tpakiouds ostracism (do0tpakileo ostracize)
23.23 -og, -ou: forms masculine action nouns. These nouns are normally paroxytone
( 24.5). If the corresponding verb showse-grade ablaut in the present stem,the
noun usually shows the o-grade ( 1.55):
Adyos reckoning, account; reasoning, speech (Agyo say)
TAoUs/TrAdos sailing, voyage (1rAgw sail)
tévos toil, labour (trévouontoil, work)
otddos equipment; journey (oTEAAw fit out, dispatch)
toKos childbirth; offspring (tikto, étexov give birth)
tpotros direction, way (of acting, behaving) (tpétr, -opon turn around)
pdopos payment, tribute (pépw bear, offer, present)
woyos blame, censure (wéya blame, censure)
23.24 -ds, -o: forms masculine agent nouns. If the corresponding verb shows e-grade
ablaut in the present stem, the noun usually shows the o-grade ( 1.55):
do186s singer (deiSa sing)
oxoTrds spy, lookout (oxétrtopat look, examine)
tpopdsfeeder, rearer; esp. 1) Tpopds wet-nurse (tpégw feed, nourish)
In compounds(also 23.37-40, and 24.29 for accentuation):
oikoSdpos architect (house-builder ) (oixos house + Séue build, construct)
23.25 --og, -ous (o-stem nouns, declension 4.65): this sufix forms neuter nouns:
Nounsin -os are often deverbal, denoting an object or condition involved in the
verbal action:
BéAos missile, arrow (what is thrown) (B&AAw throw)
yévos race, offspring; class (yiyvouabecome, be born)
eidos form (whatis seen) (ciS5ov (aor.) saw)
étros word (whatis said) (citrov (aor.) said)
8gpos summer(<heat) (8gpou01 become hot)
Taos suffering, experience (what (iréoyxo, aor. Etrafov suffer,
is suffered) experience)
wevdoslie, falsehood (wevSoucnlie)
Note 1: In principle, these nouns do not denote a result, which is rather expressed by
nouns in -yo ( 23.21). But the distinction should not be pressed: thus, both 1é@os and
ma&Onua are used for what one suffers (1&Onya is preferred in technical prose writing,
Ta&Gos in poetry).
-os is also used in the formation of various other neuter nouns:

aioyxos disgrace, ugliness (cf. aioypds disgraceful, ugly)
Ey8os hate (cf. 2y8pds hated)
KaAAos beauty (cf. xaAds beautiful)
yeyedos greatness, magnitude (cf. uéyas great, large)
TaxXos Speed, velocity (cf. taxus quick)
These nounsare all recessive, as are all neuter third-declension nouns ( 24.28).
23.26 -oUs, -&, -otv (contracted from -éos, etc., declension 5.5; Ion. -éos, -én, -gov): forms
adjectives of material, e.g. dpyupots (of) silver (&pyupos silver), ypucotis gold(en) (xpucds
gold).
23.27 -a1s, -ews (declension 4.74): the most productive action noun suffix: it could be
added to virtually any verbal root, especially in the formation of a technical or
scientific vocabulary. Such nounsare feminine, and recessive:
akpdaors the listening to; also lecture (&xpocouanlisten)
yéveois generation, coming into being (yiyvouo become, be born)
Kpiots decision, judgement; critical point (kpive decide)
Avois releasing, solution (Aw release, loosen)
ua&Onors (the act of) learning (uavédveo learn)
toinois fabrication, production; poetry (trolw make, do)
Tpaéis doing, act(ion), performance (1rpattw make, do, act)
oxéwis examination, consideration (oxétrtopai look, examine)
Note 1: In principle, these words do not denote a result, which is rather expressed by nouns in
-ua (see above). But the distinction should not be pressed: thus, both troinors ( a(n act of)
producing ) and troinua ( a production ) may be used for what is made (there is nonetheless
a difference: troinua is a countable noun (cf. Engl. a poem), whereas troinots is a mass noun(cf.
Engl. poetry).
23.28 -ouvn: forms a small numberof abstract nouns, mostly from adjectives in -cv, -ovos, especially
-ppov and -poov:
owppoowvn prudence, self-control (cmppov prudent)

aTpaypooUVN easy-goingness (atrpdyywv easy-going)
uvnpoouvn mindfulness, memory (uvtypov mindful)
Other nouns were formedby analogy,e.g. Sixato-owvn righteousness (S1ardsjust).

23.29 --Téos, -Téa, -Téov: forms verbal adjectives expressing passive necessity (for the use
of these adjectives, >37.2-3). The suffix is added directly to the verb stem:
taidseutéos to be educated (traiseUw educate, verb stem traidevu-)
ypatrtéos to be written (ypdqw write, verb stem ypagq-; for TT
(assimilation), 1.89)
puAaxtéos to be guarded (puAdttw guard, verb stem puAax-)
Kopiotéos to be brought (xopife bring, verb stem xouid-; for oT, 1.89)
With verb stemsthat have ablaut variants, the full e-grade is typically used; with
verb stemsalternating between a long anda shortfinal stem vowel, the long vowel
is used (11.11):
peuxtéos to befled (gevyw flee, verb stem geuy-/giy-)
Aeitttéos to beleft (Acitrw leave, verb stem Asitr-/Ao1tr-/Aitr-)
tointéos to be done, made (tro1gw do, make, verb stem troin-/troie-)
tiuntéos to be honoured (tind honour, verb stem tipn-/TiIpa-)
23.30 -Thp, -Tiipos (declension, 4.55-7): forms masculine agent nouns,especially in dialects other
than Attic. In Attic, -t1s is preferred, and -t7pis virtually confined to tragedy, predominantly
in words borrowed from Homer. Some examples are dépotnp ploughman (&pdw plough), 50TH
giver, dispenser (S151 give), owhp saviour (owlw save). Also in kpatip mixing vessel, bowl
(kepdvvupi mix).
23.31 -Thpiov, -ou: forms concrete nouns denoting instruments and locations; originally formed
from agent nouns in -thp and the suffix -1ov (for both, see above); in Attic frequently
corresponding to an agent nounin -t1\s:
totipiov drinking cup (tives, 6n-aor. é1rdoOnv drink)

SikaotHpiov court (ofjustice) (Sixaotts judge, memberofjury;, cf. &ixdlw be a judge)
xpnotnpiov oracle (cf. ypgive an oracle)
23.32 -tns, -ou (declension, 4.8-10; accentuation varies): forms masculine agent
nouns:
Peatspectator (Gecouai gaze, view)
KpITIs judge (xpiveo decide)
Trointtys maker, poet (troigw make)
cogiotts expert, wise man, sophist (cogilouabe wise, be clever)
UpavTns weaver (Wpaiveo weave)
23.33 -tNs, -TnTos (declension, 4.40-1; accentuation varies): forms feminine abstract
nouns denoting qualities or properties, from adjectives in -os or -us; the general
meaningis the quality/property of being ... :
Kakdtns badness, wickedness (xaxds bad, wicked)
AcukdTns whiteness (AsuKds white)
tauTotns identity (16 attthe same)

taxutis quickness, velocity (tayus quick)
23.34 -T6s, -TH, -tTov: forms verbal adjectives expressing a passive state or passive
possibility (for the use of these adjectives, 37.4). The formation is directly
analogous to that of adjectives in -téos ( 23.29 above), with the suffix added
directly to the verb stem:
taiseutds teachable (traiseUw educate, verb stem traidevu-)
geuxtds avoidable (pevyw flee, verb stem geuy-/piy-)
tointdés done, made (troiéw do, make, verb stem troin-/troie-)
Note 1: When such adjectives are built on a compound stem, accentuation can vary,
sometimes with a corresponding difference of meaning: e.g. Si:a0Autds capable of
dissolution, 8i&Autos relaxed (810-AUw dissolve). For accentuation of compound adjectives
more generally, 24.29.
23.35 -Tpov, -ou (accentuation varies): forms concrete deverbal neuter nouns denoting instruments
and locations:
Ka&toTTpov mirror (kaBopdw spot, see)

oxiTtpov staff (oxhtoa lean on)
Qéatpov theatre ( viewer-place ) (8ecopon gaze, view)
Aoutpév bath (AoUw wash, bathe)
23.36 -wv, -dvos (declension 4.49; Ion. -eov, -edvos): forms masculine nounsdenoting locations
from nominal roots, e.g. dvipav, -Ovos men s apartment (avip man), trapBevav, -dvos
maiden s apartment (trap8évos maiden).
Nominal Word Formation by Means of Composition

Compound Adjectives with Nominal/Adverbial Element + Nominal Element
23.37 The first memberin these compoundsqualifies the second. Thefirst member may
be the root of a nounor adjective, a numeral, a preposition, or an adverbial prefix
(e.g. 5uo-, ed-). Some examples:
yeyadowuxos high-souled, generous (péyas great, large, puyt soul)
TloAuxpatns Polycrates (having (troAus much, great, kp&tos power)
much power )
Trevtaétns five-year-long (arévte five, étos year)
Ev@eos inspired ( having a (év in, Beds god)
god within )
tepipoBos very frightened (having exceeding (repi exceeding, pdBosfear)

fear )
Suotuxts unfortunate ( with a badfate ) (8uo0- bad-, ill-, tuyn fate)
evpevns well-disposed, kind ( with a good (ev well, uévos purpose, force)
temper )
To this category belong also adjectives with so-called privative &- (before conso-
nant) or év- (before vowel), with the general meaning not (cf. Engl. un-, a-, im-):
&Sixos unjust (&-, Sixn justice)
é&8dvatos immortal (&-, Bavatos death)
avégios unworthy (av-, & ia worth, value)
Note 1: 5uo- and &-/d&v- do not exist outside compounds.

Note 2: There are also compound nouns in which the first member qualifies the second
member in this way: d&kpdtroAis, | citadel (the highest part of the city; &xpds, drs);
ouvdounosfellow-slave (owv, S0UAos); tpitrous tripod (tpEis, Trovs).
A few compound nounshave a nominalcase form asfirst member, e.g. Aidoxoupo1 Zeus
sons (Aids gen. sg. of Zevs), EAAhotrovtos Hellespont ( Helle s sea ; EAAns gen. sg. of EAAn).
23.38 A special case is that of compound adjectives, and some nouns, of the type
Trapadofos. These compoundscan be considered nominalizations of prepositional
phrases: trap&So os incredible, unexpected is the adjectival form of the preposi-
tional phrase apd 8d av contrary to expectation. Some further examples:
éyKégados, 6 brain (év KepaaAt in the head)
éxtrosav (adverb) out of the way, away (x TroSav away from the feet)
etr1xapios (being) in or of the country, local (tri ywpa in the country)
oULgwvos agreeing in sound, harmonious (ovv pwvi together with the sound)
ppotiSos gone, vanished (1rp6 6800 in front of the way)
Note 1: Such adjectives may also be based on nounphrases, e.g. toAuxpévios long lasting,
based on troAvv ypdvov for a long time.
Compound Forms with Verbal Element + Nominal Element
23.39 In these compoundsthe second (nominal) memberfulfils the role of object to the
first (verbal) member. The first memberendsin:
0:
Aitrota&é1ov, T6 desertion (Acitrw leave, té&&1s position)
piddoogos loving wisdom (piAgw love, copia wisdom)
piddtipos loving honour, ambitious (piAge love, tit) honour)
Also with elision of o:

uio-/piAdvEpeotros hating/loving (uicéw hate / pidéw love, &vOpatros
mankind man, person)
¢ (mainly poetic):
EAétt(T)oAis city-destroying (aipgew, aor. eidov take, 1dAis city)
- oi(cf. action nounsin -o1s, 23.27):
AvoiteAts profitable (Spaying expenses ) (AUw loosen, resolve tédos payment)
Metoiotpatos Pisistratus (arei8w persuade, otpatds army)
Compound Forms with Nominal/Adverbial Element + Verbal Element
23.40 To this category belong several groups of nouns and adjectives:

Agent nouns, and adjectives referring to either the agent or the object of an
action. When such nouns or adjectives refer to the agent, the first (nom-
inal) part fulfils the role of object or instrument to the second (verbal) part.
The verbal root occurs in the o-grade if it has different ablaut variants
( 1.55):
Sopugdpos spear-bearer, bodyguard (Sdpu spear, pépw bear)
oixoSduos (house) builder, architect (oikos house, Séu build, construct)
oTpatnyds commander of an army, (otpatds army, &yw lead)
general
AidoBdAos throwing stones, MBdBoAos (Aifos stone, B&AAw throw, hit)
hit by stones
OAupTriovixns conquerorin the COAUTIAa Olympia, vixdw win)
Olympic games
Note 1: Compound nouns and adjectives in -os of this type normally have the accent
on the verbal part (i.e. they are oxytone or paroxytone) whenthey refer to the agent:
e.g. AifoBdAos throwing stones, wuyotroutés guide of souls, Anpotdyos throat-cutting
(but note exceptions such as fwioxos rein-holder, inmapyos commanderof horses); they
are recessive whenthey refer to the object: Ai@dBoAos hit by stones, stoned, AcnwdtoOpOs
with throat cut.
Agent nouns, with a second member formed with the suffix -tns (23.32):
étriotatns overseer, one whois set over (piotayai cometo stand over)
vopnobetns lawgiver (vépos law, tiénun put in place)
TpoSdétn§¢traitor (arpodidcoyn betray)
- Adjectives with passive meaning, from verbal adjectives in -tos (for such
adjectives, 23.34):
SopidAwtos taken by the spear, taken (8dpu spear, GAioxoyon be taken)
in war
tepipputos surrounded with water (trepi around, péw flow)
ouppelktos commingled (ouv together, petyvupr mix)
eUyvwotos well-known; easily known, (et well, yryvwoxw know, recognize)
easy to know
&Batos impassable; not to be trodden (&-, Baive go)
Verbal Word Formation

23.41 Manyofthe suffixes involved in the formation of Greek verbs are treated in the
chapters on verbal morphology ( 11 for thematic vowels, the optative suffix, the
augment, reduplication, endings, etc.; and the relevant chapters for suffixes mark-
ing tense-aspect). Below, some further details are given on the processes involved
in the formation of denominative verbs (verbs derived from nominal stems), and
on compoundverbs.
Denominative Verbs Formed with *-yw
23.42 The suffix *-yw was used to derive many (present stems of) denominative verbs:
verbs derived from a nominal stem ending in a vowel(i.e. contract verbsin -éo,
-&oo, -60 and -tyo); these verbs were contracted in Attic after the disappearance
of y (31.76, 12.29);
- verbs derived from a nominal stem ending in a consonant.
Note 1: -w verbs like Agyw, Acitrw, treifwo, Tet, Tpéxo, and many other so-called non-
derived or primitive verbs, are formed without a sufhx: thematic vowels/endings follow
directly after the root (12.24 n.1).
Verbs Formed with *-yw from Nominal Stems Ending in a Vowel
23.43 -é&w/-copar: from nominal stems in &/n (ie. first-declension nouns): e.g. Tip&eo
honour (<*-a&yw; cf. ty honour); the & was shortened in the formation of the
present stem (not elsewhere: e.g. aor. étipnoa, fut. tiujoo, pf. tetiunkas all with
Att. & > n, 1.57). Other examples:
vikde win, be victorious (vikn victory)
unxavcouai contrive by design (unxavt contrivance, scheme)
O@npdw hunt, chase (8rpa hunting, chase)
aiticopual accuse (aitia cause)
23.43-4 Verbal Word Formation 273
Note1: There are also a few primitive presents in -&w, where the endings follow directly after
the root e.g. 5pdw do.
Note2: A few verbsin -d&a derive from o-stems rather than a stem endingin &/n, e.g. yeAcoo
laugh <*yeAd&o-yw ( 12.29 n.1). The o of the stem has, with such verbs, usuallyleft traces in
other tense stems: e.g. aor. éyéAaoa (epic aor. 2yéAaooa, 13.18), fut. yeAdooua (15.19),
etc.
23.44 -£w/-£0MaL:
<*-éyo, from the e-grade of thematic nominal stems (i.e. second-declension
nouns in os): e.g. oixkéw inhabit (<*(e)oiKkéyw, cf. oikos house); the stem was
lengthened in other tenses (e.g. aor. d«knoa, fut. oikfjow), by analogy with the
-&o@ type and verbs such as giAéw ( >n.1 below). Somefurther examples:
Koopéw order, arrange, adorn (xdop0s order)
vootw beill (vdc0sillness)
é&p18uew count (&pi8uds number)
There are, however, also numerous denominative verbs in -éw/-goyou deriving
from other nominal stems, including stems ending in a consonant:
-£w<*-éoyw, from the stem in co of neuter nounsin os: e.g. teAéw finish
(<*teAgoyoo, Cf. téAos end); for such verbs, also 12.29 n.1;
other stems: e.g. paptupéw bear witness, give evidence (cf. udptus witness,
gen. udptup-os).
Further examples:
uiogw hate (uioos, -ous hatred)
evSaiovew be prosperous, be happy (eUSaipov, -ovos happy)
UTINpETEw Serve (Strnpétns servant)
povéw speak out (peovt) voice)
Note 1: Numerousverbsin -éw probably derive from original stative verbs in *-tyw, built on
the suffix -n- (cf. n-aorists, 14): e.g. piAéw love (<*iA-hyw), dAyéw feel pain (<*éAy-thya);
the original n is still visible in aor. épiAnoa,fut. piAtjow, pf. trepiAnxa,etc. (it was shortened
in the present stem).
Note 2: With a few verbsin -éw deriving from a stem in eo, such as teAéw finish, the o of the
original stem has left traces in other tense stems: e.g. aor. étéAcoa (epic aor. éTéAeooa,
13.18), @n-aor. éteAdobnv ( 14.16), Attic fut. teAdS (sometimes teAgow; 15.19), etc.
But with other such verbs the conjugation is fully like that of the standard -éw type, e.g.
MIOE®, aor. Eulonoa,etc.
Note 3: There are also someverbs in -éw that are derived from other verbs; they show
o-ablaut in their stem and haveintensive-frequentative meaning: e.g. oxotréw, -oua behold,
consider (oxéttoyat look, examine), and gopéw carry habitually (gépw carry).
Note 4: A few verbs in -éw are primitive (i.e. non-derived); these have alwayslost f, o, or y
after e: e.g. péw flow (<*Héfoo), Age sail (<*1Agew), S 00 bind (<*Béeyo).
Note 5: For -éw forming compound verbs, 23.50.
23.45 -6w/-doya1: from nominal stems in o. These verbs generally have factitive mean-
ing (make ...), and are mostly built on (second-declension) adjectives in -os; e.g.
SnAdw makeclear, show, make manifest (<*8nAdyoo,cf. SfjAos manifest). Some other
examples:
&&16w think worthy, claim (&&105 worthy)
éAcuGepdw set free (éAeuCeposfree)
Someare built on nounsin -os:
SouAdw enslave (SotAos slave, possibly originally an adj.)
otepavow (give a) crown (otépavos crown, garland)
Note 1: Note pairs like factitive 50uAdw enslave as against stative SouAevw be a slave.
23.46 Verbs in -eUw were originally the result of denominative formations in based on
nounsin -evs ( 4.84-5); later -eUao becamea productive suffix in its own right, used
also to form verbs from other nountypes. Verbsin -evw often have stative meaning:
Baoidevw be king (Baoideus king)
&yopevw speak in public (&yopé marketplace)
SouAeUw be a slave (SotAos slave)
Ta1seve educate (trais child)
Verbs Formed with *-yw from Nominal Stems Ending in a Consonant
23.47 When combined with a nominal stem ending in other consonants, the y of the
sufhix *-ya led to varying results, for instance:
aptralaw snatch away, seize <*dptray-ywo (cf. &ptray-n seizure)
éAtrife expect, hope <*éATIB-yo ( ATrIs, -i505 hope)
&yyéAAw report, bear a message <*é&yyéA-yw (cf. &yyeA-o5 Messenger)
traileo play <*traiS-ywo (traits, traisds child)
tapattw stir, trouble <*tapdy-yo (cf. tapayn disturbance)
For the sound changes involved, 1.77-8; for a fuller overview of these present
stems, 12.27-8.
Note 1: Thereare also verbs in this group which are not denominative, e.g. ppdZw point out,
explain (<*ppd5-yw), Baive go, walk (<*Bdv-yw), paiva show (<*pdv-yoo).
23.48 Several of these formationsresulted in newly productive suffixes:

- The formationsin -&@w and -iZw werethe basis for the developmentof -&@w and
-ifw as suffixes in their own right, which were used to form a large number of
denominativeverbs:
23.48-9 Verbal Word Formation 275
avayKalw force (dvayxn necessity)

yuuvdeloo exercise (yupvds naked)
Pauudleo marvel at, admire (Batpa wonder)
eudaipovile call/consider happy (evdSaipov happy)
Kougile makelight, lighten (xotqos light)
Aoyilouai count, reckon; consider (Adyos reckoning)
EAAnvilw speak/write pure Greek ( EAAnv Greek)
vouiloo believe; have as a custom (vdpyos law, custom)
UBpiZoo abuse, maltreat (GBpis abuse, brutality)
Note 1: Verbsin -iZw generally have either factitive meaning ( make X Y ; e.g. kougiZw), or
meanings having to do with types of behaviour(e.g. éAAnvife, UBpila).
Note 2: Other stems of these verbs are formedasif derived from stemsin -15- and -a6- (that
is to say, the pattern of -iZw/-&w verbs was highly regularized): e.g. aor. é@avpaoa, fut.
AoyioGyou, pf. mp. hva&yxaopan, etc. (for these regular principal parts, 22.6).
- -aive: this sufhx - originally the result of *-dvyw, e.g. etqpaive make glad
(<*etopdvyw, cf. eUppav) - forms verbs derived from nounsin -ya and certain
adjectives in -os and -n:
dvouaives name, call by name (Svopa name)
onuaiveos show by a sign, indicate (ofa sign)
yaretraive be angry ( make difficulties ) (xoAetrésdifficult)
uylaives be sound, be healthy (Uyins healthy)
-Uve: used to form verbs from adjectives in -vs:
Apacuven embolden, encourage (8pacus bold)
i@uve make straight, straighten (i8Us straight)
d Uve sharpen (d Us sharp)
Note 3: -Uvew is also found with some nounsin -os, e.g. aioytvw disgrace, disfigure (aioyos
disgrace, disfigurement).
CompoundVerbs
23.49 There are two waysof forming compoundverbs:

by forming denominative verbs from compound nounsand adjectives;
by prefixation of simplex verbs.
Denominative Compound Verbs from Compound Nouns/Adjectives
23.50 Several verbs are formed from compound nounsand adjectives ( 23.37-40),
with the sufhix -éw:
oikoSopuéw build (oikoSdpos architect, builder)
otpatnyew be general (otpatnyds general)
éemiotatéw preside, be in charge (émotatns president, commander)
Suotuxew be unfortunate (Suotuyis unfortunate)
pidocogéw love/pursue knowledge (piAdcogos lover of knowledge)
Note 1: Some verbs of this type may be construed with a direct object and can also be
passivized: e.g. oikoSopéw yépupav build a bridge, oikxoSopéoum be built. This showsthat the
nominal stem of the first member (oixo-), which denotes the object of the verbal action
(Seu), was no longer felt as such in compoundssuchas oixodopéw.
Compound Verbs Formedby Prefixation
23.51 A very large number of compound verbs are formed by prefixation, i.e. by
prefixing one or more prepositions (preverbs) to a simplex verb or
a denominative verb:
éx-Baiveo go out of ouv-ek-Baiveo go out together (Baive go, walk)
éu-BiBalw put on board yet-eu-BiPdlw transfer to (BiB&Zewo cause to go)
a ship another ship
Kata-Ti8epai depositfor tapa-Kata-TtiGeyoi deposit (tiGeuon lay down
oneself one's property with another for oneself)
Tap-o1KoSouge build (oixoSo0péw build)
across
Note 1: Prefixation is the only way in which simplex verbs are compounded.
Note 2: Only compound verbs formed by prefixation are separable by an augment or
reduplication: Kat-e-118éunv, ouv-ex-Bé-Bnka, but é-piAoodgouv, re-@iAoodgnKa
(denominative compounds); also 11.56. However, when a denominative verb is formed
from a compound noun whichitself includes a preposition (e.g. étmotatéw preside formed
from émiotatns president), it is sometimestreated asif it were formed byprefixation (impf.
éTrEeOTATEl).
24.
Accentuation
Introduction
24.1 Somefamiliarity with the basic rules of Ancient Greek accentuation is invaluable
in distinguishing between different grammatical forms(e.g. troiei 3 sg. pres. act.
ind., but troie1 2 sg. pres. act. imp.), or between different words(e.g.7 or, than, but 7
truly, really or 1 sg. impf.of cipi be; vopos law, custom but vouds pasture, province).
Below, an overview of the basic rules of Greek accentuation is given. For more
comprehensive studies, see the Bibliography at the end of this book.
Note 1: For conventions regarding the placement of accents on diphthongs and capitals,
1.8.
24.2 Ancient Greek was a pitch-accent language. Unlike English or Modern Greek,
words were not pronounced with fixed emphasis (or stress) on onesyllable, but
with a variation in pitch (or tone) that waspartially fixed and partially dependent
on a word'sposition in its clause. Written Greek uses three accentsigns to indicate
these variations. Two of them are placed on the vowelof a syllable that is marked
for its high pitch:
The acute accent, e.g. &, oi (Greek: d&ia tpoowSdia) marksthe syllable with the
highest pitch of the word.It can be written on all short and long vowels and on
diphthongs,e.g. dw voice, dpa then, yévos race, 680s road, éAnSe1a truth, Sopa
I enjoy, topevouon I march.
The circumflex accent,e.g. &, of (Greek: repioTrapevn Tpoowsdia) also marks the
syllable with the highest pitch in the word,butit is only written on long vowels
and diphthongs and indicates that the highest pitch falls on the first part of the
long vowel or diphthongand that the pitch lowers in the second part, e.g. trois
child, slave, ®&¢ thus, 1veGua breath, NepixAtjs Pericles, xaxotpyos villain, ci
I will go.
Note1: If the highest pitch falls on the second part of the long vowel or diphthong, an
acute accent is used, e.g. topeuampeba let us march, nipouev we found. The circumflex
accent is always placed on the second letter of the diphthong, although it marks the
high pitch of its first part. As a sign, the circumflex results from a fusion of acute and
grave accent. Thus et < év.
278 24.2-5 Accentuation
Thethird accent sign, the grave accent, e.g. &, oi (Greek: Bapeia poowSdia), is
conventionally written in continuoustexts to replace an acute accentonthe final
syllable of a wordif it is followed by a non-enclitic word (for enclitic words and
their accentuation 24.34, 24.38 below) without intervening punctuation,e.g.
autoTO Onpiov &yabov Kai KaAddv éot1 the wild beast itself is noble and beautiful
(observe that xaAdv keeps the acute accent as it is followed by enclitic got).
The grave is not used on interrogative tis and ti, even if followed by a non-
enclitic word.
Note2: There is no conclusive evidence aboutthe pitch that is indicated by the grave accent
on the last syllable; the mostlikely possibility is that it indicates that a syllable is pronounced
on a higher pitch than the unaccented syllables of the word, but on a lowerpitch than other
accented syllables.
24.3 Greek also has unaccented words(enclitics and proclitics). For the specific rules
applying to their accentuation, 24.33-9 below.
General Rules of Accentuation
Possible Positions of the Accent; Long and Short Syllables
24.4 Accents can only fall on one of the last three syllables of a word:
the ultima:the final syllable of a word (x-x-x);
- the penult: the second-to-last syllable of a word (x-x:x);
the antepenult: the third-to-last syllable of a word (x-x-x).
24.5 The acute may fall on any of the last three syllables of a word. The circumflex
accent mayfall only on the ultima or the penult. Thus the followingfive positions
of the accent are distinguished:
oxytone: an acute accent on the ultima (xxx), e.g. dvip, d§us, eri, T18eis,
AYAYOV, AUTOS, OUSEIS;
whenthe accent changes to a grave ( >24.2 above), such wordsarealso called
barytone;
paroxytone: an acute accent on the penult (x-x-x), eg. tUyn, Tapbévos,
Eupimridns, AcAeiipevos, Seikvuvai, evade;
proparoxytone: an acute accent on the antepenult (x-x-x), e.g. &yaAya, dotos,
Sikal1os, BaciAgia, PUdLEVOS, TEBVTNKA, TEVTT}KOVTA, UAKPOTEPOS;
perispomenon: a circumflex accent on the ultima (x-x:X), e.g. Logoxajjs,
apyupous, aAnbds, Tid, Troieiv, EUAUTA, OUKOUV;
properispomenon:a circumflex accent on the penult (x-X-x), e.g. ofjya, vijes,
TOAiTal, TOIOUTOS, aTrfye, SnAoUpEV, ExeiGev.
24.6-10 General Rules of Accentuation 279
24.6 The positions on which the accent can fall are further limited by the rule of
limitation ( 24.8-10) and the owtfpa-rule ( 24.11).
The position on whichthe accent does actually fall depends on whether a word
is a verbal form or a nominal form,and is then conditioned byfurtherrules (for
verbs, 24.16-20; for nominal forms, 24.21-32).
24.7 Accentuation is determined strongly by the length of the last two syllables of
a word. For the purposesof accentuation:
- a syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong;
- asyllable is short if it contains a short vowel(or,in the case of the ultima, -o1 or
-a1, 24.10).
For vowel quantity (long/short), 1.18. The quantity of vowels in nominal and
verbal endingsis given in the relevant sections of the morphology (particularly the
tables of endings, 2.6, 11.22-30). Vowel quantity is also normally given in
dictionaries.
Note 1: The length of a syllable for the purposes of accentuation is not the sameasits
metrical quantity or weight . For instance, the first syllables of vixta, gpyov and tutte
are short for the purposes of accentuation because they have a short vowel,
but they count as heavy (or long ) for metrical purposes because the vowels
are followed by a double consonant (meaning that the syllables end in a consonant:
vuK'Ta, Ep*yov, TUTTE).
The Rule of Limitation
24.8 The syllables that can be accentedare limitedto:

the last three of a word in the case of the acute accent;
the last two in the case of the circumflex accent.
Thus firadevopevos, tiyayes and ftipvate are impossible (correct: troaiSeuduevos,

tyayes and tipate).
24.9 If the ultima of a wordis long:

the acute accentis limited to the last two syllables: troiSeudpevns, trdArtou are
impossible (correct: taiSevopevns, ToAitou);
the circumflex accent can fall only on thelast, long syllable: toxins, fattors
are impossible (correct: oxnvijs, avtois).
24.10 If a word endsin -o1 or -a1, however, the ultima counts as short. Thus the acute
may fall on the antepenult and the circumflex on the penult, e.g. taiSeudpevon,
eTTITNSE1a1, ExoUVCAI, Oio1.
But optative endings -o1 and -a are long. Thus traidevoi (not frraiSeuon),
BouAevoa(aor. opt., 413.12).
Note1: Also long are the endings -o1 and -o1 of someold locative forms such as oikoi at home,
and interjections such as aioi oh!
Note 2: Whenw in an ultimaresults from quantitative metathesis ( 1.71), the accentuation
reflects the state prior to quantitative metathesis (and therefore sometimesappears to violate
the rule of limitation): e.g. TdAews (gen. sg.) <*1dAnos, MevéAews (nom. sg.) <*MevéAa(f)os.
The gen. pl. 1éAeav is analogous to TrdéAgos.
Several u-stem nouns ( >4.79-83) received accentuation analogousto the 1dAis-type,e.g.
with trijxusforearm, gen. sg. thxews, gen. pl. 1iyewv; with dotu city, gen. sg. &otews (gen. pl.
céotéwv in (texts of) Pindar; dotewv in later Greek).
The owtfjpa-Rule
24.11 If the following three conditions hold:

the ultimais short,
the penult is long, and
the accentfalls on the penult,
then this accent is always circumflex (i.e. the word is properispomenon):
e.g. owTip& (contrast owthpav), Ade (contrast Avou), tyes (contrast 7jyou), ToATTE
(contrast toAitns), BaoiAstow (contrast BaoiAeuoas), Tooottos (contrast
TOOOUTO).
Note 1: The owtijp&-rule applies only if it is the penult that carries the accent. Thus,e.g. oixos
house (gen.sg. oixou), but &troixos colony (gen. sg. &troixou).
Note2: Sincefinal -o1 and -o1 (except optative endings, 24.10) countas short, the owtfipa-
rule also applies with these endings, e.g. toAita (nom.pl.), 5oAo1 (nom.pl.).
Note 3: The owtfjpé-rule is also sometimes called the properispomenonrule .
Contraction
24.12 The accentuation of words that contain a long vowel or diphthong which results
from contraction ( 1.58-66) is determined by the position of the accent before
the contraction took place. The following rules apply:
(i) Ifthe accentoriginally fell on the first vowel involved in the contraction, the
resulting vowel or diphthongis accented with a circumflex: e.g. de > &, ga > 7},
go > ov, do > O.
(ii) Ifthe accent originally fell on the second vowel involved in the contraction,
the resulting vowel or diphthong has the sameaccent, e.g. a¢ > &, e& > 1, 6 >
OU, Ad > w, EO > O.
(iii) If neither vowel involved in the contraction contained an accentthe resulting
contracted vowel or diphthongis not accented.
24.12-14 General Rules of Accentuation 281
These rules maybeillustrated by the sg. of vos mind and the impf. act. and mp.of
the contract verb Troimake, do:
uncontracted contracted
VO-05 > votis (i)
vO-oU > vot (i)
vO-@ > vo (i)
vO-ov > vovv(i)
impf. act. impf. mp.
uncontracted contracted uncontracted contracted
é-Trole-ov > é-trolouv (iii) é-troie-dunv > é-Troiouuny(ii)
é-Tole-e¢ > é-trolets (iii) -TTOlg-OU > é-tro100 (i)
é-Trole- > é-trolet (iii) é-TTolg-ETO > &-Tro1etto (i)
é-TTO1E-OLEV > é-troiotuev (i) é-troie-dueBa > é-TroopeFax (ii)
é-Tolg-ETE > é-troueite (i) é-Troig-eoGe > é-troiciode (i)
é-Trole-ov > é-trolouv (iii) @-Tro1-ovTo > &-tro1otvto(i)
Note 1: The cotiip&-rule (as applied to the resulting form) takes precedenceovertheserules,
e.g. KANSovxos, not TkAndouyos (although <*kAndo-dxo>5).
Note 2: In compoundadjectives ending in -vous (<-voos; eUvous favourable, xaxdvousill-
disposed) these rules are disregarded,e.g. eWvou (gen. sg.; not tetvot <*etvd-ou), edveov (gen.
pl.; not tevvav <*etvd-wv).
Note3:Ifthe nominative and accusative dual ending -« is accented,it is always accented with an
acute/grave, regardless of contraction, e.g. va (two minds; <*vdw), evve favourable (nom./acc.
du.).
Note 4: For contraction in optative forms, 24.18 below.
Recessive, Persistent, and Mobile Accentuation
24.13 ManyGreek words,including nearlyall finite verb forms, have an accent whichfalls
on ( recedesto ) the earliest syllable possible within the confinementsofthe rule of
limitation and the rules of contraction. This is called recessive accentuation (for
details, 24.16 below).
24.14 Non-finite verb forms (participles and infinitives), and many nominal forms
(nouns, adjectives, pronouns, etc.), have a persistent accent, which remainsin
place whenthese words are declined unlessit is affected by the rule of limitation,
the owtfpa-rule or the rules of contraction.
Here, a distinction may be made betweenbaseaccent and case accent:
The base accent is provided by the nom.sg. of nouns, and the nom. sg. masc. of
adjectives/participles/pronouns. For instance, base accents are provided by nom.sg.
&vOpwrtros man, nom. sg. tapGévos maiden, and nom.sg. masc. Se1vds impressive.
Thebase accentis placed accordingto regular patterns in the case ofnon-finite verb
forms(participles and infinitives, -24.20 below). For nouns, adjectives and pro-
nouns some patterns can beidentified in words of similar morphological or
semantic categories ( 24.25-32 below), but there are many exceptions;
In the other grammatical cases of these words the accent (case accent) stays on
the samesyllable (counted from the beginning of the word) as the base accent,
unless this is prohibited by the rule of limitation, the owtfj\p&-rule orthe rules of
contraction. For instance, nom.pl. &v@perro1 (samesyllable as base accent), but
gen. pl. dv@patrev (not Tav8patrwv, prohibited by the law oflimitation,as final
-oov is long).
Note 1: There is no practical difference between recessive accentuation and persistent

accentuation with words such as &év@pwrtros whose base form is proparoxytone.
24.15 Some third-declension nouns have a mobile accent, which alternates between
falling on the ultima and the penult, depending on the case. For details, 24.23.
Finite Verbs: Recessive Accentuation
24.16 Nearly all finite verb formsare recessive: the accent recedesto the earliest syllable
possible, given the rule of limitation (marked (i) below), the owtfjp&-rule (ii) and
the rules of contraction (iii).
Note 1: For uncontracted forms, this gives the following possibilities (syllable divisions are
indicated by dots):
Formswith three syllables or more:
short ultima proparoxytone e.g. Au-o-yeBa, Aesyoo-ual, epEei-varpEv
long ultima(i) paroxytone e.g. Ausol-yny, Ko-AU-o, Se1k-vU-o15
Forms with twosyllables:

short penult paroxytone e.g. TUTTél, TUTTE
long penult, long ultima paroxytone e.g. AU-o, KAT vels, KAAU-oo1
(aor. opt. act.; opt. -o1 = long)
long penult, short ultima (ii) properispomenon e.g. At-e, KAi-vov, KAat-oa
(aor. inf. act.; inf. -o1 = short)
- Formswith onesyllable (the accent can, of course, fall only on thatsyllable):

short oxytone e.g. Bés, 505
long perispomenon e.g. El
The following examplesillustrate these principles. Given are the pres. mp.ind. of
Traidsevw educate, the impf. act. of &yw lead, bring, and the pres. mp.ind. of tiuda
honour:
24.16-19 Finite Verbs: Recessive Accentuation 283
Tra1sev-o-pan (i) Tyyov (i, ii) TIWSSort (<*Tico ) (i, ii, iii)
Tradeu'n (<*troidevren, tyes (i, ii) TVS (<*t1pé-e1) (i, ili)
1.83, 11.23)(i, iii)
Tra1deu-e:Tan (i) ye (i, ii) TIWaTOL (<*tipa&-ertan) (i, ii, iii)
Tra1deu'd-pe 8S (i) Hyryotwev (i) TypcoEBE (<*Tipad-pe'8&) (i, iii)
Traisev-eoe (i) iyye'te (i) TIpaobe (<*tipc-eo'Be) (i, ii, iii)
Traisev-ov-tat(i) Tyov (i, ii) TWASVTON (<*TILk-ov-Tan) (i, ii, iii)
24.17 The following finite verbs, by way of exception, are not recessive:
2g. pres. ind. pijs/phs (12.36);
the following five 2 sg. act. imp. forms of thematic aorists: eitré say!, 2A8E come!, eupefind!,i8é
see!, hae takel;
- all 2 sg. imp. mid. forms of thematic aorists (in -ot), e.g. &troAot perish!, dgixot arrivel,
yevow become!, éAot choose!, pot ask!;
xpr it is necessary, impf. (2)xpiv (not originally verb forms, 11.41, 12.44).
24.18 The following subjunctive and optative forms are contracted, and are accented accordingly:
present of contract verbs, e.g. subj. toidyev < Trole-wo-yev, Opt. Toloto < Trolé-0170; SouUACIVTO <
SOUAG OL'VTO}
present of -u verbs, e.g. subj. iordyar <*iottwpya1, TEs <*181)7N5, @o1 < *é-e-o1; opt.
diSoipev <*815d-1-pev, TeioGe <*1181-0Be;
root aorists, e.g. subj. uebfjo8e <*yeOr 1-082, yudpev <*yvar-w-pev, Sapueba <*5w-w-yEGo; opt.
&peiev <*apertev;
§n-/n-aorists, e.g. subj. AUG <*AUOT wo, pavijs <*pavty-ns; opt. AUEite <*AUGE-1-TE;
- mixed perfects, e.g. subj. oT <*éoté-w (iotapar), and oiSa know,e.g. subj. ci5 <*ei8é-o,
opt. eideiev <*eidé-1-ev.
But no contraction takes place in the case of athematic stems endingin 1/v,e.g. iw (eipi go),
Serkve (Seikvup1), SUcopev (root aor. of Suoua dive, >13.39-41, 13.44), puapev (root aor. of
puopuai grow (up), + 13.39-41, 13.44). Present subjunctives and optatives of the (middle-only)
-ui verbs SUvayan be able, étriotaya know, and xpéuayon hang are also treated as uncontracted:
e.g. SUVWOUAL, ETIOTAIVTO.
In other optative forms than those listed above, the diphthong formed with the optative
sufhx -1- counts as uncontracted: e.g. troiSev-orpev (contrast S:S0ipev above), tiytcar-obe
(contrast T18eio6_e above).
24.19 Compoundverbsarerecessive, but the accent cannotfall earlier than a syllable containing an
augmentor reduplication:
att-c&yo carry away e.g. atrijye (impf.), dtrijxe (pf.); contrast pres. imp. a&traye
Trap-exw provide e.g. tapeixe (impf.) and tapéoye (aor.); contrast pres. imp. Ta&pexe
If a prefix has twosyllables, the accent never recedes before the last syllable of the prefix: e.g.
tepides (aor. imp. tepi-Ti6nun put around), d&rdSos (aor. imp. &tro-8iSyi give away).
284 24.20 Accentuation
Non-Finite Verb Forms: Participles and Infinitives

24.20 The overview below details the accentuation of participles and infinitives:
Participles have a persistent accent ( 24.14). The base accent is provided by
the nom.sg. masc. form: other cases (and genders) keep the same accent on the
same syllable (counted from the front of the word), as long as this is not
prohibited by the rule of limitation (marked (i) below), the owtfjpa-rule (ii)
and the rules of contraction (iii).
Infinitives (indeclinable forms) normally have the accent on the samesyllable as
the base accent of correspondingactive participles (this often, but not always,
holds for middle-passive infinitives as well); for details see the table.
thematic present and future

base accent: paroxytone base accent: proparoxytone
ppl. nom.sg. masc. (base) ratdeU(o)wv Trardeu(o)duevos
gen. sg. masc./neut. Tra1Seu(o)ovtos Trardeu(oouévou(i)
dat. pl. masc./neut. Tra1Seu(o)ouor Trardeu(oouévors (i)
nom.sg. fem. TraiSeu(o)ouce Trardseu(oouevn (i)
gen. sg. fem. TraiSeu(o)ovons(i) Traidseu(oovens (i)
gen.pl. fem. Traiseu(c)ouodyv (<*-doov) (i, iii) troiSeu(o)opéveov (i)
nom./acc. sg. neut. Tra1dSed(o)ov (ii) Traidseu(o)dpevov
inf. Tradeu(o)ew Tradeu(o)eobar
contract verbs (present)
ppl. nom. sg. masc. (base) tipddv (<*-coov)(iii) TIU@pEVOS (<*-adpEvos)
nom.sg. fem. TILDE (<*-couoe) (ii,iii Tipwpevn (i)
nom./acc. sg. neut. TIUa@v (<*-cov)(iii) TIUGPEVOV
inf. Tina(<*-ce1v) (iii) TIpaoGa1 (<*-ceoGar) (ii,iii
thematic aorist
base accent: oxytone base accent: proparoxytone
ppl. nom.sg. masc. (base) AoPav AaBduEvos
gen. sg. masc./neut. AaBovtos AaBopévou(i)
dat. pl. masc./neut. AaBotor(ii) AcBopévors (i)
nom.sg. fem. AaPotoe(ii) AaBopEevn (i)
gen. sg. fem. AaPovons AaBouévns(i)
gen. pl. fem. AaPouoddy (i, iii) AaBopévooy (i)
nom./acc. sg. neut. AaBov AaBopEevov
inf. AaPeiv (perispomenon) AaPéobar
sigmatic aorist
base accent: paroxytone base accent: proparoxytone
ppl. nom. sg. masc. (base) TAISEvoas TAISEUGEVOS
gen. sg. masc./neut. TAISEUTAVTOS TraiSevoapevou(i)
dat. pl. masc./neut. TaSevoaol Trasevoapévors (1)
nom.sg. fem. TraSevoaod Traisevoapevn (i)
24.20 Non-Finite Verb Forms: Participles and Infinitives 285
gen. sg. fem. Traisevocons(i) TraiSevoayerns (i)
gen. pl. fem. Traisevoaody(i,iii) TraiSevoapévoeoy (i)
nom./acc. sg. neut. Traisetoey (ii) TTAISEUTGYEVOV
inf. traiseGoa(ii) TraidevoacFat
TpEWal Tpéyootar
athematic stems(present of -y1 verbs, root aorist, @n-/n-aorist)
-u1 verbs base accent: oxytone base accent: proparoxytone
ppl. nom. sg. masc. (base) SelKVUS SELKVUMEVOS
gen. sg. masc./neut. SELKVUVTOS Serxvupevou(i)
dat. pl. masc./neut. Seixvion(ii) Serxvupevors(i)
nom.sg. fem. Seixviioe (ii) Seikvupevn (i)
gen. sg. fem. Serkvuons Serkvupevns (i)
gen.pl. fem. Seikvucdv(i,iii) Seikvupevooy (i)
nom./acc. sg. neut. SelkVUV SElKVUMEVOV
inf. Serkvuval dSeikvucGar
root aorists base accent: oxytone base accent: proparoxytone
ppl. nom. sg. masc. (base) Sous SOvEVOS
gen. sg. masc./neut. SovTOS Sopévou (i)
nom.sg. fem. So0Go6 (ii) Sopévn (i)
gen. sg. fem. Sovoens Sopévng(i)
nom./acc. sg. neut. Sov SopEevov
inf. SoGvon(ii) dooFat
81-/n-aorists base accent: oxytone
ppl. nom. sg. masc. (base) Tra1deuseis
gen. sg. masc./neut. Tra1deusEvtos
nom.sg. fem. Traideu_iog (ii)
gen. sg. fem. Tra1deuseions
nom./acc. sg. Tra1deudEev
inf. TraideuGFvar(ii)
perfect
base accent: oxytone base accent: paroxytone
ppl. nom.sg. masc. (base) TTETTQISEUKOS TTETTOISEUPEVOS
gen. sg. masc./neut. TETTAISEUKOTOS TreTAISEUEVOU
dat. pl. masc./neut. TETTAISEUKOO] TTETTOISEUPEVOIS
nom.sg. fem. TreTTAISEuKvie (ii) TETTAISEUPEVT)
gen. sg. fem. TTETTOISEUKUIES TLETTOISEUPEVNS
gen. pl. fem. TreTTaSeuKuiov(i,iii) TTETTOISEUPEVOOV
nom./acc. sg. neut. TTETTALSEUKOS TTETTOISEUMEVOV
inf. TrETAISEUKEVAL TreTraisevobai (ii)
AgAuKéval AcAUoGat
Note 1: Observe the differences in accent between several (pseudo-)sigmatic aorist

forms ending in -oon:
verb stem ending in a verb stem ending in a
long vowel/diphthong short vowel
two or more one syllable two or more onesyllable
syllables syllables
2 sg. aor. mid. imp. (reces- PovAsuoa Avo KGAEOa Tpeyan

sive; -o1 = short)
3 sg. aor. act. opt. (reces- BouAevoai Auoal KaAEoal Tpeyal
sive; -o1 = long)
aor. act. inf. (not recessive) BouAetoan Avoat KaAgoan TpEyat
Nominal Forms: Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Numerals
General Rules
24.21 Almost all nouns, adjectives and pronouns have a persistent accent ( 24.14).
The nom. sg. provides the (position of the) base accent of nouns; the nom. sg.
masc. form provides the base accent of adjectives. Other cases (and genders) keep
the accent on the samesyllable, as long as this is not prohibited by the rule of
limitation (marked (i) below), the cwtfp&-rule (ii) and the rules of contraction(iii).
This principle may beillustrated by the declensions of 6 &v@pwtros man, H
OGAaTTE sea, t) apa place, and 16 petpa current:
6 avOpwtto0s N PaAaTtT& TN Xopa TO pete
man sea place current
sg. nom. a&vEpwtros OGAaTTE Xopa pete (ii)
gen. &v@partrou(i) Bard&tTns (i) Xapas PEULATOS
dat. &vOpartreo (i) Barattn (i) Xopa PEUNOTI
acc. a&vEpatrov OGAaTTEy Xapav peta (ii)
voc. &vOpootre OGAATTS Xapa beta (ii)
pl. nom. a&v8pwtro1 OGAaTTOI x@pan(ii) pevLaTa
gen. avépatroy (i) BaratTav xopar (<*-dev) peupatoov (i)
(<*-c&wv) (i, iii) (i, iii)
dat. avépatrois (i) Garattats (i) Xopais PEvao1
acc. a&v@patrous (i) BadatTas (i) Xapas pevpata
24.22 An additional rule affects nominal forms ofthe first and second declensions with
a base accent on the ultima: the genitive and dative singular and plural formsof
such wordsalwayshave a circumflex accent.
This maybeillustrated by the declensions of 865 god(dess), the adjectives iepds
holy and troaus much andthearticle 6,4, to: :
24.22-3 Nominal Forms: Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Numerals 287
Qeds god(dess) iepds holy

masc. fem. neut.
Sg. nom. Beds iepds iepa igpdv

gen. feou igpou iepas igpou
dat. Bee iep@ iep& iep@
acc. Oedv igpdv igpav igpdv
pl. nom. coi igpol igpai iep&
gen. NY iepaov iepav iepaov
dat. eis iepois iepatis iepois
acc. Beous ispous spas iep&
ToAus much 6, fh, TO

sg. nom. TTOAUS TTOAAN TTOAU Oo n TO

gen. TroAAOU TrOAAT}|S TroAAOU TOU TiS TOU
dat. TTOAAGS TOAAA} TTOAAG TO TH TO
acc. TTOAUY TTOAANY TTOAU TOV Thy TO
pl. nom. TOAAoi ToAAai TTOAAS oi ai TH
gen. TTOAAGV TTOAAGVv TTOAAGV TOV TOV TOV
dat. TroAAcis TrOAAais TroAAcis TOIS TIS TOIS
acc. TOAAOUS TTOAAGS TTOAAG TOUS TOS To
Note 1: First-declension gen. pl. forms are (in Attic) contracted from -éwv (<-tjav <-aoov,
1.57), and are accordingly always accented -dv (cf. e.g. @aAaTTaSv next to édAaTTa,
BaAraTINs; Kopav next to xwpa,etc).
This also holds for the feminine declension of many adjectives and participles, except
when the gen. pl. fem. is identical in form to the masc. and neut.: in such cases, the
accentuation of the masc./neut. is used in the fem. as well: so, e.g. masc./neut. ueAdveov and
fem. peAaivév (distinct forms, fem. accented -4v), but masc./fem./neut. yeyéAwv (form and
accent identical in all three genders); participles: masc./neut. toaideudvtwv, fem.
Taisevouodv, but masc./fem./neut. talSevopeveov.
Mobile Accentuation of Some Third-Declension Nouns
24.23 With third-declension nominal forms with a monosyllabic stem,the accent ofthe
genitive and dative falls on the ending (an acute if the ending has a short vowel,
a circumflex if it has a long vowel): so, e.g. the nouns un month, yeip hand, trovs
foot. This rule also applies to the inflected cardinals cis one, Uo two and tpeis three:
uty month yeip hand tous foot
Sg. nom. un xeip TTOUS

gen. UNVOS XEIPOS TrOSOs
dat. unvi XEIpt Todi
acc. UT\Va XEIDG TTOSE
pl. nom. UTES XEIPES TOSES
gen. Unvav XEIPGOV TrOSGOV
dat. unoi(v) xepoi(v) Trooi(v)
acc. UTVvas XEIDGS TTOSGS
eis one Suo two tpeis three

masc. fem. neut. masc./fem. _neut.
sg. nom. Eis ula ev Suo TPEIS Tpia
gen. EVOS was EVOS Suoiv TPIGv TPIGV
dat. évi Id évi Suoiv Tpioi(v) Tpioi(v)
acc. EVOL uiav EV 5uo TPES Tpia
Note 1: Exceptionsto this rule are the gen.pl. of trais child, slave (raiSwv) and the gen. and
dat. pl. masc./neut. of t&s, w&v every, all (révtwv, teow, but Travtds, TravTi).
24.24 The noun évip manalso has mobile accentuation: d&vip, avipds, avipi, vipa; &vSpe_s, avSpav,
a&vipao1, &vdpas. With the nouns tratip father, ujtnp mother, yaotipe stomach, buydtnp
daughter, the accent falls on the ending in the gen. anddat. sg, but not in the gen.pl. and dat.
pl. Thus e.g. tatip, tatpds, tatpi, tTatépa; Tatépes, TaTépwv, TatTp&o1, Tatépas. For these
nouns, 4.62-4.
SomeRules for the Placement of Base Accents on Nominal Forms
24.25 The rules that determine the placementof the base accent on nounsand adjectives
with persistent accentuation are complex. Only very limited guidanceis given in
the sections below; for more information, specialized reference works may be
consulted (see the Bibliography at the end of this book); the accentuation of some
types of regularly formed nouns and adjectivesis also treated in 23.
24.26 Most proper names are recessive, e.g. Ileiciotpatos, Nixias, Muppivn, Néaipa, TTAd&tov,
ApiototéAns, Atoyévns. Note that names in -KAfjs ((HpaxAfjs, ZogoKAtis) owe their perispome-
non accent to contraction -KAfjs < -KAEns.
Exceptions are names ending in -eUs (AyiAAeus, Tlepoes, Zeus) and in -a& (KaAuyo, Largo,
Aautrite), which have acute in nominative and circumflex in vocative (Zet, Zatrgoi).
24.27 Nounsending in short -& are recessive: éAn8e1% truth, yai& earth, @&AaTTE sea, 56§% opinion.
24.28 Neuter third-declension nounsare recessive: dve1So0s rebuke, dvoua name, te&yya affair, deed.
24.29-33 Enclitics and Proclitics 289
24.29 Most compoundnounsandadjectives are recessive, e.g. obpPoAov symbol, token; tepitratos a
walk; &uopgos misshapen, shapeless; tpdSpopos running ahead.
Exceptions are compound adjectives ending in -1s, which are mostly oxytone, e.g. &«Aet\s
withoutfame; ouptrpettts befitting, eutuyns successful.
For the difference in accentuation between such forms as A166BoAosstruck with stones and
A1BoRdAos throwing stones, 23.40 n.1.
24.30 Manyadjectives have an oxytone base accent:

nearly all non-compoundadjectives in -us, e.g. tayus quick, d&Us sharp, Sus sweet, Bpayus
short; exceptions are @7jAus feminine and fuious half;
most adjectives in -ns, many of which are compounds ( >24.29), e.g. &AnOys true, Uyitys
healthy, estuyns successful, doBevis weak; there are several exceptions, however(e.g. tAtjpns
full, es7@ns good-hearted);
alarge numberofadjectives in -os, e.g. &ya6ds good, noble, xaAdsfine, beautiful, fevixdsforeign
(so all adjectives in -1Kés), Se1vds impressive, ainypds shameful, ugly (and most other adjectives
in -vos or -pos); but there are numerous exceptions (e.g. yvapiyos familiar, tAOUoosrich,
Suotnvos wretched, éAeuBepos free; also 24.32).
24.31 Adverbs ending in -as are accented in the same wayas the corresponding adjective s genitive
masculine plural: e.g. dAn@ds truly (gen. pl. masc. dAn@dv), dws sharply (gen. pl. masc.
d éwv); for details, >6.3.
24.32 Comparatives and superlatives are properly recessivein all their forms (there is no base accent,
meaning that the accent mayfall further from the end ofa form than in the corresponding nom.
sg. masc.): e.g. Sevdtepos more impressive, Sewdotatos most impressive, &AnBEotEpos more
truthful, &AnPéotatos most truthful; &ueivev better (note neut. &yevov), &pioto0s best; KaKioov
worse (note neut. k&x1ov), Kakiotos worst; ueieov greater (neut. ueifov), ueylotos greatest.
Enclitics and Proclitics
Introduction
24.33 Two groups of words do not have an accentof their own (though they may acquire
onein a sentence):
- enclitics: unaccented wordsthat lean back on (cf. éyxAivoyon) the preceding
wordand together with this word form a single unit in pronunciation;
proclitics: words that lean towards (cf. tpoxAivoya) the following word and
together with this word form a single unit in pronunciation.
Note 1: Enclitics and (unaccented) proclitics were pronounced with a lowerpitch than the
accentedsyllable of the word on which they leaned .
24.34 The following wordsare enclitic:

the indefinite pronoun Tis andall its forms (tT1vos/Tou, Tiv1/To, TIva, Tiveov,etc.),
except &tta ( 7.24);
indefinite adverbs such as treo, trou, Troi, Th, ToTe, Trofev, Trofi (8.2);
unaccented formsof the personal pronoun ( 7.1-2): pou, yor, pe, Tou, G01,o ,é,
ou, Ol, IY, viv, oge, etC.;
the particles ye, te, vu(v) (not the adverb viv), toi, trep;
present indicative formsof eit be and pnw say, claim except the 2 sg. forms «i
and o7s/o71\s (note that this last form is not recessive, +24.17).
Note 1: Alongside enclitic 3 sg. 011 he/she/itis, there is a recessive form éoT1, usedat the start
of the clause, in the existential use there is (26.10), it is possible (= &eo1), and whenit
follows ox,un, ei, as, Kai, AAAK Or ToUTo.
24.35 The following wordsare proclitic:

the formsofthe article that begin with a vowel: 6, 4,oi, ai;
the prepositionsév,eis/és, éx/é&, as;
the conjunctionsei and as;
the negative ot//otx«/ovy.
The following also behave like proclitics, but are always written with an
accent; they are often called prepositives to distinguish them from the proper
proclitics:
other formsof the article: To, tis, Tois, tais, Td, etc.;
other prepositions: dvé, dtd, 814, étri, pds, oUv/EUv, Ur, etc.;
the conjunctions/particles dAAd, Kai, obSé, unde, étrel, 1);
the negative 1).
24.36 The negative ot/ovx/oty has an accented counterpart (ot/otUK/oty) which serves as an
emphatic negative, used when it stands before punctuation, as in 1é&s y&p ov; of course; this
occurs especially in answers ( 38.21).
24.37 Two-syllable prepositions have the accent on the ultima; this normally changesto a grave,
e.g. ad THv vedv away from the ships, epi tatdwv about children. However, when the
preposition is placed after the noun which it governs (anastrophe, 60.14) the accent
recedes to the first syllable, e.g. vedv &tro away from the ships, taidwv tépi about the
children.
The accent also recedes to the first syllable when a preposition is used instead of
a compound form with éom1 or eion, e.g. ta&pa = tépeoti/Tdépeton, Evi = Eveoti/eveion, ET =
ETEOTVETIEIOL, WETA = LETEOTI/ETEIOL. This occurs mainly in poetry, and particularly frequently
with the impersonal use of té&peoti, Zveott, ueTEoT! (36.6).
24.38-9 Enclitics and Crasis 291
Accentuation of Enclitics and Proclitics
24.38 The following rules apply to enclitics and the wordsthey follow:
oxytone word + enclitic: the acute on the preceding word remains in place and
does not changeinto a grave (x:x:x e), e.g. TrostTis a certain shepherd (but troiwtyy
eis one shepherd), ot yap trou for not, I think (but ot yap 8n for not, indeed);
perispomenon word + enclitic: no change (x:x:X e), e.g. tv Tis dvtip there was
a certain man, éuot ye dvtos at least while I am alive;
proparoxytone word + enclitic: a second acute is added to the ultima of the
preceding word (x-x:x e), e.g. Agave tis a certain lioness; dvOpwids te and
a man, tradsevouoi tives some people educate;
properispomenon word + enclitic: an acute is added to the ultima of the
preceding word (x:X:X e), e.g. oikds Tis a (certain) house; 5Hpdv te anda gift,
OWTTpPa Tiva a certain saviour;
paroxytone word + monosyllabic enclitic: no change (x:x-x e), e.g. TapBEvos Tis
a certain maiden, troAguou ye dvtos at least at a time of war;
paroxytone word + two-syllable enclitic: an acute/grave is added to the second
syllable of the enclitic (x:x-x e-é tivav gets a circumflex), e.g. tap@évoi Tivés
certain maidens, &\Awv tivdv some others, dotis éoti uh KaKds whoever is not
base;
- if an enclitic is followed by another enclitic, an auxiliary accent is placed
on the (last syllable of the) first enclitic, e.g. Hod&v tivés Trote Trapévoi once
there were certain maidens; totté yé po Soxet KaAdv eivan this, I think, is
beautiful.
Note 1: As these rules show, forms of indefinite (enclitic) tis a certain, some(one) with two
syllables are accented,if at all, on the second syllable (e.g. tivé, tTivés, tivév): this allows easy
distinction from two-syllable forms of interrogative tis who?, which? (e.g. tiva, tives, Tiveov).
Similarly, when accentedat all, indefinite tow somewhere (or the particle trot I suppose), toté
sometime, 11 somehow,etc., are always distinct from interrogative trot where?, 1éte when?, tri}
how?, etc.
Only when monosyllabic enclitic 1s or m1 receive an acute do these forms overlap with
interrogative tis/ti (always with acute, 24.2), but context then allows distinction between the
two.
24.39 Proclitics do not affect the accentuation of other words. However,if an unaccented
proclitic is followed by an enclitic, the proclitic gets an acute: e.g. oi Te &vbpes Kai
yuvaixes the men and women.
Observe that otte/utte neither, cite or, citep if indeed, dSote so that, so as to,
aottep as if, which are accented according to this rule, are written as one word.
Note that these words appearto violate the owtijpé-rule; so too certain formsof
Ode: THvde, ToOUGSE, TaoSe.
Elision and Crasis
24.40 Elision ( 1.34-8): if a vowel which would be accentedis elided, the accent recedes to
the previoussyllable as an acute, e.g. cdg eid¢van to know wise things (= copa eid van),
AGB GAA take other things (= AaBE GAAa), aT Ekow I will let these things lie (= atte
dow).
However, this does not happen with most elided prepositions or particles, e.g.
GANeitte but he said (= GAAg cite); O08 eitte and/but he did not say (= o08éeitte);
tapautéy from them (= rapa attaév).
24.41 If a two-syllable enclitic follows an elided word (this happensparticularly with formsof ciut),
an acute or grave is added to the secondsyllable of the enclitic, e.g. ody Uyteia peycAn toot
éoti; Is this not a very healthy thing?, &tiy01 8 éovév oi Ed Tot pidor We who were previously
friends are held in disregard.
24.42 Crasis ( 1.43-5): the first word of two that merge in crasis loses its accent; the
accentuation of the second word remains unchanged: e.g. dvOpeotre (= & dvOpwrtre),
tToupavot (= tot otpavoi), Tav (= T& év). But the owtijpa-rule takes precedence:
Toupyov (= Td Epyov, not frotipyov).
29
Ionic and Other Dialects
Introduction
25.1 Different dialects of Greek were spoken throughout Greece: the Spartans, for
example, spoke Laconian, the Thebans Boeotian, and the Milesians Ionic. Until
the third century BCE, our written sources attest about thirty such dialects apart
from (and different to a greater or smaller extent from) Attic, the dialect used in
Athensin the classical period, which this grammarprimarily treats.
The attested dialects are usually classified as belonging to the following four groups:
- Attic-Ionic dialects (Attica, Euboea, the Cyclades and Ionia);
- Arcado-Cypriotdialects (Arcadia in the Peloponnese, and Cyprus);
- Aeolic dialects (Thessaly, Boeotia and the north-eastern Aegean; Lesbian, the
dialect of the lyric poetry of Sappho and Alcaeus, belongsto this category);
West Greek dialects (also sometimes called Doric dialects; north-western and
central Greece, most parts of the Peloponnese, and many colonies across the
Mediterranean,e.g. Syracuse onSicily).
25.2 Alongside the dialects of everyday andofficial language, literary dialects devel-
oped within Greekliterature. These were based on the spokendialects, but came to
be identified with specific genres of Greek literature to such an extentthat in the
course of time it was primarily the choice of genre (not the origin of the author)
that determinedtheliterary dialect used.
The four mainliterary dialects that are distinguished until the end of the fourth
century are the following:
Attic:
Tragedy and comedy (spoken parts): e.g. Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides,

Aristophanes(fifth century)
Historiography: e.g. Thucydides (fifth century), Xenophon (fourth century)
Oratory: e.g. Lysias, Demosthenes, Isocrates (fourth century)
Philosophical dialogue: e.g. Plato, Xenophon (fourth century)
[onic:
Epic: e.g. Homer, Hesiod (eighth century) (but see n.1)

Elegiac: e.g. Archilochus, Tyrtaeus, Solon (seventh-sixth century)
Historiography: e.g. Herodotus (fifth century)
Medical writings: Hippocratic corpus (fifth century andlater)
294 25.2-4 Ionic and Other Dialects
- Aeolic/Lesbian:
Lyric: Alcaeus and Sappho (seventh-sixth century)
- Doric:
Chorallyric: e.g. Aleman, Stesichorus, Bacchylides, Pindar (sixth-fifth century)
Tragedy and comedy (choral parts have a superficial Doric colouring ):
e.g. Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes(fifth century)
Note 1: All literary dialects are to a certain extent artificial constructs, only partially
representing spoken language. The language of the Homeric epics is a special case - a
blend of forms from different dialects (primarily Ionic, with older Aeolic elements and
sometraces of a dialect that was in use during the Mycenaean era), and whollyartificial
formscreated for metrical convenience. The language of Homeric epic greatly influenced
later Greek poetry throughout antiquity. In the Hellenistic period it was studied in depth
at the Library of Alexandria, and afhliated third-century poets like Theocritus (who
wrote a highly stylized form of Doric), Callimachus and Apollonius modelled their own
poetry on it.
25.3 Alreadyin the classical period a version ofAttic with several Ionic features was adopted
as a commonlanguage for commerce, diplomacyandofficialdom. In the Hellenistic
period this formed the basis for the Koine (xoivh, common )dialect that came to be
used across the Mediterranean and the Near East for (administrative andliterary)
writing and increasingly also as spoken language (presumably still with regional
variations). The Koine was used, among others, by Polybius (second century BCE),
Josephus(first century CE), Arrian and Plutarch (second century CE), by the transla-
tors of the Septuagint (third century BCE) andby the authors of the New Testament
(first century CE). It is the basis of all later forms of Greek, including present-day
Modern Greek.
25.4 This chapter is confined to a summaryofthe characteristics of the main non-Attic

dialect of the classical period, the Ionic literary prose dialect of the historian
Herodotus ( 25.5-45). A few observations about the Doric & in the dialect of
choral lyric ( >25.46-7) are given at the end of the chapter. For more extensive
treatments of the different Greek dialects, specialized works may be consulted (see
the Bibliography at the end of this book).
Note 1: Some Attic authors use certain forms which are Ionic rather thanstrictly Attic.
Thus, for instance, Thucydides and the tragedians write -oo- rather than -tt- ( 1.77) and
-po- rather than -pp- ( 1.84 n.1); Thucydides has és (25.14) rather than eis (the two
alternate in tragedy), etc.
25.5-9 Ionic Literary Prose 295
Ionic Literary Prose
Phonology
25.5 Original « always changedto n,also after ¢, 1 and p (for Attic, 1.57):
e.g. yevet) generation, oixin house, yapr land, mptjyya thing, kpytip mixing bowl,
vervins young man (Att. yeved, oikia, apa, Paya, KPaTIp, veavias)
Note 1: & resulting from (second stage) compensatory lengthening ( 1.57 n.2) has not
changed: tr&o00 <*t1ravt-ya (not: tjoa), acc. pl. 8d Gs5 <*8d§Eavs (not: t5dEn>).
25.6 Ionic has the following rules of contraction ( 1.58-66):

Q, , 1, En, ew and oo are often left uncontracted: e.g. nom./acc. pl. yévea
races, mp. inf. troigeo@o1 do, make, act. inf. troigerv do, Hpaxdéns Heracles,
TlooeiSéwv Poseidon, vdos mind (Att. yévn, troicio®ai, troietv, HpaxaArjs,
Tloce15é3v, vows).
eo is either left uncontracted or made into a diphthong ev: e.g. 1 pl. mp. ind.
Troiedpeba, Troieuneba we do, gen. eyo, Eve (Att. TroioupeBa, guod).
on is more often contracted to w than in Attic, where it is sometimesleft
uncontracted: e.g. 1 sg. aor. ind. Boa cried (Att. Bdnoa).
whenuncontracted¢¢ is followed by a vowel, one ¢ has disappeared;this is called
hyphaeresis (Upoaipéw take out): e.g. 2 sg. imp. tyyéo lead, consider (<*tyéeo),
gen. sg. HpakAgos (< HpaxAdgeos), 2 sg. ind. poBéor you fear (<*pofe-ecn) (Att.
tryou, HpaxAgous, poPei/-7).
25.7 In both Attic and Ionic the rules of quantitative metathesis apply ( 1.71), but in Ionic no
subsequent contraction has taken place: e.g. Ist decl. gen. pl. ending -éwv (<-hwv <-d&wv),
Xpe@par use (<*yprjouar), aor. subj. Ge put, place (<*Ohw), pl. Géwpev (<*Ohopev) (Att. -dv,
xpayar, 8, Gdpev).
25.8 For Att. er(o), Ionic has ni(o) in many nouns(e.g. wavtiiov oracle, yaAxtiov cauldron) and
adjectives (e.g. BaoiAtjios royal, yuvaixijios of a woman) and in some verbs(e.g. oixnide
appropriate, KAniw shut) (Att. uavteiov, xaAkeiov, Bacidetos, yuvaixeios, oikelda, KAEIO).
Exceptionsare 8ios divine, proper nameslike Aapeios Darius and ethnic adjectives (Apyeios
Argive, HAgios Elean).
25.9 Ionic haslost the aspirate [h] ( 1.7) at the beginning of words/stems: this is called
psilosis ( baring , stripping ). The rough breathing is however written in Ionic
texts by convention. Asa result, psilosis can only be observedin the caseofelision
( 1.34) and compounds ( 1.35):
e.g. dm ov since, katnya be seated, &traipéw remove, petinu. abandon, K&t0d0¢5
return (Att. dp oU, KdOnual, d&oaipgw, peinui, K&BoSos).
Note 1: The aspirated stops (@, 9, y) have not lost aspiration: yapn (not: fkapn).
Note 2: Becauseofpsilosis, the form xaté& can be both conjunction (Att. ka@é/Ka® & just as)
and preposition (Att. kat&)
25.10 Ionic has oo (<*xy/*ty, 1.77) where Attic has tt:

e.g. puAdoow guard (<*puAdK-yw), hoowv worse (<*f\K-yoov), yeAlooe bee (<*peAIT-
y&) (Att. puAdtTO, ftTov, wéAITTS).
Note1: If Att. tr is not the result of *xy/*ty, Ionic has tt as well: e.g. in toponyms such as
Attixn Attica, proper names such as AAudéttns Alyattes, and the loanword &ttéAeBoslocust.
25.11 Theloss of ¢ after most consonants ( >1.80-2) has normally led to compensatory
lengthening ( 1.68-9) of a preceding vowel:
e.g. Eeivos stranger, guest-friend (<*§éveos), uotvos alone (<*udveos) (Att.vos, Udvos).
25.12 Indefinite, interrogative and indefinite relative pronouns havex- instead of t-:
e.g. koU where?, kou somewhere, dxou where; kote when?, kote once, Oxdote when, etc.
(Att. trot, trou, Strou; 1éte, Tote, OTrdTE)
But tis who?, tis someone and dotis whoever have t-.
25.13 Assimilation of po to pp ( 1.84 n.1) has not taken place in Ionic: e.g. déponv male,
masculine, 8&poos courage (Att. dppnv, F&ppos).
25.14 Observe the following further phonological particulars:

twutd the same, éwutot, -t& himself, etc. (Att. tattd, éxutod, -1A,etc.);
tpdpa disaster, @&pya (object of) admiration, 8wydlw admire (Att. tpaiya,
Pata, Baupidloo);
gen. sg. Baoiréos king (Att. BaoiAéws, 4.84 5);
comparatives pélwv bigger, kxpécowv better, stronger (Att., irregularly: peiZov,
Kpeittwv);
- 1 pl. ind. of oi8a know: iSpev (Att. iouev);
yivouai become, be born, yivwoxw (get to) know (y lost with compensatory
lengthening; Att. yiyvoua, yiyvaoKe);
av (Att. otv);
the ppl. of cipi be is ev (Att. dv), 25.40 below;
és (in)to (Att. normally:cis);
otvopa name,civexa/eivexev because, due to (Att. dvoya, évexar);
éecv/étrty (étrei + &v; Att. normally érdv);
iyif (ei + &v; Att. 2dv/ev/Fv).
Note 1: Editions of Herodotus do not normally print movable v ( 1.39) except in quoted
hexameterpoetry: e.g. 0 avtoioi (not 2o0 ev), 2oT1dv8pwrros (not éotiv). Whether or not
Herodotus actually used movable v is unclear; in any caseit is left out in the tables below.
Morphology: Nominal Forms

First Declension
25.15 Feminine words ( 4.3-7):

type guyt flight, yapn land (Att. puyt, yapa):
Sg. pl.
nom. = voc. Yopn Yapat
gen. XOpPNS xapewv (<*-twv, Att. -dv)
dat. Xap? xapnor (Att. -ars)
acc. Xopry XYOPAS
type 56 & opinion:

Sg. pl.
nom. = voc. S0EG d0Ea1
gen. SdEnNs So ewv (<*-hoov, Att. -dv)
dat. SdEN SdEqor (Att. -ais)
acc. S0Eav S0EaS
Note 1: Someabstract nounsof the Att. S:&vo1& type are in Ionic declined like yapn;e.g.
&Andein truth, esvoin good will (Att. dAnba&, e¥vore). Also 23.11.
25.16 Masculine words, type Seomrét5 master ( 4.8-12):

Sg. pl.
nom. SEOTIOTNS SEOTIOTAL
gen. SeoTrétew (<*-no, Att.-ou) Seotrotéwv (<*-thoov, Att. -dv)
dat. SeomréTy SeotréT01 (Att. -ars)
acc. SEOTTOTHV SEOTIOTES
VOC. SEOTIOTE = nom.
In Ionic -ns, etc. are also usedafter ¢, 1, p (25.5): hence 6 venvins young man (Att.
veavias), 6 Tauins treasurer (Att. tauias).
Note 1: Some proper namesof this category occasionally have a genitive in -eos (Ot&vE0s5
Otanes) and/or an accusative in -ea (TUyex Gyges, =ép§ea Xerxes), imported from the third
declension. These forms occur alongside those given above(e.g. =ép§nv).
Note 2: Ionic uses 6 troAijtns citizen (Att. troAitns).
Second Declension
25.17 Types S0tAos slave, 5apov gift ( 4.19-26): the dat. pl. ends in -o101 (Att. -ois).
25.18 Types vdos mind, dotéov bone (Att. vots, doTotv, 4.19-26): forms are uncon-
tracted ( 25.6 above). E.g::
Sg. pl.
nom. vdos (Att. voiis) vooi (Att. vot)
gen. voou (Att. voi) voov (Att. vay)
dat. vow (Att. vd) vooiol (Att. vois)
acc. voov (Att. votv) vdous (Att. vots)
VOC. voe (Att. vot)
25.19 The Attic second declension ( >4.27)is not consistently used. Both Aews band, army and older
Aads are found in Herodotus (possibly owing to confusion in the manuscript tradition); vnds
temple is generally preferred over veas.
Third Declension
25.20 Stems ending in labial (1, B, ¢:), velar (x, y, x) and dental stops(7, 5, @), and
stems ending in vt, v, A, p and (e)p (tatip father, dvip man) display no
differences between Attic and Ionic. For their declensions, 4.35, 4.40, 4.45,
4.49, 4.55, 4.62. Observe that instead of pUAag Ionic uses second-declension 6
puAakos guard.
Note 1: ydpis favour, gratitude (yapit-) and dpvis bird (6pvi8-) have acc. sg. forms ending in
-v and -a: y&pi and ydpita; dpvw and dpvida.
25.21 Stems ending in o ( 4.65-73); type yévos race, ToAuxpatns Polycrates, HpaKréns
Heracles; the endings are uncontracted ( 25.6).
Sg. pl.
nom. yévos yévea (Att. yévn)
gen. yéveos (Att. yévous) yevéov (Att. yevdsv)
dat. _yévei (Att. yéven) yéveol
acc. yévos yévea (Att. yévn)
nom. TloAuxpdatns OepiotoKAéns (Att. -KAfjs)

gen. TloAuxp&teos (Att. -Kp&tous) OeuiotoKAgos (<*-KAéeos, hyphaeresis,
25.6; Att. -KAgous)
dat. TloAuxpartei (Att. -xpé&tet) OepioToKAdi (<*-KAéei; Att. -KAeT)
acc. TloAuxpdteq (Att. -Kpdtn, -nv) OepiotoKAd& (<*-KAEea; Att. -KAga)
VOC. TloAUKpates OepiotoKAees (Att. -KAers)
25.22-5 Tonic Literary Prose 299
25.22 Stems endingin 1 ( 4.74-6); type 1déA1s city; there is no ablaut variation (cf. Att.
ois sheep 4.77):
Sg. pl.
nom. TTOAIS TrOAtes (Att. TrdAeis)
gen. TrOAios (Att. 1dAEws) TroAlov (Att. 1déAewv)
dat. ToAi (Att. 1dAé1) TdAion (Att. 1dAeoi(v))
acc. TOAiv TdAis (<*-ivs, Att. 1dAe1s)
VOC. TTOAT = nom.
Note 1: 1dAis in modern editions of prose texts (without indication of vowel length) can be
both nom.sg. and acc.pl.
25.23 Stems ending in u ( 4.79-83); the type withoutablaut (ioyus strength) is declined as
in Attic; the type with ablaut (trijxus forearm, &éotu town) has uncontracted endings:
Sg. pl.
nom. TET]XUS Trtyxees (Att. 1ryxeIs)
gen. TxEos (Att. trhyEws) TET|XE@V
dat. Trnyxet (Att. t1)yXe1) TIT|XEO1
acc. TET]XUV mhyxeas (Att. tyes)
nom. OOTU dotea (Att. dot)

gen. d&oteos (Att. dotecs) COTEOV
dat. é&otei (Att. dotet) COTEO1

acc. OOTU d&otea (Att. dotn)
25.24 Stems ending in eu (type Baoiles king, >4.84-5):

Sg. pl.
nom. Bao1Aeus Baoirges (Att. BaoiAcis/-F\s)
gen. Baoiréos (Att. BaoiAéws) BaoiAgeov
dat. Baonréi (Att. Baoilci) Baoireto1
acc. Baoirga (Att. Baoiga) Baoirdas (Att. Bacikgas, BaorAcis)
Voc. Baoret = voc.
25.25 vats ship ( 4.86-7):

Sg. pl.
nom. ns (Att. vais) vées (Att. vijes)
gen. veds (Att. véos) VEGV
dat. vni vynuoi (Att. vauoi(v))
acc. vee (Att. vaiiv) vers (Att. vats)
Zeus Zeus and Bots ox are declined as in Attic ( 4.86-7).

The Article, Adjectives
25.26 The article is declined in accordance with the rules given for the first and second
declensions above ( 25.15-18), but the gen.pl. fem.is identical to the masc./neut.
(tév). Forms different from the Attic declension ( 3.1) are underlined:
pl.
fem. neut. MAasC. fem. neut.
nom. © 7
¢
TO oi ai TA
gen. THs TOU TOV TOV TOV

~
dat.
~
TT) TO TOIOl TT)01 TOIOL

Thy TOUS TAS TH
:
acc. TO
25.27 Adjectives follow, depending on their patterns of declension (for which, 5), the
paradigmsgiven above. Somespecific points:
first-and-second-declension adjectives which are contracted in Attic (type
xpucots gold(en), 5.5) are not contracted in Ionic, e.g. dat. pl. masc./neut.
xpuc¢oion (Att. xpucois), dat. sg. fem. o1Sepén iron (Att. o15np&);
TAgos, TAEn, TAgov full (Att. TAEgas, TAEG, TAE@v, 5.12);
TOAAds, TOAAN, TroAAdv large, many, declined regularly (Att. troAUs, 5.13-14);
adjectives ending in -ngs (type dAn61s true, with a stem in eo, 5.28-30) have
uncontracted forms: e.g. dAnBéos (Att. dAnBotis), dAnBEes (Att. dAnGeis), etc.;
adjectives ending in -us (type fSus sweet, with a stem in u/ef, 5.21-2) have
uncontracted forms in the masc. and neut., e.g. Ades (Att. ASeis), and the
feminine is declined 52a, hdens, etc. (Att. HSeia, HSeias, etc.).
Pronouns
25.28 Personal pronouns (accented and unaccented, 7.1 2); forms different from
Attic are underlined:
first person second person third person (for Att., 7.2)

sg. nom. eyo ou
gen. éuéo (Att. guod); o£0; o 0, oeu (Att.
Meu, You cot; cou)
dat. Evol; Lol ool; Col, Tol ol; of
acc. EUES UE O ; OF Uv
pl. nom. Tueis, Tees UES, UMEES (ogeis)

gen. Théoov (Att. hydv) Upewv (Att. Uudv) ogewv (Att. opdv); opewv
dat. iv [iv OMiOl; O11; oO !
Ca
acc. teas (Att. hyas) Upéas (Att. Uyas) agétas (Att. opas); opens;
neut. opéa; oge, open (no
Att. equivalents)
Note 1: é (3 sg. acc., *7.2) is used in Herodotus only in quoted hexameterpoetry.

Note 2: to1 is also used in Herodotus with the force of an attitudinal particle, for which
59.51.
25.29 For forms of autos in crasis (toUT& = Ta avTd; reflexive pronoun éwuTod),
25.14.
25.30 Interrogative and indefinite pronouns: apart from the regular third-declension
forms ( 7.24), some second-declension formsare used: gen. sg. téo/tev, dat. téoo,
gen. pl. téwv, dat. téo101.
Hencealso indefinite relative pronouns such as ét¢o0, étéo101,etc.
25.31 Relative pronouns: the form ofthe relative pronounis identical with thearticle in
all cases except the nom.sg. masc. és, and with respect to accentuation, the nom.
sg. fem. # and the nom.pl. masc./fem.oi and ai:
Sg. pl.
mase. fem. neut. masc. fem. neut.
nom. 0s q TO ol al TH
gen. Tou THs TOU TOV TOV TOV
dat. TH Tf TH Toio1 Tijo1 Toio1
acc. Tov Thy TO TOUS TAS TH
Example: S0%vai 16 dv@pamtrw Tuyeiv &piotév éo71 to give whatis bestfor a manto get
(Hdt. 1.31.4)
But whenthey follow a preposition that can be elided the relative pronouns are
used as in Attic: dv ov (note psilosis: Att. &v@ cv), ét cio(Att. ég oio1), Trap fv.
Morphology: Verbal Forms

Thematic Conjugations
25.32 Thematic conjugations do not differ much from Attic (tro1Seve, troidevers, etc.).
The 2 sg. middle-passive endings are not contracted: -ea1 (<*-eoo1; Att. -e1/n) and
-£0 (<*-¢o0):
e.g. pres. ind. BovAeai you want, impf. ényyéAAeo you offered, aor. ind. cipeo you
asked, aor. ind. éyéveo you became, pres. imp. aitéo ask! (<aitéeo, 25.6) (Att.
BouAi, étrnyyéAAou,tpou, éyévou, aitod).
25.33 a-stem contract verbs (Att. type tiydoo honour): usually contracted as in Attic.
Before an o/w an uncontracted form may be used with an¢ as substitute fora:
e.g. ToAéw I dare (Att. ToAud <-doo), Epoiteov they visited (next to époitav <-aov;
so in Att.), étitipéov honouring (Att. étritipdv <-doov).
25.34 e-stem contract verbs (type troig# make, do) are generally left uncontracted
( 25.6 above), but co can be contracted to eu:
present active present middle-passive
sg. 1 Tow (Att. tro1d) Toigovai/troisdpoan (Att. troiodpat)
2 troigeis (Att. troisis) troigai (with hyphaeresis, 25.6;
Att. trovei/-#})
3. troiger (Att. troiei) Toietar (Att. troieitat)
pl. 1 tror opev/troietpev (Att. toiotuev) troiedpefa/troievpeba (Att.
Troioupetar)
2 troigete (Att. troicite) toigeoGe (Att. troicio e)
3. trolgouoi/troietion (Att. troioto1) To1ovtai/troidvtar (Att.
TOLOUVTOL
imperfect active imperfect middle-passive

sg. 1 étroleov/étroieuv (Att. étroiouv) étroiedunv/étroieuuny (Att. étroiouunv)
2 étroiees (Att. étroieis) étroieo (with hyphaeresis; Att.
éTro10u)
3 étrotee (Att. étroier) étroigeTo (Att. étroicito)
pl. 1 étroéopev/étroreGyev (Att. étroiedueba/étroieupetar (Att.
étro1oUpev) étro1oupetar)
2 étroigete (Att. étroicite) étroigeoGe (Att. étroieio e)
3 étroieov/étroieuv (Att. étroiouv) étroigovto/étroisvto (Att. étroiotvto)
Also note:
optatives sometimes contract after diphthongs: e.g. 1 sg. troioin, 3 sg. troioi (but
uncontracted 3 pl. troigoiev; Att. troiciev);
optatives are always uncontracted after consonants: KxaAéo1, ppovéotev (Att.
KaAOIN/KaACI, ppovoiev);
infinitive: troigeiv, troigeoBan (Att. troieiv, TroiioGan);
participle: troigwv, troigouca,Troigov,etc. (Att. troidv, troiotica, Troioty,etc.); also
attested are forms suchas troisvta, troistioa.
25.35 0-stem contract verbs (type 5nAdw makeclear): contracted as in Attic. In some
editions spuriousformslike éSikaieuv (= é5ikaiouvI thoughtit right to) and &&ieGuon
(= & 10tpa1 I deem worthy) are found.
25.36 Observe quantitative metathesis ( 1.71, 25.7) and the absence of contraction ( 25.6) in n-
stem contract verb formslike ypeéwpan use (<*xpropar, Att. yedpat).
Athematic Conjugations
25.37 The2sg. middle endingofthe sigmatic aorist is not contracted: -ao (<*-aoo,Att. -o):
e.g. 25 Eao you received (Séxoua), épbéyEao you uttered (pbéyyouat) (Att. 25 &oo,
epGéyEw).
25.38-42 lonic Literary Prose 303
25.38 Thematic forms are found in the present and imperfect conjugationsof -u verbs
(for similar forms in Attic, >12.53-6):
ti8nur put, place: 3 sg. pres. act. ind. T18et (Att. ti@nor)
SiScpi give: 2 sg. pres. act. ind. 8:So0is, 3 sg. 81507 (also Si8wor), 3 pl. S800 (Att.
518s, S181, 5156001)
iotnyut make stand, set up: 3 sg. pres. act. ind. iotG, 2 sg. pres. act. imp. iota (Att.
fotno1, lot)
inui send, let go: 3 sg. pres. act. ind. é&1ei (Att. é&inor)
-vupl verbs (e.g. Seikvup show, Suvupi swear, Cevyvupi yoke): 3 sg. pres. act. ind.
Seixvuer, 3 pl. duvdouo1, 1 sg. impf. élevyvuov, 3 sg. elevyvue (Att. Seikvucn,
duvuaon, éleUyvuy, élevyvu)
25.39 Instead of the 3 pl. middle-passive endings -vta and -vto, -&ta1 and -é&to (with
vocalized v, 1.86) are generally used in athematic conjugations(this includespf.
and plpf. forms which in Attic occur only as periphrastic forms, 17.5-7, 19.8):
.g. TIGEATOL, KEATAI, KEXWPISATO, KATEATAI, TITIOTEATO (Att. tiéevtoai, Keivtat,
Kexwplopévoi/-an eit, KaOnvTa, TITioTaVvTo).
Note 1: These endings are also used in the optative: BouAoiato, yevoiato (Att. BovAowTo,
yévowTo).
25.40 eipi be:

present imperfect
1 sg. eiul éa (Att. 7(v))
2 eis (Att.ei) tas (Att. hob)
3 eoTi TV
1 pl. eivev (Att. gopév) zouev (Att. fev)
2 éoTe gate (Att. ye)
3 eiol TNoav
subj. 1 sg. &w, 3 pl. won (Att. &, wor(v))
ppl. étav, éotioa, édv, etc. (Att. dv, ottoa, dv)
25.41 The endingsof the aorist passive subjunctive are uncontracted ( 25.6 above): e.g. dtraipebéw
Iam robbedof (subj.) (<*-@n-w, 14.7; Att. dpoipe6d).
Similarly, note e.g. aor. subj. 6écopev let us place (<@houev, Att. Pdpev).
Further Points on Verbal Morphology
25.42 Herodotus uses imperfects with the iterative suffix -ox-, always without the augment: éoxe he
was, Siapbeipeoxe he kept destroying, toieoxov I/they kept doing.
25.43 The so-called temporal augment (with stems that begin with a vowel or diphthong, 11.37-8,
with n.1) is often lacking: apeiBeto he replied (impf. of éveiBoucn, instead of hyueiBeto), SicrtaHpnv
I dwelt (impf. of S:artéopan, instead of Sintapny), oiknto it was inhabited (plpf. of oixéw, instead
of d«nT0).
Observe also the absence of reduplication in the caseof the irregular perfect oixa belikely (Att.
goika, 18.22), ppl. oixds, oikds (071) (it is) likely.
25.44 In a compoundverb a postpositive particle (such as te, 5é, uév, ov) may separate the prefix
from the verb: e.g. kat dv éxdAuye he buried (Hdt. 2.47.3): this is called tmesis.
Further Particulars
25.45 Observethe following further uses which diverge from Attic:

éetreite when alongside étrei, and étreite thereupon occasionally, alongside more
frequent étreita (note the difference in accentuation between étreite and étreite);
és 6 and és ov until (conjunctions; Att. éws);
peta after is also used in adverbial sense afterwards;
- ote + ppl. and oia + ppl. are used in the samesense as &te + ppl. ( >52.39);
oudapua, undouc never.
The Doric « in Choral Lyric

25.46 A particular feature of the choral lyric of the Attic dramatists, which has a super-
ficial Doric colouring ( 25.2), is the use of original long « rather than the Attic-
Ionic yn (1.57, 25.5).
Note 1: This use of & is therefore often called Doric , even though long a wasusedinall
dialects apart from Attic-Ionic.
25.47 Long & for Attic n is found in lyrics in drama underthe following circumstances:
in first declension endings: y& land, Bioté living, wrapévas Beovtas (gen.) when
the thunderflies, Kpovidas son of Cronus (Att. yj, Bioth, tTapévns Bpovtiis,
Kpovidns);
Doric long & + 0/w contracts to & (not ow): thus, gen. sg. of masculinefirst-
declension nounsin & (<-ao, Att. -ou), and gen.pl. ofall first-declension nouns in
&v (<-doov, Att. -dv): veavia young man, Baxyév bacchants, pedioodv bees (Att.
veaviou, BaKxydv, pEAITTOV);
- 1 sg. middle-passive forms with secondary ending -yav: e.g. dveiAduav I killed
(Att. &veiAduny);
in augmented formsof é&yw lead, bring, e.g. &yes (Att. tyes);
in other individual wordslike uatnp mother, AdMos sun, etc.
Note 1: The use of the Doric a in chorallyric is not consistent. In the lyrical parodosto the
Bacchae, for example, Euripides uses #8uv sweet (Eur. Bacch. 66) and fSus (135), but aSupdg
sweet-sounding (127).
Part II
Syntax
26
Introduction to Simple Sentences
26.1 Below,the basic syntactic principles and concepts that will be relevant in chapters
27 to 38 are discussed. All examples in this chapter are taken from Xenophon s
Anabasis, unless otherwise indicated.
26.2 Chapters 40 to 52 deal with the various types of subordinate constructions found in complex
sentences (subordinate clauses, participles, infinitives, and verbal adjectives): these will be
separately introduced in chapter 39.
The Sentence Core
Predicate, Subject, Object, Complement
26.3 Most sentences (for the exceptions, 26.13) contain at least a predicate (nearly
always a finite verb) and one or more obligatory constituents that belong to that
predicate; together these make up the sentencecore.
Nearly all verbs take at least one obligatory constituent, a subject. Subjects are
marked by the nominative case ( 30.2), and agree in person and numberwith
the predicate (27.1). Some verbs take only a subject:
(1) Kipossupyecr -. . ETEAEUTNOEVpREpicate: (1.9.1)
Cyrus cameto his end.
(2) carébavovprepicate SE OAlyOlsuByECT: (6.5.29)
Anda few died.
(3) ULETSSUBJECT O EUTUX OITEPREDICATE: (Xen. Hell. 7.1.11)
Mayyou befortunate.
- Many verbs take both a subject and another obligatory constituent. With
a majority of such verbs, this second obligatory constituent is the (direct)
object, which is marked by the accusative case ( >30.8); some verbs
take second obligatory constituents in a different case (such constituents are
called complements):
(4) OTPOUPOVORECT O oudelssuBjECT EAOBEVPREDICATE: (1.5.3)
No one caughtan ostrich.

(5) éysupyecr --- UUSSopyect ETOWOprepicate- (1.4.16)
I commend you.
308 26.3-4 Introduction to Simple Sentences
(6) TTAVTES oj TOAITOIsuBJECT eee METETY OVpREDICATE TTS EOP TT|ISCOMPLEMENT: (5.3.9)
All the citizens took part in the festival.

(7) of 8& oTpaTIOTalsypecr EXAAETAWOVpREDICATE TOIS OTPATNYOISCOMPLEMENT:
(1.4.12)
The soldiers were angry at the generals.
Someverbs take more than twoobligatory constituents: a subject, an object, and
one (or more) further complements. Often the third obligatory constituent is
the indirect object, which is marked by the dative case (30.37); other verbs
take a second complementin the accusative or genitive:
(8) Zuévvecissupyecr HEV ESOKEprepicaTre KUp@inpirecr OBJECT Mato
TTOAAQKOBJECT: (1.2.27)
Syennesis gave Cyrus much money.

(9) Apiotitrtros 5 6 OettaAdssupyecr --- AITEIpREDICATE OUTOVOBJECT -- - SITXIAiousS
évouscompLeMENT:(1.1.10)
Aristippus the Thessalian asked him for two thousand mercenaries.
26.4 In the examples above, the obligatory constituents of a verb are expressed by
a noun phraseor a pronoun(these are treated morefully below, 26.16-23).
Such obligatory constituents may also take other forms, however. The most
importantof theseare:
prepositional phrases (consisting of a preposition and its complement):
(10) ADMIKVOUVTOAIpREDICATE TEP OS Apiaiov COMPLEMENT ::-> ol adeAQoOisupByect- (2.4.1)
To Ariaeus camehis brothers.
adverbs:
( l 1) EVTAUBACOMPLEMENT APIKVEITAlpREDICATE Etmruagasupyecr: ( 1.2. 12)
Epyaxa camethere.
subordinate clauses:
(12) oUToisypyecr EAEYOVpREDICATE OT! KUpos .. . TEAVNKEV OByect. (2.1.3)

These men said that Cyrus was dead. The declarative subordinate clause
( 41) fulfils the role of object with the predicate #Aeyov: compare tatta in
édeyov tatita They said those things.
infinitive constructions:
(13) éy@supyecr OTMIpREDICATE TAUTA ... pAUapias Eivolopyect. (1.3.18)
I say that that is nonsense. The accusative-and-infinitive construction (51.21)
fulfils the role of object with the predicate pra: compare tata in pnui tatta
I say those things.
- participle constructions:
26.4-6 The Sentence Core 309
(14) EY@SUBJECT :«- - o1SapREDICATE ... TIMIV OpKous YEYEVNMEVOUS OBJECT (2.5.3)
I know that there are oaths between us. The accusative-and-participle con-
struction (52.13) fulfils the role of object with the predicate oida: compare
tatta in oi5a tata I know those things.
When a constituent is expressed in the form of a subordinate clause or
a construction with an infinitive or participle, this is called a complex sentence.
For complex sentences, 39.
Note 1: The numberofobligatory constituents that accompanya verbis called the valency
of that verb: thus é&tro8vfjoKxw die (2) has a valency of one (or:is one-place ), SiSapi give (8)
has a valencyofthree (or:is three-place ).
Someverbs havedifferent valencies in different meanings. For instance, the verb pevyo,
whenit takes only a subject, means run away,flee, be in exile, but may also take an object and
then meansflee (someone), be chased by someone:
(15) oi BapBapoitcsupyect cee PEVY OUOlpREDICATE: (1.8.19)
The barbariansfled.
(16) of SeiAol KUvEssuBEcT --- TOUS... S1@KOVTOSOBECT PEVYOUOWpreEpicaTE: (3.2.35)
Cowardly dogs run away from those whochase them.
Note 2: The subject, object and other obligatory constituents that belong to the predicate are
also called arguments . The sentence coreis also called the nucleus of a sentence.
Note 3: It is sometimes difficult to assess whether a constituent should be considered
obligatory in the sense given above(i.e. whether they are required with a predicate to
form a grammatically correct core sentence). This is true particularly of adverbial
complements such as évtat@a in (11), and with verbs which may havedifferent valencies
(cf. n.1 above). In reality, syntactic obligatoriness is better seen as a scale, with constituents
being more or less obligatory depending on the verb and construction used.
26.5 There are a few verbs which do not have a subject ( impersonal verbs, 36), and very few of
these take no other obligatory constituents (i.e. are zero-place ). The sentence core then
consists of nothing but the verb:e.g. Ue: it is raining.
Omission of the Subject and Other Constituents
26.6 That a verb takes a certain numberof obligatory constituents does not mean that
all those constituents are necessarily expressed every single time that verb is used.
A constituent may be omitted if it is sufficiently clear from the context who or
what is meant:
(17) tadthy thy étrioTOATVopyecr SISWOlpREpICATE TIOTH GVSPIDIRECT OBJECT «+ - ©
SEsUBJECT soe KUP@INDIRECT OBJECT S15@01VprEDICATE: (1.6.3)
He (Orontas) gave thatletter to a trustworthy man... But he gaveit to Cyrus.
The first sentence has no explicit subject - Orontas has been the subject of the
previousfew sentences and need not be mentioned explicitly again. The second
sentence has no explicit object - it is clear that the letter is meant. Note that
these constituents have to be supplied in translation (he , it ).
26.7 The lack of an explicit, separately expressed subject is particularly frequent in

Greek, and constitutes a regular feature of the language. Information about the
subject of a verb is often expressed only by the personal ending of that verb:
(18) Agyer DevOns- Apyupiov yév ovK Exw. (7.7.53)
Seuthessaid: I do not havesilver. The subject (I?) is expressed by thefirst-
person singular ending.
(19) @é08e T& StrAa év THEE. (7.1.22)
Position your weaponsin battle order. The subject is expressed by the second-
person plural ending. Note that English, too, normally omits the subject with
imperatives.
(20) Ktpos 5 ... @ppaTO &1rd TdpSecv- Kai eedawver 1a THs Ausias. (1.2.5)
Cyrus set off from Sardis. And he marched through Lydia. The subject of
é edauvei is expressed by the third-person singular ending; the identity of the
subject, Cyrus, is clearfrom the preceding context.
In the third person, the omission of the subject is regular if the subject of the
previous sentence is continued, as in (20). If the subject changes, as in (17), an
explicitly expressed subject is normally required.
In the first and secondperson,explicitly expressed subjects (in the form of the
personal pronounséyo,ov,tyEis, Upets) are used only for emphasis or contrast. For
such contrastive pronouns, 29.1-4.
Note 1: The omission of other elements than the subject (such as the object in (17)) is much
morerestricted and infrequent than the lack of an explicitly expressed subject.
Linking Verb, Predicative Complement

26.8 A linking verb (or copulative/copular verb, copula) links a subject to a nominal
constituent, the so-called predicative complement, which identifies the subject or
assigns a propertyto it. The predicative complementis usually an adjective which
agrees in case, number and genderwith the subject, or a noun which agrees with
the subject in case ( 27.7, 30.3).
Examplesofverbs that can functionas linking verbsareeipi be, yiyvoyon become,
Katiotayabecome, péve remain, stay, paivoyai seem, appearto be, proveto be, etc.
(21) TO OTPATEU OsuBIECT TTOUTTOAUpREDICATIVE ADJECTIVE EPQVT)LINKING VERB] peepicATE

(3.4.13)
The army appearedto be very large. mdutrodu agrees with to otpd&teupa in
case, numberand gender.
(22) | WEY CACpREDICATIVE ADJECTIVE| -.. Toa TH Meporkasupyecr [ ZoTIVLINKING
. (3.4.17
VERB! PREDICATE ( )
The Persian bowsare large. ueyaAa agrees with Téa in case, number and gender.
26.8-12 The Sentence Core 311
(23) Ta 88 aOAasuByecr | AOOVLINKING VERB OTAeyyides_ XPUCCTpREDICATIVE
Noun PREDICATE (1.2.10)

The prizes were goldenstrigils. orAeyyides xyouoaiagrees with Ta &OAa in case.
For the plural noav with a neut. pl. subject, 27.2.
Note 1: Predicative nouns or adjectives are sometimes called predicate nouns/adjectives .

Predicative complements agreeing with a subject are also sometimes called subject(ive)
complements .
26.9 Manylinking verbs also occur with an adverbial expression of place or circumstance as their
complement:e.g. cipt be (somewhere), find oneself(somewhere), yiyvoum get somewhere, péven stay
somewhere. In many grammatical treatments, such complements are also seen as predicative
complements:
(24) vOG5 COMPLEMENT S eiutyINKING VERB> (3.3.2)
I am here.
(25) Tlpdgevos Sé kal Mévoovsupyecr - - » V MeyOAN TIMTCoMPLEMENT 1O1WpINKING VERB: (2.5.38)
And Proxenus and Menoare(held) in great esteem.
26.10 Theverb eipi also occurs with only a subject in the meaning exist. In this existen-
tial use, the verb usually stands before its subject ( 60.30, cf. 50.12, 50.35). Such
cases can be translated with there is (oT1(v), so accented, 24.34 n.1), there are
(cici(v)), there was (jv), there were (tjoav). The verb yiyvoum also has an
existential use, and then meansexist or happen:
(26) ZoTipREDICATE XOPIOV XETNUGTOV TTOAADY pEOTOVsUBEcT: (5.2.7)
Thereis a place filled with manyriches.
(27) ayatovsupecr ++ YE YEVTNTOAIpREDICATE: (5.4.19)
A good thing has happened.
26.11 As an alternative for the linking verb cipi + adjective classical Greek frequently uses
#xw + adverb in the meaningto be (ina... state), e.g.:
(28) yodetre&s Sé Exel Hiv TPds Tois GAAOIs Kai 1 Tre1Bo. (Thuc. 3.53.4)
In addition to the other things persuading is difficult for us as well.
(29) AH. © kaxddanpov, rds Eyes; :: NI. kaxdds, kKa®dtrep ov. (Ar. Eg. 7-8)
(Demos:) you wretched one, how are you?:: (Nicias:) 'm not doing well, just
like you.
26.12 Someother verbslink an object to a predicative complementthat agrees with that
object (both are accusative). Examples of such verbs are vouileo consider X (to be) Y,
ttyéouar consider X (to be) Y, toi make X Y, aipgoua appoint X as Y (for more
details, 30.10):
30 & [ox oAaiav PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVE ... &TOLOUV VERBBt, pepicaTE Try
(30) 2 Tropeiav
PELAVORJECT a
TO UTrOCUY1AsUBJECT- (4. 1.1 3)
The baggage animals made the journey slow. oxodaiav agrees with thv
Tropeiav in case, number, and gender.
(31) | S1KAOTOSpREDICATIVE NOUN | Sé Tous Aoxayousopyecr | eTTOINOOVTOVERHer)CATE

(5.7.34)
As judges they appointed the captains. S:xaoTds agrees with tous Aoxayousin
case.
(32) pnkéti Léopject |KUpovprEpicaTIVE NOUN vouiZeTevERE,ATE (1.4.16)

You must no longer consider me (to be) Cyrus. Kipov agrees with ye in case.
Note 1: Predicative complements agreeing with an object are sometimescalled object(ive)

complements .
Omission of a Linking Verb: Nominal Sentences
26.13 Frequently,a linking verb such as éoti(v) or eioi(v) is lacking in a sentence, whose core
then contains only nominal elements. This occurs especially in the following cases:
with evaluative words, such as yoAetrov(it is) difficult, avéy«n (it is) necessary,
eixds (it is) likely, proper, etc.:
(33) AvopivioKxovtal dpa & trote Euadov; :: Avéeyknprepicate: (Pl. Phd. 76c)
(Socrates:) Then they recollect the things they once learned? :: (Simmias:)
Necessarily. Lit.: <it is> a necessity .
(34) Zw. ot 8& attds ... Mévoeov, Ti ots dpetiv eivor; ... :: ME. Ad ot
XOAETTOVpREDICATE © DOKPATES, EITTEWVSUByEcT- (Pl. Men. 71d-e)
(Socrates:) But you yourself, Meno, what do yousayvirtueis? :: (Meno:) Why,
it is not hard to say, Socrates.
with verbal adjectives in -téos, -téa, -téov (especially in the impersonaluse of the
neuter, 37.3):
(35) 48 68dssupyecr TOPEUTEGpREDIcate: (Soph. Phil. 993)

The road must betravelled. (lit. the road <is> to be travelled )
(36) tropeuTéovprepicate ©Tiv TOUS TP@TOUS OTABLOUs. (2.2.12)
We must make the first marches. Impersonal use (lit. There <is> to be
travelled by us the first marches ); for this construction, 37.3.
in so-called gnomic utterances (proverbs, maxims,etc.), general statements and
exclamations:
(37) OUOAPEOTOS TNUO@vV Kai PIAS WOYOSpREDICATIVE ADJECTIVE TTOAISsUBJECT- (Eur. El.
904)
Ourcity is peevish and inclined to criticize.
(38) olovprEpIcATIVE ADJECTIVE TO TEKEIVSUBJECT- (Ar. Lys. 884)
How momentous is motherhood! Lit.: What a thing <is> bearing
<children>!
26.13-14 Optional Constituents 313
in formulaic questions and answers:

(39) eiTa TIPREDICATE TOUTOsUBJECTS (Ar. Nub. 347)
So what? Lit.: What <is> this, then?

- and sometimes morefreely:
(40) Kodosprepicate Apxiassusyecr: (IG I° 1405)
Archias is handsome.
Only the presentindicativeof ciui be is regularly omitted as linking verb in this way:
other forms such as imperfect jv or potential optative cin dv ( 34.13) are not
normally omitted.
Optional Constituents
Adverbial Modifiers and Other Optional Constituents
26.14 Manycore sentences are elaborated by one or more optional (non-obligatory)

constituents, which can beleft out without making the sentence ungrammatical,
and which supplementthe sentence core in various ways. Most often such con-
stituents are adverbial modifiers.
Such optional constituents can be expressed by:
adverbs:
(41) TicoOAPEPVT|SSUBJECT see EKELADVERBIAL MODIFIER ©UVTUYXKQVELPREDICATE
BaoiAsicompiement: (1.10.8)
Tissaphernes metthe king there. Adverbial modifierofplace.
noun phrases and pronouns(in the accusative, genitive or dative, 29, 30):
(42) =evopddvsupyecr - -- PXETOPREDICATE THS VUKTOSADVERBIAL MODIFIER: (7.2.17)

Xenophondeparted duringthe night. Adverbial modifier oftime, expressed by
the genitive, 30.32.
(43) AAO O OTPOATEVUUASUBJECT QUT@OPTIONAL CONSTITUENT ©&UVEAEYETOpREDICATE EV
Xeppovtjow. (1.1.9)
Another army was being assembled for him in the Chersonese. Constituent
representing the beneficiary/interested party, expressed by the dative, 30.49.
Such constituents are often taken as indirect objects, but unlike indirect objects
with verbs ofgiving, etc. (for which 26.3), they are optional.
prepositional phrases:
(44) ET TOUTMADVERBIAL MODIFIER KAEavmp Oo OPXOKEVIOSsUBJECT QVEOTTPREDICATE:
(3.2.4)
Thereupon, Cleanor the Orchomenian stood up. Adverbial modifier of time.
And in the case of complex sentences,by:
subordinate clauses:
(45) ETTEL O Kal ol GAAO1 OTPATIOTAL OUVT|AGOVaDVERBIAL MODIFIER QVEOTTPREDICATE oe.
Xeipicogos 6 AaxeSaiudviossupyecr: (3.2.1)

Whentheothersoldiers too had assembled, Chirisophus the Spartan stood up.
The temporal subordinate clause ( 47) serves as an adverbial modifierof time.
participle constructions (also 26.26):
(46) Kal OU TAUTA TOLOUVTOOV TIMOVADVERBIAL MODIFIER -°= Apioiossupjecr
&peott§Elprepicate: (2.4.5)
And while we are doing that, Ariaeus will have abandoned us. The genitive
absolute construction serves as an adverbial modifier of time.
26.15 Adverbial modifiers operate on different levels of the sentence:
The adverbial modifiers in examples (41)- (46) express such semantic categories as the place
where,the time when, the circumstance(s) under which, the manner in which, the reasons
because of which,etc., the action expressed by a predicate takes place. Adverbial modifiers
functioningatthis level(i.e. those which have scope over(the verb in) the core sentence) are
often called adjuncts.
Adverbial modifiers may also have scope over a constituent only, modifying nouns,
attributive modifiers, other adverbial modifiers, etc. (such adverbial modifiers are called
subjuncts):
(47) tous... hoxayousuEan [TOUS UGAIOTAADVERBIAL MODIFIER piAous| ATTRIBUTIVE MODIFIER

(7.8.11)
the captains whowerehis most intimatefriends . . . u&Aiota, a so-called intensifier , modifies
gidous, whichitself is an attributive modifier with Aoxayous.
(48) éxActrevovprEpICATE +--+ OF TlapAayovessupyect | U UOACADVERBIAL MODIFIER TOUS
a&trooKkeSavvupevousopyect: (6.1.1)
The Paphlagoniansveryeasily kidnappedthe stragglers. The intensifier udAa modifiesev,
whichitself is an adverbial modifier of manner.
(49) eetAcynpreDICATE5 - - JktDVERBIAL MODIFIER PaoAeUSlupjEcr: (2.2.18)
And even the king wasterrified. xai, a marker of scope (59.56), modifies BaonAeus,
which is the subject of é&etAd&yn.
Someother adverbial modifiers are, syntactically speaking, more detached, and have scope
over the sentence as a whole, expressing the attitude of the speaker towardsthereality or
desirability of the content of his sentence, or his attitude towards the form orstyle of the
sentence (such modifiers are often called disjuncts):
(50) iowsaDVERBIAL MODIFIER Of KOI TOV ETrITNSelcoov otraviei. (2.2.12)
Perhaps he will lack supplies as well. The adverb iows expresses the speaker s attitude
towards the reality of the content of the sentence.
26.15-16 Noun Phrases 315
(51) GAndés ye ws Eros eitreivVADVERBIAL MODIFIER OUSEv EiptKkaotv. (Pl. Ap. 17a)
They havesaid not a single thing, so to say, whichis true. The idiomatic phrase as étros
eitreiv ( >51.49) expresses the speaker s (Socrates ) attitude towards the form of his
utterance Socrates signals that his words (specifically od5év) should not be taken too
literally.
Finally, grammarstypically recognize a fourth type of adverbial modifier, that of conjuncts,
whichindicate how onesentenceorlarger unit of text relates to its surrounding context,i.e.
whichplay role in structuring a text; such formsare treated in this grammar as connective
discourse particles, 59.7-39:
(52) évtat@a guewev 6 Kpos kai 1 oTpaTia fpEepas eikoolv: of yap oTpaTIMTaI oUK Epaoay iévan
ToU TPdOW: UTTATTTEVOV yap NSN Etri Paoiréa lever WlofwOfvan 5 ovK ET! TOUT Epacav.
(1.3.1)
There Cyrus and the armystayed for twenty days, for the soldiers said that they would not
go on. For they already suspected that they were moving on the king, and they said that
they had not enlisted with that in mind.
Noun Phrases
Elements of the Noun Phrase
26.16 In most of the examples above, constituents take the form of a noun phrase.
A noun phrase consists of (at least) a head, and (possibly) various kinds of
modifiers which are added to the head.
For example, in each of the examples below, a noun phrase with &v&pa asits
head serves as object to a form of épdo see:
( ) HEAD OBJECT POPpREDICATE

I see a man.
(54) ITOVMODIFIER GVEPOHEADeco OPOpREDICATE: (1.8.26)
I see the man.
(55) év troAguw 5é HSn ei5eSprepicaTe|OVSPanEAD SEIAOVMODIFIERpyc (Pl. Grg. 498a)
Andin war, have you ever seen a cowardly man?
(56) OPHpREDICATE TOVMoDIFIER OvoPQHEAD TTS YUVOIKOSMODIFIEHGpec" (Ar. AY. 794)
He sees the woman s husband.
(57) ovx eiSovprepicate| OUTS &v8pHEAD &ypotkov ... | oS Gtropov oS oKaldv
ous émAnopova | doTis oKoAafupyat? atta piKkp& poavdvev | tatt
émriAg Anotal piv LOBMRor (Ar. Nub. 628-31)
I have seen no man so boorish, so incapable, so dimwitted, so forgetful that
whenhelearns petty quibbles he has forgotten them before he has learnt
them. All of the adjectives and the do715-clause may be seen as modifiers of
&vdpa in a long noun phrase (for this kind of do715-clause, however, 50.25).
316 26.17 Introduction to Simple Sentences
Types of Modifier
26.17 The following types of modifier agree with the head in case, number and gender
( 27.7):
the definite article (for a full treatment, 28);
demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative, and possessive pronouns(fordetails,
29):
(58) TOUTSMODIFIER +++ TT)SMODIFIER AuéposieaD| TOUTOMODIFIER TOMODIFIER

TéAOSHEAD|EYEVETO. (1.10.18)
Such wasthe endingof this day. tavtns agrees with tysépas, TotTo with TéAos.
(59) TivomoDIEIER YVOUNVHEAD| EXEIS Trepi Tis Topeias; (2.2.10)
What opinion do you have concerning the expedition? tiva agrees with
YV@UNV.
numerals: cardinal numerals such as cis one, 8U0 two, ordinal numerals such as
Trpatos first, 5eutepos second (for details, +9); among the ordinals mayalso be
reckoned adjectives such as &AAos other and étepos other (for details, 29.48-
52), Aoitros further, remaining, and several others:
(60) Qaitel AUTOV... Sto MousMODIFIER SéVOUSHEAD (1.1.10)
He asked him for two thousand mercenaries. diayiAious agrees with Eévous.
(61) dgixvotvtai eri TO Spos TfimoprrrEr TEUTETT)MODIFIER AKEPOHEAD (4.7.21)
They reached the mountain onthefifth day. 1éumrtn agrees with twépa.
quantifiers: certain adjectives indicating quantity, such as troAus much, many,
dAtyoslittle, few, 1&s all, every, xkaotos every, each:
(62) tpxov Sé TOTE | TAVT@VMODIFIER TO@VMODIFIER EAANVOVyEAD| Ol Aakedaipoviol.
(6.6.9)
The Spartans ruled over all the Greeks at that time. mdvtwv agrees with
EAATWVvoov.
- (other) adjectives and participles ( 52):
(63) ITTYMODIFIER 5é EAANVviKT)YMoDIFIER SUvayvyEaD|Oportev. (1.1.6)

He gathered the Greek force. Adjective; EAAnvinny agrees with Suva.
(64) T)KovprEDICATE- - -/OIMODIFIER TPOTTENMBEVTESMODIFIER OKOTOLEAD (2.2.15)
The scouts who had been sentaheadarrived. Participle; mpotreupOévtes agrees
with onotroi.
Note 1: For the relative ordering of such modifiers, particularly with respect to thearticle,
28.11.
Note 2: Most of these pronouns, numerals and adjectives/participles may also have
a predicative relationship with a noun,either as predicative complement ( >26.8 above) or
as predicative modifier (26.26 below).
26.18-20 Noun Phrases 317
26.18 The following types of modifier do not agree with their head:
- attributive genitives: noun phrases/pronouns in the genitive very frequently
serve as modifier in a noun phrase (for details, 30.28-9):
(65) ITOMODIFIER Méva@vosmopIFIER OTPaTEULGHEAD|. 2. ev KiAikia Ty. (1.2.21)
Menon s armywasin Cilicia.

(66) éotepavapévous|tot Enpod yiAoUmopIFIER OTEPAVOISHEAD (4.5.33)
crowned with wreaths of hay ... Observe that tot Enpot x1Aov, as a noun
phrase, has its own internal structure, with a head (x1Aot) and modifiers (rod,
Enpow).
(67) @yovto dtreAatvovtes leis TOMODIFIER &QUT@VMODIFIER oTpatéTeS0VvyEAD}
(7.6.42)
They rode into their (own) camp.
Note 1: For the relative ordering of such genitives and thearticle (if present), 28.15.
Note2: In several uses, the attributive genitive mayalso be used as predicative complement;
for details, 30.26.
adverbs or prepositional phrases:
(68) traiouvol.. .frous VSOVMODIFIER dvOpcTrousHEAD} (5.2.17)

They struck the people (who were)inside.
(69) dpdao01 re tri TAis TUAQISMODIFIER TPCYKATOHEAD|. (7.1.17)
They saw the things (that were happening) at the gates.
relative clauses (for a full treatment, 50).
Types of Head
26.19 The head of a noun phraseis typically a noun, such as &vdpa in (53) (57); proper
namesalso belongto thisclass:
(70) Eide OVMODIFIER Kipovurant (Xen. Cyr. 3.2.15)
He saw Cyrus.
(71) TKPVMODIFIER EAevnveap|Owel. (Ar. Thesm. 853)
You will see a bitter Helen.
26.20 Most of the kinds of modifiers listed above ( 26.17-18) may also serve as head,
however, particularly when they are modified by the article ( 28.23):
adjectives and participles; normally with the article, sometimes with other
modifiers as well:
(72) toryapotv até |olMopIFIER uev KOAOi TE Kal GyaPolyEAD TOV OUVOVTWVMODIFIER
EUVOL TIOQY, OlMODIFIER O GS1kOlEAD|éTEBOUAEUOV. (2.6.20)
For that reason, the good and brave amongthose in his company werewell-
disposed to him, while the unjust plotted against him. Adjectives as head.
(73) TTOAAO].... Noa OiMODIFIER TETPWMEVOIHEAD} (3.4.30)
The wounded were many.Participle as head.

- attributive genitives, adverbs and prepositional phrases; always with the
article:
(74) ITomMopIFIER TOV Ge6ViEAD| KONG ElyeV. (3.2.9)
The affairs of the gods were in good order.

(75) ciye Sé TO yév SeEidv Mévoov Koll OlmoDIFIER ouv QUTHEAD (1.2.15)
Menonandthose with him occupied the right flank.
26.21 In these uses masculine forms/forms with the masculine article refer to men or
mixed groups of people, feminine forms to women, neuter forms to objects,
concepts,etc.:
a&yatoi the good men
é&yatal the good women
TH Kyabd the good things, benefits
Pronominal and Adnominal Use of Pronouns, Quantifiers and Cardinal

Numerals
26.22 In addition to the types of head treated above, various pronounsand quantifiers
and (occasionally) cardinal numerals can serve as head. For these forms,
a distinction is made between:
- the pronominaluse, when the pronoun/quantifier serves as head;
the adnominal use, when the pronoun/quantifier serves as modifier.
In the pronominal use, such forms typically cannot be modified by thearticle or
other modifiers (there are exceptions, however); in other words, such pronouns/
quantifiers then function as noun phrases by themselves:
(76) lodtoteAD .. BapBdpous &vOpatrous Exouoi. (Xen. Mem. 2.7.6)

These people keep foreign men (as slaves). Pronominaluse.
(77) %youo1 8é | OUTOIMODIFIER CiMODIFIER &v8pwTroizan| ava OKTa SakTUAous éq
exatépa xeipt. (Ctes. fr. 45.561-2 Lenfant)
These people have up to eight fingers on each hand. Adnominaluse.
(78) Kai dua ep0eyEavto| mévTesiean] , koi mavTEsuEaD| Sé EGov. (1.8.18)
Andat the same time, everyonestruck up the warcry ... and next, everyone
was running. Pronominaluse.
(79) [revTESMODIFIER OiMODIFIER TEP! QUTOVMODIFIER PIAOlYEAD Kal OouvTpareCOlnEAD
é&tréBavov. (1.9.31)
All his bodyguard of friends and table companionsperished. Adnominaluse.
Note 1: Personal, reflexive and reciprocal pronounsare used only pronominally ( 29).
Note 2: For so-called autonomous relative clauses (i.e. relative clauses serving as noun
phrases by themselves), 50.7.
26.23-26 Predicative Modifiers 319
26.23 In the pronominal use, masculine formsrefer to men or mixed groupsofpeople,

feminine forms to women, neuter formsto objects, concepts,etc.:
oid¢e these men, these people eis one man
aide these women pla one woman
THOSE these things,this ev onething
Apposition
26.24 Apposition is the placement of two words or word groupsparallel to each other
without any coordinating particle (te or kai, 59.20-2, 59.37), with one, the
appositive defining or modifying the other. In this way, two nounphrases(each
with their own head), may together serve as a single constituent:
(80) F 5 thetépa TOMSHEAD} F KOIV1) KATOQUYTHEAD TOV EAAVeov ... VOV OUKETI
Trepi THs Tév EAAtvoov thyepovias &yooviletar. (Aeschin. 3.134)
Ourcity, the shared safe haven for the Greeks, is now no longer contending
for the leadership of the Greeks. The combined phrase 4 & tywetépa ...
EAArjvoov is subject of dyoovifetan.
(81) rh GuyatépcuEanp SewoviaD TI KGAAOS Kal ueye0os]. .. Edyov oS citrev-...
(Xen. Cyr. 5.2.7)
He broughtout his daughter, an impressive creature in beauty andstature, and
spoke as follows: ... The combined phrase tiv ... uéyebos is object of é&aywv.
For agreementin apposition, >27.13-14.
26.25 Certain nouns denoting age, gender, occupation, status or geographical origin are used in
apposition particularly often in Greek. Among them are &vnp man, &v8pwtros man/woman,
yuvt) woman, EAAnv Greek,etc.:
(82) d&trdéxpivai por, Tivos oUveKxa ypn Bauudlew &vbpa Tromp; (Ar. Ran. 1008)
Answer me: why ought someoneto be impressed by a poet? avrjp in such cases does not
permit easy translation.
(83) &AaAdEavtes of EAAnves treATaotai é6eov. (6.5.26)
Raising a shout, the Greek peltasts ran forward.
Vocative forms of &vip are frequently so used in (respectful) forms of address (a) &vBpes
Sixkaotat gentlemen of the jury, (a) av&pes troAiton citizens.
Predicative Modifiers
26.26 Someconstituents simultaneously serve as adverbial modifier and to modify the

head of a noun phrase. Such constituents are called predicative modifiers: they
occur in the form of adjectives and especially participles, which agree with their
noun in case, number and gender. For example:
(84) G&vaot&sprEpICATIVE MODIFIER « : « 1TTEPREDICATE =EVOPOVsuBJECT 2. (3.2.34)

Having stood up, Xenophonsaid: ... The participle dvaotds agrees with the
subject =evopav in case, number and gender: it describes Xenophon. At the
sametime,it serves as an adverbial modifier, describing the circumstances/time
ofXenophon s speech.
(85) oi EAAnvessupyecr C OVprepicate ETL TH STAG ... EKTTETTATYLEVOIPREDICATIVE
MODIFIER: (2.5.34)
The Greeks ran to their weaponspanic-stricken. The participle éxtretrAnyyévor

agrees with the subject oi EAAnves: it describes the Greeks. At the same time, it
serves as an adverbial modifier, describing the manner/circumstances ofthe Greeks
running.
(86) T POG PAAAOUO iprEDICATE TPOS TOV Aogov |Sp8iolspREDICATIVE MODIFIER TOlS
ASXO1S|ADVERBIAL MopiFIER- (4.2.11)
They attacked the hill, with their companies in column. The adjective dp6io1s
agrees with tois Adxors: it describes the companies. At the sametime,it serves as
an adverbial modifier, describing the mannerof the attack.
Note 1: For this so-called circumstantial use of the participle in (84) and (85) (by farits
most frequent use), 52.29-45.
Note 2: For the position of predicative modifiers relative to their head and thearticle (if
present), 28.11.
Elements Interrupting or Outside the Syntax of a Sentence
Parentheses
26.27 Sentences may be interrupted by other sentences - parentheses. These are often
relatively short, and frequently contain some form of comment, asin:
(87) & mpétrei, cipal Eywye, &vSpieitreiv Kai Stroia yuvanki ... (Pl. Jon 540b)
The things, I imagine, that it befits a man to say, and a woman, ...
(88) dpa dtroia &pyovmTi, Adyeis, Ev BaAaTTN xElwaCopuevou TAoiou Trpétrel Eitretv, O
baywdds yvacetai KaAAIOv 7} 6 KUBEpviyTHs; (Pl. Jon 540b)
So whatsort ofthing someonein charge of a storm-tossed vessel at sea should
say the rhapsode, you mean,will know better than the pilot?
Parenthetical sentences or clauses are also used to introduce, beforehand, impor-
tant information whichrelates to the host sentencethat isstill to come,as in:
(89) tatta vouilev, hv yap oi Tdv aiyuogdpwv Tuyns ... &peoxduevos udAiota,
ToUTM TH Tuyn ... Ta oTroudsal oTtepa THv rpnyyatwv utrepeTibeto 6
KavidauaAns. (Hdt. 1.8.1)
26.27-29 Elements Interrupting or Outside the Syntax of a Sentence 321
(Lit.) (Candaules,) believing this - there was among his bodyguarda certain
Gyges, who washis favourite to this Gyges Candaules entrustedall his most
important secrets. Such preposed parentheses usually do not permit easy
literal translation into English. For this use of yap, 59.15.
Elements Outside the Syntax of a Sentence
26.28 Someelements stand outside the sentence, i.e. they are not part of the syntactic
structure of predicates, complements and modifiers. The most important of
these are:
forms of address ( 30.55):
(90) pidoodge pév Eoikas, @ veavioxe. (2.1.13)
You resemble a philosopher, young man.
exclamations, interjections, etc. (also, in answers, vai yes):
(91) GAAK pa ToUs BEots OUK Eywye AUTOUS SiwEo. (1.4.8)
But, by the gods, I will not pursue them.
(92) tratrat, peU. Tratrai udA , @ TroUs, oid épydon Kaxd. (Soph. Phil. 785-6)
Aiai! Alas! Aiaiai! Oh foot, what evils will you inflict on me!
(93) oped tot dvdpds. (Xen. Cyr. 3.1.39)
Alas for the man!Forthis use of the genitive, 30.30.
(94) évtatéa 87 dvaytyveokel avTOv Kai TpeTto: H ov ei 6 TOV KduvOVTA ayayor;
Nai AP, Zon TU yap tweyxades. (5.8.6)
At that he recognized him, and asked: Are you the one whocarried the sick
man? Yes, by Zeus,hesaid, for you forced me to do so.
26.29 Someother elements which stand outside the syntactic structure (or rather: have no syntactic
structure) are:
list entries:
(95) XmaptdaAior : HH Aipaior : HHH (IG I° 259,col. III, 24-5)
Spartolians: 200; Aeraeans: 300. A tribute list , inscribed on a stone found in Athens; for
these numerals, 9.13.
headings/titles:
(96) =evopdvtos Kupou AvaPdoews Adyos PATos. Aapeiou kai Mapucdt1S0s5 yiyvovtat raises
Suo... (1.1)
Xenophon s Expedition of Cyrus, Book One. Darius and Parysatis had two children...
Such elements normally appear in the nominative case (however, in (95) the nominatives could
also be interpreted as subjects with an implied verb; give, pay, or the like; note that the genitives
=evogavtos Kupou AvaBdoews in (96) are all attributive (AvoBdoews modifying Adyos; KUpou
modifying AvaBdoews; =evopdvtos modifying the combined Kupou Avafdoews).
27
Agreement
Subject Finite Verb
Basic Rule
27.1 Basic rule: a finite verb agrees in person and numberwithits subject:
tT) vats &veryeTan the ship is setting out (third person singular)
ai vijes averyovtar the ships are setting out (third person plural)
Tyets dvarydueba wearesetting out(first person plural)
Exceptions
27.2 Whena subject is neuter plural, the verb is normally singular:

(1) 1& 6vn tatta TH WdAe1 TroAguia ty. (Thuc. 5.51.2)
Thesetribes were hostile to thecity.
(2) ob Kadeito Telyn HSotrep viv. (Thuc. 4.103.5)
The walls did not reach downasthey do now.
The plural form of the verb may, however, be used to emphasize that the subject
consists of various individual members:
(3) toodde yév peta ASnvaioov 20vn gotpdteuov. (Thuc. 7.57.11)
So many tribes fought on the side of Athens. This is the conclusion of
a catalogue that mentions each individualtribe.
(4) toav 8 tatta BUo Telyn, Kai TO pév..., TO SE... (Xen. An. 1.4.4)
These were two walls, and the first ... , whereas the second ... Note the
numeral.
27.3 Whenthe subject is dual, the verb maybeeither dual or plural. When the subject
consists of a pair, but is grammatically plural, the verb sometimes appearsin the dual:
(5) to G&vbpe ... éyevéoOnv ouAaxe. (Xen. Hell. 4.4.8)
Both men became guards. Dual subject, dual verb.
(6) tAcEav yap... ST1 aUTH we TH Pew Trapaydyorev. (Andoc.1.113)
For they said that the Two Goddesses themselves led me astray. Dual subject,
plural verb.
27.3-6 Subject - Finite Verb 323
(7) t&v 8 Apyeiwv U0 dvbpes, Opdcourds te ... Kal AAkippwv ... , Ayidi
SieAeyéoOny pt troiiv paynv. (Thuc. 5.59.5)
Two men belonging to the Argive army, Thrasylus and Alciphron,
urged Agis in a conversation not to bring on a battle. Plural subject,
dual verb.
27.4 Whenthere are multiple subjects, the verb will normally be plural. Sometimes,
however, especially when the verb precedesa first singular subject, it may be
singular:
(8) Etpupgdav kai ZopoKAis ... &pikdpevor és Képxupav éotpdtevoav ... (Thuc.
4.46.1)
After their arrival in Corcyra, Eurymedon and Sophocles madeanattack ...
Multiple subjects, plural verb.
(9) éAeye St 6 DtTVMMV Kai Oi HET AUTO 6T1... (Thuc. 4.38.2)
Styphon said, as did his company, that ... The verb agrees merely with 6
JTUper, not with the other subject.
(10) tré&pen Kal éya Kai oUTos Dpuvioxos ... Kai TloAuKpatns. (Xen. An. 7.2.29)
I am present, and so are this man Phryniscus and Polycrates. The verb agrees
merely with éya, not with the other subjects (note that rdpeyn also agrees only
with éya@ in person.
27.5 Whenthere are multiple subjects of different persons and theverb is plural,
the verb will normally be in the first person if a first-person subject is present
and combined with a second- and/or third-person subject, and in the second
person if a second-person subject combines with a third-person subject.
Exceptions to this general rule are, however, fairly frequent:
(11) dei yap éya Kai 6 ods TraTip ETaipeo Te Kai piAw tuev. (Pl. La. 180e)
For your father and I always were comrades andfriends.
(12) ot ot pdvos OSE oi Goi MIAO! TIPATOI Kal TIPdTov TaUTHY Bdfav zoyete ... (Pl.
Leg. 888b)
You andyourfriendsare not thefirst and foremost to have takenthis as their
view ...
(13) éd&v Uueis Te Kai of Geoi FéAworv (Antiph. 1.20)
if you and the gods wishit so ... One of the subjects is second-person, yet the
verb is third-person.
27.6 The verb may agree in number with the subject in meaning rather than in
grammatical form: this is called the sense construction (Lat. constructio ad
sensum, Gr. kat& ouveow, according to sense ); for example, when the subject
is singular but refers to a collective, the verb may be plural in form:
324 27.6-8 Agreement
(14) toiatita 8: déxovoaoa f 1dAis .. . AynoiAaov eiAovto Baoilga. (Xen. Hell. 3.3.4)
The city, when it had heard such arguments, elected Agesilaus king.
(15) ppoupd pia Tév trepi Thy yxopav ... EuveoeAGeiv pév é5 TO TEIyos OUK TAEANOAY.
(Thuc. 4.57.1)
One of the district garrisons refused to accompany them inside the city
walls.
Head Modifier (m Noun Phrases); Predicative Modifiers and

Complements
Basic Rule
27.7 Basic rule: an article, adjective, participle, adnominal pronoun or numeralagreesin

case, numberand genderwith the head it modifies:
& Gods avTIP the wise man (nom. sg. masc.)
Tois cogois avbpdow the wise men (dat. pl. masc.)
tH) yuvt) f) cogt) the wise woman (nom.sg. fem)
TOUTWY TOV yuvaikdv those wise women (gen. pl. fem.)
eis &v7p one man (nom. sg. masc.)
pla yuvn) one woman (nom.sg. fem.)
An adjective, pronoun, etc., functioning as predicative modifier ( 26.26) or
predicative complement ( 26.8-12) similarly agrees with its head/subject in
case, numberand gender:
t) yuvt) coon) the womanis wise / the woman,being wise, ... (nom.sg.
fem., adjective in predicative position)
Note 1: Not all adjectives/pronouns have separate masculine and feminine forms (for
adjectives of two endings , >5.7-11); this does not mean that the basic rule does not
apply (in &81xos yun unjust woman, &BiKos is feminine).
Note 2: Only some numerals decline: for indeclinable numerals, 9.2-5.
Note 3: Other types of modifiers do not agree with their head, particularly attributive
genitives, adverbs and prepositional phrases. For examples, 26.20.
Exceptions
27.8 A masculine or feminine abstract noun is often construed with a neuter adjective
used as predicative complement ( X is a Y thing ). This occurs especially in
generalizations, gnomic statements, etc.:
27.8-12 Antecedent - Relative Pronoun 325
(16) copov ... tf teounsin. (Hdt. 3.36.1)

Foresight is a sensible thing.
(17) KaAdv pév f) CwWMpooUVY Te Kai SikaliooUVN, yaAETIOV YEVTOI Kai éTtiTTOVOV.
(Pl. Resp. 364a)
Temperance and justness are a beautiful thing, yet difficult and laborious.
27.9 A demonstrative pronoun whichservesas subject to a linking verb and predicative

noun( this is X , that is X°) may either agree with that noun, or appear in the
neuter:
(18) trap& td&Sv treoyeyevnuevav pavOdvete- atitn yap apiotn SiSacKkaAia. (Xen.
Cyr. 8.7.24)
Learn from what happenedbefore, for that is the best source of teaching.
(19) ci S tT15 TaUTHY cionvnv UTroAauBdver ... (Dem. 9.9)
But if anyone considers that to be peace...
(20) totT éotiv f SikaiooUvn. (Pl. Resp. 432b)
This is what wecall justice. Neuter subject ( this thing is ... )
3
e
Antecedent Relative Pronoun
Basic Rule
27.10 Basic rule: a relative pronoun agrees in number and genderwith its antecedent,
but its case is determined by its syntactical function in the relative clause (for
details, 50.8):
tT vats 7) aveyetou the ship which is putting out to sea
singular andfeminine as the antecedent, nominative as subjectin the relative
clause
t) vatis fv 6pas the ship which you see
singular andfeminine as the antecedent, accusative as object in the relative
clause
Exceptions
27.11 The sense construction ( 27.6) is frequent with relative pronouns:

(21) ... &trd TleAotrovvtioou Trapecopevns @geAias, of Th&VSE Kpeiooous eiot (Thuc.
6.80.1)
... aS help will come from the Peloponnesians(lit. from the Peloponnese ),
whoare stronger than these men.
27.12 For other exceptions, especially relative attraction , 50.13-14.

326 27.13-14 Agreement
Apposition
27.13 An appositive ( 26.24 5) agrees in case with the wordit belongs to, but hasits
own numberand gender:
(22) OFjPa, WdA1s dotuyeitwv (Aeschin. 3.133)
Thebes, our neighbouring city
(23) thv Buyatépa, Seivdv T1 KaAAOS Kal Héyefos .. . Edyav oS eitrev-... (Xen. Cyr.
5.2.7)
He brought out his daughter, an impressive creature in beauty andstature,
and spokeas follows: . .
27.14 Note a few special cases with respect to agreement:

- An appositive to a possessive pronoun (or an adjective equivalent to
a possessive) may stand in the genitive:
(24) tov gudv ... ToU TaAaitTrHpoU ... Biov (Ar. Plut. 33-4)
the life of me, miserable me
(25) A8nvaios dv, déAews Tis ueyiotns (PI. Ap. 29d)
being a citizen of Athens(lit. an Athenian ), the greatest city
An appositive to a whole clause or sentence usually stands in the accusative
( 30.19), occasionally in the nominative:
(26) evSaipovoins wodov HSiotwv Adyov. (Eur. El. 231)
May you fare well - a payment for your most pleasing message.
Accusative.
(27) TO AotoFiov Sé, BpryKds ABAIov KaKdv, | SovAN yuvt) ypatis EAAGS cicagiEopan.
(Eur. Tro. 489-90)
Andfinally - to cap my miserable suffering - I will come to Greece, a slave in
my old age. Nominative(lit. a capstoneof .. . ).
The nominative in apposition to clauses is especially frequent in phrases with
a neuter (superlative) adjective such as 1d Aoiothov the last thing, finally (as in
(27)), TO péyiotov the greatest thing, most significant of all, td Sewdtatov the
worst thing ofall, 10 kep&Acnov the main point, to sum up, etc. Such appositions
introduce and qualify the sentence that follows them:
(28) Kaito rd&vtev Se1vdtatov, tusis uev TOUTOV ot TIPOUSoTE, ... OUTOS 8 UUas vuvi
mpode5axev. (Aeschin. 3.161)
Andworstof all, you did not betray him, but he has now betrayed you.
27.14 Apposition 327
Note 1: The clause following such appositions in the nominative is sometimes introduced by
the particle yap (which maybetranslated in such instances by namely, or left untranslated,
59.14):
(29) 1O 8é UeytoTOV THV KaK@v- SeSrdtes yap S1aTeAovoww pt) Onfaior ... yetCoow avtous
OUUopais TrepIBGAWoIV THv TrPdTEpoV yeyevnuEveov. (Isoc. 5.50)
Andthegreatest oftheirills (is this), namely (that) they are continually afraid that the
Thebanswill involve them in greater calamities than those that have happenedbefore.
Note, apartfrom yap, the use ofa high dot in most text editions to punctuate between the
appositive and the main sentence.
Note 2: A closely parallel construction is the use of a relative clause with neuter 6 ina
apposition to a sentence, e.g. 5 5 uéyiotov and whatis most significant: ..., kai 6 TévTeV
Paupaotétatov and whatis the most amazing thing ofall: .. . For this construction, >50.12.
28
The Article
Meaningof the Definite Article
Basic Meaning
28.1 Greek has a definite article (6, 4, 16 the), but no indefinite article (Engl. singular
a(n)). The Greek equivalent of an indefinite article is the lack of an article:
(1) mpdtov yév Apepetv Sei SiSckoKetv Tov imtov. (Xen. Eq. 7.8)
First it is necessary to teach the horseto staystill.
(2) ot yap tratrote éxTI}ow irtrov TrAEiovos &E1ov 7 TpIdv vad. (Isae. 5.43)
For you have neverhad a horse worth more than three minae.
Thearticle is definite because it refers to someone/somethingthatis identifiable:
the article expresses that it is clear who/whatis meant, and that it can be distin-
guished from other people/things.
Note 1: Greek often uses the definite article where English would not (see examples below).
Note 2: For the indefinite pronoun tis (which can in somecasesbe translated as a(n))
29.38-42.
28.2 The lack of an article in prose is normally significant, but in poetry the article is
omitted much morefreely:
(3) xoAaeis Textovas Aiou trupés | KTEiveo KuKAwrtras: Kad ye OnTeveErv Trathp | Pyne
Tap &vSpi THvS é&trow jveyxKaoev. (Eur. Alc. 5-7)
In anger, I slew the Cyclopes, makers of Zeus fire: and in punishmentfor this, my
father forced me to work as servant for a mortal man. TéxTovas ... KUnAwtras,
Trupos and tratip are all identifiable, and in prose wouldprobably have been given
an article (@vnté& ... dv8pi would probably be withoutarticle in prose).
Reasonsfor Identifiability of a Referent

28.3 The referent of a nounis usually identifiable when it has been mentionedbefore:
(4) Kav dpa yé Tis itrtrov Trpicpevos ut) EtrioTHTAI AUTH ypTjoGa1, GAAG KaTaTriTtToVv
at avtot kax& AapBdavn, ob xyeaTa atte got6 trtros; (Xen. Oec. 1.8)
And so when someonebuysa horse and does not know how to manageit, but
keepsfalling off of it and getting injured, the horse is not wealth for him,is it?
Whenthe horseis first introduced it is not yet identifiable and has no article.
The next time it is mentioned, it is identifiable and therefore has the article.
28.4-7 Meaning of the Definite Article 329
28.4 A referentis identifiable whenit is obvious from the context or made specific by
the immediate context:
(5) itrtrevs Tis TpootAauve Kal UdAa ioyupdss iSpHvti TH ttre. (Xen. Hell. 4.5.7)
~w 6
A horseman rode up, with his horse sweating profusely. A rider implies
the presence of a horse, so the horse is identifiable at first mention. For the
translation his , see n.1 below.
(6) 1& dvbpi dv av EAnoGe treicopan f Suvatov udAiota. (Xen. An. 1.3.15)
I will obey the man you choose as best I can. The relative clause provides the
information needed to make the man identifiable.
Note 1: In manycases,if a noun witharticle refers to something whosepossessoror origin is

obvious (usually the subject), Greek uses only the article where English would use
a possessive pronoun ( >29.24), as in (5) andin:
(7) Tepi TouTav yap Uyeis vuvi THY Wipov oicete. (Dem. 40.60)
For you will now cast your vote about these matters.
28.5 A referent is identifiable when it is considered generally well-known:

(8) 6 8& KoAwvds éoTi év TH 20650, Skou viv 6 Aifivos Agwv ~oTHke Etri Aecovidn.
(Hdt. 7.225.2)
Thehill is at the mouth ofthe pass, where the stone lion dedicated to Leonidas
nowstands. The lion-statue is a famous monument.
28.6 A referent is identifiable whenit is a species or classin its entirety (in this use the
article is called generic note that English does not use the definite article in many
such cases):
(9) otK éxBdaAAe 8 Evia avTadv TAY Tous Kuvddovtas, ociov oi Agovtes. (Arist.
Gen. an. 788b16-17)
Some of them do notshed any(teeth) except the canine teeth, for example
lions.
(10) trovnpdv, avipes ASnvaioi, tovnpdv 6 cuxopdvTns del. (Dem. 18.242)
An informantis a vile creature, men of Athens, a vile creature always.
(11) 6 &yaos dvip Tdvtas Tous piAous ev Trore7. (Arist. Rh. 1402b5)
The good mantreatsall his friends well.
28.7 A noun usually also has the article whenit refers to an abstract concept (note that
English does not use the article in such cases):
(12) Aowqpoowvn ... Kai avT Tt ppdvnols UN KaBbappds Tis 7). (PI. Phd. 69c)
Restraint and wisdom itself may well be some form of purification. For
un... A, 234.10.
(13) # &pett) pGAAOv7 f QUT) O@LeETAS WUXds. (Xen. Cyr. 4.1.5)
Valour rather than flight saveslives.
330 28.8-10 The Article
28.8 Proper names often have an article, especially when the person or place is
generally well-known or prominentin the context:
(14) tocatta citrav ... 6 ApyiSapyos MeAnoitrtrov tepdtov d&trootéAAei 5 Tas
Aetvas. (Thuc. 2.12.1)
Having said this much, Archidamus first sent Melesippus to Athens.
Archidamus has been a major focus of attention in this part of the
narrative, while Athens is generally well-known; Melesippus, by contrast,
is here mentionedfor the first time, and is not very famous.
Note 1: In manycases, however, the lack of the article with proper namesis difficult to
account for, and depends on idiom andthe preferences of individual authors.
Note 2: Baoideus (the) King is regularly used without an article to refer to the Persian
king, even if he is clearly identifiable. In this use BaoiAeUs is much like a proper name
ortitle.
28.9 A predicative complement ( 26.8-12) normally does not havethearticle, as it generally

introduces new information. However,it has the article whenit is identifiable for one of the
reasons given above(e.g. because the concept has been mentionedbefore, or because it refers
to an entire class):
(15) 6 épdv td&v KaArdv épaotts KaAcitar (Pl. Phdr. 249e)

He wholoves beautiful things is called a lover.
(16) of T18épEvor Tolls vdpous oi doPEvEIs aVOPTLO! Eiotv. (Pl. Grg. 483b)
The people whoinstitute laws are the weak sort. The article is used because the nounrefers
to a class.
For the articles in 6 épdésv, T&v naddv and oi Tiféuevoi, 28.23.
28.10 The principle that the article indicates identifiability is also valid for words that are
in apposition ( 26.24-5). If an appositive has the article, it means that the word(s)
to which it is appended is/are identifiable through the information added in the
apposition:
(17) Exataios 8 6 Aoyotroids ... oUK 2a TdAEUOV Baolrdi Tdv Tlepoewv dvaipécobor. (Hdt.
5.36.2)
But Hecataeus the historian advised them not to start a war against the king ofPersia.
The addition of6 Aoyotroids helps to identify Hecataeus by his profession as a historian. For
Baoiré, 28.8 n.2.
(18) QouKuSiSns Adnvaios Euvéypawe Tov 1dAeuov Tv TeAoTrovynoiwv Kal Adnvatav. (Thuc.
1.1.1)
Thucydides, an Athenian, has recorded the war between the Peloponnesians and
the Athenians. Thucydides introduces himself for the first time to his readers;
Oounvbidns 6 A@nvaios would have meant Thucydides the Athenian (already
known as such).
28.11-12 Relative Position of Article, Head and Modifiers ina Noun Phrase 331
Relative Position of Article, Head and Modifiers in a Noun Phrase
Attributive and Predicative Position
28.11 Whenthe head of a noun phrase is modified by the article and one or more other
modifiers (adjectives, pronouns, numerals, participles, 26.17-18), two different
orderings of article, head and modifier can be distinguished:
- so-called attributive position of the modifier (the modifier is preceded directly
by thearticle):
© ayabos avnp
6 dvnp 6 &yabds the good man
aviip 6 &yabds (less frequent)
- so-called predicative position of the modifier (the modifier is not preceded
directly by thearticle):
é&yatos (...) 6 dvip
5 avin (....) eryabds the man,being good,.. . (or: the manis good)
Note 1: For the difference between the different possible orderings of head and modifier
(head modifier vs. modifier-head), -60.15-16.
Note 2: The difference between the pattern 6 dvijp 6 d&yabds and dvijp 6 dyads resides in the
identifiability of the head: in the article-head-article-modifier configuration, the head is
identifiable on its own, and the modifier is added to confirm thatthis is the intendedreferent,
or to specify a subgroup;in the less frequent head-article-modifier configuration,the headis
typically not identifiable without the information provided by the modifier.
28.12 The general difference between attributive and predicative position may be
described as follows:
- A modifier in attributive position describes an attribute/characteristic of the
referent, or describesits origin/possessor/target etc. Modifiers so used typically
serve to identify the referent of the head noun (cf. e.g. Engl. the good man, as
opposed to any other man):
(19) tatta... wpdttew, Aioyivn, Tov KaArdv k&yabdv TroAiTny a1. (Dem. 18.306)
These things, Aeschines, are what a good andrightcitizen oughtto do.
(20) tov yopucotv otépavov ... iepdv eivan ... 6 vduos KeAever. (Aeschin. 3.46)
The law ordains that the golden crownis sacred.
(21) éya yév kai étp&ony Kai érraidevOnv ... év TH ToU tratpds oixia. (Dem. 40.50)
I was raised and brought up in myfather s house.
(22) ouvéBn yap atT& S1& thy oii try eis KUtrpov Kai Troifjoal Kal Tadeiv TAcioT
é&yabd. (Isoc. 9.53)
Because of his arrival on Cyprus, he chanced to do and experience very
many goodthings.
(23) &v Tis A@nvaiov ... étaiption, un egoTto atT& T&v évvea d&pydvtwv yevéoGan.
(Aeschin. 1.19)
If an Athenian has prostituted himself, let it not be permitted for him to
becomeoneof the nine archons.
- A modifier in predicative position is not used to identify the referent. Rather,
adjectives and participles in predicative position say something about the con-
dition the referentis in (cf. Engl. I drink my coffee black, Theyfound the premises
deserted):
(24) éti wuypov Tov itrvdv Mepiavipos tous &ptous éréBaAe. (Hdt. 5.927.2)
Periander put the loaves in the oven whenit wascold.
(25) &@dvatov Ti trepi abTHV Uvtnv KaTtaAgipouor. (Isoc. 9.3)
Theywill leave their memory behind to be immortal.
(26) tds tpitpels &peiAkuoav Kevas. (Thuc. 2.93.4)
They towed the triremes without their crews(lit. empty ).
(27) oty ... Eva TOV d&ydva Trepi TOU TPdypaTos ETroIOw, GAAG GuQIOPYTNHOWKai
Adyov UtreAcitrou. (Antiph. 5.16)
You have not arraigned the case concerning this matter to be tried once, but
you left room for argumentanddiscussion.
28.13 The predicative position is always used for predicative complements with linking
verbs ( 26.8-9):
(28) Kon... TUX Kai TO peAAOVv &dpatov. ([Isoc.] 1.29)
Fate is common to all, and the future is invisible. For the omission of éoti,
26.13.
(29) trévta... TAA eUTUX7 THY TOAWKpivoov, Ev OUSETTOT EUTUYXFjOaI TOUTO voLilo.
(Dem. 62.55.1)
Although I consider the city fortunate in every other respect, in this one
respect I believe that it has never been fortunate.
28.14 However,there are various kinds of modifiers which can occuronly in attributive
or only in predicative position: in such cases the distinction between the positions
outlined above does not hold. These are treated below, 28.15-22.
Attributive Genitives
28.15 Most attributive genitives ( 30.28-9; e.g. possessive , subjective , objective
genitives) can occur in both positions:
© STpos 6 THV ASnvaiov
Com mo the Athenian people
6 Sfpos THV AOnvatoov
TO Tlaucaviou uioos the hatred of Pausanias
TO Uioos TAV AaKedaipovieov the hatred of the Spartans
28.15-17 Relative Position of Article, Head and Modifiers ina Noun Phrase 333
Note 1: The difference between the two constructions appears to be that in attributive
position, the genitive is presented as (more)vital for the identification of the head noun (for
example, when the Athenian people are contrasted with another people, the attributive
position will be used). But often the distinctionis slight. Also 60.15.
28.16 Sometypesof attributive genitive, however, only occurin oneof the two positions:
- Partitive genitives ( 30.25, 30.29) stand in predicative position:
oi TAOUVOIO1 THV TOAITOV the rich amongthecitizens
TOUTOYV oO} TTAEioTOL the majority of them
Genitives of personal pronouns (pou, cou, etc., 7.1, 29.1) and genitives of
autdés used as a personal pronoun ( 7.2, 7.10, 29.7) always follow the head in
predicative position when used attributively:
t oikia attot his house
TOv TaTepa pou SiakdAAovtes Slandering myfather
But attributive genitives of demonstrative pronouns(to5«, etc., 7.13-15), of
the reflexive pronoun (uauTod, etc., 7.3) and of the reciprocal pronoun
(GAANAwV, 7.6) all stand in attributive position:
TO TaUTNS PIBAiov her book
TO éaxuTtoU BiBAiov his (own) book
(30) yaipouowétri tois GAANAwY Kaxois. (Isoc. 4.168)
They take pleasure in each other s troubles.
Note 1: In each of these uses, modifiers in predicative position actually do not have
predicative function (for predicative function, 26.8-12, 28.12). The terminology is
therefore somewhat misleading, and should be taken to refer merely to word order.
Demonstrative and Possessive Pronouns
28.17 The demonstrative pronouns 65¢ this, ottos this/that and éxeivos that, when used
adnominally, always stand in predicative position. In prose, heads modified by
these pronounsnearly always havethearticle:
6 TOAEUOS OSE this war
v TAUTT TH TOAEI in that city
éxeivo TO Tre&kyKaAoVv Epyov that very beautiful work
Note 1: With these pronouns, predicative position should again not be taken to imply
predicative function (cf. 28.16 n.1 above).
Note2: Particularly in prose, when a noun is modified by a demonstrative pronounbut does
not havethearticle, this indicates that the noun haspredicative function:
(31) toutny yap téxvnv exer. (Lys. 1.16)
Hehas this as a profession. (tavtnv trv téxvnv éxe: would have meant he hasthis
profession . Also 29.34).
28.18 The possessive adjectives éuds my, tEetEepos our, etc., normally standin attributive
position:
Heyy wT my mother
TIPOS TOUS OMETEPOUS DOULAYOUS againsttheirallies
OULHEPEL TH TOAEL TH UETEpa it benefits yourcity
Note 1: These pronouns mayalso be used as predicative complements with linking verbs
( 26.8-10), and then of course stand in predicative position:
(32) Kail ws yeév dv eye Cod, uty yiyvetar 1 év TMépoais Baoisia. (Xen. Cyr. 8.5.26)
As long as I live, the Persian throneis mine.
QUTOS
28.19 Whenusedas an adjective, autos differs in meaning depending on whetherit

stands in attributive or predicative position:
6 dvnp autds / adTds 6 &vjp the man himself
autos avT/p the same man
For details, 29.7-13.
Quantifiers
28.20 Manyquantifiers, such as tr&s every, all, whole, dA0s5 whole, in its entirety, etc. may
appeareither in attributive or predicative position, with a distinction in meaning.
For details, +29.45-52.
28.21 The following quantifiers always take predicative position when combined with the
article: txaotos each, every, x&TEpos each (of two), either, &apeo/&pqotepos both:
EKATEPOV TO Tr&BOS either of the two affections
EKAOTN 1) Tap huiv émormun each form of knowledge available to us
CUMe Toa TOAEE both cities
Adjectives Determining Position (uéoos, &xpos, EoxaTos etc.)
28.22 Adjectives that determine a position, such as péoos middle, &kpos high, Eoyatos
utmost, extreme, have different meanings whenin attributive or predicative position:
év TH weoT Kyops in the middle marketplace (of three or more)
év peoT) TH cyops in the middle of the marketplace
eis TO Spos TO Akpov to the high mountain
eis &Kpov TO Spos to the top of the mountain
év TH EoxaTy vijow on thelast island
év EOXATH TH vow at the edge of the island
28.23-5 The Article as Substantivizer 335
The Article as Substantivizer
28.23 Whena word (group) other than a noun is modified by the definite article, it is
substantivized (i.e. turned into a noun ), and serves as head of a noun phrase
( 26.16, 26.20-1).
28.24 Depending on the gender ofthe article, such constructions may refer to men or
people in general (masculine article), to women (feminine article), or to things/
concepts (neuterarticle):
6 &yatés the good man oi d&yafoi good men
fh yah the good woman ai dyabai good women
TO &yafév the good thing, goodness t&d&yab& goodthings, benefits
Alternatively, such constructions may identify a subset from a larger group; the
group may be expressed in the form of a partitive genitive (30.25, 30.29) or
supplied from the context:
(33) tous yév 81) ittréas E5 Eavto oi &kyaGoi Tév Mepodv. (Xen. Ages. 1.32)
Theelite forces of the Persians stood to face the (charge of) the riders.
(34) ... of tds troAiteias Kafiotdvtes, of Te Tas AploTOKpaTIKds Kal of TAs
dAryapxikas Kai TdALWoi Tas SNUOKpaTIKds ... (Arist. Pol. 1288a21-2)
... those who introduce forms of government, be they those whointro-
duce aristocratic ones, oligarchic ones, or, again, democratic ones ...
The article functions as substantivizer in all instances in this example
except the first tas (which modifies trodArteias).
Note 1: In translation, a relative clause often conveys such senseswell: e.g. t& &ya8é the
things that are good, oi cogoi men who are wise. Also note the translation of oi ...
Kabiotdvtes in (34).
28.25 The following types of word or phrase are frequently substantivized in this
way:
- Adjectives (the article is often generic, 28.6):
TO KOKOV evil
TO Sikalov Justice
oi TroAAol the many, the masses, the majority
1) SUoTHVOS the wretched woman
- Participles (in any tense and voice; the article is often generic, 28.6):
6 épdv the man wholoves, the lover
6 BouAdyEvos anyone wholikes
oi tebvnKdtes the dead
TX YEVOLEVaA the things which have happened, the events
336 28.25 The Article
(35) ... dtrws Hor Kal oi TotoovTes Hiv Ta ETrITHSe10. (Xen. Cyr. 4.2.40)
. so that we have people to provide for us as well (lit. who will make
provisions ).
(36) petéyvoeov Kai Ta Trpd08 cipnueva. (Eur. Med. 64)
I regret what I havesaid already(lit. what has already been said ).
Adverbs:
oi vSov the people inside
oi TEAas those nearby, the neighbours
oi viv those living today
oi T&A the people of long ago, our forebears
TO vUV, Ta VUV the present moment/period (often used adverbially,
now)
TO TTPOTEPOV the last time, the earlier period, (often used
adverbially, previously, 6.13)
- Prepositional phrases:
those in charge, the authorities
those in power (the government)
those in mylifetime, the people of my generation
those in the prime of their youth
- Attributive genitives (frequently with a neuter article to indicate the affairs
of ... ):
the soldiers/men of Xerxes
o.
[1 M.~
uN
0
oO
Cc
TO TOV Eppddv the affair of the Hermae

~
TX TOU ynpws the lot of old age

(37) t& tot Shou ppovel. (Ar. Eq. 1216)
He favoursthe people's side.
(38) GSNAa... Ta THv TroAguoov. (Thuc. 2.11.4)
The events of wars are unpredictable.
~ Infinitives, with the neuterarticle ( articular infinitive, 51.38-46):
TO UTTO NS0Vav apyeoGar (the) being led by pleasures, to be led by pleasures
EVIKTOAPEV TH AEyelv we have conqueredby speaking
- Whole word groups, clauses or sentences, with the neuterarticle:
(39) Aéyoo Se SeSquooteupeva oiov TO yvOb1 cauTov Kai TO uNndév Gyav. (Arist. Rh.
1395a21-2)
I am referring to sayings which have become popularized, such as Know
thyself and Nothing in excess .
Note 1: The negative with substantivized adjectives, participles, adverbs and prepositional
phrases is yy when the noun phrase hasa generic sense: e.g. 6 ut) cides whoever does not
know, but 6 oteidas the (specific) man who does not know: 56.16 n.1.
28.26-8 Pronominal Uses of the Article 337
Pronominal Usesof the Article
28.26 In a few highly specific uses the article has a pronominal function(i.e. serves as
a noun phrasebyitself, 26.16).
Note 1: These uses are remnants from earlier Greek, in which the article had a largely
pronominal function. In Homer, formsof the article are still used nearly exclusively as
a demonstrative pronoun:
(40) thy pév éyo ... Teupoo. (Hom.Il. 1.183-4)
I will send her away.
This use has largely disappeared from classical Greek, but is retained in the specific
expressionstreated below.
28.27 Parallel articles combinedwith the particles pév and 8¢ (e.g. 6 wév .. . 6 8; 59.24)
are used to contrast individuals, groups,etc.:
6 uév... 6 S the one (man) ... the other (man) ...; someone...
someoneelse ...; the former ... the latter
oiugv...oi15¢ some...others...;afew...others...;the former... the latter
TO ev... TO 8 On the one hand... on the other hand ...; partly...
partly ... (also: rotto pév ... Toto 5é)
(41) Kai pév Utrvov fpotvto KaT& pEpos, 8 HAauvov. (Thuc. 3.49.3)
Andtaking turns, one group wentto sleep and the other rowed.
(42) copt yap ovoa, Tois peév eit EtripBovos, ... Tois at treoodvtns. (Eur. Med.
303-5)
Because I am wise, I am enviable to some, and despicable to others.
(43) dp ouv éfeAtoas dv ... SiateAgoal Td EpwTav, TO &troKpivdpevos; (PI.
Grg. 449b)
Wouldyoube willing, then, to keep going, partly by asking questions, partly
by answering them?
(44) totto pév 51,ei vikoes, Ti ogeas &traiproEat, Toiot ye Ut) EoT1 UNdev; ToUTO Bé,
fy viknOtis, ube doa &yabd a&troBaAédeis. (Hdt. 1.71.3)
If, on the one hand, you conquer them, what will you take from them, who
have nothing? Butif, on the other hand, you are defeated, discover how many
good things you will lose. For é vintjoeis .. . tv vinnOfjs 49.5-6.
28.28 Anarticle combined with 5 (6 8, 4 8, etc.) at the start of a clause or sentence

indicates a shift from one topic (the person or thing spoken about, usually the
subject, >59.16) to the next. Usually, the new topic is present in the preceding
sentence. In such cases, 6 5¢ maybe translated by andhe, but he, or he, however:
(45) Zivav 5 oUTOGI Kai Oedgidos ... EiAKov TO LEIPaKIOV. SE Hilyas TO itdTiov
@xeETo gevyov. (Lys. 3.12)
Simon here and Theophilus were dragging the boy along. He, however,
flung off his cloak and ran away. The first sentence is about the men
dragging the boy along; it does mention that boy, who is then taken up as
the topic of the new sentence, and referred to by 6 6.
(46) éyo thy yuvaika écriévan éxéAcuov . .. 1) 5é TO pév TPATOv ovkK 7Gerev. (Lys. 1.12)
I wastelling my wife to go away, butshe,at first, did not want to. The wife,
mentionedin the first sentence, is the topic of the second.
28.29 Muchless frequently, topic shift is indicated by xai ds (acc. kai tév, fem. kai #, etc.; ds is the
article expanded with -s characteristic of the nom. sg. masc.).
28.30 Thearticle is used similarly in the phrases6s kai 3s(acc. TOv kai Tév, neut. Td kai Td, etc.) so and
so, this and that, and in pd tot previously.
28.31 Thearticle is sometimes used in poetry as a relative pronoun:

(47) OP. 7 Kai pet adtot untép dv TAains KTaveiy; | :: HA. TaUTS ye TEAEKEL TO TraTHp ATr@AETO.
(Eur. El. 278-9)
(Orestes:) Would youreally dare to kill your mother with him?:: (Electra:) Yes, with the
same axe by which myfather perished.
29
Pronouns and Quantifiers
Personal Pronouns
Contrastive and Non-Contrastive Personal Pronouns
29.1 Personal pronounsare used only pronominally ( 26.22-3). Theyare either accented
or non-accented (for details, 7.1-2): to an extent, this distinction corresponds to
a contrastive (or: emphatic ) and a non-contrastive (or: unemphatic ) function.
The distinctions between these functions are treated below, 29.4 5, 29.7.
Contrastive: first person: yo, éuov,éuol, gud J, me;pl. fyeis, Hudv, hiv, has we, us
second person: ov, oot, ool, of you; pl. UpEis, Ubudv, Uyiv, Was you
Non-contrastive: first person: pou, pol, ue Me; HhudSv, huiv, Huds us
second person: cou, ool, of you; Uudv, Upiv, Gu&s you
Attic prose does not use separate personal pronounsofthe third person (he, him;
she, her; it), but the oblique cases of attés are used as non-contrastive pronouns
( 7.10, 29.5, 29.7).
Note1: The oblique casesof the plural do not havedistinct forms for non-contrastive functions.
But in poetry some editors follow the ancient grammatical tradition of distinguishing non-
contrastive forms of the oblique cases of the plural: for these forms 7.1 n.2.
Note 2: The unaccented personal pronouns(you,etc.) are enclitic (24.34). Non-contrastive
plural forms(*ydv, etc.) and forms of attdés used as personal pronounbehavelike enclitics for
the purposes of word order ( >60.5).
29.2 The old forms of the third-person personal pronoun(e.g. oU/ov,oi/oi; for these forms, 7.2)
are not used in Attic prose as personal pronouns(they are so used in Herodotus, 25.28).
These forms do occuras indirect reflexive pronouns ( >29.18 below).
29.3 In tragedy and Herodotuswwis frequently used as accusative singular personal pronounofthe
third person, 25.28. viv is also used in tragedy as accusative, singular and plural.
First and Second Person
29.4 Forthe first- and second-person personal pronouns,the following rules apply:
Whendescribing the subject: the nominative forms of the personal pronouns
(éyc, hueis; ov, Uyeis) are mostly used when someform of(contrastive) emphasis
is placed on the subject - i.e. to distinguish it from a different subject, to clarify
340 29.4-5 Pronouns and Quantifiers
the identity of the subject, to emphasize responsibility, etc. When no (contras-

tive) emphasis is needed, the personal endings of the verb form suffice:
(1) étrei Uyeis guoi ot BéAeTe TreiBeobai, Eya ouv Upiv Eyoua. (Xen. An. 1.3.6)
Since you do not wish to obey me,I will follow you. Contrastive emphasis.
(2) o0Séves Udy ... uGAAdY eiotaitio1. obSE yap Sikny Et1 AapuBdverv efeAeTe Tape
TOV &1koUvtwv. (Dem. 23.204)
No one is more to blame than you. For you no longer wish to punish criminals.
Personal ending only: the subject you is taken from the previous sentence, and
requires no emphasis.
- The oblique cases of accented pronouns are used in cases of (contrastive)
emphasis, and after prepositions. The unaccented pronouns are used when
there is no specific emphasis on the pronoun:
(3) ti w&AAOV uot ov TatTa KaTnyopeis t ya oot; (Dem. 18.196)
Whydo youaccuse meofthese things rather than I you?
(4) Kai Treioas éué ToTa ... EScaoKds Yor Kal EAaPes trap eyo; (Xen. An. 1.6.7)
Andafter you persuaded me, did you pledge meyourfaith and did youreceiveit
from me?
(5) otto pév & kaTnydépytal pou, TavTa dtriotd& éotiv. (Antiph. 2.2.10)
As such,the things of which I stand accusedareall unreliable.
Note 1: For the use of the oblique cases of personal pronounsasreflexives(i.e. to refer back
to the subject), +29.17-18 below.
Third Person
29.5 For third-person pronouns, the following rules apply:

- When describing the subject: a demonstrative pronoun or a nominative of
autos (emphatic use, 29.9) can be usedto clarify the identity of the subject
or to provide (contrastive) emphasis. In other cases personal endings suffice:
(6) at Sé dpyifouevn ... STI OUKETI Gpoiws Epoita ... EpUAaTTEV Ews EEnUpev 6 TI
>
ein TO aitiov. (Lys. 1.15)

This woman,angry because(herlover) no longervisited as frequently, waited
until she discovered whatthe reason for this was. attn (aform ofdemonstrative
outos) is used to clarify the subject.
(7) eAeEev ... ST1 Kai AUT) AS1koiTO Ud To Tratpds TOU TEeTEpou. (Antiph. 1.15)
She said (personal ending only) that she herself (emphatic use of avtd6s, 29.9)
too was being treated unjustly by ourfather.
29.5-7 autos 341
In the oblique cases, forms of autos are used as non-contrastive third-person

pronouns ( 29.7); also after prepositions (9). If (contrastive) emphasis is
required, an oblique case of a demonstrative pronounis used (10):
(8) éxéAevov autiy étievan. (Lys. 1.12)
I told her to go away.
(9) A Kai pet avTOU UNTep &v TAains KTaveiv; (Eur. El. 278)
Would youtruly dare to kill your mother together with him?
(10) rétepov éxeiven Trades OUK Hoav SitrAci, | obs Tobe UGAAOV Eixds Av BvioKelv;
(Soph. El. 539-40)
Did he (Menelaus) not have two children, who should in fairness have died
instead of her (Iphigenia)?
29.6 In Herodotus, andvery rarely in Attic (only in the plural), oblique cases of an old third-person
personal pronounare used (for these forms, 7.2, 25.28):
(11) ei vixtoeis, Ti opens Atraiptioean, Total ye un Zot: wNndév; (Hdt. 1.71.3)
If you are victorious, of what will you deprive them - they who have nothing?
(12) xepot tdv Brycv | SoKoip Zyew ogas. (Soph. OT 1469-70)
WhenI touch them with my hands, I might seem to have them with me.
AUTOS
As Third-Person Personal Pronoun
29.7 The oblique cases of attdés (attot, att, attdv, avtijs, etc.) are used as non-
contrastive personal pronouns of the third person (him, her, it; them; etc.;
29.5); in this use attds is purely pronominal ( 26.22-3).
Whenusedas a third-person pronoun, attds always refers back to someoneor
something introduced before (anaphoric use):
(13) ti trote Agyer 6 Beds, Kai Ti Tote aiviTtteTa; ... ob yap Sitrou wevdeTal ye: ov
yap Bépis auTta&. (Pl. Ap. 21b)
Whatonearth is the god saying, and whatdo his riddles mean? Forat anyrate
he is not lying, I think, since that is not allowed to him.
(14) Kai feis éxeAcUouev aUTOV TreiBerv AUTH Trepi ToUTOv.(Isae. 2.8)
Andwetold him to persuade her with regard to those matters. avtévrefers to
Menecles, the accused, and avrtiv to the sister of the plaintiff.
(15) &pyei tis atTOv, H Ti TH TANGAdyos; (Soph. OC 66)
Does someone govern them, or does authority rest with the masses? avtdv
refers to the Athenians, the topic of discussion.
(16) Kai cis Thy oixiav attot cicepdpnoav ws 25Uvavto TrAciota. (Xen. An. 4.6.1)
And they carried as much as they could into his house. The attributive
genitive avtot here expresses possession, 30.28.
Note 1: Nominative forms of attdés are not used as a personal pronoun (non-contrastive
third-person he, she, it are typically expressed by the verbal endings, 29.5).
Note 2: The oblique cases of attés normally do not refer back to the subject of the clause (in
that case, a form of the reflexive pronoun is more often used; for full details and exceptions,
29.14-20).
As an Adjective, Expressing Identicalness: The Same
29.8 autdés (in any case) is used as an attributive adjective expressing identicalness: (the)
same. In this use attés is always directly preceded by the article, and thus stands
in attributive position ( 28.11-12):
(17) yéypage Sé kai Tavita 6 avTds OouKuUSibns ASnvaios. (Thuc. 5.26.1)
Ofthis, too, the same Thucydides of Athensis the author.
(18) kai tpijpns Ti auth hugopa dAioxetar Tv Adnvaiwv urd TéHv LupaKkoolov.
(Thuc. 7.3.5)
And on the same day, a trireme of the Athenians was captured by the
Syracusans.
(19) wéAww81) étri THVv avTHV Texvdov Adyouev cvirep vuvd1. (Pl. Grg. 453e)
Let us, then, resumeour discussion concerning the samearts we spokeofjust
now.
Forms of attdés in this use frequently serve as head of their noun phrase
(26.22), e.g. 6 attdés the same man, oi attoi the same men/people, t& att& the
same things,etc.:
(20) ot &iows Sid TO TroAupaéhs Eivon Trepi TOV avTdv oUSETIOTE TK AUTK A yels.
(Xen. Mem. 4.4.6)
Andperhapsit is on accountof the fact that you are so learned that you never
say the same things about the samethings.
Note 1: To express the person or entity to which someoneor somethingis identical, Greek
uses the dative, kai, or a relative clause introduced by a form of éoTrep (as in (19) above). For
details, +32.14-15.
Note2: In this use, particularly when attés is the head of the noun phrase, the article often
coalesces with the form of attds (crasis, > 1.43 5): adtds (= 6 atts), aUTH (= h adTH), TATE
tauta (= té& atta tatta):
(21) Kai viv @avtds cir TH BouAeUatr. (Soph. OT 557)

And even now,I am still of the same mind.Lit. the same man in mind .
29.9-12 autos 343
As an Adjective, Emphatic Use: Self
29.9 Finally, avtds (in any case) is used as a predicative adjective stressing the identity
of a person or thing, in opposition to other personsor things: self. In such cases
autos always stands in predicative position (ie. not preceded directly by the
article, >28.11-12):
(22) &koUvoas 8 Kai atTtos 6 Yayuntixos étruvédveto oitives &vOpatrav Bexds Ti
KaAgouo. (Hdt. 2.2.4)
WhenPsammetichus himself had been told as well, he inquired which people
have a word bekos .
(23) dvateivas Te oxKéAer Siaunpid | thv lpw atti. (Ar. Av. 1254-5)
ll spread her two legs and screwIris herself.
(24) as 5é GAnOi A yw, avTO Upiv TO Whgioua SnAwoel. (Lys. 13.71)
That I am speaking the truth, the decreeitself will make clear to you.
autdés self also frequently stands on its own in the nominative, agreeing with the
(unexpressed) subject of a verb:
(25) EX. attdés, & Daldev, Tapeyévou DoKxpater éxelvy TH huepa TO PdppaKov
Etlev ... 7) GAAOu Tou tKouoas; :: DA. atitdés, Exéxpates. (Pl. Phd. 57a).
(Echecrates:) Were you with Socrates yourself, Phaedo, on that day when he
drank the poison ... or did you hear aboutit from someoneelse? :: (Phaedo:)
I was there myself, Echecrates.
(26) attds coi Hynoopan. (Xen. Hell. 5.2.28)
I will act as your guide myself.
29.10 In somecases personal pronounsin the nominative are strengthened by attés:

(27) totto ... otK étrexeipnoa Troieiv, aos avTol Upeis EtiotaoGe. (Xen. An. 7.6.12)
I did not try to do that, as you know for yourselves.
29.11 Forms of attés are often combined with reflexive pronouns to emphasize a direct reflexive
relationship (29.17):
(28) ote pEilov &v Kai ZAatTov ein avTd EauTO Td ev. (Pl. Prm. 151a)
In this way, the one thing would be both greater and smaller thanitself (lit. the one thing
itself ... thanitself).
29.12 Somefurther idiomatic uses of atvtés:
byitself, in itself, unaided, alone, bare, very:

(29) t e1 yap atta. (Soph. OT 341)
For it will happen on its own accord.
just, merely:
(30) Aeydvtwv GAAO pév OUSEV Ov TPdTEPOV Eimbeoay, aUTA SE TaSe 6T1... (Thuc. 1.139.3)
saying nothing of what they previously used to say, but merely this, that ...
exactly, precisely (with expressions of time or place):
(31) puAdgavtes ... avTo TO TrepiopSpov (Thuc. 2.3.4)
waiting for the exact moment of dawn
with ... andall (with the dative of accompaniment, 30.51):
(32) eitev ... te eis Tas THEEIS AUTOS OTEMdvors. (Xen. Cyr. 3.3.40)
Hetold them to cometo their posts with crownsandall.
with/and ... others (with ordinals):
(33) tecoapdxovta 8S vauol Kal Téooapo1 TlepikAgous Sexatou attot otpatnyoivtos

évaunaxnoav. (Thuc. 1.116.1)
Theygavebattle with forty-four ships, under the commandofPericles (himself) and nine
others(lit. himself the tenth ).
Summary of the Uses of autos
29.13 The following overviewlists the main differences between the three basic uses of
AUTOS:
as third-person personal expressing identicalness: the emphatic use: self

pronoun:him, her, it, etc. same
oblique cases only all cases all cases
used pronominally(i.e. used adnominally, with the used adnominally, as
as a noun phrasebyitself) article predicative modifier
often as head of a noun phrase:
e.g. Ta alta the same things
attributive position, always predicative position:
directly preceded by the 6 vip avtds ToUTO Trotei the
article: man doesthis himself
6 avTds dvip ToUTO Trotthe
same man doesthis
often byitself in the nom.,
agreeing with an
unexpressed subject:e.g.
autos Troiei tatita he himself
does these things
29.14-15 Reflexive Pronouns and Other Reflexive Expressions 345
Reflexive Pronouns and Other Reflexive Expressions
Introduction; Pronouns Usedas Reflexives; Direct and Indirect Reflexives
29.14 Reflexivity is the phenomenon whereby a pronounis used to reflect (i.e. refer
back or forwards to) another constituent of the sentence or clause, nearly always
the subject:
(34) éxeivov pév obSév étraivds, Euautov Sé weyo. (Xen. Ages. 5.7)
I am in no waypraising him, I am censuring myself. guautdv refers to the
(unexpressed) first-person subject of wéyw.
(35) 01 5é HTTHpEvor Gua ExUTOUS TE Ka TH EXUTSV TAVTA A&TroBdAAOUO. (Xen. Cyr.
3.3.45)
The vanquished throw both themselvesandall their possessions away. éautous
and éautésv refer back to oi fTTapEVvOL.
Note 1: Rarely, reflexives refer back to a constituent other than the subject, e.g. the object:
(36) tots pév Ztraptidtas atréAuoev olkade, ToUs SE Treploikous a@ikev Eri Tas EXUTHV TIAEIS.
(Xen. Hell. 6.5.21)

Helet the Spartiates go home, and sent the Perioeci to their respective cities. éauTév
refers back to the object Tous trepioinous.
29.15 A distinction is made between:
direct reflexivity: pronouns which refer back to an element within the same
clause/construction;
indirect reflexivity: pronouns in a subordinate construction (subordinate
clauses, infinitive or participle constructions), which refer back to an element
in the main/matrix clause (for subordination, 39.2, 39.5):
(37) yva1 cauTov.
Knowthyself. Direct reflexive: cautdév is object of yvd61, and refers to its
(unexpressed) subject.
(38) o¥Sév oe KwAUOEI ceau|ToV guBaAetv cis TO Bapabpov. (Ar. Nub. 1448-9)
Nothing will prevent you from throwing yourself into the pit. Direct reflexive:
oeauTovis object of guBadeiv, and refers to its subject (2 sg. taken from oe).
(39) to1ottos yiyvou trepi Tous yoveis, cious &v evEa1o Trepi ceauTov yevéo#al TOUS
oeauTou traidas. ([Isoc.] 1.14)
Behave yourself towards your parents such as you would wish your
children to behave themselves towards you. Lit. be(come) such as ... .
Indirect reflexives: ceautov and oeavtot refer back to the subject of ev&ao,
but syntactically are part of the accusative-and-infinitive construction
yevéobal ... Taidas.
Note 1: Direct reflexive actions can also be expressed by the middle voice, but only with
certain verbs ( verbs of grooming , 35.11). In other cases a pronounis required.
The term indirect reflexive is also used for a different phenomenonin connection with
the middle voice, for which 35.8-9.
29.16 The following pronounsare used in reflexive constructions:

most widely: the reflexive pronoun (éuautot, ceautot, éautot, hudv attayv,
etc., 7.3);
forms of the obsolete third-person personal pronoun (oU/oU,oi/oi, /é ogeis,
co@v/agav, etc., 7.2);
(oblique cases of) the personal pronoun (you/éyot, cou/aot, fhudy,etc.);
(oblique cases of) attdés (avoid,etc.).
Note 1: A distinction should thus be maintained between reflexive pronouns (a morphological

category, referring to a specific type of pronoun, éuautoi, etc.) and pronounsusedin reflexive
constructions (a syntactic phenomenon). While reflexive pronouns always expressreflexivity,
reflexivity is not always necessarily marked by the use of a reflexive pronoun.
Note 2: Reflexive pronouns are frequently used in contexts where English does not use
myself, yourself, etc. or my own, his own,etc., especially in thecase of attributive genitives(cf.
(35) and (36) above) andindirect reflexives (cf. (39)).
Pronouns Usedas Direct and Indirect Reflexives
Direct Reflexivity
29.17 In the direct reflexive use, the reflexive pronoun (2uautot, ceautot, éaxutod,etc.,
7.3) is normally required:
(40) of 8... Ta STA Trapgdo0oav Kai opas attous. (Thuc. 4.38.3)
Andthey gave up their weaponsand surrendered(lit. gave up .. . themselves ).
opas avtous, object of tapé5ocay, refers back to its subject oi 5é.
(41) éxeivo guauté otvoida, STi Trepi Outjpou KdAAiot avOpatrov Agyoo. (Pl. Ion
533c)
This one thing I know of myself: that I excel all men in speaking on Homer.
guauTé refers to the (unexpressed) first-person subject of ovvoida.
(42) aioypad yév cauta Ayers. (Eur. Andr. 648)
Yousay things which are shamefulto yourself. Reflexive pronoun oauté refers
to the (unexpressed) subject of Aéyeis.
(43) Uyeis ovv, av owmpovijte, OU TOUTOU GAA UudSv avTdév geioeobe. (Xen. Hell.
2.3.34)
If you are wise, you will not spare this man, but rather yourselves. uudv avtdév
refers to the subject of peioeoGe, Weis.
29.17-18 Reflexive Pronouns and OtherReflexive Expressions 347
However,in the first and second person, and in poetry much morefreely than in
prose, personal pronounscanbeused asdirect reflexives:
(44) as éya S0Ke pol THv copaTivos &knkogvai (Pl. Resp. 583b)
as I think I have heard from some wise man(lit. I seem to me to have heard ).
Personal pronoun yor refers to the subject of 50nd. 50nd guaut@ is rare, and
used particularly in cases of contrastive emphasis.
(45) povéas étiKTes Ged oon. (Eur. El. 1229)
Apparently you bore your own killers. Personal pronoun oo: refers to the
subject of étintes. Contrast (42) above.
Note 1: In tragedy, manuscript evidence provides several instances of attés being used as
a third-person direct reflexive: these are usually corrected in modern editions to contracted
forms of éautod (the difference between e.g. avtot and atvtoi resides only in the breathing
mark ( >7.26), and manuscript evidenceis not reliable when it comesto breathings, 1.7,
1.12). It is possible, however, that such examples are authentic.
Note 2: For combinations of attdés and éautot in direct reflexive contexts: 29.11, 29.19.
Indirect Reflexivity
29.18 In indirect reflexive contexts, the following pronounsare used:

- In the first and second person, personal pronouns are typically used (the
reflexive pronounisrelatively rare):
(46) ot Adyoo GAN Epyoo ... éveSerEGunv Sti Euoi Gavatou pév peAer... OVS STiovv.
(Pl. Ap. 32d)
I have shown, not only in word but in deed, that I am notin the least
concerned aboutdeath. Personal pronoun.
(47) & téxv , &koue® oios eis UUas Trathp; (Eur. Med. 82)
O children, do you hear what kind of man yourfather is toward you? Personal
pronoun.
(48) ot tois cionynoapevois Tat érritipd ... GAA Upiv, ei TaD ikavd Upiv avTois
UTroAauBavet civar. (Dem. 13.30)
I do not blame those who have introduced these measures, but you, if you
think that these things are sufficient for you. Reflexive pronoun.
- In the third person,the reflexive pronoun occursregularly:
(49) trapexeAcuovto 8& atT& tdvtes ... ut) Udyeoba, GAN Striobev EauTAdV
tatteoGa1. (Xen. An. 1.7.9)
All urged him not to take part in the fighting, but to take position behind
them. éautdv refers back to wavtes.
(50) toUtous 8 édoo, ut UE QHoW KaKdds aUTOUs Agyeiv. (Dem.38.26)
I shall leave them unmentioned,so that they may notsay that I am slandering
them. avtous refers back to the subject of pa&ovw.
In addition, the formsoJ,oi, #, cpév, etc. (contrastive) and ov,oi, é, cpwv (non-
contrastive) are regularly used as indirect reflexives:
(51) és thv Eyeotav tréuwavtes éxéAeuov irtrous ogiow ws TAElotous TréyTrelv.
(Thuc. 6.88.6)
They sent to Egesta and asked that they send them as many horsesas
possible. opiowrefers back to the subject of éxéAevov.
(52) xatidev... has... ToAguapyos .. . exéAeuoe Spaudvta Tov Troida trepipeivad
é xeAetoan. (Pl. Resp. 327b)
Catching sight of us, Polemarchus. . . ordered his boy to run andbid usto wait
for him.é refers back to TloAéuapyos;strictly speaking it could also havereferred
back to the boy, although the context leaves no doubt about whois meant.
Finally, oblique cases of attdés are frequently used as third-person indirect
reflexives:
(53) 018... e0OUs &pryoouclTH Aciav,étre1Sav 1Seol Twas ér aUTOUS EAAUVOVTAS.
(Xen. Cyr. 1.4.19)
They will drop their booty as soon as they see anyone charging them. avtous
refers back to the subject of iSwon.
Note1: It is difficult to accountfully for the difference between the use of these pronounsin
the third-person indirect reflexive. Reflexive pronouns (éautod, etc.) are consistently used,
even in the first and second person, whenthey function as attributive genitives; otherwise,
the use of reflexive pronouns and formsofot,etc., is particularly prevalent in those cases
where the subordinate construction represents the thoughts, words or intentions of the
subject of the matrix clause (nom. ogeis can also be so used; for examples of indirect
reflexives in indirect speech/thought, 41.9 (16), 41.20 (46)).
After the fifth century attés appears to gain ground as a standard form for indirect
reflexives (but for problems of manuscript transmission, 29.17 n.1).
Further Particulars
29.19 The third-person reflexive pronoun is not infrequently used instead ofa first- or second-
person pronoun:
(54) duloi & att&s Bpoeis | voyov dvopov. (Aesch. Ag. 1140-2)
You cry a lawless strain about yourself. avt- instead of o(e)aut-. For & in avTas,
25.46-7,
This occurs regularly in fixed phrases such as attés Kad attdév by myself/yourself/himself,
autos ép attot by myself/yourself/himselfand superlative + attds5 avtot at his/her/its -est (for
which, 32.10):
(55) d0a5 ... vaupayias attoi Kad aUTOUs veviktyKate ... (Xen. Hell. 1.1.28)
All the naval battles that you have won by yourselves...
29.19-22 Possessive Pronounsand Other Expressions of Possession 349
Again, such instances are sometimes emended in modern text editions: many instances are
probably authentic, however. Especially from the fourth century onwards, the third-person
reflexive pronoun seems to have gradually supplanted the first-person and second-person
reflexive pronouns.
29.20 Reflexive pronounsare not infrequently used to express reciprocal relationships, where one
might expect the reciprocal pronoun &AAnAwv (for which 29.26):
(56) of ouyyevets ouveion ogiow avtois. (Xen. Hell. 1.7.8)
Kinsmenjoin with each other.
The two pronouns may be combined, however, to express a contrast between reflexive and
reciprocal actions:
(57) d&uqioBntotuev SAANAOIs TE Kal Hutv avtois; (Pl. Phdr. 263b)
Do we disagree with each other as well as with ourselves?
Possessive Pronouns and Other Expressions of Possession
Introduction; Pronouns Used as Possessives
29.21 Greek uses the following pronouns to express possession, belonging, descent,
origin,etc.:
possessive pronouns(épds, -1, -6v my; ods,-n, -dv your(sg.); HUETEPOS, -a, -OV OUT;
UueTEpos, -a, -ov your (pl.); these are properly adjectives, and thus always agree
with their head noun); the plural forms in particular are sometimes combined
with the genitive of attéds: e.g. hueTEpos atTHV our (own), ogetépas atTo&v their
(own), -7.7-9;
the genitive of the non-contrastive personal pronoun (you, cou, hudv, bydv),
and the genitive of attdés (atTot, atti\s, aUTév, used as a non-contrastive third-
person personal pronoun);
the genitive of the reflexive pronoun (éuautot, ceautot, éautot);
the genitive of demonstrative pronouns (toUtou,éxeivng, etc.).
Note 1: For the position of each of these pronounsrelative to noun andarticle, 28.16,
28.18.
Pronouns Used in Different Constructions
First and Second Person
29.22 Forthe first and secondperson, the following pronounsare used:

If the possessor is also the subject of the sentence, the possessive pronoun (éyds,
etc.) is used, or, with emphasis, the genitive ofthe reflexive pronoun (éuautoi,etc.).
In the plural, the emphatic combinations jyétepos adtév, WueTEepos atTAv Occur:
(58) tév ... Traida Tov éudv TrapeSaxa Bacavioa. (Andoc. 1.64)
I gave up myslaveto be tortured.
(59) aitiaoduevos ... we... , TOV TATEpa as ATrEKTOVaA ~ya Tov guaUTOU ... , Eis
a&yava katéotnoev. (Dem. 22.2)
Bringing the accusation against methat I have killed my own father, he has taken
meto court. For the word order, with tov tratépa preceding its clause, 60.33.
(60) S1Sd0KeTte TOUS TraiSas TOUS UUETEpOUS aUTAV. (Isoc. 3.57)
Teach your (own) children.
- If the possessor is not the subject of the sentence, the genitive of the non-
contrastive personal pronoun (pou, etc.) or the possessive pronoun (épds, etc.,
especially when with emphasis) is used:
(61) Asin ypdvov SiatpiBouci Tov Tratépa pou SiaBdAAovtes. (Isoc. 16.2)
They spend more time slandering myfather.
(62) Sint&to Trap hyiv Tov &travta ypdvov 6 Aotugidos Kai étraidevOn Urd Tot
Tratpos Tot éuou. (Isae. 9.27)
Astyphiluslived in our house the whole time, and was brought up by myfather.
Third Person
29.23 For the third person, the following pronounsare used:

If the possessoris also the subject of the sentence, the genitive of the reflexive
pronoun is used (éautot,-7\s; adtot, atts). In the plural the form is either
éautov or (less commonly) ogétepos attdv:
(63) TlepSixxas 5& Uotepov Ztpatovikny Thy éxuTOU &SeAHv SiSwo1 ZevOn. (Thuc.
2.101.6)
Afterwards Perdiccas gavehis sister Stratonice to Seuthes.
(64) oixétas ToUs ogetépous atTa&v étrikaAoUvTal udptupas. (Antiph. 1.30)
Theycall their slaves to witness.
- Ifthe possessoris not the subject of the sentence, the genitive of attds is used, or
(less commonly, with emphasis) the genitive of demonstrative pronouns
(éxeivou, etc.):
(65) 6 yap trattp avtijs ltrtrévikos ... Tov Tatépa Tov éudv ... KNSeoTtthy EtreOUyNoe
Toinoaofai. (Isoc. 16.31)
For her father Hipponicus set his heart upon making myfather related to
him by marriage.
29.23-6 Reciprocal Pronouns 351
(66) To TaUTNs CHya TIWaoPa1 ypewv. (Eur. Alc. 619)

We must honourherbody.
Further Particulars
29.24 Whenthe possessor is beyond doubt, Greek often uses no more than thearticle
(which may then be translated as a possessive pronoun, 28.4 n.1). This is
especially frequent in cases of inalienable possession:
(67) Tpdtov pév ceautov oGoov,cita Sé Tov Tatépa. (Andoc. 1.50)
Save yourself first, and next your father.
29.25 All the possessive expressions treated above may be used with the force of
a subjective or objective genitive ( 30.28):
piria TH euz] out of myfriendship (for someoneelse) / friendship for me
Sid Thy éxeiveov atriotiav on account of mistrust for them / their mistrust
Reciprocal Pronouns
29.26 The reciprocal pronoun,used only pronominally, expresses the idea that two or
more persons are simultaneously involved in one and the sameaction, like
English each other, one another:
(68) cs 5é katetSov GAAAOUs, avtiTrapet&ooovtTo. (Thuc. 1.48.3)
As soonasthey got sight of each other, they arrayed themselves against each
other.
(69) AvorteAci yap oipon Hiv f GAANACV SikalooUvn Kal &pett). (Pl. Prt. 327b)
For weprofit, I think, from each other s justice and virtue.
Note 1: The reciprocal pronoun does not have a nominative andis always plural. As appears
from example (69), the genitive &AAjAwv may also be used as a possessive, in attributive
position ( 28.16).
Note 2: Reciprocal actions can also be expressed in Greek by the middle voice (e.g.
SieAgyovto they conversed with each other; cf. also 4vtitrapetéooovto in (68); 35.24), by
the reflexive pronoun (2xotrtov autous they hit themselves/each other; 29.20 above) and by
the repetition of nouns:
(70) té&1s SE THEW TrapeKdAei. (Aesch. Pers. 380)
Line cheered on line.
Demonstrative Pronouns
Pronominal and Adnominal Use; Pointing Outside or Inside the Text
29.27 The three demonstrative pronouns (68¢, oUTos, éxeivos) may be used pronomin-
ally or adnominally. In the latter case, they normally take the article (in prose), and
stand in predicative position ( 28.17):
65¢ / 65e 6 dvip this man (here)
outos / oUTOs 6 &vip this man
éxeivos / &xeivos 6 vip that man (there)
Note 1: Predicative position is in this case not indicative of predicative function.
29.28 Demonstratives have a pointing or deictic function (from Seixvupi point). They may
either point to someone/thing in the world outside the text, or to a single word or
larger segmentofthe text itself. When a demonstrative refers to an element in the
text itself it may refer backward to something introduced before (anaphoric use) or
point forwardin the text to something aboutto be introduced (cataphoric use):
(71) kai ottTw Katagpoveis THvbe Kai ole: atTOUs aTrEipous ypayYaTov eivat
ote ...; (Pl. Ap. 26d)
Do you so despise these gentlemen (here) and think that they are so unversed
in letters that .. .? r@vde refers to the judges, men actually presentfor Socrates
speech - we might imagine Socrates pointing at them.
(72) 6 8& Apioios cite: ... Eri TOUTOIS Zevogaev TA&5e cite: ... (Xen. An. 2.5.40)
AndAriaeussaid: .. . In reaction to these words Xenophonspokeasfollows:. . .
The pronouns refer to elements in the text - tovtois anaphorically to Ariaeus
speech, and td5e cataphorically to Xenophon s speech which is to follow.
General Differences between 65¢, oUTos and éxeivos
29.29 65 refers to something immediately near/present to the speaker (physically or

mentally). Often one may imagine the speaker pointing at something or someone
nearby:it is used in drama to announce characters coming onstage (73), and can
even refer to the speaker himself (74). Whenit points to an element within thetext,
6S¢ normally serves to announce something that will follow immediately (cata-
phoric use, (75)), or refers to something prominent in the speaker s mind (76):
(73) GAN dS... Baoideds ... xoopei. (Soph. Ant. 155-8)
But here comesthe king.
(74) tijoSé ye Caons Em: (Soph. Trach. 305)
while this womenstill lives (i.e. while I still live )
(75) Kai Tod Etepov ouvétrece yevouevov ... (Hdt. 9.101.1)

Andin addition the following coincidence occurred: ... Cataphoric.
(76) 6 pévtoi pOBos ci cagts S5¢ | OUK o1Sa- BouAoiyny 8 dv ovK eivon TO5e. (Eur.
Med. 72-3)
Yet if this story is true I do not know,but I would wish that this is not the case.
29.30 outos refers to something within the reach of the speaker and/or addressee
(physically or mentally), but not specifically near to the speaker. The reference may
be to something within reach of the addressee, or even to the addressee him/
herself. In oratory, it is often used to point to accusers or defendants presentin the
court (77). It is occasionally used in dialogue to address someone ( heythere ,
(78)). ottos very frequently points in the text, and is then used mostoften to refer
to something mentioned previously (anaphoric use, (79)):
(77) étre1t& Eloi oUTOI oi KaTHyopol TTOAAO! Kai TroAUV ypdovov HSN KaTHyoPNKOTES.
(Pl. Ap. 18c)
Moreover, these accusers are many and have been makingtheir accusations
already for a long time.
(78) outos, ti troieis; (Ar. Ran. 198)
Heythere, what are you doing?
(79) tauthv ... Thy hugpav Kai Tis UoTtepaias ugpos T1 TPOGBOAdS TroInodpEVOL
étretrauvto. (Thuc. 4.13.1)
Having continuedtheirefforts for that day (just described) andpartofthe next,
they were now quiet. Anaphoric.
(80) Topyias ... ottos 6 Agovtivos cogiotts ... (Pl. Hp. mai. 282b)
Gorgias, that sophist from Leontini ... A recognisable figure to both speaker
and addressee: the use of oUtos may indicate that the speaker suggests some
distance between himself and Gorgias.
29.31 éxeivos refers to something beyond the reach of the speaker and addressee
(physically or mentally). It may refer to something physically far away (or out of
sight) from both speaker and addressee (81). When éxeivos points within thetext,it
usually refers anaphorically to something which has not been mentioned for
a while (or it is used to pick up something which was mentioned before a form
of oUtos or 55 intervened ) (82). It may also refer to somethingthatis distant in
other ways: becauseit is special or unexpected, becauseit lies in distant memory,
etc. (83):
(81) tois Sé Kepxupatiois ... oUx EwpGvto ... piv tives iSdvtes eitrov STI vijes Exetvan
étrimrAgouolv. (Thuc. 1.51.2)
They went unseen by the Corcyraeans, until a few noticed them andsaid that
there in the distance ships were approaching.
(82) (250por) adtav abt fh TWANuEAEIa Exeivny THY cogiav &trokpuTrTelv. (Pl. Ap.
22d)
This folly Gust mentioned) of theirs seemed to me to obscure that wisdom
(mentionedfurther back in the text). Anaphoric.
(83) ypagi o Tis, as Eolke, y ypaTrtal ov yap éxkeivd ye KaTAYVHOOAL, ws OU
Etepov. (Pl. Euthphr. 2b)
It seems that someonehas brought a suit against you. For of one thing I will
not accuse you, that you have done so against someoneelse. Cataphoric; énéivo
appears to emphasize that the content of the as-clause (Socrates bringing a suit
against someoneelse) is unimaginable.
29.32 As a general rule, when referring within the text, outros is the pronoun used
anaphorically (pointing backwards), and 68 the pronoun used cataphorically
(pointing forwards):
ToUTa eittav... having said these things...
... eitre TASE- ... he said the following: ...
Note 1: There are, however, many exceptionsto this rule: oUtos mayrefer forward (especially
whenit introducesa relative clause); 55¢ may refer backward:
(84) Kai piAdTroAis OUTOS Opfds ... Og &v Ek TravTdos TpdOTrOU ... Trelpabt auTHy dvaAaPeiv.
(Thuc. 6.92.4)
That man is truly a patriot, who seeks to recoverit (his country) by all means.
(85) TaSe pév Hiv tarépes of UuEeTEpor ES00av. (Thuc. 2.71.3)
These are the things (just described) your ancestors passed on to us. The use of TaS5¢e
rather than tatta may emphasize that the things passed on arestill relevant for the
speaker and his audience.
29.33 When referring back to two persons/groups/things just mentioned, the

former ... the latter in Greek is represented by éxtivos ... oUtTos/65e (but also
frequently by 6 pév ... 6 4, 28.27):
(86) ToAU dv SikaidTepov éexeivois ToIs ypauao7 ToUTOIs TroTevorTe. (Lys. 16.7)
You would be far morejustified relying on the formerlists than thelatter.
(87) Uyeis Exeiveov TIPSTEPOV T}KOVOATE KATNYOPOUVTOOV Kal TTOAU HGAAOv7 TOVSE TOV
Uotepov. (Pl. Ap. 18e)
You haveheard the former make their accusationsearlier and with much more
vehemencethan these men here who camelater. Socrates hasjust distinguished
two groups amonghis accusers.
Further Particulars
29.34 The demonstrative pronouns are often used with a noun in a predicative
relationship. In such cases, the noun usually does not have thearticle; the
demonstrative pronoun is used pronominally and functions as subject/object

of the verb. Contrast:
(88) Aptrayo piv Aotudyns Sixny tavtny étréOnxe. (Hdt. 1.120.1)
This was the punishment which Astyagesinflicted on Harpagus. Predicative
use. Moreliterally, Astyages inflicted this as punishment on Harpagus ; tavtnv
refers anaphorically to the preceding context, in which Astyages treatment of
Harpagus wasdescribed.
(89) o¥Sepni& piAoTpayyooUvn ... TH Sikny taut ~EAayov Boiwtd. (Dem. 39.1)
It was not through any love of litigation that I brought this suit against
Boeotus. Adnominal use. rautnv expresses the nuance just mentioned .
For the agreement between the pronoun and the noun in such cases, also
27.9.
29.35 Thereare also groups of demonstrative adjectives and adverbs which correspond,
in the ways in which they point , to 68 and ottos (and sometimeséxeivos):
Used like 65 Used like outos Usedlike éueivos Meaning
To1dad¢ TOLOUTOS such, of such a kind
Tood0d¢ TOCOUTOS so great (sg.), so many(pl.)
ade oUTo(s) in this way, so, such
évOévSe évteudev éxeidev from here/there
etc. (8)
Note 1: The placementof toiottos and tocottosis different from that of ottos: when they
are used adnominally, they stand in attributive position: e.g. oi toiotto1 dvipes such men, ta
tooatta Kai Toiatta &yabta& so many and such blessings.
These adjectives and adverbsoften anticipate or pick up a correlative relative clause

(e.g. tooottos ... d00¢ so large ... as; 001... ToootTo1 so many as ..., so many
(too); 50.5) or anticipate a result clause (e.g. toiottos ... dote such ... that;
46.2).
29.36 Forms of demonstrative pronouns,adjectives or adverbs are sometimes expanded

with the deictic suffix -i ( 7.18). In such cases the demonstrative nearly always
refers to something in the world outside the text: deictic iota appears to emphasize
the pointing effect of the pronoun.It is especially frequent in comedy:
(90) 681 8é Tis Trot éotiv; ot Sttrou Ztpdtov; (Ar. Ach. 122)
And this guy here, who s he? Can't be Straton, can he?
(91) kai uty dpe Kai BAswiSquov touTovi | tpocidvta. (Ar. Plut. 332-3)
Andlook, there I see Blepsidemus approachingtoo.
(92) TIE. obtTooi Sé TrnvéAow.:: EY. éxewni Sé y &Akuav. (Ar. Av. 298)
(Pisetaerus:) And that oneis a wigeon.:: (Euelpides:) And that one a halcyon.
(93) to1outooi Toivuv ue SapSatrter TAs | EUpitridou. (Ar. Ran. 66-7)

Such,I tell you, is the desire for Euripides which is devouring me.
29.37 A relatively frequent idiomatic use of anaphoric ottosis in the fixed expression kai tatté (ye)
and... at that, and ... to boot, and what s more: ... , modifying a participle, noun phrase or
adjective:
(94) Ovxoiv kai yxpucioy, 7) 8ds, &yabov Soxet oor eivan éxE1v; :: Tavu, kal trade ye TOAU, Epr 6
Ktnointros. (Pl. Euthd. 299d)
Don t you think, he said, that it is a good thing to have gold? :: Certainly, said
Ctesippus, and a lot ofit at that. tata picks up the idea it is good to have gold , to
which Ctesippus adds the additional and specific proviso (for uai and ye, 59.20, 59.53)
that it should be lot ofgold.
Indefinite Pronouns
29.38 The indefinite pronoun tis any, some, a(n), (a) certain, can be used pronominally
or adnominally. It refers to someone/somethingthatis not identifiable as a specific
individual:
- Normally, tis is used to refer to any of a numberof individuals whose specific
identity is unknownorirrelevant:
(95) hud... xel Tis KaTHyopTioat7 ds Eri TOATVG EoTPATEVOaEY T&S KPTUATE
tiveov éAd&Bouev; (Xen. Hell. 6.5.37)
Can anyoneaccuseus of attacking somecity or taking anyone's possessions?
(96) ci tis érriBouAgver T1 TH SHU KaKodv | TH TOV yuvaiKdv ... Kakds &troAgoPar
ToUTov attov Kaxiav | dpaobe. (Ar. Thesm. 335-6, 349-50)
If anyoneplansto do any harm to the Women s Commonwealth, pray that he
himself and his house may perish miserably.
(97) ei 5) Tw Gopatepds Tou painv civ, TOUTH dv ... (Pl. Ap. 29b)
If I were to claim that I am wiser than anyonein anyrespect, it would bein this
respect, that ... For the forms ta and tou, 7.24.
Sometimes, tis is used when the speaker does not wish to reveal, or pay
attention to, the identity of a specific individual:
(98) 80081 Tis Siknv. (Ar. Ran. 554)
Someoneis going to pay for this! The speaker means: you're going to payfor
this .
(99) 18 , & yUvan, StAwoov eiceABotio Sti | Daoxfs uateUouc avSpes Aiyiobdv
tives. (Soph. El. 1106-7)
Go on, woman,goinside andlet it be known that there are certain Phocians
here looking for Aegisthus.
29.39-44 Interrogative Pronouns 357
29.39 The indefinite pronoun can conveya collective sense, where someoneis short for
every someone(cf. Germ. man, Fr. on). The combinations tréstis and Exaotds Tis in
particular are used with this meaning:
(100) yaotpi 5& 1&s Tis GuUveov Aipdv aiavi tétatau. (Pind. Isthm. 1.49)
Everyoneis intent on warding off persistent hunger from his belly.
29.40 Formsof t1s may be added to adverbs and numerals to weaken their force or make
them less specific:
oyedov T1 pretty nearly,virtually
dydorKovtT& TivEs roughly/around/someeighty
29.41 The acc. sg. neut. t1 is frequently used in the meaning somehow, somewhat, in
some way:
(101) trapefcppuve pev T1 aUTOUS Kai 6 yeTOds 6 AeyduEvos ws... (Xen. Hell. 6.4.7)
They were also somewhat encouragedbythe oracle which wasgiven,that...
(102) SiaAeyouéven Te ob T1 TPOOSiEAgyeTo. (Hdt. 3.50.3)
Whenspokento he would notreply in any way.
29.42 Also note the following idiomatic uses:

Aéyelv T1 to make sense, have a point(it. to say something )
eivai T15 to be someone(of worth, to be reckoned with)
ei Tis GAAOS if any,if at all; as ... as any
(103) viv 8 , ei tis GAAN, SUoTUXEoTAaTH yuvn}. (Eur. Andr. 6)
Butasit is I am, if any womaneverwas, the most unfortunate womanofall.
Interrogative Pronouns
29.43 The interrogative pronoun tis who?, which? can be used pronominally or
adnominally:
Tis A yel TOUTO; Whosaysthat?
tis vip Aéyel TOUTO; Which mansaysthat?
For its use in direct and indirect questions, 38.11-14 and 42.5-6.
Relative Pronouns
29.44 For the use of relative pronouns, >50.8-16.

Quantifiers
TAS
29.45 The quantifier t&s (also &tras, oUptras) in the singular means(as a) whole,in its
entirety when it stands with thearticle (usually in predicative position). Without
the article, it usually means each, every:
TAGG T TOAIs / 1 THAIS TKO the city as a whole, the entire city
TAA TOAIS each/every city (sometimes: an entire city)
In the plural, it meanseach, every, all. The form of 1r&s usually standsin predicative
position, but sometimesin attributive position to emphasize the collective nature
of the group:
TAA TOAEIS each/every city, all cities
Taoai ai 1déAEis/ai 1déAEis Taoa all the cities
ai T&oa1 TOAEIS the whole groupofcities, the cities collectively
OAOS
29.46 SAos meansin its entirety, as a whole in predicative position, and whole, entire in
attributive position:
(104) trepi TO TPSypa SAV &Sikds ~oTiv dvOpwrtros. ([Dem.] 48.36)
Heacts as an unlawful fellow in the case as a whole. Predicative.
(105) Uyeis TO 6AOV TPSyya ouVideTe. (Aeschin. 1.46)
Lookat the entire matter. Attributive.
MOVOS
29.47 uovos meansby itself, alone, (as the) only in predicative position, and the only in
attributive position:
(106) tht SE tra18i oTEpavoseis IE Ydvy | TOAEWs Pavoton Tics Urrep SobtoeTan.
(Eur. fr. 360.34-5 Kannicht)
To mysingle child shall be given a single crown,since she aloneshall have
died for this city. Predicative; for trum (crasis), 1.43-5, for Grep (ana-
strophe), 24.37, 60.14.
(107) traioas cis Ta OTEPVA TOV LdvoOV HOI Kal MIAOV Traida d&qeideto Thy wuxny. (Xen.
Cyr. 4.6.4)
He struck my only and beloved child in the chest, and took his life.
Attributive.
29.48-52 Quantifiers 359
&AAos and étepos
29.48 The basic meaning of &AAosis other (out of many), stressing similarity. The basic
meaningof étepos is other (than somethingelse), stressing difference:
tT PNTOPIKT Kai ai GAATéxvan rhetoric and the otherarts
tT) PNTOPIKT) ETEPGA TExVN Tis ypayuaTiKf|s éotiv rhetoric is an art different from
grammar
Often, however, étepos alternates with &AAos without a discernible difference in
meaning.
29.49 Withthearticle, 6 #tepos (GteEpos in crasis, 1.45 n.3) means the other of a pair:
6 EtTEpOS TOUS the other foot
29.50 Withthearticle, 6 &AAos means the rest , the other(s) :

1) GAAN EAA&s the rest of Greece
oi GAAo1 S18d0KaAo1 the other teachers/ the rest
of the teachers
Sometimes GAAos with the article is found with a noun that hasto be interpreted as
an appositive, in which case dAAos has the meaning besides, moreover:
(108) trapexdAeoav tols év TH KaTaAdyw STrAitas Kai ToUs GAAous imtréas. (Xen.
Hell. 2.4.9)
They summonedthe hoplites on the roll and the cavalry besides ( and the
others, namely the cavalry ).
29.51 A form of &AAos followed by another form of &AAos (or adverbial GAAws, &AAn)
expresses the same as English different . .. different, or a twofold statement one...
one, another ... another:
(109) otto wév, & KAgapye, GAAos GAAa Ayer. oU Stuieitré Ti Adyeis. (Xen. An.
2.1.15-16)
As for them, Clearchus, one says one thing and another says somethingelse.
But you musttell us what your opinion is. Note that &AAos (&AAa) stands in
apposition ( +26.24-5) to ovton (for the position ofovror as theme , 60.33-4).
(110) évtet@ev TAY TeTTAPaKovTa veddv GAAaL GAAN xovTo. (Xen. Hell. 1.1.8)
From there, all but forty ships departed, each in a different direction. For
an, 8.2.
Similarly, a form of étepos followed by another form of étepos in anothercaseis
used when comparison is made between two membersofa pair:
(111) ti otv Gv ... Etepos Etépou Siapépor Hv TAY TdAUN; (Xen. Cyr. 2.1.17)
How mightthe one ofus differ from the other except in courage?
29.52 For the idiomatic use of a form of &AAos followed by (Kai &n) kai (among other...,
in particular; particularly), 59.70.
30
Cases
Functions, Meanings and Labels

30.1 The four main cases of Greek (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative) are used in
different syntactic functions (for the vocative, 30.55):
to mark obligatory constituents with verbs and adjectives (subject, object,
complement; here belongalso certain uses in constructionslike the accusative-
and-infinitive, accusative-and-participle, etc.);
to complementprepositions;
to mark attributive modifiers (the main function of the genitive);
to markvarious adverbial modifiers (here belong also certain uses in construc-
tions like the genitive absolute and accusative absolute);
a few other, idiomatic uses.
In the overview below, the most important uses of each of the cases arelisted,
organized by syntactic function. The prepositions are treated separately, 31.
Note 1: The uses of Greek cases in attributive and adverbial modifiers are commonly
distinguished by the use of certain semantic labels , like of quantity, of respect, ofplace,
etc. While such labels are helpful, they often do not distinguish between intrinsically
different uses, but between different nuances of a general syntactic function. For
example, the genitive is often used to express a close relationship between two nouns
(as attributive modifier, >30.28-9 below), without expressing the precise nature of that
relationship. Which label applies (and how to translate the genitive) depends on the
meanings of the nouns involved andon the context:
1 oikia t TOU &vbpds the man s house(genitive ofpossession)
t) PIAia t] TOU &vbeds the love for the man (genitive of the object)
t piAia A Tot dvbpds the man s love (for someoneelse) (genitive of the subject)
Note 2: As regards the use of cases to mark (obligatory) complements to verbs (and
prepositions), although there are often historical reasons whyparticular verbs came to be
construed with particular cases, there may no longer be a detectable meaning to the use of
a case in classical Greek. For instance, the verb Bon8¢w aid takes a complementin the dative,
a use which probably arose from the dative s use to express benefiting or interested parties
( dative of interest , >30.48- 53); yet in classical Greek this use of the case haslittle meaning:
it is the only possible case to go with this particular verb (note also that verbs with a similar
meaning, such as apeAtw benefit, take a direct object in the accusative).
30.1-2 Nominative 361
Thingsare different with individual verbs that can be construed with different cases, with
a distinction in meaning. For example, the verb f;yéouommaybe construed with a dative to
mean lead, guide, with a genitive to mean lead, command, and with a double accusative or
with an (accusative and) infinitive to mean believe, think. (Note that in some othercases,
however, there appearsto be very little difference between alternating constructions with the
sameverb:for instance, treifopyobelieve, obey is usually construed with a complementin the
dative, but is also sometimes found with a complementin the genitive.)
It is also often possible to group together verbs which are related in meaning and
construed with the same case. For instance, verbs and adjectives which mean filling ,
emptying , (being) full/empty normally take a direct object in the accusative for the thing
filled/emptied, and a complementin the genitive for the substance (30.22). Verbs in such
related spheres of meaningarelisted together below.
Nominative
As Obligatory Constituent with Verbs

30.2 The nominativeis the case used for the subject of a finite verb (and any modifiers
that agree with it, 27.7).
(1) ueTa SE Tata ov TOAAATs Tugpais UoTepov NAPev &E APnvav Quyoydpns éxwv
vais OAiyas: Kal eUBUs Evautaynoav auéis AakeSaipovio: kai A nvaioi, éviknoav
Sé AaxedSanpdvior fryoupevou Aynoavipidsou. yet dAlyov S& ToUTav Awpiets 6
Aiayopou éx Pddou eis EAANoTrovtov EioétrAel GPYKOHEVOU YEIUVOS TETTAPO! Kal
SEKa VAVOIV GUA NEPA. KATIO@V 5é 6 THV AOnvaiav NUEPOOKOTIOS EOTIUNVE TOS
otpatnyois. (Xen. Hell. 1.1.1-2)
After these events, not many days later, Thymochares came from Athens with
a few ships. And promptly the Spartans and Athenians fought another naval
battle, and the Spartans, led by Agesandridas, were victorious. Shortly after this,
as winter wassetting in, Dorieus the son of Diagorassailed from Rhodesinto the
Hellespont with fourteen ships, at daybreak. And when the day-scout of the
Athenians spotted him,he signalled to the generals.
(2) OT1 EV UpEis, AvSpes ASnvaion, teTdvOate UTIO TOV EUV KATNHYOPOYV, OUK O15a-
éy@ 8 ovv Kai attds UT att&v dAiyou guauTot étreAabduny, ottawa mbavdds
EAeyov. kaito1 dAnBes ye ws Etros eitretv OUSEV EiptKaor. (Pl. Ap. 17a)
Howyou, men of Athens, have been affected by myaccusers, I do not know.I,
for mypart, however, almost forgot who I was because of them, so convincingly
did they speak. Andyet they have said nota single thing, so to say, whichistrue.
Note 1: The subject of Greek finite verbs is very often not explicitly expressed, when the
context and the personal ending of the verb makeit sufficiently clear who or what is meant
( 26.7). In such cases, no subject constituent in the nominative is present; cf. oi5a, ZAeyov
and eiptyKaowin (2), which have noexplicit subjects (the translation adds J, they).
362 30.3-8 Cases
30.3 Predicative complements with linking verbs ( 206.8) agree with their subject
( 27.7), and thus also stand in the nominative:
(3) t&v got GvOpwtros CUgopT). (Hdt. 1.32.4)
A humanbeingis in every way (a victim of) chance.
Note that adjectives, participles and some numerals agree not only in case (nomi-
native), but also in numberand gender:
(4) 8° dpett)... ob edvu Sein éotw év TH Trapautixa eiki ouveTioTa&obar. (Xen.
Cyr. 2.2.24)
Virtue is not very clever at drawing people in at first appearance and at
random. Nomi.sg. fem.
(5) oi pév unvuoels ... epi THv pvotnpiov ... éyévovto TétTapes. (Andoc. 1.25)
The reports regarding the mysteries were four in number. Nom.pl. fem.
Note 1: In the accusative-and-infinitive construction ( 351.11-12, 51.21, 51.41), and in

various constructions with participles ( 52.13-15, 52.32), such predicative complements
may of course take other cases than the nominative.
Other Uses
30.4 The nominative is also used in bare lists ( 26.29), including entries in
dictionaries.
30.5 For the nominative used in apposition to a sentence, 27.14.
30.6 For the use of the nominative as a vocative, 30.55 n.1.
Accusative
30.7 The accusative is used to complementverbs(its most frequent function), as well as
in various adverbial expressions.
As Obligatory Constituent (to Complement Verbs)

30.8 The accusative is the standard case for the direct object with verbs which take an
object ( 26.3):
(6) yuvaixa thyayduny eis tiv oixiav. (Lys. 1.6)
I brought a wife into my house.
(7) meévtes Tov &vSpa étraivotonv. (PI. Prt. 310e)
Everyonepraises the man.
Note 1: Often, a construction with a Greek verb taking a direct object in the accusativeis best
rendered into English by meansof a prepositional phrase. A few examples:
aicyUvoual be ashamedof, feel shame for (sometimes + dat.)
30.8-10 Accusative 363
Aavedveo go unnoticed by (52.11)

poRéopan be afraid of
puAdttona: be on guard against
30.9 Several verbs take a double accusative - a direct object (X) and a complement(Y)
in the accusative:
verbs meaning treat , do :
TOW do X to Y (also with adverbs: treat X ina... way )
Spdoo do X to Y (also with adverbs: treat X ina... way )
some verbs meaning ask , demand :
aiTéo ask, demand X from Y
épwtdea ask X Y (also with indirect questions, 42.2)
some otherverbs:
a&paipgouor take X from Y (also + gen.: to take away X (acc.)from Y (gen.) )

SiscoKw teach X Y, teach Y to X
KpuTtto hide X from Y
(8) eye 600 &yabd Kipos Tépoas tretroixo1. (Hdt. 3.75.1)

He recounted how many good things Cyrus had doneto the Persians.
(9) 6 Hpimtridas ... aitei tov AynoiAaov étrAitas ... eis SioyiAious. (Xen. Hell.
4.1.21)
Herippidas asked Agesilaus for up to two thousand hoplites.
(10) TroAA& SiSco0Ke1 p 6 TOAUs BioTtos. (Eur. Hipp. 252)
Mylonglife teaches me manylessons.
(11) Atoyeitoov thy pév Buyatépa expuTTe TOv Pdvatov Tot dvdpds. (Lys. 32.7)
Diogiton kept the death of her husband hidden from his daughter.
Note 1: Whensuchverbs appearin the passive, the object of the active construction is used
as the subject of the passive verb, while the complement(Y)still stands in the accusative; for
details, 35.15.
30.10 The following verbs ( 26.12) take a direct object (X) and a predicative comple-
ment (Y) that agrees with that object (and thusalso standsin the accusative;this,
too, is often called a double accusative ):
aipgouat appoint/select X to be Y
Tyyéouat think/consider X to be Y (+ gen. = lead , rule ; + dat. =
guide; + inf. = believe
TiO turn X into Y, make X Y
Kabiotnul install, appoint X as Y
KOAEW name/call X Y
AEyoo name/call X Y
364 30.10-12 Cases
vouiloo think/consider X to be Y (+ inf. = think , believe

TOG appoint X as Y, make X into Y
(12) éxeivn yap, Stav pév TdAEUOS T, OTPATHYOUS Tas aipeitai. (Xen. Hell. 6.3.4)
For wheneverthereis war, it (the state) appoints us as generals.
(13) éva ExaoTtov Aéyw atTov éxuTtot &pyovta. (Pl. Grg. 491d)
I call every individual man his ownruler.
(14) tottov véuile Zijva, tévd Hhyot Gedv. (Eur. fr. 941.3 Kannicht)
Considerthat to be Zeus, and this to be a god.
Note 1: When these verbs are passive, both the subject and the predicative complement
stand in the nominative; for details, +35.15.
30.11 The accusative is also used in the accusative-and-infinitive ( 51.11-12, 51.21,

51.41), the accusative absolute ( 52.33) and accusative-and-participle con-
structions (52.13).
Internal Object
30.12 With verbs that normally do not take a direct object ( 26.3), an internal or
cognate object in the accusative can be added to specify the nature of the action.
This accusative is often related in meaning and lexical origin to the verb, andis
usually plural and/or modified by an adjective or pronoun:
(15) tévte tpitpeis &beAovtTts étr1S0us ... étpInodpynose TOINPapyias. (Dem. 45.85)
He performedhis duties as trierarch by contributing five ships willingly.
(16) éwpe&te ... DaoKpdty Tiva ... TOAATW MAVapiav pAVapotvta.(Pl. Ap. 19c)
You haveseen that a certain Socrates talks a lot of nonsense(lit. drivels a lot
of drivel ).
The accusative can be cognate to the verb only in meaning(andnotin lexical origin):
(17) eis Aiyivav xatoiKioduevos toévnoev TaUTHY Ti vdoov é hotrep a&trébavev.
(Isoc. 19.24)
Whenhe hadsettled in Aeginahefell ill with this disease which resultedin his
death.
Note 1: Occasionally, the noun in the accusative is omitted, in which case only an adjective
or pronounservesas internal object:
(18) tottov pev dvéxpayov as dAlyas Traioeiev. (Xen. An. 5.8.12)
They shouted that he had given that man too few blows. dAiyas agrees with an omitted
TAnyds, blows ; note that traioeiev also has a direct object, totrov; for the position of
ToUTov, 60.33.
30.13-15 Accusative 365
30.13 Observe the following idioms, in which xoxdé/&ya& is an internal object (and X
marksa direct object, also in the accusative):
KaKa/eyaba Agyo X speakill of X
KaKa/ayaba &kovo be spokenill of
(19) 6 OguiotoKAéns Keivov Te Kai TOUS KopivGious ... Kaka éAeye. (Hdt. 8.61.2)
Themistocles spokeill of him and of the Corinthians.
Note1: Similarly, kakdés/et Aéyow tivé and Kaxds/et &koUw (with adverbs) mean speakill/well
of, be spoken ill/wellof:
(20) ot TrpOSHow Tdv Tatépa KaKHs &kovovta év Uyiv &ixws. (Antiph. 5.75)
I will not betray my father, who has a bad reputation among you, undeservedly.
As an Optional Constituent (Adverbial Modifier)
30.14 With active and middle verbs which do nottake an object, with passive verbs, and with
adjectives, an accusative of respect or limitation may be added to specify to which
particular element the action or adjective applies ( as concerns. .. , with respect to ):
d&Ayei Tos 1Odas his feet hurt (Jit. he has a pain with respectto hisfeet )
(21) Siapéper yuvty &vbpds tiv quo. (Pl. Resp. 453b)
Man and womandiffer by nature.
(22) tpitov S& oytjya TroArtEias OY * Tod TANBOUS &pyXT, SNYOKpaTia Totvoua
KAnGeiog; (Pl. Plt. 291d)
Isn't the third form of governmentthe rule of the many,called democracy by
name? ToUvoua = TO 6voya, with crasis, > 1.43-5.
Theaccusative of respect is also used with nouns, especially in measurements:
TOTAHOS EUpOS SUO TIAEBpwv _ a river twoplethra wide(lit. in width )
30.15 The accusative of (duration of) time expresses the length of time taken up by an
action. Usually, such accusatives are accompanied by a numeralor an adjective of
quantity (e.g. troAUs, dAiyos):
(23) dtrétrAce ... TOALOpKtoas ... EE Kai eikool huépas ... Thy vijoov. (Hdt. 6.135.1)
Hesailed away after havinglaid siege to the island for twenty-six days.
(24) vuuon yév Ty TpEis Huepas (Ar. Thesm. 478)
I had been married for three days.
With an ordinal number (without the article), and often with a form of ottooi
( 29.36), this accusative expresses how long (since) :
(25) thy Sé untépa TeAcUTHOACaY TeTTAUUG TPEMaV TpPITOV ETos ToUTI. (Lys. 24.6)
I have not been supporting my motheronly since her death two years ago
(lit. this (as) the third year ; note that Greek counts inclusively , >9.10).
366 30.15-19 Cases
(26) ET. & ti A yeis; Tpataydpas émideSqunxev; :: LQ. toitnvy ye HSn huEepav. (PI.
Prt. 309d)
(Friend:) What news! Protagoras is in town? :: (Socrates:) Yes, already since
the day before yesterday.
30.16 Similarly, the accusative of space is used to express the extent of space or distance
traversed in an action; this accusative is again often accompanied by a numeral
(compare the accusative of duration above):
(27) MevéAag, ... o KIyYXavo UOAIs,| TOA TAavNOeis THVSe BapBapov yGdva. (Eur.
Hel. 597-8)
Menelaus, I cometo youat last, having wandered throughall of this barbar-
ian country.
(28) étropeuBnoav Sic Tis Apuevias teSiov &trav Kai Asious ynAdqous ov usiov 7
Tévte tapaodyyas. (Xen. An. 4.4.1)
They journeyed through Armeniaacross entirely level country and sloping
hills, no less than five parasangs.
30.17. In poetry only, the bare accusative of direction is sometimes used to express the
place to where :
(29) étrei ... TABov Tratpds d&pyaiov Tadgov. (Soph. El. 893)
WhenI had cometo myfather s old grave, ...
30.18 Many adverbs derive their form from the neuter accusative of corresponding
adjectives: this is often called the adverbial accusative:
oudsev in no way
yey greatly, loudly
TTOAU very, highly, much
TTOAAG often, frequently
Note 1: These forms are usually best seen as actual adverbsin their ownright, notas(e.g.)
modifiers in a noun phrase with the headleft implicit. Alongside adverbial accusatives, some
such adjectives (but not e.g. oA) also have adverbs formed regularly with the suffix -ws
( 6.3-4), e.g. peydrAos.
Note 2: This is the regular process by which adverbs of comparatives and superlatives are
formed: 6.13-14.
Apposition to a Sentence
30.19 Whenan appositive is added to an entire sentence or clause, it normally stands in

the accusative ( 27.14):
(30) GAAai SE PUpaous lecav 1 aifgpos | MévOews, oTdyov SuoTHvov. (Eur. Bacch.
1099-1100)
And other women threw their thyrsus staves through the air at Pentheus,
a woeful aiming.
30.19-21 Genitive 367
(31) EAévnv xtd&voonuev, MevéAcoo AUTInV Trikpdv. (Eur. Or. 1105)

Let us slay Helen; a sore grief to Menelaus!
Genitive
30.20 The main function of the genitive is at the level of the noun phrase, to mark
attributive modifiers (i.e. expressing various relations between (pro)nouns/noun
phrases). It is also used to mark somerequired constituents (complements) with
verbs/adjectives, and functions in a few adverbial expressions.
As Obligatory Constituent (to Complement Verbs/Adjectives)

Verbs Taking the Genitive
30.21 Thegenitive is used to complement, amongothers, the following verbs:

some verbs meaning begin or end :
° ¢ ® > < >
&pxo/a&pxouat begin (sometimes + acc.; also + ppl. or inf., 252.27)

Atlyo cease from (also + ppl., 52.9)
Travopal cease from (also + ppl., 52.9)
manyverbsexpressing sensorial or mental processes:
aicPdvouat perceive (by ear, the gen. marks the source of
sound; aio@a&vouc + acc. = become awareof,
learn ; combinations ofgen./acc. occur)
&KOUO hear (the gen. marks the source of sound; &uovw +
acc. = be told , hear , e.g. duovw Adyov hear
a story; combinations ofgen./acc. occur)
&Kkpodcouat listen to, hear (in combinations gen./acc., the gen.
marks the speaking person(i.e. the source of
sound), the acc. the thing said)
&TTOWAL grab hold of, touch
yevopar taste
éTriBupeoo long for, desire
éTriAavedvouat forget (sometimes + acc.)
éTrIpEA(E) Opa take care of, ensure (also + inf. or effort-clause =
ensure that , >44.1)
epieuan strive, long for (also + inf. = strive to )
UILVToOKOpaN remember(sometimes + acc.)
yéAe1 yor (impers.) ... is of concern to me,I care for
YeTopéAet or (impers.) I am sorry about,I regret
TreiGopar obey,listen to (rare; much more frequently + dat.)
ppovTilw be concerned about (sometimes + acc.)
368 30.21-2 Cases
manyverbs expressing leading, difference or superiority:

OK lead, rule over (sometimes + dat.)
Siapéepwo differ from, excel, surpass
tryéopan lead (also + dat. = guide ; + 2x acc. = consider ; +
inf. = believe )
KpaTtéoo rule, be masterof (also + acc. = defeat )
Treptylyvouat be superior to, overcome
TIPOEXO be aheadof, beat, surpass
- manyverbs meaning take part in , meet , strive for , and their opposites:
a&yaptaveo miss, mistake, fail (also + ppl. = err in )
&TreXo be distant from
Sei (impers.) there is a lack of, .. . is needed
Séopar require, lack, need (also + 2x gen. = askfor Xfrom Y )
EXOUaL cling to, border on, pertain to
KUPE® hit upon, meet, get, achieve (also + ppl. = happen to,
cf. 52.11)
METEXOO take part in (sometimes + acc. for the partitself)
weteoTti por (impers.) I have a share in something
TUYXAVO hit upon, meet, get, achieve (also + ppl. = happen to,
52.11)
(32) GAN ov pév Bt) | AN o Pptvav otuyepdSv Te ydov. (Soph. El. 103-4)
But I will not quit my lamentations and wretchedwails.
(33) Kai uty aiobdvoual wdoqou Tivés. (Ar. Ran. 285)
Hangon,I m noticing somesort of sound.
(34) tatita 5& d&opévens Tivés HKouOVv attov. (Dem. 18.36)
Some of them wererelieved to hear this from him. Note the combination of
tata (acc.) and avtot (gen.).
(35) eival yap 6yodAoyeital owppooUvn TO Kpateiv Sovev kai émBupidyv. (Pl. Symp.
196c)
It is agreed that self-control is to have control over pleasures and desires.
(36) poi épaiveto oWSeulds Traidelas yeTECyNKOs. (Aeschin. 3.117)
It was clear to me that he had had noshareof any education.
30.22 The following verbs take an object in the accusative (X) and a complementin the
genitive (Y):
verbs meaning accuse , convict , etc. (acc. for the person accused,etc.; gen. for
the crime or punishment):
aitidopat accuse X of Y
Sake accuse X of Y, charge X with Y
30.22-3 Genitive 369
Note also:
&AioKoyar be convicted of Y
But if the verb begins with xata- or d&tro- the genitive, which syntactically
dependsonthe preverb, usually expresses the person accused,the acc. expresses
the crime/punishment:
a&troytyvwoka acquit Y of X (adjudicate an accusation (X) away from Y )
d&trownpifouat acquit Y of X, reject the punishmentof X for Y ( vote an
accusation/punishment (X) away from Y )
KataylyvaoKka condemn, convict Y of X (adjudicate an accusation/pun-
ishment (X) against Y )
Katayngifouor condemn, convict Y of X ( vote an accusation/punishment
(X) against Y°)
KATNYOPEW accuse Y of X, bring the charge of X against Y
verbs meaning remove from , rob of , free from etc.:

&TAAAGTTOO remove/release X from Y
ATOOTEPEW rob X of Y
éAcuBepdoo free X from Y
TOAUO make X stop from Y
verbs meaning fill , empty , etc.:
KEVOW empty X of Y
TipTAnp fill X with Y
TANpdw fill X with Y
(37) ci yap dtrowngiio®e Ayopdtou toutoui ... Kal éxeivav THv avbpav ... TH
avuTH YHow TaUTH Pdvatov katayngileode. (Lys. 13.93)
For if you acquit this man Agoratus, you also, by that same vote, are
condemning those mento death.
(38) ot 8f\7, étrei oe TOUS EAcUGENS pdvou. (Eur. Hipp. 1449)
Notatall, since I absolve you from this murder.
(39) otTos Sé Huds GAAOTPIOTNTOS EV KEVOI, OiKEIOTHTOS 5é TANpo. (Pl. Symp. 197d)
He (Love) rids us of estrangement, andfills us with intimacy.
30.23 The following adjectives (often related in meaning to the verbs above) are
complemented bya genitive:
&E105 worth(y of), deserving of
éAcuB_epos free from
eUTTEIDOS experienced in
éevdenys lacking in
ETTLOTTUOOV knowledgeable about
ZOTNUOS deserted by, lacking in
370 30.23-6 Cases
igods consecrated to
UEOTOS filled with
HETOXOS (taking/having) part of
TrAT|PNS filled with
(40) AA. aia. :: XO. tétrovéas &&1) aioypdtoov. (Eur. Alc. 872-3)
(Admetus:) Ai! :: (Chorus:) You have suffered things that are worthy of shouts
of Ail
(41) oi trapdvtes otroudijs Ev, ws Op&s, UEoTOl, yeAwTos Sé lows évSedotepor. (Xen.
Symp. 1.13)
The guests, as you cansee, are full of seriousness, but perhaps rather lacking
in laughter.
Genitive of Comparison
30.24 The genitive of comparison is used to complement comparatives:

(42) (ots) Dippiav Zaxpdtous ... pEiloo eivar, DaiSavos Sé AdTTO. (Pl. Phd. 102b)
You say that Simmiasis taller than Socrates, but shorter than Phaedo.
For more details on comparatives and their constructions, 32.
Attributive Genitives as Object, Predicative Complement, or Prepositional

Complement
30.25 The partitive genitive (30.29) is sometimes usedin place of a direct object, and
then implies that the action concernsonly part of somethinglarger, or a subsection
from a larger group:
(43) Xeipicoogos tréutre: THv ek Tis KOUNS OKEWoUEVOUS Trd&ds ~XOIEV O1 TEAEUTOIO).
(Xen. An. 4.5.22)
Chirisophussent someof the people from thevillage, to see how thosein the
rear were faring. Note that the participle onewouévous agrees with the implied
partial object (one might supply twas with té&v éx tis ucpns). Tous én Tis
nayins would have meant (all) the men from the village .
(44) tts Te yas EtTEUOV Kai AUTO TO TdAIOUE EiAOV. (Thuc. 2.56.6)
They ravaged part of the land and captured the settlementitself.
30.26 Manyofthe attributive uses of the genitive ( 30.28-9) also occur as predicative
complementwith linking verbs:
(45) Inrtroxpatns 65¢ goTtiv yév Tdv étr1ywptov, ATOAAOSapou ds, oikias ueyaAns TE
Kai evdaipovos. (Pl. Prt. 316b)
This man Hippocratesis one ofthe locals, a son of Apollodorus, and belongs
to a great and prosperous house. Partitive genitive and genitive of belonging.
30.26-8 Genitive 371
(46) évted@ev eeAauver ... Eri TOv EUgopdtnv trotapdv, SvtTa TO EUPOS TETTAPOOV
>
otadiov. (Xen. An. 1.4.11)

From there he marchedto the river Euphrates, which is four stades in width.
Genitive of quantity.
(47) tov kad fhugpav | Biov AoyiZou odv, Ta 8 GAAa Tis TUyns. (Eur. Alc. 788-9)
Regard this day s life as your own, but the rest as belonging to fate.
Genitive of possession. Note that the possessive pronoun oov is functionally
equivalent to the genitive tijs TUyns.
Thegenitive of quality, used to express a certain characteristic or mannerofbeing,

occurs exclusively in this way:
(48) éya 5 toUToU Tov TpdTrou Trews Ei dei. (Ar. Plut. 246)
I am always somehowofthat disposition.
(49) d001 Tis avTIS yuauns hoav (Thuc. 1.113.2)
all who wereof the same opinion
30.27 Similarly, attributive uses of the genitive may occur instead of other cases after
certain prepositions ( 31.8 eis, év); this occurs regularly with év,eis or éx + proper
name(in the genitive) to express in/to/from someone's house (frequently with
Aidou the house of Hades, i.e. the Underworld):
(50) éxéAeuov ... ue... weO abTaHv dxodou@eiv cis Aauvittrou. (Lys. 12.12)
They commanded meto follow them to Damnippus house.
As Modifier in a Noun Phrase: the Attributive Genitive
30.28 The genitive is used particularly within noun phrases, to mark a noun phrase or
pronounas modifier of a head ( 26.18). Traditionally, many different categories
within this attributive genitive use are distinguished; the most importantof these
are given below:
Thegenitive of possession or belonging denotes ownership, belonging, posses-
sion,etc.:
t| ToU TraTpds OiKia his father s house/the house belongingto his father
THY Wuxi Thy ZdAwvos Solon s soul
The genitive of origin denotes the origin, offspring, source, etc. of the head:
1 Tis Neaipas Buyatnp Neaera s daughter
TX TOU TdAwvos EAeyeian Solon selegies/the elegies authored by Solon
With nounsthat express an action ( action nouns , 23.6), the genitive is used
for the subject or object of that action - genitive of the subject (or subjective
genitive) or of the object (or objective genitive):
372 30.28-9 Cases
tT Max T TOV OTpaTIWOTAV the soldiers battle/the battle fought by the

soldiers (of the subject)
t) ToU Teiyous Troinots the building of the wall (of the object)
6 TOV TroAEUiav pdfos the enemies fear/the fear felt by the enemies
(of the subject) or the fear for/inspired by
the enemies (of the object) (ambiguous,
the interpretation depends on the context)
To measure time, space, degree, age, the genitive of quantity or measure can be
used (usually with a numeral):
OKT OTASInv TEIXOS a wall eight stades in length
avnp eikool ETav a man twenty years of age
Note 1: For expressions of age, a construction with yeyoves (pf. ppl. of yiyvouor) and the
accusative of duration ( 30.15) is more common:e.g. cikoow étn yeyovws twenty years old
(lit. having been in existence twenty years ).
Otherrelations between nouns: material/contents, price/value, elaboration,etc.:

(51) 8Hpa... ypuoot te kai dpyupou trpocegépeto. (Thuc. 2.97.3)
Gifts of gold and silver were added.
XiAiwv Spaypyav Siknv pevyo Iam defendantin a lawsuit involving
a thousand drachmas.
TO Tv Epyudv the affair ofthe Hermae/concerning the Hermae
ypagt) KAoT}s a charge of theft
1) =dAwvos cikav the statue of Solon
TO Tis ApETis Svopa the word virtue
Note 2: Attributive genitives are frequently used as predicative complement ( >26.8).

Note 3: For the position of attributive genitives relative to the head noun andthearticle,
28.15.
30.29 The partitive genitive (also of the divided whole ) denotes a whole to which the
head belongsasa part:
oi xypnoTtoi Tav dv@paTrv the good people (lit. the good among the people )
TOAAOl Ta&v Adyav many of the words
(52) toUtTw Ta dvbpi étuyyave éotoa yuvt) KaAAloTH paKpd T&v év Zrdpty
yuvaixdy. (Hdt. 6.61.2)
This man happenedto havebyfar the most beautiful wife of all womenin Sparta.
Note 1: The partitive genitive is frequently used as predicative complement ( 26.8).

Note2: For the position ofpartitive genitives relative to the head nounandthearticle, 28.16.
30.29-32 Genitive 373
The partitive genitive is often used with the interrogative pronouns tro, Troi,
moGev, and with neuter forms of the demonstrative pronoun ottos and the
demonstrative adjective tocottos:
(53) tis te coov Kai KdG_ev Tis Dpuyins fKewv étriotids por éyéveo; (Hdt. 1.35.3)
Whoare you, where in Phrygia did you come from, that you are now my
suppliant?
(54) eis tooottov UBpews Kai dvaidelas TAPev TteEpavos OUTOO! ... , MOTE...
({Dem.] 59.72)
This fellow Stephanus reached such a state of brutality and shamelessness,
that he...
30.30 In sentences which have a verb or other expression of emotion (e.g. admiration,
sorrow,anger, envy,etc.), the genitive of cause or source of emotion mayexpress
the reason for that emotion:
(55) otévw o ... Tis Guaptias. (Eur. Hipp. 1409)
I bewail you for yourerror.
This genitive is also used in exclamations ( 38.50), without a verb of emotion:
(56) GAAG Tis ets KaKns, | TO Kai TrpOGgoFa1 WaABaKoUs Adyous gpevi. (Eur. Med.
1051-2)
But oh, what cowardice on mypart, even to let soft words into my heart.
30.31 In sentences which have a verb meaning sell or buy , the price of something
bought or sold may be expressed in the genitive genitive of price/value:
(57) th odAmyyi THdSe ... | Av erpiduny Spayyav tro? éEtKovT éyw (Ar. Pax.
1240-1)
this bugle, which I once bought for 60 drachmas
Note 1: This genitive is also used, but normally with the preposition trepi added,in the fixed
expressions trepi TroAAot (trAeiovos, TrAeiotou, etc.) Troigopan/tipdopa/hyéouan value highly
(more highly, most highly) and trepi dAiyou (éAdtToOvos, éAaxiotou, etc.) Troopon/tipcopon/
tryéoucn value lightly (more lightly, most lightly):
(58) dtroxtivvivan pév yap avOpartrous trepi oUSevds fyoUvto, AouBdver Sé yetata trepi
TOAAOU étroiotvto. (Lys. 12.7)
For they thought nothing of killing men, but placed a premium on getting money.
(59) troAAot yép TroioGyar &knKkogvan & &ktKoa Tpwtaydpou. (Pl. Prt. 328d)
For I considerit a treat to have heard what I have heard from Protagoras.
30.32 The genitive of time expresses the time within which something takes place; with
somespecific nouns, notably vv§ night, 8905 summerandyeipov winter, it can also
express the time when:
374 30.32-7 Cases
(60) Baoirets ot payeitar Séxa tpepdv. (Xen. An. 1.7.18)

The king will not fight within the next ten days.
(61) d&troSpdvtes vuKtos @yovTo eis AexéAgiav. (Xen. Hell. 1.2.14)
Running off in the night, they headed for Decelea.
(62) of & év TH LiKeAia APnvaio: tot attov yEdvos és Te Thy Ipepaiav a&trdBaoiw
étroinoavto. (Thuc. 3.115.1)
The same winter, the Atheniansin Sicily made landing at Himera.
Withthearticle, this genitive can be used distributively to mean onceper ... ,

every...
(63) Spaxurv éAcuBave tis huepas. (Thuc. 3.17.4)
He earned a drachmaperday.
30.33 The genitive of space is sometimes used to express the space within which an
action takes place. This occurs primarily in poetry:
(64) Acids SE xE1pds ... | oikOGO1 XdAuBes. (Aesch. PV 714-15)
Andon the left hand dwell the Chalubes.
30.34 The genitive of separation is used with verbs of motion to express the place or
entity from which the motion takes place. This useis rare in prose:
(65) GAA cs TdyioTa, Tides, UuEis uEV BEBpev| lotaobe. (Soph. OT 142-3)
But, children, get up from the steps as quickly as possible.
30.35 The genitive is also used in the genitive absolute construction ( 52.32) and the
genitive and participle construction ( 52.14).
Dative
30.36 The main function of the dative is to mark non-obligatory (adverbial) modifiers.
It is also used to mark some required complements with verbs/adjectives.
As Obligatory Constituent (to Complement Verbs/Adjectives)

As Indirect Object
30.37 The dative is used to express the indirect object (Y) with the following types of
verbs (X indicates a direct object in the accusative, where present):
verbs meaning give , entrust , etc.:
Sidcup give X to Y
ETTITPETTOO entrust X to Y
TTOAPEXO entrust X to Y/furnish Y with X
30.37-8 Dative 375
verbs meaning say , tell , report , etc. (usually with direct or indirect statement,
41.3):
AEyoo tell/say to Y
ayyea convey/report to Y
most verbs meaning command, order , advise etc. (usually together with an
infinitive, 51.8):
ETITATTO order/commandY (to do something)
AEyoo tell/commandY (to do something)
TrapayyéAAo convey an order to Y (to do something)
TTAPaIvew recommendto Y (to do something)
most verbs meaning seem , appear ,etc.:
SOKEw seem (also + inf. (without dat.) = think ; for the possible
constructions, 51.30)
paivopan appear, seem (for the possible constructions, 52.24)
(66) émpacoe 8 Tatta peta ToyyuAou tot "Epetpidds, aotrep émrétpewe TO TE
BuZd&vtiov Kai Tous aixyaratous. (Thuc. 1.128.6)
He did this together with Gongylus of Eretria, to whom he had entrusted
Byzantium andthe prisoners.
(67) eité pou, touTi Ti fy; (Ar. Ach. 157)
Tell me, what wasthat?
(68) eitev adtois &trigvai éx TOU oTpaTEUPaTOSs ws TaxloTa. (Xen. Cyr. 7.2.5)
Hetold them to leave the armyas soon as possible.
(69) KaAds yé por, & EU@Uppev, paivn Aeyeiv. (Pl. Euthphr. 12e)
You seem to meto be speaking well, Euthyphro.
Note1: For verbs of speech used as verbs of commanding, >51.32. Note that keAeUw takes an
accusative-and-infinitive ( 51.11-12), not a dative.
30.38 The dative as indirect object complements the following impersonal verbs
( 36.4-5), usually together with an infinitive (51.8) (Y marks the dative):
Soxet it seems(right) to Y (to do something), Y decides (to do something)
oupugépe: it profits Y (to do something)
AvoiteAei it profits Y (to do something), it is best for Y (to do something)
LeAel it is of concern to Y (to do something), Y cares for (frequently + gen.,
36.15)
eEeoTl it is possible for Y (to do something)
TpeTrel it is fitting for Y (to do something)
(70) #o0fev TH Styw ... étraivéoa... (inscriptions)
The people have resolvedto praise ...
376 30.38-9 Cases
(71) xdAe 81) Kai Tov Ttpdtwva attov Tov Ta ToIatTa TreTrOVedTa- EoTdval yap
éEeotat StytrouGev atta. (Dem. 21.95)
Also call Straton himself, the man who has endured such things. For no doubt
he will be allowed to stand up in court.
With Other Verbs and Adjectives
30.39 The dative is used as first complement with the following verbs (amongothers):
QTTEIAED threaten
&peoKw please, satisfy (sometimes + acc.)
Bongo help, cometo the aid of
SiaAgyouat converse with
Elko yield, give way to (sometimes combined with gen. of separation,
30.34)
éeTriTibepon apply oneself to, attack
ETTOMAL follow (also often with prepositions, especially ovv + dat. and peta
+ gen.)
tyéopan guide (also + gen. = lead , rule ; + 2x acc. = consider ; + inf. =
believe )
UaXopuar fight against
opyifopar get angry at
TreiBopat listen to, believe, obey (rarely + gen.)
TEAaLoo approach (sometimes + gen.)
THOTEU trust, believe
TTOAEMEO make war against
ouyylyvaokw forgive, pardon (also + acc. = acknowledge , confess )
oULBOUAEUO advise, counsel
pbovéw be enviousof, bearill will to (sometimes combined with gen. of
cause, 30.30)
XOAETrAived be angry at (sometimes with gen. of cause, 30.30)
XPtjopat use, treat with, be intimate with
(72) tois 8& d&troynoioapévois Sews Gv SiadeyGeinv Uép to yeyovdtos TouToui
tTpcypatos. (Pl. Ap. 39e)
I would be happyto discuss this thing that has happened with those who
voted for my acquittal.
(73) voyilovtes &Suvdtous gocobar Afnvaious Bonfeiv tois Meyapetow (Thuc.
1.105.3)
thinking that the Athenians would be unable to come to the Megarians aid
(74) Boiwtoi A@nvaioio guaygoavto ypdvov étri ouxvov. (Hdt. 9.67)
The Boeotians fought against the Atheniansfor a long time.
(75) otdevi ypf T&v oiKeteov oUSE TrloTEVEIs TOV CauTOU ovdevi. ([Dem.] 49.41)
You are on good terms with noneofyourrelatives, and trust none ofyourfriends.
30.39-42 Dative 377
Note 1: There are also verbs with similar meanings which take a direct object in the
accusative: e.g. apedew benefit, BAdtrtw harm, damage, pioéw hate, (nAdw envy.
30.40 The following adjectives are complemented by a dative:

évavTios opposite, contrary to
EUVOUS well-disposed towards
éybpds hostile to, hated by
ioos equalto, the sameas
KOIVOS shared with
60105 similar to, equal to
pidos friendly with, loved by
also: 6 atts the same as
(76) Koos... 51) Zotw byiv 6 Adyos. (Pl. Prt. 358a)
Let our conversation be shared with you.
(77) Kai édv Twa aiofavapyeta évavtiov TH dAryapyia, dcov Suvdueba éxtrodav
Troioupeta. (Xen. Hell. 2.3.26)
Andif we discover someone opposedto the oligarchy,weget rid of him,so far
as we have the power.
Note 1: For the constructions of dpot0s, toos and 6 attés, 332.14-15.
Dative of the Possessor
30.41 The dative of the possessor is used to complement existential cipi and yiyvouo
(there is, there (be)comes, 26.10), denoting possession, belonging,or interest:
(78) ... eipouévou =epew ei oT: GAAN EoSos és PdAaooaV TH Inver ... (Hd.
7.130.1)
... when Xerxes asked if the (river) Peneus had any other outlet into the
sea...
(79) tois ... TAoUCIoIs TOAAG TrapapUhid paoeivan. (Pl. Resp. 329e)
It is said that rich people have much comfort (lit. that there are many
comforts for rich people ).

Referring to Things or Abstract Entities
30.42 The dative is very frequently used to express optional adverbial modifiers
( 26.14). It marks nouns referring to things or abstract entities in various
kinds of adverbial modifiers.
378 30.43-6 Cases
30.43 The dative of instrument expresses the instrument usedin an action.

AiBois EBaAAov they were pelting with rocks
ovdév ivue TOUTOIS he accomplished nothing bythis
(80) untépa kateipydoavto Kove Eiger. (Eur. IT 1173)
They killed their mother with one commonsword.
30.44 The dative of means, manneror circumstance expresses the method by whichor
the circumstances under whichanaction takesplace:
(81) Kpauy?f) TOAAA étriaoi. (Xen. An. 1.7.4)
They will attack shouting loudly / with loud shouting.
(82) tatta érpnga tH of uéev eUSonpovin, TH EuesuTot Sé KaxoSaipovin. (Hdt. 1.87.3)
I have donethese things for your good fortune, but to my own detriment.
Note 1: In somecasesit is difficult to distinguish between instrument and means:

(83) BouwAovtar Sé TOAgU® UGAAOV 7 Adyols TH EyKAHYaTa SiaAveoGar. (Thuc. 1.140.2)
They prefer to resolve complaints with war rather than with words.
But this is a problem ofclassification rather than of case meaning (for the valueoflabels,
+30.1 n.1).
Note2: The dative of manner underlies the use ofthe ending -n in various pronominal forms
meaning in a certain manner , via a certain route : e.g. taUtn that way, mi how?, ty
somehow,etc. For these forms, also 8.2.
30.45 The dative of cause expresses reason or cause:

(84) Epepov ... of STrAiTaI ... adTol T& oMeTepa atTdV oiTia, of wév actropia
é&xoAovbay, oi & &tmiotia. (Thuc. 7.75.5)
The hoplites carried their own food themselves, somefor lack of servants,
others from mistrust of them.
(85) GBpe kai ovK oiveo Toto Troiotvtos (Dem. 21.74)
doing this out of insolence, and not because he was drunk
30.46 The dative of time expresses the time whenthe action takes place (it refers to
a specific momentorperiod). It is often accompanied by a numeral:
Tpite été in the third year / after two years (9.10)
TT) VoTEpaia (on) the following day
(86) ... SeSdy8or TH BouAf ... otepavdoar XapiSnuov ... Kai dvayopetoai
Havabnvatois Tois ueyaAois ev TH yupvikd caydvi Kal Alovuciois Tpaywdois
Kaivois. (Dem. 18.116)
(A decree) that it be resolved by the Council to crown Charidemus and to
proclaim this at the Great Panathenaea at the gymnastic contest, and at the
Dionysia at the performance of newtragedies.
30.47-51 Dative 379
30.47 In poetry, the bare dative of place may be usedto express the place wherean action
takes place. In prose, this dative occurs only with a limited numberof place names
(in other cases a preposition is normally required, 31.4):
(87) étrei 58 yf | ExerTo TAO, Seva y Av TavOvd dpav. (Soph. OT 1266-7)
And when the hapless woman lay on the ground, what happened next was
horrible to see.
(88) (étroiSevOnoov Ud) téHv te Mapobdvi payeoopévov Kai TOv év Dadapivi
vaupaynodvtov. (Pl. Menex. 241b)
(They have been educated by) those who fought at Marathon and those who
werein the naval battle at Salamis.
Referring to Persons
30.48 The dative may also mark nounsreferring to persons, to indicate individuals or
groups who are in some wayclosely involved in the action expressed by the verb
(these uses may be gathered under the general heading dative of interest).
30.49 The dative of advantage and dative of disadvantage are used to indicate the
beneficiary (or opposite) of an action; they express in or against whoseinterest an
action is performed:
(89) étre15t avtois oi BapRapot éx Tis yapas atr7jAGov, ... (Thuc. 1.89.3)
Whenthe barbarians had departed their country for them (for their benefit), ...
(90) #5 1 hepa Tois EAANo1 peyaAwv Kakdv &pger. (Thuc. 2.12.3)
This day will spell for the Greeks the beginningofgreat evils.
30.50 With verbsin the passive, the dative of agent can be used to express the agent of
the action. This occurs in prose almost exclusively with passive verbs in the
(plu)perfect (91) and with verbal adjectives in -téo0s (92), but in poetry sometimes
also with other passive verb forms (93):
(91) étreit) attois tapeoxevaoto... (Thuc. 1.46.1)
Whenpreparations had been made by them ...
(92) ot ogi Tepiomrtén éoTi * EAA&s &troAAupévn. (Hdt. 7.168.1)
It is not to be endured by them that Greeceis being destroyed.
(93) o18& oot oTUyoupEévn. (Eur. Tro. 898)
I know that I am hated byyou.
30.51 The dative of accompaniment, without preposition, is used almost exclusively

with military terminology to denote accompaniment(in othercases, a preposition
is normally used):
(94) trévte 5& ZAaBov, Kai pilav TOUTwV avTois &vbpdorv. (Thuc. 4.14.1)
They captured five (ships), one of them with crew andall. For this use of
autos, 329.12.
380 30.51-5 Cases
(95) oi... A nvaiodtrixovto eikoor vynuoi. (Hdt. 5.99.1)

The Athenians arrived with twentyships.
30.52 The dative also marks the person from whose perspective or vantage point the
action is perceived:
(96) 6 pév ypuoEos Exeito étri SeEiek EordvT1 és TOV vydv. (Hdt. 1.51.1)
The golden (bowl) stood on the right for someoneentering the temple.
(97) oixtipov ... ue | ToAAoiow oixtpdv. (Soph. Trach. 1070-1)
Take pity on me, who am pitiable in the eyes of many.
30.53 Difficult to translate is the use of the so-called ethical dative ( of feeling ): personal
pronounsofthe first or second person (yo1, jpiv, oon, Uyiv) can loosely express the
involvementof the speaker or addressee in the action:
(98) a pfitep, as KaAds por 6 Tré&trtros. (Xen. Cyr. 1.3.2)
Mother, how handsomeis my grandfather!
(99) to1otto ... Wpiv goti h TUupavvis. (Hdt. 5.92n.4)
There s tyranny for you.
(100) oUvtepve por Tas &troKpioeis Kal BpaxuTépas Troie. (Pl. Prt. 334d)
Please cut your answers short, and make them more succinct. With an
imperative, uoi may often appropriately be translated please .
With Expressions of Comparison
30.54 With comparatives, superlatives and other expressions of comparison,the dative

of measure of difference expresses the degree to which one entity differs from
another:
KEQOAF) EAATTOOV a head shorter
TTOAA® Te KAAAIOTE Kal by far the most beautiful and by far the
TTOAA® peyloTo greatest things
OU TTOAAGIs hugpais UoTEepov not manydayslater
For the possible constructions of comparatives and superlatives with this dative,
32.11.
Vocative
30.55 The vocative case is used:
- in calls or summonses, always at the beginning of a sentence, to attract the

attention of a person nearby,or of a god;
in addresses, to acknowledge or maintain contact with some person nearby.
30.55-6 Cases and the Expression of Time and Space 381
Vocatives are often, but not always, preceded by the word o:

(101) Evprmidn, Etpitribdiov, | Utrdxoucoy, eltrep TatTroT avOpartreyv tii. (Ar. Ach.
404-5)
Euripides, mylittle Euripides,listen, if you've ever listened to anyone. Call/
summons.
(102) 6 8 Kipos... énugato- AAA , o Zev peyiote, aitotpai oe, 565... (Xen. Cyr.
5.1.29)
Cyrusuttered this prayer: Zeus almighty, I beseech thee, grant that... Call/
summons.
(103) Kards éAeEas, @ yuvou. (Eur. Hel. 158)
Well said, my lady! Address.
Note 1: In a few cases, the nominative is used instead of the vocative in calls/summonses,e.g. 6
tats (rather than © trot) used by masters to call their slaves (boy!), and ottos hey there!
(29.30).
Observe that in many further cases (and always in the plural), the vocative is
morphologically identical to the nominative, as Evpitrifiov in (101).
Cases and the Expression of Time and Space

30.56 For the different uses of the cases in expressions of time and space, 30.15-16,
30.17, 30.28, 30.32-3, 30.46. For the uses of these cases with prepositions to
indicate time and space, >31.4, 31.8-9. Whether they are used with
a preposition or not, the following generalizations about the various cases can be
made:
In spatial expressions (with or without a preposition), the genitive tends to
express place from which or space within which; the dative tends to express
the place where, and the accusative the place to which or the distance
traversed:
Genitive Dative Accusative
Figure 30.1: The use of cases in spatial expressions

382 30.56-8 Cases
In temporal expressions (with or without a preposition), the genitive tends to

express time within which, the dative time when, and the accusative time
during which:
< {) > < > + a

wt t t t
Genitive Dative Accusative
Figure 30.2: The use of cases in temporal expressions
30.57. Apart from the genitive, dative and accusative, Greek also uses various fossilized
forms(originally case forms)in spatial (and sometimes temporal) expressions:e.g.
oixor at home, A®ivnoi in Athens, A@nvneev from Athens, A®nvale to Athens. For
details on such forms, 6.7-11.
30.58 For measurements, Greek normally uses a combination of genitive of measure-

ment ( >30.28) and accusative of respect (30.14), usually with article:
(104) Kxpntis ... TO EUpos TrevTt}KOVTAa TTOSv Kal TO Wwos TevThKovta (Xen. An.
3.4.11)
a foundationfifty feet wide andfifty feet high
31
Prepositions
Introduction
31.1 Greek prepositions can be accompanied by (pro)nominal constituents in the

genitive, dative or accusative. Together with this constituent they form
a prepositional phrase (e.g. cis thy 1dAw into the city). These can be used
to indicate spatial, temporal or other, more abstract relationships:
(1) thy yap &v@partrov atrotréupoo x THs Cikias. ([Dem.] 59.82)
For I will send the woman away, out of my house. Spatial.
(2) Upas S , & Traides, oUTIS & &pyfis EtraiSevov. (Xen. Cyr. 8.7.10)
And in this way I educated you, my children, from the beginning.
Temporal.
(3) tatta ydp oi évetétaATto éx Aapeiou, Opnixny kataotpepecGan. (Hdt. 5.2.2)
For this had been ordered to him by Darius, to conquer Thrace. Abstract,
the prepositional phrase indicates the source/origin of the order expressed
by évetétadAto ( by in the Engl. translation somewhat obscures this
relationship).
31.2 Distinction is made between
proper prepositions: prepositions that also appear in compoundverbs, such as

éx (cf. e.g. éxPaive, e epxouc) and dod (cf. eg. dtroPaive, d&mrayyéAAw,
&piotnut): 31.8;
improper prepositions: prepositions that are not used in compoundverbs,
such as ywpis + gen., &ua + dat., as + acc.: these also appear regularly as adverbs
without accompanying constituent: 31.9.
31.3 Someprepositions are always accompaniedby constituents in a single fixed case

(e.g. ék + gen., év + dat., cis + acc.), whereas others allow a choice between two or
three cases (e.g. 5i& + gen./acc., tap& + gen./dat./acc.) and differ in meaning
accordingly ( 31.8). Improper prepositions are always accompaniedby onefixed
case.
384 31.4-8 Prepositions
31.4 Withthe spatial senses of prepositions:

the genitive is frequently used for motion away from something(e.g. ék + gen. away from,
trapa + gen. from the side of);
the dative is frequently used for stationary position (e.g. év + dat. in, at, wap& + dat. at the
side of);
the accusative is normally used for motion towards something (e.g. eis + acc. to(wards),
trapa& + acc. to the side of), or motion througha largerarea or stretch of space (e.g. tapé& +
acc. alongside).
For these values,cf. also the genitive of separation (30.34), the dative of place (30.47),
and the accusative of direction and the accusative of space ( 30.16-17); also 30.56.
In the other senses of prepositions the contribution of an individual case to the
meaning of a preposition-case combination is frequently more difficult to determine.
In some cases the distinction between the use of one case and another with the same
preposition is very slight.
Prepositional phrases can be substantivized by the addition of anarticle, e.g. t& trepi Kupou the
events concerning Cyrus; 28.25, cf. 26.19-20.
Manyprepositions can also occur without an accompanying constituent, as adverbs; this

is, however, relatively rare in prose, apart from tpds furthermore, besides, and peté&
thereafter.
For the accentuation of the proper prepositions, 24.37; note especially that prepositions
with two syllables have their accent on the ultima, unless they follow their accompanying
constituent ( anastrophe , 60.14), are used adverbially, or are used instead of a compound
with éoti(v)/eioi(v) (e.g. mapa = répeotiy/Trépeton, vi = Eveoti/eveiot).
CommonUsesof the Prepositions
Proper Prepositions
31.8 The table below gives the most frequent uses of prepositions in classical
Greek. Only proper prepositions are included in the table, listed alpha-
betically. Some deviating uses in Ionic (Herodotus) and poetry have been
left out.
31.8 Common Usesof the Prepositions 385
spatial temporal abstract/metaphorical
cpgi (cup)
+ genitive concerning, about
1 Sikn Gui ToU Tratpds
the trial concerning the father

+ dative (cause) about, for the sake of
(poetry and poPeitar dugi TH yuvarki
Ion.) he is afraid for the sake of his wife
+ accusative around around, about concerning, about

augi UP KabnYEVO! &ugi péoas vuKtas eivai/éxelv auqi T1
be occupied /concerned with
sitting aroundthefire around midnight
something
(with people) (with numerals) about
oi augi Kipov augi Tous diox1Aious
Cyrus andhis followers about two thousand
deve (dv
+ dative (position) on, upon
(poetry) dave vauoiv

on their ships
+ accusative (vertical) up along (distributively) (to express proportion)
&va TOV TroTaUdV av Exaotov ETos ava Adyov
proportionately
up alongtheriver, year by year, yearly
upstream ava KPATOS
ava TO Spos ava Ypovov with all his might (= proportionate to
up the mountain over time his strength )
(horizontal) spread out over,

across
ava THY Yopav
spread across the country
é&vti (avt , &vé )
+ genitive in exchange for, instead of
QVTi YPNLATOOV
(in exchange) for money
TroAguios avTi piAou
enemyinstead of friend
on account of, because of
avti TOU;
because of what?, why?
386 31.8 Prepositions

aire (atr , aq )
+ genitive (away/originating) from since, from (separation)
aT THy veddv at &pyiis ox ard TpdtrOU
from the ships since the beginning trueto character
&1rO Tis PaAaTTNS &p ot (conjunction) (origin)
at a distance from the sea since KaAEioBa1 d1r6 Tivos
be namedafter
ap irtrou udyeotar ATO TAY TrapovTov
fight on horseback based onthe available means

2 ! > > > ~. > i
ETIPAKEN ar aUTdv oudev
nothing was done ontheir part
81a (87)
+ genitive through through(out), ... long through, via, by means of
Sia TOU PapaKos Sick vUKTOS Si Epunvéws Adyeiv
(clean) through the throughout the speak via an interpreter
breastplate night, all night long 8 gautod
dia Biou on his ownstrength
his whole life long Bic TéXouS
with speed
51é xpdvou 81dpyiis elvan

after (a period of) time be furious
+ accusative (causal) thanks to, on

account of, because of
Sv apeTtty éviknoav
they won becauseoftheir
valour
d1a TAaUTA
becauseof this
eis (Ion.és)
+ accusative into, to, towards, against up to, until (goal)
eis UBwp BaAAEiv eis THY TEAEUTTV eis AOtvaious a&yopevelv
throw in(to) the water up to the end speak to Athenians
eis THV TOA és 6 (Ionic conjuction) cpaptdveweis Tous Geos
into the city until err against the gods
eis OiKiaV EIO1EVaL
to go into a house towards (specification) as far as ... is
gis Atyutttov cis EoTrépav concerned,in
to/against Egypt towards the evening,at TPATOS eis TAVTO

dusk first in everything

(with a limited period) for és Ta GAAa
gis AiSou gig EvIAUTOV in other respects

to the house of Hades for a year
(i.e. to the Underworld; for the gen.,
(with numerals) up to, as manyas,
»30.27)
close on
gig TPIGKOVTa
as manyasthirty
éx (2 before a vowel)
+ genitive (away) from, out (of) from, since (origin) from,(out) of, from within
bk THs udxns Epuyev a axis tx marrpés éya8ot
he fled from the battle from/since the from a good father
beginning ék EUAou
éx Sebias / & &piotepas ék TOUTOU (made) from wood
on the right / on the left after that, since that = &k tv Buvdteov
time judging from the possibilities
é ot (conjunction)
since (cause, instrument) on thebasisof,
through, by meansof, via
ék BeoTTpoTtioU
on the basis of an oracle

TIPOOTETOKTAL EK LAVTEICOV
it is commandedby wayoforacles
(with passives) by
TH AsxGEvta && AAsEavipou
the things said by Alexander
£ ioou
equally
eee ekceeccteee eee cceseseeee cesses ceeesesaesaacenssessssaueeacsecsseaaeaiy(lon/postryalso iy
+ dative (usually stationary) in, on, in, during, on,at (circumstances, manner)
among EV WIG VUKTI év TAXEl
EV TT oikia in one night quickly, in a hurry
in the house év TOUTW TH KaIPa év ugpet

Ev TOW av6patrois at that crucial moment taking turns
in the presence of all EV TOUTW év &tropia elvan
EV vnow meanwhile be at a loss
on an island EV (conjunction) év coi gotiv

év Tois OtrAo1s while it depends on you
armed
év Alsou oi év TEAEL
in the house of Hades(i.e. in the those in power

Underworld; for the gen., 30.27)

(with motion, emphasizing the end
point)
év TH Gadatty itrteiv
fall into the sea
érri (ét1 , 8 )
+ genitive (stationary) on (top of) during, in the time of (in various expressions)
EXEL T1 ETT TOV COMOOV étr eiptyvns étr éuauTtot
have something on one s in peacetime on my own,by myself, independently
shoulders Ta éTT UU oi étrl TOV TPAyYUaTov
the events of my those in power
(motion) headingfor, in the direction lifetime eri TeTTAPWOV TayGijvar
of be drawn up four deep
é Aiyttrtou a&trotrAciv
(judicial)
sail off heading for Egypt
trl TaVTOOV
beforeall, in the presence

ofall
+ dative (near)by, on (directly) following on (addition)

ETT! TOTAUG oiKEiv ETTi TOUT ETL TOUTOIS
live on a river after that, subsequently moreover, in addition
TO étti BaAdoonN TEIxoS
(cause)
the wall by the sea
Bauacew Tiva étri copia
to admire someone fortheir
wisdom
yeray étti tiv
to laugh at/over someone
(motive, reason, goal)

étr éAcuSepamoer Té&v EAATVoov
in order to free the Greeks
(condition)
ETT] TOUTE
on that condition
ép @ (conjunction)
on the condition that
( 49.26)
(sphere of influence)
ég Uuiv éotiv
it is in your power,it is up to you

+ accusative (end point) up to, on(to) during, for (purpose) for
ETT1 TOUS ITTTTOUS Ttl TTOAUY ypovov émiti...;
a&voBijvar for a long time with what purpose?, why?
climb on the horses, mount
the horses (in various expressions)
TO éteye
(goal) towards, against
as far as I am concerned
étrAdtvas
QS ETT TO TTOAU
towards Athens
in general, normally
ép USap TéUTrEV
send to get water
ETL TOUS TTOAguiOoUS iéval
move against the enemies
(with surfaces) extended over
éTTl Taoav Eupeotny
(extended) all over Europe

RARER ERE ER EERE REAR EERE ARERR ERE REAR EERE AER ERE EER EERE ERE E REE ERE R ERA E REE EERE REAR EAE RARER ETA EEA A EERE ARERR A ARTE E REAR A EEA AEE EERE PERRET
Katé (kat , Kad )

+ genitive down from, down toward against, to the detriment of
KATa TOU Spous A yelv KATH T1IvOS
down from the mountain speak against someone
under (in a weakened sense) with respect to,
KOTO yi\s KPUTITEIV concerning
hide under the ground Kad atrdavtov
with respect to everyone

KATH vatou civai tot ToAguiou
be in the enemy s rear
+ accusative (motion) following, with (distributively) per, every (manner) conformingto,

KATOUpOV Kad hupav according to
following the wind per day, every day KATA TOUS VOLOUS
(downwards motion) at the time of according to the laws

KATA TOV TOTAHOV Kar &pyds Kata S6fav
downstream in the beginning as expected
Kat éxeivov Tov ypdévov Kata Suvayuly
(roughly) at/during that according to one s means,as
, ti muchaspossible
(with surfaces) spread out me
over, everywhere on, across KATA KPATOS
KOTThy ayopav by force
in various places across the Kad gauTév
market on his own, by himself

(with fixed points) off, near, (distributively)
opposite KaT g6vn

KAT& TOUS EAAnvas Ta&TTELV nation by nation, per nation
position opposite the Greeks Kad ExaoTtov
point by point, in detail
KATO PIKPOV
little by little
(relation) with respect to, as to
Td Kat éue
as to me, as far as it concerns me
meré (uet , ped )

+ genitive together with, (accompanying
accompanied by circumstances)
META TOV CULUGXOV METH OTTOUSTS
together with theallies with haste, hastily
META TOU vVOLOU
with the law on myside
+ dative (usually with people) among
(poetry) METH Pavacr
among the maenads
+ accusative after (of rank) after
ueTa Ta Mndika Gplotos weTa TIVO

after the Persian the best after someone
wars
META TAUTA
afterwards, after that
ued hugpav
by day, during the
day (orig. after day
(break) )
Pe Pee
Trape (Trap)
+ genitive (origin, with motion, usually (origin, usually with people)
with people) from (the side/ from (the side/quarterof)
quarterof) AapBavelv T1 Tapa T1VOS
ayyeros APG PaciAEws TKEl get something from someone
a messenger has come from UavOdvelv Tl TAA T1VOS
the Persian King hear/learn something from
someone
31.8 Common Usesof the Prepositions 39]

(with passives) by
TO Atyousva Tapa TIVOS
the things said by someone
+ dative (usually with people) with,at, in the eyes of

in the presence of Tap éyol
oi Tapa ooi in my opinion
those with you
at the side of, in the service of
Tapa SikaoTais
oTpaTnysiv Tapa Kupa
before the jury
be a general in the service of Cyrus
+ accusative (end point, usually with peo- during, throughout (in comparisons) next to,
ple) to, at (the side of) Tapa TaVTa Tov compared to
agikveiobai Tapa TIVa XPOvov yéAoios Trap atitév
arrive at someone s side all the time, laughable as compared to him
TEMTTELY TTaAPG Tiva throughouttime

send to someone (exclusion) next to, apart from
oudsev GAAo Tapa Tatita
nothing other than that
(with verbs meaning put , contrary to, against, in violation of

position ) next to, with Tapa TOUS VouOUS
KaGeleoGai Tapa Tiva in violation of the laws
sit down next to someone
(ofparallel extent) along,

alongside, beside
TAPA Thy TTTE1lpoOV TIAEiVv
sail alongside the mainland
epi (never elided)
+ genitive (with verbs of competition,
strife, etc.) about, for, over
Udyeo8a1 Trepi TraTpidos
fight for one s homecountry
(with verbs offearing and

concern) of, concerning, about
poPeio8ar Trepi TIVOS
be concerned about some-
one/something

(with verbs of speaking, etc.)
about, over
BouAeveoGai Trepi Tris eionvns
deliberate about the peace
CKOUELV TEP TIVOS
hear about someone
(relations) in relation to, concerning
TQ Trepi Tis ApeTiis
that which concernsvirtue
Trepi TOAAOU/dAiyou TroieioBan
considerof great/little importance
+ dative (with weaponsand clothing) (with verbs offearing and con-

around cern) for, concerning
& Trepi ToIs CHAOExouOIV Sed1TEs Tepl TA ywpioo
the clothes they have on afraid for their land
their bodies
+ accusative around around about, with respect to
Tepi thy AtTikhy TEPi TOUTOUS TOUS yveuny exetrepi ti/Tiva
TTEDIEDXETAL XPovous have an opinion about some-
he goes aroundAttica around that time thing/someone
TEpl TO OTPATOTTESOV CUAPTAVELV TTEpI TIVa
QuAakai Toav err with respect to someone
around the campthere eivai trepi T1
weresentries be occupied/concerned with

something
ol Trepi KGpov
Cyrusandhis followers
apo (never elided)

+ genitive _in front of before in defence of, on behalf of,
TIPO TOV Auagdav Tpo TaVv Mndixav for
in front of the wagons before the Persian TIPO THV TOAITAV Uaxeobar
TIPO TOdav wars fight for the citizens
at one s feet TIPO TOU
previously, earlier
in preference to
aipeio6al T1 1Pd Tivos
prefer something over something

31.8 Common Usesofthe Prepositions 393

TTpos
+ genitive on thesideof, facing from theside of, at the handsof
TO TIPOs EOTIEPAS TETKOS TAOKEW TIPOS TIVOS
the wall facing the west suffer at the hands of
someone
CKOUELV TIPOS TIVOS
hear from someone
on the side of
TIPOS Uv EoTIv
he is on our side
(with passives) by
TO TTOIOULEVOV TIPOS TIVOS
the thing done by someone
(in exclamations) by
Trpds Bedsv
by the gods!
+ dative at, near (addition) with

TIPOS AUTH TH TOAEL TIPOS TOUT, TIPOS TOUTOIS
Katiotavtat moreover, on top of that
they position themselves
nearthecity itself /right
nearthe city eivat pds TivI
be occupied with something
+ accusative (motion) towards, facing by, towards (with verbs of speaking, etc.)
towards TIpOs EOTTEPaV to, addressing
AYETIPOS TIVa towards dusk AEyeiv TIPOS TO TIATGOs
bring to someone speak to the multitude
QTTOBAETTELVY TIPOS TIVE
look at someone (relations) concerning, with
regard to
(hostile) against Tpos TAUTA
TropeveoGal, TroAEguEIv in view ofthat, with regard to
TIpos TIVa that
march against, wage war XPTNOINOS TIPOs TI
against useful with regard to
something

(direction, goal) towards, to
Trpos avopseiav traidsevecOar
be educated/raised to
bravery
A yelv Tl POS KAPIV T1Vds
say something to oblige someone
(comparison) in comparisonto,
accordingto
Trpos Thy Suvayiv
according to one s means/ability

Kpivelv Trpos T1
judge by something
Trpos Biav
violently
ouv/Euv
+ dative (together) with, accompanied including
by (rare in Att.; usually peta + dioxiAiar Spaxpai ouv Tais
gen.) Nixiou
TroAgEiv OUV ToIs PUYao! two thousand drachmas
wage wartogether with the exiles including those of Nicias
(accompanying
circumstances)
ouv Kpauyf}
with a loud scream
ouv bed
with god s help

ee
+ genitive (stationary) above in defence of, to protect ...,

UTED TOV yovatov on behalf of
above the knees UTEP Tis TATPI505
UTrep AAlkapynooot ueodyaia in defence of (his) home
the hinterland of Halicarnassus country
(relative geographical position: atroKpiveo@al UTED T1VOS
inlandfrom) answer on someone s behalf
(motion) over (cause) about, in order to

UTEP TOV akpov KkaTéBaivov XAPIV EXEIV UTTED TIVOS
they came downoverthehilltops be grateful about something
UTrep TOU TaUTa AaPeiv
in orderto get this

+ accusative above, beyond beyond
oi UTEP TOv EAAHoOTTOvToV uTrép SUvayly
OiKOUUEVOL beyond one s means
those wholive beyond the UTrEp EATTISa
Hellespont beyond expectation
Uiré (Um , Ug )
+ genitive (motion awayfrom) out from under (with passives and verbs with
AaBav Boty uTrO aucéns passive meaning, expressing the
taking an ox from a wagon agent) by
TA1dEeveoGal UTTO TIVOS
under
Ta UTyiis be raised by someone
the things underthe earth TOKETl UTTO TIVOS
suffer somethingat the hands
of someone
(with causes)
uTIO Aino aTrOAAUGBal
perish from hunger
(accompanying
circumstance)
UTTO OGATIIYOS
at the sound of a trumpet
+ dative at the foot of, under (subjection, dependence, influence)
im TAleo Ug ExuTé eivon
underthe walls of Troy (rare in be in his power
prose) UTO TAISOTPIBH cyaba
TETIAISEUPEVOS
educated under a good master
+ accusative (end point) at/to the foot of, in the course of, during (subjection, dependence, influence)
to under UTrO THY VUKTA TAUTHY UTrO oMas TroieioBon
EOTNOE TO OTPATEUUG UTTO in the course of that night bring undertheir power
TOV Adgov UTro Try Elpnynv
he madethe armyhalt at underpeacetime (accompaniment)

the foot of the hill conditions
UTro Spynoiv Te kai @dtyv
UTTO VUKTO
acompanied by dance and song
undercover of night
Improper Prepositions
31.9 Unlike the proper prepositions ( 31.2, 31.8), the following improper preposi-
tions are not used in compoundverbs:
cua + dat. together with (also temporal: at the same time with , &u
Ew, Gu huépa = at daybreak )
a&veu + gen. without, apart from
Siknv + gen. in the wayof, like
eyyus + gen. near, close to
elow, ow + gen. inside
evavtiov + gen. opposite, in the presence of
gen. + Evexa (also otvena; because of, owing to, on accountof, for the sake of
usually a postposition,
but 41.4 n.1, 48.2)
EKTOS + gen. outside of, apart from
evtos + gen. within (also temporal)
é w + gen. outside of, out (also abstract: #w ppevdiv = beside his
wits )
eTrittpoodev + gen. in the wayof(especially with yiyvopan, get in the way of)
ueTagu + gen. between (also temporal)
ueXpl + gen. up to (also temporal: up until , uéyp: ov = until the
moment that )
dyou + dat. together with (also temporal: at the same time as )
oTtioGev + gen. behind,at the rear of
Trapoige + gen. in front of, before (also temporal)
gen. + téAas (commonly near to, alongside
a postposition)
Tepa(v) + gen. further than, beyond, on the otherside of(also abstract:
Tépa Tou uetpiou = beyond measure )
TAN + gen. except (also with subordinate clauses: trAnv 6T1 =
except that ; mAnv ei = except if)
TAnoiov + gen. near to
TOppw, TPOGw + gen. far from,far in (also abstract: 1éppw cogias fnew = to
come far in wisdom )
TpdoGev, Eutrpoodev + at the front of, before (also temporal)

gen.
gen. + xapiv for the sake of
(postposition)
xapis + gen. apart from (also abstract: not considering )
as + acc. to (only with persons, e.g. aos AAg§avSpov to Alexander)
32
Comparison
Meaning of Comparatives and Superlatives

32.1 The comparative (formed with -tepos or -(i)wv, 5.34, 5.36, 5.38-40, 5.41,
5.43-4) expresses the higher degree of the meaning of an adjective, the
superlative (formed with -tatos or -1oTos, 5.34, 5.37-40, 5.42-4) the high-
est degree:
oUTOS COPWTEPOS DwWKPATOUS That man is wiser than Socrates (with genitive
of comparison, 32.6 below)
TWOKPATNS TOPOTATOS TAVTOV Socrates is wisest ofall (with partitive genitive,
32.8 below)
When two entities are compared, the comparative expresses the higher and
thereby automatically the highest degree:
THOKPATNS TOPOTEPOS YAY Socrates is the wisest of the two of us
Suoiv (with partitive genitive, 32.9 below)
32.2 Whenan element of comparisonis absent, the superlative may express a very high
degree (sometimescalled the elative use):
ZAKPATNS COPWTATOS Socrates is very wise
32.3 The comparative suffix -tepos often expresses a contrast between two concepts,
persons, entities or groups, as can be seen in Se itepos right vs. dpioteposleft, or in
an examplelike
(1) obtws ... étraiSeuov, Tous pév yEepaitépous TrpoTINav, THv Sé vEewtépav
TpoteTiprosai. (Xen. Cyr. 8.7.10)
This is how I raised you, to give preference in honourto the old, and to be
honoured abovethose whoare young.
32.4 Whenthe superlative is preceded by ws (sometimes étrws) or 671 it meansas... as

possible:
(2) ci ut Bhoopan| TéwW ds Apiota, PatAds cipn KoU cogds. (Eur. Andr. 378-9)
If I shall not put my things in orderas well as possible, I am worthless and not
smart.
32.5-7 Comparison 399
Comparison
32.5 Greek has various constructions that can be used to express the entity to which
someone or something is compared. Distinction should be made between:
constructions that follow a comparative (cf. e.g. Engl.: better than ..., more
than ...): >32.6-7;
constructions that are used to indicate that somethingis identical, similar
or equal to something else (cf. e.g. Engl.: like ... , just as, similar to):
32.14-15.
Note 1: For clauses of comparison (ws-clauses) >50.37; for comparative temporal and
conditional clauses (a> Ste-clauses and wo(tep) ci-clauses), >47.17, 49.22-4; for
participles of comparison (with Sotrep), 52.43.
Constructions of Comparison that Follow a Comparative or Superlative
32.6 Comparatives are usually construed with a genitive of comparison ( 30.24) or

with 4; in the latter case, the second memberof the comparison(after 7}) stands in
the samecase asthefirst:
(3) trdAEuos EvdoEos eiptywns aioypas aipetwtepos. (Dem.fr. 13.26 Baiter-Sauppe)
A glorious waris preferable to a shameful peace. Genitive of comparison.
(4) &vBpds .. . Evds TOU &piotou OUSEév GyElvov dv gavein. (Hdt. 3.82.2)
Nothing would appearbetter than the rule of one man,the best one. Genitive of
comparison.
(5) ottos 6 Hytoavipos d&qixveitan, dv Uueis iote KKAAIOV 7) yo. (Aeschin. 1.56)
This fellow Hegesandrusarrives, whom you knowbetter thanI.
(6) ob TrOAA® Tivi UTroSegoTtepov TdAEUOV avNpotvTO 7} TOV Trpds TleAOTTOVYTOIOUS.
(Thuc. 6.1.1)
They undertook a war not muchinferior to that against the Peloponnesians.
For troAAé, 32.11.
A construction with 4 is normally used when the first and second memberof the
comparison stand in the genitive or dative (the genitive of comparisonis rare in
such cases):
(7) ya... oT &v piATou atrtoiuny fS1ov cov. (Xen. Oec. 10.6)
I would not touch red lead with more pleasure than (I would touch) you.
(8) coi te viv ét1 Ex BiovEs eiow7époi. (Xen. Cyr. 4.5.23)
They are now even morehostile to you than to me.
32.7 The same constructions are used when the comparative is expressed by way of
uaAAOv (fH) more (than), rather (than):
400 32.7-10 Comparison
(9) 1 OFjAU yap Trws L&AAOV OiKkTpPdv d&poEevev. (Eur. Her. 536)
For the female sex is in a way more emotional than men. Genitive of
comparison.
(10) of AaxeScnpdvioi ré&on TroAiteia w&AAOv dv 7) SnuoKpatia miotevosiav. (Xen.
Hell. 2.3.45)
The Spartans would trust any constitution more than a democracy.
Comparative with 7.
Note 1: The genitive (of comparison) is also found with verbs that are derived from
comparatives, such as totepéw to be later (cf. totepos later), tAeovextéw have a larger
share (cf. 1Aeiov more), ttt&oua1 to be weaker than, be defeated by (cf. fittwv weaker) -
for the genitive as complement with verbs, 30.21-2:
(11) fttadyEba ... duqdtepor Tod Tatta Zxovtos BeBaiws Biou. (Pl. Phib. 11e)
Weare both defeated by the life that has firm possession ofthat.
32.8 Superlatives are often combined with a partitive genitive ( 30.29) to express the
group or class within which something is markedas the highest:
eUSaipoveotatol Ta&v EAAjvav the most fortunate people of the Greeks
TAVTOV HEyloTov GAyoS the greatestill ofall
Note 1: This use occasionally occurs when the superlative refers to an entity which is not
itself part of the group indicated by the partitive genitive; the genitive is in such cases also
often called comparative :
(12) OouxuSiSns AOnvoios Euvéypaye Tov tdAcuov ... éAtioas ... Een
&E1oAoyatatov T&v Trpoyeyevnueveov. (Thuc. 1.1.1)
Thucydides from Athenshas written a book aboutthe war, as he expected it to be most
noteworthy, more than any of the wars that preceded. The war that Thucydides
describes is not one of those that came before.
32.9 Thepartitive genitive is also sometimes used with comparatives, especially when
two entities are compared (in which case the comparative marks the highest
degree, 32.1 above).
(13) Suoiv yap &OAiow evSaipovéotepos ev OUK &vein. (Pl. Grg. 473d)
For among two wretched men there could not be a most fortunate one.
a&@Aiowis dual, + 10.1-5.
32.10 Other constructions with superlatives:

superlatives may be strengthened by adverbial kai (59.56):
(14) oipor 8 attd Kai copatatov| Pvntotoweivor KTFa ToIot ypwpévors. (Eur. Bacch. 1151-2)
AndI think that this is the very most sensible possession for mortals whouseit.
superlatives may be modified by the fixed expression atités (é)autot at his/her/its -est,
indicating that the feature denoted by the adjective is or has been present in the
same entity to various degrees; the superlative then refers to the highest of those
degrees:
(15) ... Aipvn... otioa Bdbos, TH BabuTdty avth EwuTijs, TevTNKOvTépyutos. (Hdt. 2.149.1)
... the lake, being, at the point whereit is at its deepest, fifty fathoms deep. Thelakeis less
deep elsewhere.
in prose (particularly Herodotus, Thucydides and Plato) superlatives are sometimes com-
bined with the idiomatic expression év tois:
(16) év tois Trpdtor S$ APnvaitor tov ... ofSnpov katébevto. (Thuc. 1.6.3)
The Athenians were thefirst to lay down their sword. év trois (lit. among them/some )
appears to make explicit that the Athenians were not the only ones to stop carrying
weapons, but that, of those who did, they werethe first.
32.11 Both the comparative and the superlative may be modified by an expression of
degree in the dative (dative of measure, 30.54):
TTOAA® &usiveov muchbetter
owppoveotata Kai déopadgotata pakp& most sensible and safest by far
Note the frequent use of this dative in correlative clauses with (tocoUtTw and) é0
( +50.5), to express the more... the more...:
(17) d00 &peilw ToUTe Spon, TocoUTH YEIle Ud TOUTOU ayaa Treion. (Xen.
An. 7.3.20)
Thegreater the gifts you bestow on him,the greater good will you experience
at his hands.
32.12 Whentwoadjectives or adverbs that refer to the same subject or predicate are
compared to each other, they are both comparative, or the first is modified by
uaAAov 7, and the second comparative:
(18) étroinoa tayUtEepa 7) copmtepa. (Hdt. 3.65.3)
I acted more quickly than wisely.
(19) eis lwoAKdv ixdunv | obv col, Tedbupos UG&AAOV 7) Gopwtépa. (Eur. Med. 484-5)
I came to Iolcus with you, eager rather than wise.
32.13 Note the following fixed expressions with comparatives:

comparative with 4 ote + infinitive ( 46.8), or with 7 Kat& + accusative:
too...to...:
(20) copatep 4 Kat &vbpa oupBadAciv ern (Eur. Med. 675)

words too wise for a man to understand
402 32.13-14 Comparison
(21) vewtepoi cio7) Hote eidévan olwv Tratepwv éotepnvTat. (Lys. 2.72)
They are too young to know of whatkind offathers they have been deprived.
comparative with 4 + comparative ws-clause ( 50.37): too ... to ... (this
occurs particularly when the «s-clause has a potential optative or counterfactual
secondary indicative):
(22) tot yap peilw Taxeiveov Epya 7) ws TH Adyw Tis &v eitror. (Dem.6.11)
For their achievements are too great for anyone to put them in words(lit.
greater than that anyone could somehow ...).
(23) cionmnSnoavtes cis TOV TNAdV B&TTOV 7) Gs TIS Kv GETO LETEWPOUS EEEKOUIOAV TAS
aucéas. (Xen. An. 1.5.8)
They jumpedinto the mudandlifted the wagons on dry land more quickly
than anyone could have thoughtpossible.
otSevds éAatTwv (also yeipwv, Votepos,etc.), lit. inferior to no one = better than
all, the best by far:
(24) 5 x&poi Soxei obSevds EAaTTOv elvan TeKuTplov Tis aTroypagis ST1 GANOs otca
tuyxave1. (Lys. 29.1)
This seems also to me to be the clearest evidence by far that the declaration
happensto betrue.
Constructions of Comparison that Express Identicalness, Similarity or

Equality: 6 autos, Suotos and ios
32.14 The most commonadjectives or pronounsthat express identicalness, similarity or

equality are:
6 avtds (often with crasis: attdés, adTH, TaUTAd, 7.11) the same as
6yo1os similarto, like
ioos like, equal to
Each of these may be followed by a complementin the dative ( 30.40) or by xai:
(25) paivetoar yap TH Shuw PonPdv,tis avtis ToAITElas Upiv ETriBupdv. (Isoc. 16.41)
He is evidently supporting the people, desiring the same constitution as
you.
(26) ox, ére1dav TavtOov yévntai Te Ti, Ev yiyvetau. (Pl. Prm. 139d)
Whenevera thing becomes the sameas anything, it does not becomeone.
(27) KAipaxas étroitjoavto ioas TH Telye: TOV TroAeuiov. (Thuc. 3.20.3)
They madeladders for themselves that were equal (in height) to the wall of
the enemy.
(28) tadt& Uyiv ouvegepe Kail Tois éxei. (Lys. 20.27)
The same happenedto you as to the people there.
(29) oiov Sé trveis ... | :: uv OUD Spolov Kai yuAIod oTpaTi«TiKoU; (Ar. Pax 525-7)
How wonderful do you smell! :: Not then,I take it, like the smell of a soldier's
knapsack? yudiod otpatiwtinod is genitive of belonging ( 30.28) with an
omitted smell .
(30) ot 57% Stow ye votis inos Kai coi rapa. (Soph. OC 810)
Certainly not for a man whohas a mind equal to yours. For the accentuation
and position of mapa, 24.37, 36.6.
32.15 After the same expressions(especially after 6 attéds) a relative clause with -trep (e.g.
éotrep) is also regularly found, sometimes with adverbial xai also, too following
the relative pronoun:
(31) A yap TeACA HUdSV QUOIs OUY AUTH Ty ep viv. (Pl. Symp. 189d)
For ouroriginal nature was not the sameasourpresent one.
(32) & tot _adtot ... ywpiou tf dpun goto SGevtrep Kal éxeivos eué EtredeEaTo
yuuvip. (Hdt. 1.11.5)
The attack will take place from the samespotas the one from which that man
displayed me naked.
(33) pdvor te Svtes Sola Etrpattov &trep dv pet GAAov Svtes. (Xen. An. 5.4.34)
Whenthey werealone, they behavedjust as if they were with others(lit. they
did similar things as (they would do) if they had been with others ).
33
The Verb: Tense and Aspect
Basic Notions and Terminology
Tense
33.1 Tense concerns the location of an action in time relative to some other moment.
A distinction can be made between absolute tense andrelative tense:
Absolute tense concernsthelocation of an action in the past, presentor future,

relative to the moment of speaking:
The Greeks burned Troy. past
The Greeks are burning Troy. present
The Greeks will burn Troy. future
Relative tense concerns the location of an action in time relative to another
temporalreference point given in the context, either prior to that reference
point (anteriority), at the same time as that reference point (simultaneity), or
after it (posteriority):
Wearrived when the Greeks had burned anterior to a momentin thepast
Troy.
Wearrived when the Greeks were burning simultaneous with a momentin
Troy. the past
By the time wearrive, the Greekswill anterior to a momentin the future
have burned Troy.
The Greeks said that they would burn posterior to a momentin the past
Troy.
33.2 The indicatives of the Greek verb, when used in main clauses, express absolute
tense:
the present indicative and perfect indicative refer to the present (i.e. the
momentof speaking);
the imperfect, aorist indicative and pluperfect refer to the past (these are
secondaryindicatives ( 11.7), and have secondary endings ( 11.20-7) and
an augment ( 11.35-42));
the future indicative and future perfect indicative refer to the future:
33.2-6 Basic Notions and Terminology 405
imperfect a, a.
presentindicative future indicative
aorist indicative -o, a.
perfect indicative future perfect indicative
pluperfect ,
| >
past moment ofspeaking future
Figure 33.1: Absolute tense expressed by indicatives
(1) oi Apiaiou trpdoG_ev ovv hiv TatTépEvol viv dpeoTHKaow. (Xen. An. 3.2.17)
Ariaeus men,although they previously used to line up alongside us, have now
deserted us. Pf. ind. referring to the present; note viv.
(2) tote... Tedia TANPN yij\s Theipas ExEKTITO, Kal TOAATy év Tois Speci UANvEixev.
(Pl. Criti. 111c)
At that time, (the country) possessed plains full of rich soil, and had much
forestland in the mountains. Plpf. and impf. referring to the past; note tote.
(3) tty ov Ba08I15 atipiov ToUTwy Siknv. (Ar. Vesp. 1331)
I swear, you'll pay for this tomorrow. Fut. ind., referring to the future; note
aupiov.
33.3 Outside main clauses, indicatives frequently receive a relative-tense interpretation

in addition to, or instead of, an absolute-tense interpretation ( >33.57-62 below).
Moodsotherthan the indicative (i.e. the subjunctive, optative and imperative)
and non-finite formsof the verb (infinitives, participles and verbal adjectives), do
not inherently express tense, but only aspect. Their aspectual value, however, may
lead to a relative-tense interpretation ( 33.57-62 below).
Aspect
Grammatical Aspect
33.4 Grammatical aspect (usually simply called aspect ) concerns the way in which
an action is presented or regarded, particularly with respect to its internal
composition: it can be presented as a single and complete whole (an action in
its entirety), without any separate componentparts of the action being envi-
saged, or as incomplete (an action that is ongoing or repeated, that can
conceivably be interrupted), with several component parts being envisaged.
Note that what matters is not whether an action has componentparts, but
whether the speaker is interested in presenting these component parts as
relevant.
33.5 With the exception of the future-tense forms (see below) all Greek verb forms
express aspect.
33.6 The tense-aspect stemsof the Greek verb express three different aspectual values:
406 33.6-7 The Verb: Tense and Aspect
The present stem presents an action as incomplete, focusing on one or more of

its intermediate stages, but leaving its boundaries (beginning and end) out of
focus. It thus normally signifies that an action is ongoing or repeated. This is
called imperfective aspect.
The aorist stems (aorist stem, aorist passive stem) present an action as com-
plete, as a single (uninterruptable) whole: it ignores any componentparts by
looking only at the boundaries of the action, rolling beginning, middle and end
into one. Thisis called perfective aspect.
The perfect stems (perfect active stem, perfect middle-passive stem, future
perfect stem) present an action as a state resulting from a preceding completed
action,orit signifies that the effects of the completed action are somehowstill
relevant.
The future stems (future stem, future passive stem) have a temporal value (they
express futurity/posteriority) but no aspectual one: they are aspectually neutral,
and make no formal distinction between an imperfective or perfective presentation
of actions.
Note 1: Note that perfective aspect is expressed bythe aorist stem:this is not to be confused
with the Greek perfect, which does not express perfective aspect.
Other terms found for the aspect expressed by the present stem are durative ,
progressive , iterative , habitual , unbounded ; other terms found for the aspect
expressed by the aorist stem are aoristic , confective , semelfactive , punctual , bounded ,
simple . These terms do not always overlap entirely, and there is some disagreement (and
muchconfusion) in scholarly views concerning the precise values of the Greek aspect stems.
33.7 As the above definitions indicate, the selection of a specific stem (grammatical
aspect) depends not so much on anyobjective properties of the action itself
(for such objective properties, 33.8-9), but on a speaker's (subjective) needs
and choices in presenting an action in a certain way. What matters mostis
whether a speakeris interested in drawing attention to any componentparts
(or conversely, the boundaries) of an action. This crucial feature will become
fully apparent in the sections below, but a few initial examples mayillustrate
the point:
(4) of 5 "OAUWv#I01 ws Ei50v Trpof~ovTas Tos TreATAOTd&s, avaoTpeWavTes ...
dieBnoav wdaAiv Tov Totapov. of & NKoAoUGouv para Bpacéws, Kai ws
pevyouot Simovtes éetridiéBaivov. éEvda Sr of OAvvGi01 intreis, Nvika éT1
eUXEIPwWTO! AUTOIS ES5dKOUV Eivar of SiaBeBnKoTEs, dvaoTpEyavTes EUBGAAOUOIY
autois, Kal... &téKtewav ... WAeious 7) Exatov. (Xen. Hell. 5.3.4)
The Olynthians, when they saw the peltasts running forward, turned around
and crossed the river again. The peltasts followed them very rashly, and,
convinced that they were fleeing, proceeded to cross so as to give chase.
33.7 Basic Notions and Terminology 407
Then the Olynthian horsemen, at a moment whenthose whohad crossedstill

seemed to them to be easy to overcome, wheeled aboutand attacked them, and
they killed more than a hundred. The narrator uses the aorist indicative
51éBnoav to describe the Olynthians crossing in its entirety (perfective aspect):
he is interested in the simple fact that it happened, notin its process; further
events which took place during their crossing are not referred to. When the
peltasts cross, however, he uses present-stem (impf.) ém51éBaivov to describe the
crossing in process (i.e. before its end-point was reached; imperfective aspect),
because he is interested in other events that happened during it (the attack).
The perfect participle 5iaBeBnxotes, finally, refers to men whoarein the state of
having successfully crossed the river. Observe that the killing of these men is
expressed by meansof aorist atréutewav (even though it will have taken quite
some time to kill over a hundred men), because the narratoris interested in the
simple fact that it happened; again, further events which took place during the
killing spree (individualkillings, resistance, etc.) are not referred to. For this kind
of alternation between imperfects and aorists in narrative texts, 33.48-9. For
the historical present éguBdAAovow, 33.54-5.
(5) Hpatayopas péev ... ToadTa eTr1BE1EapEvos ATETAUTATO TOU Adyou. Kal EyETI
MEV TOAUY xpovov ... TIPOS AUTOV EBAETFOV Gs EPOUVTE TI, ETTIGULGV GKOUEIY: ETE!
Sé St) Ho8dunv Sti TH Svti TetTraupevos ein, ... eitrov, BAgwas Teds Tov
lartroxpatn: ... (Pl. Prt. 328d)
Protagoras, having made such a performance, stopped speaking. And for
a long time, I kept looking at him as if he was going to say somethingelse,
desirousto hearit. But whenI realized that he wastruly done,I said, casting my
glance towards Hippocrates: ... The aorist indicative dmetravoato presents
Protagoras falling quiet after a long speech, without any reference to component
parts of the action offinishing; it is picked up later by the perfect-stem form
TetTraupévos ein (for the optative, 40.12, 41.15), which emphasizes that
Protagoras had not simply paused, but finished altogether, resulting in a new
state (thatof being done ). The example alsofeatures a contrast between present-
stem (impf.) éBAetrov, used to refer to an ongoing gaze, and the aorist participle
Baéwas, which is used to refer to the single moment that Socrates shifted his gaze
towards another participant in the conversation (for this ingressive interpreta-
tion of the aorist, 33.29).
(6) Toiol UTTOAEITTOMEVOIO! ES0EE TrAavay EV UNKETI Tlepoas, oita 5& ExcoTOTE
é&vaipeouévoior émritiPeoGar. vaoydvtes Gv oita dvaipeougvous tous Aapseiou
étroieuv T& BeBouAcupeva. (Hdt. 4.128.2)
Those (Scythians) who remained behind decided to lead the Persiansastray no
longer, but to attack them wherever they were foraging for provision. So,
observing the men of Dariusas they were foraging, they carried out their plans.
(7) 6 8& ApxeciAews eitreto pevyouo, és oU év AcUKavi te Tis AiBUns éyiveto

ETTIOSIOKwV Kal Ed0 e Toio: AiBuol ETriBEoHar of. CUUBaAdVTES SE EVikNOGaV TOUS
Kupnvatous. (Hdt. 4.160.3)
Arcesilaus pursued them astheyfled, until he camein his pursuit to Leucon in
Libya and the Libyans decided to attack him. They engaged and overcamethe
Cyrenaeans.
The present infinitive émtifeoai in (6) refers to a composite campaign, which is
to consist of repeated attacks made on different occasions (interest in the
componentparts: imperfective aspect). The aorist infinitive émOéoGa1 in (7), by
contrast, refers to a single attack to be made on a particular occasion. Whatis
also relevant for the choice of the aorist stem is that the narrator immediately
movesfrom the moment ofattack to their victory (évinnoav): he is not interested
in the component parts of the attack (perfective aspect). The present infinitive
TrAavav in (6), finally, expresses an action currently still in process, which the
Scythians now decideto stop.
Lexical Aspect
33.8 Lexical aspect refers to the temporal structure of a specific action inherentin the
verb s meaning: does it have duration, andis it directed towards an end-point?
As opposed to grammatical aspect, lexical aspect thus has to do with the objective
properties of an action, rather than with subjective ways of presenting that action.
For instance, inherent in the meaning of the verb S10Baive cross is that it has an
end-point, namely the moment at which someone reaches the other side.
The simplex verb Baivew go, walk, on the other hand, has no natural end-point
whichis part of the inherent meaning of the verb (in principle, one can walk for as
long as onelikes). The following categories of lexical aspect are important for the
interpretation of Greek verb forms:
- Telic verbs: verbs which, inherent in their meaning, are directed towards an end-
point: e.g. SixBaiveo cross, reife persuade, Sisaui give, katepyaCopan achieve, make
an endof, ti\koyou melt;
- Atelic verbs: verbs which are not inherently directed towards an end-point:
e.g. Baiveo go, walk, yeAdoo laugh, Gauydlw admire, Becoua gaze at. A subset of
this class consists of so-called stative verbs, verbs which normally have
a prolonged duration and in which no change takes place over time: e.g.
Baoietw be king, pidéw love, vooéw be ill, eipi be, Exw have.
Note 1: Lexical aspect is frequently referred to by the German term Aktionsart, sometimes
also by the terms actionality or situation type . Other terminology commonly found for
telic verbs is terminative and bounded , and for atelic verbs non-terminative and
unbounded . Again, the terminology does not always overlap entirely.
Below, whenthe bare term aspect is used, it refers to grammatical aspect.
33.9-11 Tense and Aspect Combined: The Indicative in Main Clauses 409
33.9 Lexical aspect depends not only on the verb itself, but also on the context/construction in
which that verb is used. For instance, the verb tpéyw run has a different lexical aspect in the
following two examples:
(8) ota timifouor kai Tpéxouo1 Siaxexpayortes. (Ar. Av. 306)
Howtheychirp and run aroundscreeching! Atelic: not directed towards an end-point: one
can run aroundfor as long as onelikes.
(9) 1 tpds Te paoTois ion KUTTS UNTEpwv| TAEUPaS TP~xOUT; (Eur. Cyc. 207-8)
Are they at the teat and running to their mothers sides? Telic: directed towards an end-
point, the momentof arrival at the mother s side.
Factors Influencing Interpretation
33.10 The interpretation of tense and aspect in any specific verb form depends on
a variety of factors:
the nature of the verb form used (finite or non-finite; with finite forms, mood -
note that absolute tense is expressed only by indicatives) and the construction in
whichit is used (main clauses, various kinds of subordinate clauses, various uses
of the participle and infinitive);
- the interaction between grammatical and lexical aspect;
- the type of text in which the form is used (see especially below onnarrative vs.
non-narrative texts, 33.13).
The remainderofthis chapterfirst treats the uses of the indicative in main clauses,
followed by a discussion of the possible interpretations of aspect outside the
indicative.
Tense and Aspect Combined: The Indicative in Main Clauses
Basic Values of the Indicative; Narrative and Non-Narrative Text
The Seven Indicatives of Greek: Basic Values
33.11 Sections 33.14 55 give an overview ofthe use of indicatives in main clauses (for
indicatives in subordinate clauses, 40.5-11 and chapters 41-5). The interpre-
tation of indicatives depends in the first place on the interaction between
tense and grammatical aspect. Combining the aspectual and temporal
values described above, the Greek indicative expresses the following tense/
aspect-distinctions (using the verbs xtéouo acquire and traisevw educate as
examples):
410 33.11 The Verb: Tense and Aspect
The present indicative expresses an action, located at the momentof speaking

(i.e. in the present), that is presented as ongoing or repeated:
KTOPAL I am acquiring / I (habitually) acquire
Tra1Sevoo I am educating/ I (habitually) educate
The imperfect (or secondary present indicative ) expresses an action, located in
the past, that is presented as ongoing or repeated:
EKTOUNYV
> ,
I was acquiring / I (habitually) acquired
étraiSeuov
>
I was educating / I (habitually) educated
The aorist indicative expresses an action, located in the past, presented as
a complete whole:
éexTNodunv I acquired / I have acquired (for these translations,
33.28 with n.1)
éTraiSeuoa I educated/ I have educated
The future indicative expresses an action (either as a single occurrence or as
ongoing/repeated), located in the future:
KTT)OOpaN I will acquire / I will be acquiring
TIAISEVow I will educate / I will be educating
The perfect indicative expressesa state, located at the present, thatis the result
of a completed action; or it expresses that the effects of the completed action are
still in some wayrelevantat the present:
KEKTNAN I possess (< I have acquired)
TETTAISEUKa I have educated / I am responsible for the education of
( 33.34-5 below)
The pluperfect (or secondary perfect indicative ) expresses a state, located
in the past, that is the result of a completed action; or it expresses that the
effects of the completed action are in some wayrelevant at the moment in
the past:
éKEKTTUNV I possessed (< I had acquired)
étretrarSevKerv | had educated / I was responsible for the education of
The (rare) future perfect indicative expresses a state, located in the
future, that is the result of a completed action; or it expresses that the
effects of the completed action are in some wayrelevant at the moment in
the future:
KEKTTOOPAL I will possess (< I will have acquired)
33.12-13 Tense and Aspect Combined: TheIndicative in Main Clauses 411
33.12 The following table provides an overview of the seven indicatives:
imperfective aspect perfective aspect perfect-stem aspect

(present stem) (aorist stem)
present present indicative perfect indicative
KT@"QL KEKTNUL
past imperfect aorist indicative pluperfect
EKT@UNV EKTTOGUNV EKEKTNUNV
future future indicative future perfect indicative
KTNOOUAL KEKTNOOUAL
Note 1: As this table shows, there is no designated form referring to the present which
expresses perfective aspect. The need for such a form is in fact limited, since speakers
normally refer to actions occurring in the present only whentheyare(still) ongoing at
the moment of speaking. There are, however, exceptions in highly specific kinds of
context: for these exceptions, 33.20, 33.32-3, 33.54-6.
Narrative and Non-Narrative Text
33.13 The type of text in which an indicative (in a main clause) is used is often
significant in interpretation. A (rough) distinction may be drawn here between
narrative and non-narrativetext:
- Narrative text is storytelling: it relates (usually in chronological order)

a sequenceof actions that took place in the (real or fictive) past, and how they
are related to each other. It normally contains a mix of imperfects/pluperfects
and aorist indicatives together with less frequent historical presents. Examples:
historical accounts, mythological tales, narrationes in oratory, messenger
speechesin tragedy, etc.
- Non-narrative text is everything else. Main verbs will normally be indica-
tives of the present, aorist, perfect and future stems, with other moods used
apart from the indicative. Examples: most dialogue in tragedy/comedy,
philosophical discussions, arguments, general descriptions of habits and
customs,etc.
Note 1: Narrative and non-narrative passages can come in quick succession or mixed
together. A clear distinction between the twois not always possible. For further discussion
of text types and more extensive examples, 58.7-10, 61.
Theuse of indicatives in narrative is treated in detail in 33.48-55, including some

phenomenawhichare peculiar to narrative contexts.
Present Indicative
Basic Uses
33.14 The present indicative refers to actions that occur at the moment of speaking.
By virtue of its imperfective aspect (incomplete), it is used by default to refer to
actions which are ongoing at the moment of speaking:
(10) ti xdtnoGe, & Mépom, év@atta; (Hdt. 3.151.2)
Whyareyousitting there, Persians?
(11) trapaPonbei® , ws Ur &v8pav TUTTOMAI EUvwpoTdév. (Ar. Eq. 257)
Help me:I m being roughed upby conspirators!
Note 1: The ongoingaction referred to by the present indicative may have begunlong before
the momentof speaking, and an expression of duration is sometimes added:
(12) ei Si8aKxtdv gotw dpeth dAoKotrotuev. (Pl. Men. 93b)
Wehave long been investigating whether virtue is something that can be taught.
Observe that Engl. here prefers a present perfect (have been investigating ).
33.15 The present indicative is also used to refer to repeated or habitual actions; the
habit is in effect at the momentof speaking:
(13) ottos pév yap Udup, éya Sé oivov trivw. (Dem. 19.46)
For this man tends to drink water, whereas I normally drink wine.
(14) mdvtes yap of t&v dpiotwv TMepodv troiSes étri tais Paoidtws PUpais
toaisevovtat. (Xen. An. 1.9.3)
For all the sons of the Persian aristocracy are educated at the King s
palace.
33.16 The present indicative may be usedto refer to generalor timeless truths which are
continuously in effect (also 33.31 for the gnomic aorist):
(15) dyer 5 Trpds pds Thy GANBE1av ypdvos. (Men. Sent. 11)
Timebrings the truth to light.
(16) t& Sis trevte Séxa éotiv. (Xen. Mem. 4.4.7)
Two timesfive is ten.
Specific Interpretations
33.17 Withtelic verbs such as treifw persuade, Siwygive, B&AAw throw, hit, the present
stem mayrefer to an (unsuccessful) attempt, becauseit indicates that the end-point
of the action has so far not been reached (imperfective aspect). This is called the
conative interpretation of the present:
(17) tat éotiv, & Adxpite, & TouTouol Treifeis. (Dem. 35.47)
This is the opinion, Lacritus, of which youare trying to persuade these men.
Present indicative.
Note 1: The notion of attempt is an interpretation (rather than an inherent feature of the
present), relying on context and the combination of imperfective grammatical aspect and
telic lexical aspect. As such,it is not limited to the present indicative, but available for any
present-stem form of the relevant verbs. For the conative imperfect, 33.25. For other
forms, 33.60.
33.18 With a numberof specific verbs (all telic), the present stem may refer to the
ongoing result of an action as well as to the action itself. This resultative use
occurs particularly with the following verbs:
&S1KEw be unjust, treat unjustly / have treated unjustly
SiScopt give / have given
yiyvouat be born / be a descendant
Ko arrive / have arrived, be present
TThOUaI suffer a defeat / be vanquished
VIKAO defeat / be victorious, have defeated
olyouar depart / be gone
TIKTOO give birth / be parent
MEVY flee / be in exile
(18) fKw Aids tratis THvSe OnBaiav xBdva | Aidvucos. (Eur. Bacch. 1-2)
I, Dionysus, son of Zeus, have cometo this Theban land. Dionysusis already
in Thebes, so am arrivingis not a possible translation for fx.
(19) Agyer KdAyas Tade- ... Aydcpepvov, ... Taid ... of) KAutoinotpa Saya|
tiktel ... fv xpr) oc Boa. (Eur. IT 16-24)
Calchas spoke as follows: Agamemnon, your wife Clytaemestra has borne
a child, whom you mustsacrifice. Interpreting tinte: as is giving birth is
impossible (Iphigenia was clearly already born). Aéye: is historical present,
33,54-5,
Note 1: This use is sometimescalled present for perfect or perfective present , as the
present stem resembles the perfect stem in this use (this perfective label should not be
confused with perfective aspect).
Otherpresent-stem formsof these specific verbs mayalso be resultative: for the imperfect,
33.26; for other forms, 33.60.
Note 2: oiyoucdepart, be gone, when used with resultative meaning, is often combined with
a participle expressing the mannerof departure: 52.42 n.3.
Note3: Similar, but not exactly the same, is the use of the present indicative of some verbs of
hearing, learning, saying, etc., to refer to the content of an earlier speech or message. For
instance:
&KOUD hear / have heard(cf. Engl. I hear that)

AEyoo say / havesaid (cf. Engl. John here says that ...)
TrUvOdvopat inquire, learn / have learned
33.19 The present indicative of eip1 go normally refers to the future: e.g. cin I will
go, eioi(v) he will go, iaoi(v) they will go. Observe that this does not normally
hold for forms other than the present indicative (impf. qa I went, ppl. icv
going, etc.).
33.20 In certain highly specific contexts, speakers can refer to a single action begun and
completed at (approximately) the moment of speaking the instantaneous present.
In such cases the present-tense value of the present indicative is more important forits
selection than the imperfective aspect expressed by its stem.
A frequent context for this use is that of performatives, first-person indicatives which
describe the speech act of which they are part (and thusrefer to actions that are completed as
soon as the utterance is completed):
(20) viv otob Uév pUAaooE Tay olka KAAS, |... | Suiv 8 eTTAIVG yASooav eUPNLov MEpEIV |...
| r& 8 GAA Toute Setp étroTrtetoaAéyw. (Aesch. Cho. 579-83)
So now you (Electra) must watch what happens in the house carefully, and you
(Chorus) I advise to keep silent; as for the rest, I call upon him (Apollo) to cast his
glance this way. With éraw and Aéyw, the speaker (Orestes) describes the speech acts
he is performing.
The instantaneous present also occurs, rarely, in simultaneous narration , ie. when
a speaker narrates a sequence ofactions as they occurin the present. This in fact occurs
much more frequently when speakers present actions in the past as if they occur in the
present the historical present . This use is treated separately in 33.54 5 (cf. also the
present for the future , 33.56).
Note 1: For performatives expressed by an aorist indicative (the tragic aorist ), 33.32.
33.21 Questions with (ti) od + first- or second-person present indicative are sometimes used as
requests or suggestions (also 38.33):
(21) Ti otv, 7 8ds, obK EpwTas; :: AAA Eptooua, tw 8éye. (Pl. Ly. 211d)
Whynot ask him, then? , he said. Indeed I will ask , I said.
The speaker observes, with such questions, that the action is not being carried out, and implies
that it should be.
Note 1: For such questions with an aorist indicative, >33.33.

Imperfect
33.22 The imperfect, being built on the same stem, has the samebasic values as the
present indicative, but refers to the past. It is primarily used in narrative texts to
provide backgroundinformation;in this use it alternates with the aorist as one of
the main ingredients of narration. This alternation is treated more fully below
( >33.48-53), and somespecifically narrative interpretations of the imperfect are
treated there as well.
For the modal use of the imperfect (in counterfactual statements, unrealizable
wishes, and with verbsof possibility/necessity), >34.15-18.
Basic Uses
33.23 The imperfect is used to refer to actions which are presented as ongoing in the
past:
(22) Kai tatta troAly xpdvov oUTws éyiyveTo, Kai éya@ obSEtrote UTTTITEUCG, GAN
oUTwS TAifins Siekeiunv, BoTe env Thy EauToU yuvoika Tracdv
OMMpPPOVEOTATHY Eivan Tdv ev TH dA. (Lys. 1.10)
Thesituation waslike this for a long time, and I never got suspicious, but I was so
naive that I supposed that my wife was the mostchaste ofall in the city. Each ofthe
imperfects expresses ongoing actions (éyiyveto may also be interpreted as referring
to repeated actions, >33.24). Contrast aorist b1ramtevoa,referring to (the absence
of) a single action within the ongoing period referred to by the imperfects.
33.24 The imperfect is also used to refer to repeated actions in the past:
(23) oitrep trpdofev TrpoceKUvouv, Kai TéTE TIPOGEKUVNOav. (Xen. An. 1.6.10)
The very men whoearlier used to prostrate themselves before him, prostrated
themselves on that occasion too. Note the aorist tpocenuvnoay, expressing
a single action.
(24) ot &attov Kai CSvta Eyes KaKHs Kal vUv ypdgels KaKds. (Unknownorigin,
cited at Arist. Rh. 1410a35-6)
You used to speakill about him while he wasalive, and now (that he is dead)
you write ill about him as well.
Note 1: To express emphatically that an action occurred on repeated occasions, &v is

sometimes addedto the imperfect or aorist indicative. In this use, dv is called iterative:
(25) 6 88 xopds y ApeidSev Sppabous dv | peAdv eqefis TEeTTapas. (Ar. Ran. 914)
Andthe chorus would hurl! forth four strings of lyrics, one after the other.
(26) cagés 8 Sv citrev ode Ev. (Ar. Ran. 927)
And he would notsay a single thing that wasintelligible.
In this scene of the Frogs, Euripides is discussing dramatic techniques that
Aeschylus used time and time again in his plays. The difference between the
imperfect (7peSev) and aorist indicative (eimev) in these cases is purely aspectual
(note épeéis in (25), referring to repeated actions, and év in (26), referring to (the
absence of) a single action).
The combination of a secondary indicative (i.e. impf. or aor. ind.) with &év occurs much more
frequently in the counterfactual use, for which 34.16.
33.25 Like the present indicative (33.17), and more often thanit, the imperfect of telic
verbs may refer to an (unsuccessful) attempt, thus eliciting a conative
interpretation:
(27) Néwv 8 Kai trap Apiotd&pyou GAAo1 étreiBov atrotpétrecbai- of & ovyx
uTtt)Kouov. (Xen. An. 7.3.7)
Neon and others from Aristarchustried to persuade them to turn back, but
they would notlisten.
(28) * ABouAia &tuxia Soxei ivan, as ot Baddvtos OUSE TUXSVTOS OU T EBaAAs.(PI.
Cra. 420c)
The word &BouAia seemsto refer to a failure to hit, as if someone missed and
did not hit the target which he aimedfor(tried to hit).
Note 1: Related to the conative use is the use of the imperfect of telic verbs to refer to actions
which werelikely or about to happen, but in the end did not:
(29) petapoia AngOeio éxarvduny Eiger. | AAA 2EéxAewev ... | Aptepis (Eur. IT 27-8)
I waslifted high in the air and aboutto be killed by the sword. But Artemis stole me
away.
33.26 Verbs whose present stem may havea resultative sense (33.18) can also be so
used in the imperfect; with several such verbs, such as fyxw arrive/have arrived,
vikaw defeat/be victorious, the resultative senseis, in fact, the default interpretation
of the imperfect:
(30) trepi adt&v 6 OeuiotoKAt|s Tois APnvaiois KeUpa Tréptrel KEAEUOOV ... UT) AoEtvan
tTpiv &v avtol TéAV Koplobdow (75n yap Kai TKov aUTa oi EuytpEeoPels).
(Thuc. 1.91.3)
Concerning these men, Themistocles sent a secret message to the Athenians
not to let them go before they themselves had returned (for his fellow
ambassadors had nowalso arrived). 75n and the wider context makeit clear
that hnov cannotbe interpreted as were arriving . téurre: is historical present,
33.54 5.
Aorist Indicative
33.27 The aorist indicative is used very often in narrative texts (for details on its use
there, >33.48-9); however,it also has a few specific uses outside narrative.
For the modal use of the aorist (in counterfactual statements, unrealizable
wishes, etc.), >34.15-18.
Basic Uses
33.28 The aorist indicative is used to present the occurrence of an action in the past,
withoutreference to its duration or process, but presenting the action asa single,
uninterruptable whole. As such,the aorist is the default tense in narrative texts to
record single, complete actions:
(31) oxotrols 8& kataottoas ouvéAsge TOUS OTPATIWTAS Kal EAcgev- ... (Xen. An.
6.3.11)
He posted watchmen,called his troops together, and spoke as follows:. . .
(32) &ua Sé TH hepa ouveAsdvtes of oTpatnyoi éavpalov S11 Kipos otte GAAOV
TEMTIEL ... OUTE AUTOS MaivoiTo. E50 ev oUV aUTOIS ... EEoTTAICApEVOIS TrPOiéval
eis TO TIPOOPev. (Xen. An. 2.1.2)
At daybreak the generals gathered, and wondered why Cyrus neither sent
anyone else nor appeared himself. They resolved, then, to arm themselves
and push forward. For the alternation with the imperfect @@avpalov, 433.49.
In non-narrative text, the aorist is typically used to observe or conclude that an
action has been completed by the moment of speaking. This is sometimes called
the constative aorist:
(33) eAeye =epEns TH5e- ... Ueas viv Eya ouvedcEa, iva... (Hdt. 7.8-8a.2)
Xerxes spokeas follows: I have now called you together, in order that ...
Aorist indicative ouvéAeEa, used in a speech by Xerxes (non-narrative text).
Note viv, which locates the completion of the calling together in the very
immediate past.
(34) 0 tH BouAt ... (decrees)
The Council hasresolved ...
Note 1: Observe the different translations in (31)/(33) and (32)/(34): whereas the English
present perfect (I have called, the Council has resolved) is often the most suitable translation
for the constative use, the simple past (hecalled, they resolved) is the mostsuitable translation
of aorist indicatives in narrative.
33.29 With atelic verbs ( 33.8) such as yeAdw laugh, BAétrw gaze, and particularly with
stative verbs, such as trAoutéw be rich, BaoiAevo rule, pao love, vooéw be sick, tyw
have, the aorist stem often leads to an ingressive interpretation (referring to the
beginning of a state; observe that perfective aspect is concerned with the bound-
aries of an action, 33.4-6):
(35) Kai of trd&vta Te éxetva S507 Kal trpds ETepoiol uv SwpgeTar ... OUT pev
éTTAOUTHOE 1) OiKin aUTn peydAws. (Hdt. 6.125.5)
Andhe gaveall those things to him and in addition gifted him with others.
In this way, that family becamevery wealthy. 51507and Sapéetanare historical
presents, 33.54-5 below; for mpds, 31.6.
(36) d&troBdvtes Tous dvTioTavTas Hay vIKOavTEs THY TOA~oyxov. (Thuc. 8.23.3)
They disembarked, defeated those who met them in battle, and gained
possession ofthecity.
Note 1: The ingressive interpretation is not limited to the indicative, but available for
any aorist-stem form of the relevant verbs. For non-indicative forms, 33.59; cf. also
BAgwas in (5).
33.30 The aorist of such verbs can, however,also be used as an expression of an entire
period (viewed as a complete whole from beginning to end, without anyinterest
in its componentparts). This is the so-called complexive (or concentrating )
use of the aorist. Typically, an expression of the duration of the action is
included:
(37) ApSuos 5& BaciAevoavtos évds SEovTA TrevTnKovTa ETE EEESEEATO DaSudTtM15 6
ApSuos, Kai éBaoidcuce EtEea SUMBSEKa, DadSudTtew SE AAudTINS. oUTOS 5é
Kuogdpn te TH Anidxew a&troydvep étroAgunose. (Hdt. 1.16.1-2)
When Ardyshad ruled for forty-nine years, his son Sadyattes assumed the
throne, and he ruled for twelve years. Alyattes then took over the throne
from Sadyattes. He made war against Cyaxares, the descendent of Deioces.
Herodotus details a succession of rulers, presenting some basic narrativefacts
about their exploits. In the case of Sadyattes, Herodotus uses the aorist
éBaoidevoeto relate the simplefact ofhis kingship (with its duration), without
going into any of the events that occurred during that period.
(38) adtoi 5 KuSaviny thy év Kontn éxtioav ... guewvav & év tauTn Kal
evSainovnoayv ém étea trévte. (Hdt. 3.59.1-2)
They themselves settled in Cydonia on Crete. They stayed there and pros-
pered forfive years.
Note 1: The complexive interpretation is, again, not limited to the indicative, but available
for any aorist-stem form (for instance, Bao1AeUoavtos in (37) is an example of a complexive
aorist participle).
Non-Past Uses of the Aorist
33.31 The aorist is sometimes used in non-narrative text to express general tenden-
cies, habits, procedures,etc. In this use the aorist does not seem torefer to the
past: it is called the gnomic aorist (yvmun saying, maxim; also generic
aorist):
(39) Kai cappev fapte. (Thgn. 665)
Even a wise man makes mistakes.
(40) év 5é dAlyapyin ... oTdo1es éyyivovta, ék SE THv oTaciwv gdvos: ék SE TOU
povou atréBy és pouvapyinv. (Hdt. 3.82.3)
In an oligarchy, factions tend to occur, and from these factions arises
bloodshed; and from the bloodshed, the result is a shift towards
monarchy.
Note 1: The gnomic aorist occurs with telic verbs ( 33.8); it is not normally used with
stative verbs, like yw have, BaowWetw be king, etc. For truly timeless truths the present
indicative is used (33.16).
33.32 In answers andreactions in tragic and comic dialogue, the first-person aorist indicative is
sometimes used with verbs that refer to the performance of speech acts, such as duvupi swear,
éTravéw praise, oiualw bewail, lament. This use of the aorist indicative in performativesis
knownasthetragic aorist (or dramatic aorist , instantaneousaorist ):
(41) éynudcpeod , © Ecive, Pavdoov yduov. | :: duos &SeApdv odv. (Eur. El. 247-8)
I have entered into a deathly marriage, stranger. :: I lament your brother!
Note 1: The use of the aorist indicative for performatives, which are by definition
perfective (by uttering the act, it is complete), makes sense given the lack of a present-
tense perfective form in the tense/aspect framework of classical Greek ( >33.12 n.1):
the aorist is chosen for its aspectual value, in spite of its tense. Performatives may,
however, also be expressed by the present indicative (33.20). The co-existence of
these two uses suggests that either tense (pres. ind.) or aspect (aor. ind.) could be
emphasized. Note, however, that the tragic aorist is confined to a few specific genres
(tragedy and comedy): variables such as register and metre may also have played
a role.
33.33 Questions introduced by ti ov and with a first- or second-person aorist indicative are
sometimes used as requests or suggestions (also 38.33):
(42) ET. ti otv ot Sinytow iv Thy cuvovoioy, si pt o TI KMAUEL... 5 2 ZO. Tavu pév ov.(PL.
Prt. 310a)
(Friend:) Let me have the story of your gathering, then, if nothing prevents you.::
(Socrates:) Certainly.
Note 1: For such questions expressed by the present indicative, 33.21. The aorist
indicative in this use may suggest that the action should already have been carried out
( Why haven't you... ? ), in whichcase it is not really a non-past use. Alternatively, as with
the tragic aorist (33.32 n.1), the aorist may be used purely for its aspectual value and in
spite of its tense.
Perfect Indicative
Basic Uses; Active versus Passive
33.34 The perfect indicative signifies that an action has been completed in the past and
that the effects of that action are in some wayrelevantin the present; frequentlyit
expresses a moreor less permanentstate in the present whichexists as the result
of a completed action in the past:
(43) @m1 8& yptata pév dAiya, pidous SE TOAAOUs KexTTa1. (Isoc. 21.9)
As of now hepossesseslittle money, but many friends (< has acquired).
(44) xsivos yév ov Se5uxe ovv Feois Siknv. (Eur. Tro. 867)
That man,with the gods help, has paid the penalty. xéivos refers to Paris, who
is now dead - his punishment for taking Helen.
(45) oi vdpor... Tepi ... THv SwpoSoKoUvtwv SUo Udvov TILNPMATA TrETTOINKAOW,
7) Odvatov ... 7) SexatrAotyv ... TO Tiunua Tdv SHpov. (Din. 1.60)
The laws have prescribed only two forms of punishment concerning those
involved with bribery: either the death penalty, or a fine amounting to the
bribe tenfold. The penalties prescribed by law have relevance to the case in
hand.
33.35 Especially with telic verbs, active formsof the perfect are often used to emphasize
the responsibility of the subject for the state that has resulted from a past action
(they are particularly frequentin oratory):
(46) yéypage 5é Kai Tatta 6 attds OouKusibns ASnvaios. (Thuc. 5.26.1)
Ofthis, too, the same Thucydides of Athensis the author (< has written).
(47) 6 8& 1évtwv Seivdtatov oj cuveoTtHKOTES TreTTOI|KAOW (Kal... uNndels UTTOAGRN
SuokdAws, &av Tous Siknkdtas guauTdov tTrovnpous Svtas ériSeikvlw) ...
(Dem. 57.59)
Andthe worst ofall things that the conspirators have on their conscience
(< have done) (andlet no one be offended if I show that the people who have
done me wrongarevillains) ...
Passive forms of the perfect stem, on the other hand, usually indicate that the
subjectis in the state resulting from the action completed uponit. The emphasis in
such cases is not so much ontheresponsibility of the agent of the action, but on the
current state of the subject:
(48) tov OAuutovixav dveyveoté po. | Apxeotpatou troida, 1461 ppevds | gua
yéypatrta. (Pind. Ol. 10.1-3)
Read methe nameof the Olympic champion,the son of Archestratus, where
it is etched firmly in my heart (< has been written).
(49) po po. :: Tlleis; 1révto Tetrointa KaArds. (Ar. Thesm. 231)
Muuh! muuh!:: What are you muuh-ing about?It s all done, well and good
(< everything has been donenicely).
Note1: The perfect indicative is a present tense, referring to the momentofspeaking (33.2).
Note that it has no augment, it uses primary endings (in the middle passivee.g. -uo, -om,etc.;
for the active endings, 18.5), and, if followed by subordinate clauses, these are not in
secondary sequence ( >40.12, cf. (45)). The balance between these two components (present
andpast reference) varies: while a resulting state in the present is often the main focus, in other
cases there is greater focus on the past action, the completion of which is presented as
particularly relevant at the moment of speaking - the so-called current-relevance perfect .
Examples such as (44), (45) and (47) are sometimesclassed underthis heading.
Note 2: Differences of nuance between active and passive perfects are, of course, not
restricted to the indicative. Observe, for instance, the implication of responsibility present
in active ndSixnkdotas in (47).
33.36 A numberofspecific Greek verbs, when they occurin the perfect stem, express an
ongoing state without any clear reference to an (inferable) preceding action, and
therefore function much like present-stem forms. These are sometimescalled
perfects with present meaning (but they do notdiffer in a real sense from other
perfects). For instance:
tepuka be (by nature) (pUuoyuan grow, be born)
uguvnuct remember (uipvtjoKouat call to mind; the pre-
sent is rare until later Greek)
tetroifa trust, have confidence in (treifopuon obey, believe)
eifiouar be accustomedto (@iZouon become accustomed to)
BéBnxa stand (firm) (Baive go, walk)
gOTNKA stand (iotapyai come to stand)
A numberofverbs occur(at least in classical Greek) only in the perfect stem, and
do not have a corresponding present stem. Such verbs may be considered func-
tionally equivalent to presents in nearlyall respects:
oi8a know
SES01Ka fear
EOLKO be likely, be proper, appear

eiwta be used to, be accustomed to
These normally have the pluperfect as their only past indicative (but note aor.
gSe1oq with S5o01Ka).
(50) yun... oUK dv &otratndein troté: | abtai ydép ciow eatratay cifiopevan. (Ar.
Eccl. 236-8)
A womanwill not easily be deceived: they themselvesare used to deceiving.
(51) Tis 51) TaAaoloupyikt|s Suo TUNUATa EOTOV, Kal TOUTOIV EKaTEPOV Ga SuOiV
TEMUKATOV TEXvalv LEPT. (Pl. Plt. 282b)
There are two parts to woolworking, and of these each is a part of two
arts at once. Note that trepunatov is coordinated with pres. ind. gotov
(duals, 21).
(52) Ol MEV yap EiS0TES EXUTOUS TH TE ETTITNOEIA EAUTOTS Ioacl Kai SiaylyvOoKoUOI &
te SUvavtar kal & un. (Xen. Mem. 4.2.26)
For those who know themselves, know whatthings are good for them and
recognize what they can and cannotdo. Note that ioaowis coordinated with
pres. ind. Stayryvaonovuow.
Note 1: The present-like sense of these perfects is not limited to perfect indicatives: cf. e.g.
eiSétes in (52), which similarly expresses a state without reference to an (inferable) preceding
action. For pluperfects, 33.41. For other forms, 33.61.
The four verbs 8 8o1ka, éorka, eiw8a and (especially) oi$a, occur with some frequency in
the subjunctive, optative, and imperative. With other verbs, forms of these moods ofthe
perfect stem are typically very rare (except the somewhat more frequent pf. imp. pass.,
34.21). With these four verbs, such forms are functionally equivalent to present-stem
subjunctives, optatives, and imperatives.
33.37 Withatelic verbs ( 33.8), such as poBéopuanbe afraid, Baupdlw be in awe, admire,
vouile believe, the perfect stem often gives rise to a so-called intensive inter-
pretation (marking an extreme degree of the state). Again, there seems to be no
clear reference to an (inferable) preceding action with these perfects. For
instance:
yéynba be delighted (ynBiw be pleased; rare in the
present)
ueunva be raging mad (uaivouon rage)
VEVOUIKa be convinced (vouileo believe)
tepdoBnucir beterrified (poBgopar be afraid)
ceoimmnka maintain complete silence (oiwtrdw besilent)
teBaupaka be very surprised, admire (Pauudlw wonder, admire)
greatly
The perfect is also so used with someverbsthat refer to various ways of making
sound:
AEANKA shriek (AcoKe cry)
KeKpaya scream (xpc&lw shout, rare in the present)
(53) TroAAd& Sé Gauudlov Tdv eciwbdtov AgyeoBal Trap Upiv, oUSEevds TTTOV, @ &vbpES
A nvaioi, tetaupaka, O Kal Tpanv Tivos TKouoa EitrovTos év Tt BouAn.
(Dem.8.4)
Although I am often surprised about the speeches that are usually
delivered before you, men of Athens, I am positively astounded, more
than at anything else, at what I heard someone say in the Council the
other day.
(54) Ti xéxpayas; uBare oor 1ra&tTAAOy,| Av ph oiotras. (Ar. Thesm. 222-3)
Whatare you screaming about? I'll put a peg in you, if you don t shut up.
Note 1: The intensive interpretation is, again, not limited to the perfect indicative, but
available for any perfect-stem form. For intensive pluperfects, 33.42; for other forms,
33.61.
33.38 The perfect indicative is occasionally used, especially after conditional clauses, for
actions that have not actually occurred yet: these are thereby presented as already
having had effect. This is sometimes referred to as the rhetorical (use of the) perfect,
or the perfect for future perfect :
(55) tots vouous otv Sei tnpeiv ... troteiv tous &ei Sikdlovtas Udy... ef Sé pn, A AuTal Tavta,
d&véwxtal, ouykéxutai. (Dem. 25.24-5)
It is necessary that those of you whosit on a jury, protect the laws. If you don't,
everything is dissolved, broken up, thrown into confusion (< has been dissolved, has
been opened, has been mixed together).
Pluperfect
33.39 The pluperfect is used primarily in narrative text, where (like the imperfect) it
serves to provide background information ( 33.50). Being built on the same stem
as the perfect indicative, it has the samebasic values, but refers to the past rather
than the present.
Basic Uses
33.40 The pluperfect expresses that at a momentin the pasta state existed as the result of
a previousaction, or that the effects of a previous action werestill in force and
relevant at that momentin thepast:
(56) Aoyioac#a 8 MeAov attd Ka Exaotov ... otTw ydp por a&Kpifds
éyeypaTtto, HoTot pdvov avT& Yo! TavaAMmpaTa éyéypaTIto, GAAK Kai Stro1
é&vnrawén. (Dem. 50.30)
I was ready to reckon everything up for him item by item. For I had such an
accurate account to hand that not only the expenditures themselves stood
recorded, but also what they had been spent on. The pluperfects refer to the
state of being written down, and provide relevant background information.
Note the contrast with the aorist dvnAw@n, which does not refer to a state
resultingfrom the expenditure.
(57) Oo Aapsids Te TloyxaAAe Kai 1 oTpaTiIN) Tra&oa ou SuvaTth éotioa EAEiv TOUS
BaBuAwvious. Kaitol Tavta copiouata Kal Traoas UNnxavas EtreTroinKee 5
autous Aapsios. (Hdt. 3.152)
Dariuswasbitter, as was his entire army, about being unableto seize Babylon.
Andyet Darius had tried every possible trick and device against them. The
pluperfect emphasizes the ongoing effects for Darius of his previous failed
attempts.
Note 1: Unlike the English (and Latin) pluperfect, the Greek pluperfect does not necessarily
express a past in the past (John camebackto class. He had beenill the week before : the
Engl. pluperfect here is a relative tense, expressing anteriority to came ). This is because the
pluperfect, like other Greek indicatives in main clauses, expresses absolute tense. To express
past in the past, Greek can use anyofthe three past tenses (aorist, imperfect and pluperfect),
with their normal aspectual values: it is the context which warrants an interpretation as
past in the past:
(58) évtatda dds Hv gonun... + @Kouv 8 avtthv Td Tadaidv MijSou. (Xen. An. 3.4.7)
There lay an abandonedcity: in the past, Medes had lived/usedto live there. The impf.
expresses an ongoing action in the past; the adverb To tradandvlocatesit in a more remote
past than that of the previous sentence (jv).
(59) Tous ... lIuepaious étreloav ... Tois &k Td&v vedv THv ogETEPwV vaUTaIs ... OTTAG
Tapacyxeiv. Tas yap vats &veiAkuoav év Iugpa. (Thuc. 7.1.3)
They persuaded the Himeraeans to supply weaponsfor the seamen from their vessels.
For they had beached their ships at Himera. The aor. ind. expresses a complete action
anterior to the action of the preceding sentence (émeoav); note the particle yap which
signals that the new sentence provides explanatory information (taking a step back in the
historical chronology), 59.14.
(60) oTTAVIMTEepa T& éTITHSEla Ty: TK wEv yap avnAwTo, T& é Sinptraoto. (Xen. Hell. 6.5.50)
The supplies were more scarce: some of them had been consumed,others had been
plundered. The plpf. forms express states in the past resulting from a previously com-
pleted action (the states themselves are in fact simultaneous with jv); note again the
particle yap.
33.41 Perfects with a present-like sense normally use the pluperfect as their regular past tense
( pluperfect for imperfect ):
(61) épuAattov adtovci kal Thy vUKTO EoTHEo1. 6 Sé cioTI)KEl EXP! Ews EyeVvETO Kal TAlos &vEoyeEV.
(Pl. Symp. 220d)
They watchedhim to seeifhe would actually stay standing throughthe night, too. And he
stood there until dawn came and the sun cameup.éiotrjnei expresses the state ofstanding
in the past, without reference to a preceding coming to stand . Forthe fut. pf. opt. éorn o,
20.4 (form), 42.7 (use of the opt.).
(62) iScv 8 6 Kijpug Ta STAG... AaUpale TO TAABOs: OU yap HSe1 TO WAaGOs. (Thuc. 3.113.2)
Whenthe herald saw the arms, he was amazed at their number. For he did not know
aboutthe disaster. oi5a has no present-stem forms.
33.42 Like the perfect indicative ( 33.37), pluperfects of certain atelic verbs may also be
intensive:
(63) #0 ... oi Tv ApxdSav otrAito tavtdtracw otK avteEfjoav. ottTw Tos TeATAOTaS
étrepoRnvto. (Xen. Hell. 4.4.16)
The Arcadian hoplites did not come out to meet them at all. Such overwhelmingfear did
they feel for the peltasts. Intensive pluperfect.
Future Indicative
33.43 The future indicative presents the realization of some action in the future as
(virtually) certain (more so than, for example, the potential optative, 34.13).
Depending on the context, the future indicative can be used for various commu-
nicative purposes, such as predictions, statements of intention, announcements,
promises, threats, suggestions, etc.:
(64) tivde_ Seto pt Adyouoay évbixa. (Eur. Tro. 970)
I will show that this womanis not speaking justly. Announcement.
(65) otto1 katatrpoige: ... ToUTo Spav. (Ar. Vesp. 1366)
You won'tget away with this behaviour. Threat.
(66) OnBaior & éxouoi pév ... dtrexOdds, ET1 8 ExBpoTépws oytoouow. (Dem. 5.18)
The Thebansare hostile, and will become morehostile still. Prediction. For
éyw + adv., 426.11. For oytiow vs. &w, 415.25.
Note 1: Future actions mayalso be expressed by péAAw + infinitive: 251.33.

Note 2: The future indicative is normally aspect-neutral, i.e. it may refer both to a single
action seen as an uninterruptable whole, or to an action presented as ongoing or repeated in
the future. For exceptions, 15.25, 35.30.
426 33.44 -45 The Verb: Tense and Aspect
33.44 The second-person future indicative may be used in questions introducedbyov,

with the force of an urgent command;prohibitions have ot un:
(67) ou Ut) ppevaceis W , GAAA SEopios QUyao| caon 148 ; (Eur. Bacch. 792)
Do not lecture me; rather, now that you have escaped from prison, hold
on to that.
For this use, also 38.32.
Note 1: To express a strong command or exhortation,the future indicative is also sometimes

used with dtrws (un). This is the construction of effort clauses (44), but used in main
clauses. For this use, >38.34.
33.45 The future indicative predominantly refers to an action that is situated in the actual future
relative to some other moment (in main clauses, the moment of speaking), as in (64)-(67).
The future indicative may, however, also be used to express:
hypothetical scenarios and general truths (cf. Engl. IfA is larger than B, B will be smaller
than A; Oil will float on water);
inferences (cf. Engl. That'll be the postman).
In such casestherealization of the action does not necessarily lie in the future; rather, the sense
underlying the use of the future indicative is that the truth of the statementwill be ascertain-
able at some future moment(if reasoning is followed to its logical conclusion,or if evidence
becomesavailable):
(68) Acitretar St exetvos Udvos ... MiAos TH To1iovTw, Ss dv dponOns dv ... oUTOS Heya ev
TOUTH TH WoAEr Suvfoetai, ToUTov ovSels yaipwv aSiktoe. ox oTws Eyer; (Pl. Gre.
510c)
Theonly possible friend that remains for such a man (a tyrant) is whoevershareshis
temper. That man will have great powerin that city, and no one will wrong him with
impunity. Isn t that right? This passage concludes a section of a (hypothetical) argument
about how someone can avoid being wronged. The future indicative presents the conclu-
sion as the logical outcome of the argument. Note the assent-seeking question ovx oUTws
éye1; (with a present indicative), by which Socrates asks his interlocutor to confirm thatthe
reasoning holds.
(69) Axoue 51), 7) 8 ds. Onui yap éyw eivan Td Sixaiov oUK GAAO T1 7} TO TOU KpEiTTOVOS TULEPOY.
GAAG Ti OUK étraiveis; GAA OUK EOEAnoEls. Edv pdbo ye TIPATOV, Epny, Ti A yets: vov yep
oltre oiSa. (Pl. Resp. 338c)
So listen , he said. I claim that justice is nothing other than what is beneficial for
the stronger. Why aren t you applauding my claim? Well, I suppose you won't
want to. Yes I do , I said, if only I learn first what it is that you mean. For I don't
know that yet now. On the basis of their preceding conversation, Thrasymachus
draws an inference about Socrates unwillingness to agree with him. Socrates chal-
lenges that inference in his reply.
Future Perfect Indicative
33.46 The (rare) future perfect indicative serves as the future tense of the perfect stem, and
expresses that a resulting state will exist, or that the effects of a completed action will be
relevant at somepointin the future:
(70) of 8 GAAN Tis yuvt) Kexthoetou. (Eur. Alc. 181)
Some other womanwill have you (< will have acquired).
(71) tatta éxws oor Ted Tdv ETipnviov huey ult tedoGev tretroinoetar. (Hippoc. Mul.
37.30)
Makesure that you have completed this treatment one day before menstruation (< will
have been done by you). For strong commands expressed by tras (Ion. 6uas, 25.12) +
fut. (pf) ind., 438.34.
33.47 Specific interpretations of the perfect stem ( present-like , intensive, +33.36-7) mayalso be
attached to the future perfect (in any of its forms, not only the indicative):
(72) tv Tvin Avxoy,| kexp&EeTor. (Eup. fr. 1.2-3 Kock)
Whenhesees a wolf, he will cry out. Intensive with a verb of making sound (upd<o,
33.37).
The Alternation of Tenses in Narrative Text
33.48 Narrative text normally consists of a mix of aorist indicatives, imperfects,

pluperfects and historical present indicatives, and within narrative each of
these tenses performs specific roles. The following sections discuss this
division of labour. For an extended example of narrative with discussion,
61.1-3.
Aorist versus Imperfect (and Pluperfect)
33.49 Aorist indicatives and imperfects are the main tenses of Greek narrative; both
tenses locate an action in the past, but they differ aspectually. Imperfects, by
suggesting that the actions they express are incomplete (imperfective aspect),
typically do not push a story forward : rather they are used to set the stage or
to create a background/framework in which main events take place which do
move the story forward. These main events, in turn, appear in the aorist
indicative:
(73) Kai Ste 51) Hy Sexaétngs 6 ratis, wefjyua és aUTOV To1lOvde yevouevov E Eqrve uv:
ETrade v Th KUT... WET GAAoov NAiKoov Ev 0856. Kail oi Traides TraiCovtes EIAOVTO
EwUTa@V Baoldéa eival ToUTov 81 TOv Tou BouKdAou étrikAnol Traida. 6 Sé
auTtdév Stage Tous peév oikias oikoSopeew ... (Hdt. 1.114.1-2)
Now whenthe boy (Cyrus) was ten years old, the following occurrence revealed
him for whathe was. He wasplaying outdoorsin thevillage with othersofhis age.
The boysin their games choseto be their king this one who wassupposedto be the
son of the cowherd. Then he assigned someof them to the building of houses.
The imperfect étroide sets the stage for the events that take place (it forms the
background against which the rest of the story is presented). The aorists eiAovto
and 5étaée are used to narrate the events that move the story along, while the
children were playing (note the present participle traiGovtes while they were
playing, implying simultaneity with eiAovto; 33.57). Note further the aorist
é epnve, which summarizes theentire story by way ofannouncement (an imperfect
here would have suggested that the revealing served as background to other
actions).
(74) Sudesds Epyov raves ieoav xépas: | of pev opayeiov Epepov, 01 8 Hpov Kava,
| &AAo1 Sé Trp aviTrtov dugi T goydpais | AEBnTtas SpPouv- aoa 8 exTUTre!
otéyn. |... @k Kavoti 8 Edo| AtyioBos dpopayida, yooysiav Tpixa | Teudov
ep cyvov Trp éOnxe SeEi&. (Eur. El. 799-812)
Theslavesall applied their hands to the work. Somebroughta sacrificial bowl,
others took up baskets, while others kindled fire and set cauldrons around the
hearth: the whole house was clattering with the sound. And Aegisthus took
from a basketa longstraight knife, and cutting off someofthe calf s hairlaid it
with his right hand on thesacred fire. A long series of imperfects (here abbre-
viated) paints a scene whichforms the background against which the main events
of the sacrifice, starting with the aorist @0nue, take place.
33.50 Like the imperfect, the pluperfect often sketches the background circumstances
under which mainactionstake place:
(75) pbavouoi THv TAataidv Kal oi VoTatol diaBavtes Thy TaMpov, KaAETTdds SE Kal
Biaios: KeEUOTAAAdS Te yap éTreTITyEI OU BEBaos Ev AUTH oTétreAPeiv, ... Kai H
VUE ... UTTOVEIMOLEVT TTOAU TO GBwp ... étretrom)jxKe. (Thuc. 3.23.4-5)
Even the last of the Plataeans managedto cross the ditch in time, although
with difficulty and effort. For ice had formed onit, not firm enough to walk
on, and the snow that had fallen in the night had made the water deep.
p0avouoris historical present, -33.54-5.
Special Uses of the Imperfect in Narrative
33.51 In its stage-setting use, the imperfect of telic verbs may refer to actions which
have clearly reached their end-point by the time the next action in a narrative
occurs. In such cases, the aspect of the present stem suggests that the action andits
effects are not yet complete, and the imperfect thus directs attention towards the
consequencesof the action. This occurs particularly often with verbs of speech
and verbs of commanding, whena reaction to a speech or commandis expected:
(76) &6 pév Bh ogi Ta evtetaAueva AtrtyyeAAce, Toio 5 ~ade pév PonGéerv
Adnvaioio ... (Hdt. 6.106.3)
So he delivered the message with which he had been charged, and they
decided to cometo the Athenians aid. The reason for the use of the impf. is
obviously not that the narrator is interested in something else that happened
during the delivery of the message, and the narrator immediately moves on to
what happened after it (contrast (4) and (73)-(74)); rather, the imperfect
suggests that with annyyedne, this episode ofthe narrative is not yet complete,
andfocuses attention on the reaction to the message.
(77) éxeiBev 5é TH Uotepaia EtrAeov of A@nvoion étri KUZikov. of 5 Kudixnvoi tév
TleAotrovvnoiwv kai Dapvabda Cou éexAlTrovtwv auTHy ed xovTto Tous A nvaious:
AadkiBiadns Sé yElvas aAUTOU EikoolV NUEPAS Kal YETUATA TTOAAG AaPav Trapa
TOV Kulixnvdv, oudév GAAO KaKkov EpyaodpEevos Ev TH TroAe: atretrAeucEv Eis
Tpoxdévynoov. (Xen. Hell. 1.1.18-20)
From there (Proconnesus) the Athenians (with Alcibiades) sailed on the
next day against Cyzicus. The Cyzicenes, now that the Peloponnesians
and Pharnabazus had evacuated the city, admitted them. There
Alcibiades stayed for twenty days, and obtained a great deal of money
from the Cyzicenes, but without doing any further harm in the city, he
sailed back to Proconnesus. The use of the imperfects émAeov and ééyovto
each direct the reader's attention to the sequel: what happened at Cyzicus?
What happened when the Cyzicenes admitted the Athenians? The aorist
amémAevoev rounds off the episode. The value incomplete of the imperfect
and the value complete of the aorist in such a case pertain to a unit of
discourse rather than to a single action.
33.52 With atelic verbs, the imperfect in narrative may refer to an action in process
immediately following on anotheraction; this use is sometimes called immedia-
tive (or the imperfect of consecutive action ):
(78) Kai té&ya 81) d&koUouc! Bowmvtwv TOv oTpatintav OdAatta &éAaTTA Kai
Trapeyyuovtov. EvOa 57) EBeov avtes. (Xen. An. 4.7.24)
Andsoonthey heardthe soldiers shouting The sea! Thesea! , and passing the
word around. And then everyone was running.
Note 1: The terms inceptive or inchoative are sometimes used in grammarsforthis use of
the imperfect, but they are misleading. Although the beginningof the action is implied (and
the translation began to/proceeded to ... sometimes works), the imperfect expresses the
action in process ratherthanits starting point: indeed, the use of the imperfect implies that
there was no clear dividing line between this and the preceding action (cf. Engl. no sooner
had... than ...). To refer to the beginning of an action, Greek may use &pyouan + ppl./inf.
( >52.27) or the ingressive aorist (33.29). The difference between such usesis clear in the
following example:
(79) cs Sé Topevopevoov eexUparve T1 THs PaAAYyos, TO UTTOAEITIOVEVOV TpEaTo Spduw Oeiv- kai
dua epbeyEavto rdvtes olov TH Evuadiw éAeAifouo1, kal Tavtes 5é EBeov. (Xen. An.
1.8.18)
When a part of the phalanx swerved out as they went, the part that was left
behind began to run. And at the same time, everyone struck up the war cry
which they raise to Enyalius. And next, they were all running. dpyouar + inf.
explicitly indicates that one part of the phalanx began(i.e. was the first) to run; the
ingressive aorist épOéyEavto refers to the initial onset of the Greeks warcry; next,
the immediative imperfect #eov puts the reader in the middle of the all-out charge
that followed.
33.53 The pluperfect may be similarly used, even to refer to main events in a narrative. It then
suggests that an action was accomplished completely in a very brief period, asif the resulting
state existed almost immediately:
(80) étei 8 G&tra& ApEavto Utreixew, tayt 81 Té&oa f a&kpdtroAls Epnuos Tdv TroAEpioov
éyeyevyto. (Xen. Hell. 7.2.9)
Once they had begunto give way, the whole acropolis had before long becomefree of
enemies.
Historical Present
33.54 The present indicative is used occasionally to highlight decisive or crucial

events in a narrative, often those that definitively change the situation in the
narrated world; in effect, this so-called historic(al) present (or narrative
present ) makes it seem as if an action that occurred in the past occurs in
the present andis, therefore, all the more urgent. It occurs nearly exclusively
with telic verbs (thus verbs such aseiui be, xeiyou lie, are not normally used as
historical presents):
(81) trapiiy kai 4 yuvt. éocABotoav Sé Kai TIBeioay Ta cluaTa éOneito 6 TUyns. as 5é
KATH vaoTou EyEvEeTO iovons Tis yUVaIKos 5 TV KOITHY, UTTEKSUS ExaopEs EEO. Kal
tH yuvt étrop& piv é idvta. (Hdt. 1.10.1-2)
The womanappearedas well. Gyges saw her comein and undress. And, as the
womanwasgetting into bed andher back was turnedto him,heslipped away
and was on his way out. And the womanspotted him leaving. The historical
present étrop& marks the pivotal moment in the story that will have dramatic
consequencesfor the woman, her husbandthe king, and his bodyguard Gyges.
(82) doavtes 5é Thy BUpav Tot Swuatiou oi uév TIPATO1 eioidvTes ETI ELSouEev AUTOV
KOTOKEIMEVOV Tapa TH yuvaiki, oi 8 Gotepov év TH KAivy yuuvov EoTNKOTA. yo
5 , © &v&pes, tratdéas katabdArw attdv. (Lys. 1.24-5)
Andpushingin the doorof the bedroom,thefirst of us to go in saw himstill
lying with my wife, and those who camein later saw him standing naked on
the bed. And I, gentlemen, gave him a blow and struck him down.
The speaker's violent reaction to the man he catches in bed with his wife is
expressed in the historical present.
Note 1: The imperfective aspect of the present stem appearsto play norole in the historical
present, which usually presents actions as complete. For this, +33.20.
For other examples of the historical presentcf. (4), (19), (30), (35), (75), (85), and
especially 61.1-3.
33.55 Authors makea fairly individual use of the historical present. In sometexts it is not so much
used at dramatic turns, but rather to punctuate a narrative, dividing it up into separate
sections by highlighting each newstep:
(83) Kipos... @pyaTO &Trd TapSecv- kai Eedauver Sc Tis Ausias. . .. eAauver 1a Dpuyias...
évtetGev eEeAauver ... eis KeAavds (Xen. An. 1.2.5, 1.2.6, 1.2.7, etc.)
Cyrus set forth from Sardis; and he marched through Lydia ... He marched through
Phrygia ... From there he marched to Celaena. The historical present é&Aauvei here
introduces each successive new stage in Cyrus march.
Note 1: This use may be similar to the use of the English simple present in summaries and
chapter headings (e.g. Henry Fielding, Tom Jones, Book 5, chapter 7, In which Mr Allworthy
appears on a Sick-Bed). The reasonfor the use of a present tense in such cases appears to be
that the information is presented as accessible at any time. Onthis analysis, this use is in fact
closer to the timeless use of the present indicative ( >33.16) than to the historical present of
33.54.
33.56 Just as the present indicative may be usedto presentpast actionsasif they occurin the present,
it may also be used to present actions in the future as if they take place in the present. This
present for the future occurs particularly in the language of oracles and prophecies: the future
is seen as taking place in front of the prophet s eyes:
(84) té1 AeUepov EAA&Sos Tap | eUpvoTra Kpovidns éréyer kai rétvIa Nixn. (Hdt. 8.77.2)
At that time, far-seeing Zeus and mighty Victory shall bring the day of freedom for
Greece. The conclusion of an oracle, as reported by Herodotus.
Aspect Outside the Indicative in Main Clauses
Aspect and Relative Tense
33.57 Greek verb forms, other than those of the future stem, do not inherently express
relative tense. However, in a numberof subordinate constructions, anteriority or
simultaneity is conventionally implied by the use of a form of a certain tense-
aspect stem,by virtue of the aspect expressed by that form. Aspect tendsto lead to
a relative-tense interpretation whenthereis a clear, fixed point of reference given
by the verb in the matrix clause:
with finite verb forms(indicatives, subjunctives and optatives) in temporal
clauses ( 47), causal clauses ( 48), conditional clauses ( 49), and relative
clauses ( 50);
- with the oblique optative in indirect speech and thought ( 41.9); time
relative to the moment of speech/thought);
- with the declarative infinitive ( 51.25-6; time relative to the moment of
speech/thought);
- with participles ( 52.4).
In such cases:
present-stem forms, by virtue of their imperfective aspect ( not-complete ),

tend to suggest that the action is not-complete relative to the action in the
matrix clause (normally the main verb, >39.2-4), i.e. they imply
simultaneity;
perfect-stem forms, too, by referring to an ongoing state or ongoingeffects
(resulting from a preceding action), imply simultaneity;
aorist-stem forms, by virtue of their perfective aspect ( complete ), tend to
suggest that the action is complete relative to the action in the matrix clause,
i.e. they imply anteriority;
future forms always express posteriority.
Note 1: For the temporal interpretation of the indicative in indirect speech/thought and
indirect perception/knowledge/emotion, 41.8, 41.10, 41.14, 41.15.
Some examples:
(85) étrei S& tropeudyevor éx Tow Trediou dvéBnoay éttri Tov TIPATOV ytAogov Kai
KatéBaivov ... , vtatda étrryiyvovtai oi BapBapor. (Xen. An. 3.4.25)
Andwhen,during their march outofthe plain, they had ascendedontothefirst
hill and were descendingit, at that moment the foreigners attacked them.
The main verb émryiyvovtan (a historical present, 33.54) refers to an action in
the past; in the temporal clause introduced by étrei, aor. ind. avéBnoavis anterior
to that action, impf. (i.e. present-stem) xatéBaivov is simultaneous with it.
33.57-9 Aspect Outside the Indicative in Main Clauses 433
(86) xpt) 5 , OTav yEv TIBToPE Tous vouOUS, OTroioi TIvés Elolv OKOTTEIV, ETrEISaV SE
Ofjo8e, pUAdTTEIV Kal xprjo8a1. (Dem. 21.34)
Whenyouareinstituting the laws, you should carefully look at what sort of
laws they are, but once you have instituted them, you should safeguard
them and abide by them. The present subjunctive ti fjo@e expresses the
institution of the laws in process, i.e. as an action simultaneous with
onotreiv; the aorist subjunctive 6joGe in the second temporalclause is anterior
to puAdttew and ypijoba (procedures to be followed once the laws have been
put in place).
(87) Ouooas UN AaPeitv Spa unde AnyeoOar ... eiAnpas NAEyxOn ... Elkoo1 yvas.
(Aeschin. 1.114-15)
Although he had sworn that he neither had taken bribes nor would take
them, it was proven that he was guilty of accepting twenty minae.
The declarative infinitives AaBéiv (aor.) and Arweo@a(fut.) refer to actions
which are anterior and posterior, respectively, to the moment of swearing
(dudoas). The aor. ppl. dudoas itself implies that the action ofpromising took
place before nAéyx@n.
(88) (&8ikoto1) Tous 7 TetromKdéTas KaKds 7) BouAndevtas 7) BouAouevous 7j
troijoovtas. (Arist. Rh. 1373a13-14)
They commit crimes against those who are responsible for mistreating them,
or those who haveintendedto do so, or those whoare intendingto doso,or
whoare aboutto do so. The participles all refer to actions whose timeis relative
to that ofddixoto1: respectively simultaneous (tretromnotas;for the translation,
33.35), anterior (aor. BouAnfévtas), simultaneous (pres. BouAopévous) and
posterior (fut. troijoovtas).
Further Interpretations; Exceptions
33.58 The relative-tense interpretation which attaches to the forms listed above is
a conventional one, but not a necessary one. In manycases, a choice ofa specific
tense stem leadsto interpretations in addition to, or other than,that of a relative-
tense relationship to the matrix verb. Some examples of such exceptions are given
below; for further discussion and examples, 51.26 with n.1 (declarative infini-
tives) and 52.4 5 (participles).
33.59 Rather than implying anteriority (only), aorist-stem forms may be ingressive
( 33.29) or complexive ( 33.30):
(89) étreid1) SE Onoevs EBacidevos, ... Siexdounoe THY xopav. (Thuc. 2.15.2)
When Theseus had become king, he organized the country. Aorist indicative
in temporal clause with ingressive interpretation; note that the implication of
anteriority still holds.
(90) troAAoi yap Kal ypnudtav Suvdpevor peiSeo8a piv épdv, EpacGévtes OUKETI
Suvavtar. (Xen. Mem. 1.2.22)
Many,after all, who are able to be careful with their money before they love,
after falling in love are no longer able to do so. Ingressive aorist participle.
Again, the implication of anteriority still holds.
Participles, in particular, sometimes express an action whichis not anteriorto that
of the matrix verb, but overlaps with it entirely (from beginning to end). This is
called the coincident use of the aorist participle:
(91) d&trmAco v pr eitrotoa ouuqopas éuds. (Eur. Hipp. 596)
She has destroyed me by speaking of my troubles. Both actions (atraAeoev and
eitrovoa) coincide and are presented in their entirety.
For more examples of coincidentaorist participles, 52.5.
33.60 Present-stem forms may, rather than being simultaneous(only), refer to actions
which are presented as ongoing or repeated, invite a conative interpretation
( 33.17) or, with certain verbs, be resultative (33.18):
(92) arpdtepov yap otk Exav Trpdgaotég ts TOU Riou Adyov BSoiny, vuvi Sia ToUTOV
eiAnoa. (Lys. 24.1)
For although in the past I had no excuse on account of which I could
give an account of mylife, I have got one now, because of this man.
Present participle referring to an ongoing action anterior to the matrix
verb (note mpdtepov, which rules out a simultaneous interpretation, and
vov). The participle in such cases is sometimes called an imperfect
participle .
(93) tivas ov evyds UTroAaUBaveT eVyeoBat Tois Beois TOv DiAiTrtrov, ST Zotrevdey,7}
Tous OnBaious; (Dem. 19.130)
Whatprayers do you suppose Philip made to the gods, when he made his
libation, or the Thebans? The present infinitive presents an action which is
anterior to the matrix verb UmoAauBdavete, as is shown by 61 éotrevdev.
It presents the action ofpraying as a process (note that Demosthenes, through
Tivas euxas, appears to ask about its constituent parts). A corresponding direct
speech would have impf. ntxeto.
(94) d0T1s & dikveito ThHv Trapd& Baoidgws Trpds avTOv Trdvtas OUT SiaTiPeis
A&qreméyTreTO OoTe AUTH UAAAOv oiAous eivan7) BaorAci. (Xen. An. 1.1.5)
Whoever came to him from the king, he always treated all of them in such
a way that they were more devoted to him than to the king, and then sent
them away. Present participle referring to a repeated action. S1aTiOeis is not
necessarily simultaneous with dtretréutreto.
(95) otto pév ExdTEpo1 VIKaV TEiouv. (Thuc. 1.55.1)

In this way, both sides claimed victory. Declarative infinitive with resultative
meaning ( that they had won ), specific to the verb vindo.
33.61 Perfect-stem forms of some verbs maybe present-like ( 33.36) or intensive

( 33.37), in addition to indicating simultaneity:
(96) 6 Sé DiAavds SeB1005 ut yevntai tadta... expéper cis TO oTPATEUUA Adyov STI...
(Xen. An. 5.6.17)
Silanus, afraid that this might happen,carried a report to the camp,that...
Present-like perfect participle.
(97) 2Q. otkotv éav yév oUTOS éupevn, yeynSas datrépyeta éx Tot Bektpou 6
Trointns: eav SE eEareipOT] ... tev@eT aUTOS TE Kail oi ETaipol. :: DA. Kal pada.::
2Q. SfAdv ye Sti OvXY ws UTrepgpovotvtes ToU émiTNSeUyaTos, GAA as
teBaupaKotes. (Pl. Phdr. 258b)
(Socrates:) Isn t it the case that if this motion is carried, the author leaves the
theatre greatly pleased, but if it is stricken, he himself and his friends are
agerieved? :: (Phaedrus:) Certainly :: (Socrates:) Obviously not because they
look downon the pursuit, but because they greatly admireit. Intensive perfect
participles.
33.62 Finally, future-stem forms always express posteriority, but may have additional
nuancessuchasresult, purpose,or likelihood, particularly in relative clauses and
participles (also 50.24-5, 52.41, 52.49 n.1):
(98) Kai avtdv ula pév és TleAotrévvnoov dyeTto, TrpgoPeis Gyouoa oitrep Ta ...
opeTepa ppdoouow éT1 év éATrioweiot. (Thuc. 7.25.1)
Oneof these (ships) went to the Peloponnese, carrying ambassadors who
were to describe the hopeful state of their affairs. The future indicative in
a relative clause expresses purpose.
(99) tois otpatnyois TO pév évOUUNUa yapiev é5dxe1 civai, TO 8 Epyov &Suvatov-
TIoav yap oi KwAUVOOVTES TrEpav TrOAAO} iTrTrEis, OT EUBUS TOIs TIPwTOIS OUSEV GV
émréTpetrov ToUTwv Troieiv. (Xen. An. 3.5.12)
It seemed to the generals that the plan was appealing but impossible in
practice; for there were people on the other side (of the river) who would
stop them, many horsemen, who would immediately prevent even the first
comers from carrying out any part of the plan. The future participle (with
article) expresses likelihood/ability.
Aspectual Interpretation in Temporally Fixed Contexts
33.63 There are many constructions, both in main and subordinate clauses, which have
a fixed temporal reference, in particular an absolute or relative future reference.
For instance, an imperative like Close the door necessarily expresses an action
which is located in the future (the door is not closed yet at the moment of
speech). An expression of purpose suchas He closed the door in order to have
privacynecessarily refers to a situation (having privacy) which is located after
the action expressed in the matrix verb (closing the door; for the term matrix
verb , 339.2-4).
33.64 In Greek, the following constructions necessarily refer to the future:

the imperative ( 34.19);
- hortatory subjunctive, prohibitive subjunctive, and deliberative subjunctive
( 34.6-8);
the optative in realizable wishes ( 34.14);
(usually) the potential optative (34.13).
The following subordinate constructions refer to actions which are for the most
part posterior to that of the matrix verb:
- (most) fear clauses ( 43);
- effort clauses ( 44);
purpose clauses ( 45);
(most) result clauses ( 46);
most dynamicinfinitives (after verbs meaning command , want , etc., 51.8-17).
33.65 In each of these constructions, both present-stem and aorist-stem forms may
be used (perfect-stem forms are considerably more rare). As the temporal
reference of the verb form used in such constructions is predetermined by
the construction itself, the different stems are in aspectual opposition only.
The choice for one form or the other depends on the speaker s subjective
choices in presenting an action as complete or incomplete, given various
possible connotations of these two aspects (repeated vs. single actions, general
procedures vs. specific instances, ongoing/interruptable processes vs. unin-
terruptable actions, etc., as well as interpretations such as conative , ingres-
sive, complexive , etc.):
(100) oxotreite 51) Kai Aoyioao?év Uyiv attois, ci... (Dem. 20.87)
Consider the case and decide for yourselves, whether ... The jurors are
invited to engage in a process ofdeliberation (present imperative) and then to
reach a single, definitive conclusion (aorist imperative).
(101) eitroouev 4 oryduev; (Eur. Ion 757)
Should we speak up or keep quiet? Deliberative subjunctives, both referring to
a possible action in thefuture: the aorist subjunctive eitrwyev expresses a single
action presented as a complete whole, namely a single utterance the speaker
could make which would irrevocably interrupt the continuoussilence (present
subjunctive oryduev).
(102) Setoetan & Uydv ottos pév UTrép Tis UNTPds ... StTrws Siknv wt SO... -
éya & yas Utrép To Tratpds Towpot Tebvedtos aitotua, Strws Travti
TPOTTD B86: ULEIs SE, StTras 518001 Siknv of AdikoUvtTEes, TOUTOU ye EveKa Kal
Sixaotai éyéveode Kai éxAnOnte. (Antiph. 1.23)
This man will plead with you, on behalf of his mother, so that she may not be
punished. But I ask you, for the sake of my dead father, that she maybyall
meansbe punished. And you have become and beencalled judges for this very
reason: so that wrongdoers maybe punished. Subjunctives in purpose clauses
(introduced by é1raws, 45.2-3). The speaker twice uses the aorist subjunctive
(Sinnv) 56 to refer to a single, concrete instance ofpunishment, without regard
for the process or duration of these instances. However, he uses the present
subjunctive &15é01 dinnv to refer to the punishment that criminals shouldface in
general (as a repeated procedure, with no regard to its end-point).
(103) Kai 84 ogi Trpds Tatita ES0Ee TH KTpuKi THv TroAeulav ypaoGa1, 5dfav SE o
ETTOLEUV TOLOVdE: OKwWS O 2ATTAPTINTNS KTPUE TPCONaivor T1 AaKkedaipovioiol,
étroieuv Kai oi Apyeion TauTO Toto. (Hdt. 6.77.3)
Therefore, in the face of this they decided to make use of the enemies herald,
and they carried out their decision in the following way: whenever the
Spartiate herald signalled anything to the Spartans, the Argives did the same.
(104) Gua fudpn 5& és Adyous TrpoEKaAgeTO TOUs Bapxaious. of 5 doTrTAaDTAés>s
UTIT}KOUOGY, 5 6 ogi Eade OUOAOYIN yPpTOacGal. THY SE OpoAoyinv EtroieUVTO
Toinvde Tiva, ... (Hdt. 4.201.2)
Whenday came,he invited the Barcaeansto talks. They readily consented,
(and they talked) until they decided to come to an agreement.
The agreement they made was somethinglike this,...
Thepresent infinitive xpGo@anin (103) refers to a line ofconduct, to be carried out
in repeated actions. The aorist infinitive yproaobain (104) by contrast, receives
an ingressive interpretation, in that it refers to the reaching ofan agreement.
Also cf. (6) (7) above.
Note 1: Observe that, despite the fact that these constructions normally have a future/
posterior reference, future stem formsare not used. The main exceptionare effort clauses ,
which also necessarily have a posterior time reference, but are construed with a future
indicative (or optative); 44. For the use of the future infinitive after éAtriZw hope, expect,
Utmioxvéouar promise, and duvupi swear, state under oath, 751.31.
Note 2: Perfect-stem formsare rare in each of these constructions, apart from formsofverbs
whichtypically occur only in the perfect stem (such as 01a; 33.36). When perfect forms do
appear, the stem hasits typical aspectual value(s), for which 33.6-7, 33.34 -5. For the
perfect imperative, also 34.21.
33.66 For further discussion and examples, 38.30 (imperatives and subjunctives in
commands), 38.41 (wishes), 51.15 (dynamic infinitives).
34
The Verb: Mood
Introduction to Moods
34.1 A distinction should be drawn between moodsasthey are used in main clauses
and moods which are grammatically required in various types of subordinate
clause. The moods used in subordinate clauses are treated in 40.5-16 and in the
relevant chapters, 41-50. An overview ofall uses of moodsis provided in 54.
34.2 The various moodsof the Greek verb are used in main clauses to express different
communicative functions (for more on this, >38) and different attitudes on the part
of the speaker towardsan action, in termsofits reality or desirability. For example:
(1) KaAdv 16 TrdSyoa Sati Teds KAAF SiSws. (Eur. Cyc. 419)
Youoffer me a fine drink on top of a fine meal. Si5ws = 2 sg. pres. indicative act.:
the speakerstates, asserts that the addressee is giving.
(2) rAgwv 5 TOV oKUgov Bidou dvov. (Eur. Cyc. 556)
Just give me the cup whenitis full. Si50u = 2 sg. pres. imperative act.: the
speaker orders the addressee to give.
(3) ® Zeb, SiS0ins Toio1 ToioUToLowev. (Soph. OC 642)
Zeus, may you provide such men well. &:S50ins = 2 sg. pres. optative act.: the
speaker wishes, hopes that the addressee may give.
34.3 The nuances expressed by an individual moodin a main clause depend on various
factors:
the type of sentence in which the verb stands (declarative, interrogative,
directive, >38.1);
the presence of the modal particle é&v ( 34.4);
the presence of a negative (ov, un);
the person of the verb (first, second, third);
the tense/aspect of the verb;
other contextual factors.
34.4 Several ofthe Greek moods may be combinedwith the modal particle &v. The precise
function of this particle varies depending on the mood with which it is combined
(for an overview, 55). In main clauses, the basic function of constructions with évis
to qualify the likelihood of the realization of the action. For example:
34.4-7 Indicative in Main Clauses 439
(4) tooottwm & &v Sikaidtepov ovTos atroPdvor Th&v ek TOV otTpatoTrédav
peuydovtov. (Lycurg. 1.131)
This man would die that much morejustly than those who havedeserted the
camp. Optative + dv; potential construction, 34. 13; it is (still) possible that the
action will occur.
(5) ei Td Kai TO étroinoev &vEpatros OUTOGI, OUK &v dtréBavev. (Dem. 18.243)
If this man had donethis or that, he would not have died. Indicative + dv;
counterfactual construction, >34.16; it is no longer possiblefor the action to be
undone,i.e. not to occur.
Note 1: dv is not combined with the primary indicative, imperative, or future optative. For
subj. + &v in subordinate clauses, 40.7-9; for inf. + &v, 51.27; for ppl. + &v, 52.7.
Indicative in Main Clauses
34.5 The indicative is used in statements and assertions of fact (or expressions of
belief presented as fact), and questions about facts, concerningactionsin the past,
present or future. For details of the use of the different tenses of the indicative,
33.11-55. For the indicative used in interrogatives to express requests, com-
mands or suggestions (ot + second-person fut. ind.; (ti) ot + first- or second-
personpres./aor. ind.), 38.32-3.
For the modal indicative (in counterfactual statements and unrealizable
wishes), ~34.15-18.
Subjunctive in Main Clauses
Hortatory and Prohibitive Subjunctive (in Commands/Requests)
34.6 Hortatory subjunctive: in the first person (usually plural), the subjunctive is used
both in positive commandsand negative commands(with 7):
(6) GAN ioupev és Sduous. (Eur. El. 787)
Butlet us go into the palace.
(7) iScpev St) ef T1 Aéyouow. (Pl. Chrm. 159b)
Let us see if there is something in whattheysay.
(8) Kai pt) tepldapev UBpioBeioay tiv AaxedSaipova. (Isoc. 6.108)
Andlet us not overlook the fact that Sparta has been humiliated.
34.7 Prohibitive subjunctive: in the second, and occasionally the third, person, to
express a prohibition the aorist subjunctive with u7 is used (not the aor. imp.; in
the present stem prohibitions are expressed by py + imp., 38.26):
(9) pi otv TrpoSdéta1 yévnobe Uudv attoav. (Thuc. 3.40.7)
Donot, then, becometraitors to your own cause.
440 34.7-11 The Verb: Mood
(10) GAAG pt LW dofis | épfuov. (Soph. Phil. 486-7)

No, don t leave me behind alone.
Deliberative Subjunctive (in Questions)

34.8 The deliberative (or dubitative ) subjunctive:first-person subjunctives are used
in questions, to express doubt about what action to take (in specifying questions,
38.4), or whether or not to proceed with a certain action (in yes/no-questions
and alternative questions, 38.4). The negative is un:
(11) oipon, Ti Spcoa; Troi pUyw UNnTtpds yépas; (Eur. Med. 1271)
Woe, what should I do? Whereshould I flee from my mother s hands?
(12) trdtepov Biav pdpev 7} pt pdpev eivor; (Xen. Mem. 1.2.45)
Are weto call this violence, or aren't we?
Note 1: The deliberative subjunctive is also used in indirect questions, 42.8.

Note 2: In dialogue, deliberative subjunctives are sometimes introduced by BowAe/BouAeobe
or 6éAe15 do you want ...; in such cases the speaker asks the addressee whether he/she should
do something:
(13) BovAeoBe Sita koi#} | okapouev ApxéSquov; (Ar. Ran. 416-17)
If you want, shall we make fun of Archedemustogether?
Further Particulars
34.9 The combination od ph + subjunctive expresses an emphatic denial, a strong belief that
something will not be the case:
(14) Kot pt TroTé cou Trap& Ta&s Kdvvas OUPTOw UNS écroTrépSw. (Ar. Vesp. 394)
And [ll neverever piss or fart on your fence.
(15) ot ph widnto. (Soph. Phil. 103)
Hewill certainly not obey.
34.10 The combination py + subjunctive (the construction of fear clauses, +43) is sometimes used
in independent sentences to express an anxious, cautious or tentative assertion (negative un
ot). This occurs primarily in Plato:
(16) pt) d&ypoixdtepov 7 Td dAnGés eitreiv. (Pl. Grg. 462e)
I suspectit s too rudeto tell the truth.
(17) G&AA& ut ov TotT 7 xaAeTIOv, @ GvBpes, Pdvatov expuyEiv, GAA TTOAU YaAeTT@TEpOV
trovnpiav. (Pl. Ap. 39a)
But, gentlemen,the difficult thing is perhaps not to escape death; rather it may be much
more difficult to escape wickedness.
34.11 The difference between the use of present and aorist subjunctives in each of the constructions
aboveis purely one of aspect, 33.63- 5, 38.30. The perfect subjunctive is rarely used in these
34.11-13 Optative in Main Clauses 441
constructions(but the perfect has its normal aspectual value(s) whenitis, e.g. ueuvaoueba let us
remember, hortatory pf. subj.).
34.12 In classical Greek (unlike in Homer) the subjunctive is not used together with &v in main clauses,
only in subordinate clauses. For the uses of &v + subjunctive in subordinate clauses, 40.7-9.
Optative in Main Clauses
Potential Optative with av (in Statements/Questions)
34.13 The optative with &v is used to indicate that the realization of an action is possible:
the potential construction. This construction is used to express a range of nuances:
to describe actions that might hypothetically occur, or to make a weak asser-
tion (i.e. to state something more cautiously than with the indicative):
(18) ei Sointe Upéas adtoUs Baoildi... ExaoTos dv Lewy &pyor yiis EAAGSos SdvTOS
Baoidgos. (Hdt. 7.135.2)
Should you deliver yourselves to the king, each of you would rule over land in
Greece at the bequest of the king. For the combination with ei + opt. >49.8-9.
(19) dpetr pev dpa, ws Eorkev, Uyiei&k TE T1Is Ei
&V KAI KAAAOS Kai EvEEia Wuxiis. (PI.
Resp. 444d)
Virtue, then, would - as it appears - be a kind of health and beauty and good
condition of the soul.
(20) yvoins & &v St1 TOE oTas Eyer. (Xen. Cyr. 1.6.21)
You might/could/may acknowledgethatthis is so.
the negative potential optative (with ot) expresses an emphatic negation:it is
not even possible that the action could occur:
(21) mpds Biav 8 ovK &v AdPors. (Soph. Phil. 103)
You can nevertake him byforce.
- the second-person potential optative can express a cautious command or
request; the first-person potential optative can indicate that someone cautiously
takes permission to do something, or complies with an order or request:
(22) Adyors &v ei 11 THVB Exers UTrépTepov. | ::... | Ad&eo, KeAeUEIs yap, Tov ék MpEVds
Adyov. (Aesch. Cho. 105-7)
If you have a better way than this, please explain it (lit. you might say it ). ::
I will voice my inmost thoughts, since you bid me to. Note ueAeveis, which
makes clear that the potential optative is felt to be a request.
(23) ME. Aéy....:: OP. Agyow &v Sn. (Eur. Or. 638-40)
(Menelaus:) Speak ... :: (Orestes:) I will go ahead and speak, then.
Note imperative Aéy , to which Aéyoyr dvis a reaction.
Note 1: The difference between the use of present, aorist and (muchless frequently) perfect
optatives in the potential construction is purely aspectual, >33.63-5.
Cupitive Optative (in Wishes)
34.14 The optative without &v is used in wishes (cupitive optative), often with ci@e, ci
yép or ws. The negativeis pn:
(24) ei yap yevoipny, téxvov, dvti oot vexpds. (Eur. Hipp. 1410)
MayI die (lit. become a corpse ) in yourplace, child.
(25) & trai, yévoio Tratpds eUTUXéoTeEpos, | Ta 8 GAN Spoios. (Soph. Aj. 550-1)
Child, I wish that you become morefortunate than your father, but equal in
all other respects.
(26) pt Tei KoKe | 1r&Borev. (Soph. Ant. 928-9)
Maythey suffer no moreevil.
Note 1: For an overview of constructions used to express various kinds of wishes, 38.38-42.
Note 2: The difference between the use of present and aorist optatives in wishes is purely
aspectual, >33.63-5.
The perfect optative is rarely used in wishes, but has its normal aspectual value(s) whenit
is (e.g. teOvainv I wish I were dead).
Modal (Secondary) Indicative in Main Clauses
34.15 The secondary indicative - i.e. the indicative of past tenses (with an augment):
imperfect, aorist or pluperfect is used in various constructions, some with &v and
some without, to express counterfactual actions (or contrary-to-fact , unreal ).
The indicative in these uses is called modal.
In Statements/Questions
34.16 The secondary indicative with &v is used in statements or questions to indicate
that an action would occur or would have occurred under certain conditions
which are/were not met. The conditions may be expressed by a conditional ¢i-
clause (49.10), a participle (52.40), an adverb, or left unexpressed:
(27) étpagav &v tatita, ei un UT Ayopdtou toutoui &tradovto. (Lys. 13.16)
They would have done these things, if they had not been destroyed bythis
man Agoratus (but they have been).
(28) ei ut Tratnp joe ,citrov dv o oUK EU ppoveiv. (Soph. Ant. 755)
Ifyou were not myfather (butyou are), I would say that you are out ofyour mind.
(29) Kai ut) yevouévns pév Kpicews trepi TOU rpdypatos Ec&Aw av. (Aeschin. 1.85)
Even if there had not been a trial about the matter (but there is a trial), he
would have been convicted.
(30) téte 5¢ aUTO TO TIPGyya dv ExpiveTo épattot. (Dem. 18.224)
At that time, the matter would be judged on its own merits.
With a negative (ot), this construction expresses that (even) if certain conditions
were/had been met, the action would not occur/have occurred:
34.16-17 Modal (Secondary) Indicative in Main Clauses 443
(31) uh Katnyophoavtos Aicxivou undév Ew Tis ypagtis oudav éya Adyov ovdéva
éTroioupny Etepov. (Dem.18.34)
If Aeschines had not gone beyondthe written indictment in his accusation
(but he has), 1 would not be makinga single other argument.
(32) ciynoe 8aiftip ... Onpdv 8ovxK dv tKouoas Bory. (Eur. Bacch. 1084-5)
Theair fell silent, and you would not have heard the shout of wild animals (if
you had been there, but you weren't).
Note 1: The term counterfactual should not be taken to mean that the action expressed by the
indicative + &vis itself necessarily contrary toreality: in the case of (29), for instance, the accused
doesin fact get convicted; in (32), the addressee in fact did not hear the shouts of animals. Rather,
the conditions under which the action would have occurred are contrary to fact.
In mostcases, however,it is implied that the action expressed by indicative + dvis itself
also contrary to fact: this is the case, for instance, in (27) (they did in fact not succeed), (30)
(the matter was in fact not decided on its own merits), and (31) (Demosthenesis in fact
digressing). In somecases, by extension, the counterfactual construction is used to argue that
the conditions under which the action would have occurred must be contrary to fact, since
the action expressed by the indicative + &v did not occur:
(33) Kkaitor otto, Ei Hoav &vBpes c&yaoi, as ot ors, OUK dv ToTe Tata étracyov. (Pl. Grg.
516e)
Andyet these men,ifthey had been good men- as you claim would never have suffered
these things (but they did suffer those things, so they cannot have been good men).
Note 2: Examples such as (32) are often considered a distinct type (the so-called past potential )
in grammars a translation with could/might (not) is possible. This occurs most often in cases
with a generic or second-person subject, and in questions(e.g. ti &v étroinoev; what could he have
done?). There is no real difference between such cases and other counterfactual statements: the
conditions under which a certain action would or could occurare notrealized.
Note 3: The difference between the imperfect andtheaorist indicative in this construction is one
ofaspect. In practice, the aorist indicative usually refers to something which would have happened
in the past (cf. (27), (29), (32), but contrast (28)), while the imperfect usually refers to something
which would be occurring in the present(cf. (31)), less frequently in the past (cf. (30), (33)).
The pluperfect indicative is much less frequently used, but tends to refer to a state which
would exist in the present under certain counterfactual conditions:
(34) un yap dporoyotlvtav Ta&v dvbpaTrdSeov otTds T el EiSans Gv actreAoyeito ... kai fh UnTNP
auto amAAaKto av tautTis aitias. (Antiph. 1.8)
If the slaves had denied this, he would be mounting his defence based on sure knowl-
edge, and his mother would be clear (would (already) have been cleared) of this charge.
34.17 In some types of statement with a counterfactual nuance, &v is omitted:

- The imperfect of impersonal verbs expressing necessity, obligation, or
appropriateness (e.g. 251, (2)xpriv, KaAds eixe, etc.) can be used without &v
to indicate that an action contrary to the one occurring is or was
required:
(35) @e1 ta évéyupa Tote AaPeiv. (Xen. An. 7.6.23)

Weoughtto havetaken the fortified positions then (but we didn't).
(36) eiev, Ti o1y&s; oUK éxpty o1yayv, téxvov. (Eur. Hipp. 297)
Well now,whydo you keepsilent? You shouldn't besilent, my child (butyou are).
Thefirst-person imperfect BouAopnv I would want/would have wanted is normally
used without &v, referring to a desire for an action which does not/did not occur:
(37) @BouAduny ... thv BouAty Tous Trevtakooious ... UTS THY EpeoTHKdTwV dpbds
SioikeioPai: (Aeschin. 3.2)
I would wish that the Council of the Five Hundred were properly conducted
by those who preside over them (but it isn t).
The imperfect of péAAw be about/going to (+ inf., >51.33) can be used without
&v to refer to an action boundorlikely to happen in a given counterfactual
scenario:
(38) ét1 S& Kai f Etépa Buydtnp dvéKSotos EyeAAev EoeoOar: tis yap av Trote ...
ZAaBev S&trpoikov; ([Dem.] 59.8)
Moreover, his other daughter would havebeenlikely to remain unmarried. For
who would ever have taken a woman without a dowry?
Note 1: In the first two of these uses, the necessity/obligation (51, (@)ypzv, etc.) or desire
(2BouAdunv) itself does/did exist, but its target is/was not realized: in (35) the fortified
positions were not taken, in (36) Phaedra is silent; in (37) the Council is not properly
presided over.
Whenimperfects such as 251 are themselves combined with dv, this indicates that the
necessity or obligation itself does/did not exist (i.e. these are regular counterfactuals):
(39) ei pév trou Hoav TreTroiSeupevor, Ser &v Tov Etr1xE1lpovta avtois avtayavilecOar ... iévon
as ét &bAntas. (PI. Alc. 1.119b)
I suppose that if they were well-educated, anyone attempting to contend against them
would need to go as if against athletes (but they aren't well-educated, so there's no need).
Note 2: Observe that these uses mayrefer to counterfactual scenarioseither in the present,as
in (36)-(37), or the past, as in (35) and (38).
In Unrealizable Wishes
34.18 The secondaryindicative is used without &v, but always together with eitherei@e or
ei yap, to express unrealizable wishes (for something desirable that can no longer
occur, also 38.39, with n.1). The negative is u7:
(40) yap TooatTHy Sivaeixov. (Eur. Alc. 1072)
Would that I had such power (but I don t).
(41) ci@e oon, & TlepixAets, TOTE Uveyevounv. (Xen. Mem. 1.2.46)
If only, Pericles, I had met you then (but I didn t).
34.18-20 Imperative 445
(42) ei8e o eiBe oe | ptytrot ciSduav. (Soph. OT 1217-18)

Would, would that I had never seen you (but I did). For eiSouav (= eiddunv),
25.46-7.
Note 1: The distinction between aorist indicatives and imperfects in such wishes is one of
aspect. In practice, the aorist indicative is used in unrealizable wishes aboutthe past, as in
(41)-(42), the imperfect usually in wishes aboutthe present, as in (40), sometimes in wishes
about the past. The pluperfect seems not to be used in unrealizable wishes.
Note 2: Unrealizable wishes may also be expressed by a form of SgeAov + inf. For this
construction andall other possible constructions of wishes, >38.38-42.
Imperative
34.19 The imperative moodis used in second- or third-person directives (commands,
requests, etc.). The negative (for prohibitions) is un:
(43) todté por 1rp& Eov, téxvov, | kal ut Bod&Suve. (Soph. Phil. 1399-1400)
Dothis for me, child, and do notdelay.
(44) Aeyétoo ei T1 Exe1 TolotTov. (Pl. Ap. 34a)
Let him say if he has something ofthat nature.
In second-person prohibitions, the imperative is used only in the present stem (the
prohibitive subjunctive is used for prohibitions with the aorist stem, 38.26): thus
tut) troinoov (with aor. imp.) is not used.
34.20 The imperative can express a variety of nuances: peremptory commands,polite

requests, suggestions, etc. Such nuances depend onthe contentof the directive and
on the context in whichit is uttered (the relative authority/status of the speaker
and addressee,their relationship, the level of imposition on the addressee inherent
in the requested action, etc.). The Greek imperative is thus not inherently impolite.
In somecases, the nuance expressed by an imperative is not properly directive:
in expressionsof (often sarcastic) concession or resignation:
(45) gqutrdAnuon KéKxtrepdptiopa tréAan. | KepSaivet ... ei BoUAcobe ... | Tage 8
ékelvov ouyi KpUyete. (Soph. Ant. 1036-9)
I have long been sold out and traded away. Well, go on making yourprofit,if
you want: you will not bury him!
in greetings (specifically imperatives of yaipw: yoipe/yaipete hello/goodbye,
xaipéto farewell to him, etc.) and curses (e.g. B&AN és Kdpaxas go to hell!).
Also 38.2.
Note 1: For an overview of constructions used to express commands, directions,

exhortations, etc., and for the differences between such constructions, 38.25-37.
446 34,21-22 The Verb: Mood
34.21 The difference between present and aorist imperatives is purely one of aspect, 33.63-5, 38.30.
The perfect imperative occurs infrequently, except with a few isolated verbs (iof: with oi8a
know, péuvnoo with péuvnuca remember), and in the third person passive. The perfect hasits
normal aspectual value(s) in the imperative:
(46) c&AA& Trepi LEV TOUTAV TooatT& Lol Elpnobe: TAA§ etrdverun SOev atreAitrov. (Isae. 5.12)
But concerning these topics, this much must suffice (let this much have been said): I will
nowreturn to whereI left off. The perfect refers to a completed state.
Overview of the Uses of Moods in Main Clauses

34.22 The following table gives a summary of the uses described above:
mood meanings / uses negative

indicative statements and questions about present, past and ou
future
subjunctive hortatory :: first person exhortations un)
prohibitive : second person prohibitions, with yn,
aorist only
deliberative : first person doubtful questions
emphatic denials with ov uh
doubtful assertions with py
optative -&v cupitive in wishes UT)

+ &v potential in statements and questions of ou
possibility, cautious assertions
modal -&v unrealizable wishes (with ci@e or ci y&p) ou
(secondary)
indicative + counterfactual statements and questions ou
~ &v impf. of impersonal verbs (251, etc.): unfulfilled necessity,etc.
2BouAduny I would (have) want(ed)
tueAAov I would (have) be(en) going/likely to
imperative second andthird person commandsandprohibitions py
(second person prohibitions: pres. imp. only)
35
The Verb: Voice
Introduction
Basic Terminology
Voice: Active and Middle-Passive Meanings
35.1 The category of voice pertains to different ways in which the subject of a verb
form is affected by the action. The Greek voice-system derives from a basic two-
way distinction:
- A voice which is traditionally called active: this voice may be considered
semantically neutral, in that it does not inherently say anything about the
affectedness of the subject:
trapaoKeucle1 he makes (something) ready, he prepares (something)
- The so-called middle-passive voice, which expresses that the subject is some-
howaffected by the action; the precise way in which the subject is affected may
vary, so that a range of different meanings may be expressed bythis voice, for
example:
tTrapaoKeucletar he makes (something) ready for himself (the subject benefitsfrom
the action: indirect-reflexive meaning);
he gets ready, he prepares himself (the subject performs the action
on himself: direct-reflexive meaning);
he is madeready, he is being prepared(the action is performed
on the subject by someoneelse: passive meaning).
The different possible meanings of the middle-passive voice are treated below,
35.8-29.
Note 1: That the active voice is neutral means that the subject of an active verb can be
affected by the action: in fact, some active verbs express actions in which the subject is very
clearly affected, e.g. dto@vijoxei he dies, waoye1 KaKa he suffers evil.
Whenthere is an opposition between active and middle-passive forms of the same verb
(e.g. Tapaokeudet Vs. TapacKkeudeta), the active verb nearly always takes an object or other
complement ( >35.8-16).
448 35.2 The Verb: Voice
Active, Middle and Passive Forms
35.2 In the present and perfect stems,all different possible meanings of the middle-
passive voice are expressed bya single set of forms (middle-passive forms).
However, in the aorist and future stems, different possible meanings of the
middle-passive voice are realized by different forms. Traditionally, a distinction is
then made between middle forms andpassive forms:
Trapeokevaoe(v) (3 sg. aor. he made (something) ready (active meaning: no
ind. active form) indication of the affectedness of the subject);
Trapeoxeucoato (3 sg. aor. he made (something) ready for himself (indirect-
ind. middle form) reflexive meaning), 35.8-10;
he madehimself ready (direct-reflexive meaning),
35.11-12;
TrapeoKkeuco@n (3 sg. aor. he was madeready (passive meaning), >35.13-16.
ind. passive form)
Since no morphological distinction exists between middle and passive formsin the
present and perfect stems, how to interpret them depends on the context, e.g.:
(1) of Kopivéio1... trapeoxeudlovto ... vedv otdAov. (Thuc. 1.31.1)
The Corinthians prepared an expeditionary force of ships for themselves.
Indirect-reflexive meaning: the equivalentform of the aorist would be middle.
(2) Kopi@iwv vijes tapeoxeuclovto tpiaKkovta. (Thuc. 1.27.2)
Thirty ships of the Corinthians were prepared. Passive meaning: the equivalent
form of the aorist would be passive.
For moredetails on the different forms expressing voice, 35.5 7 below.
Note 1: The terms active , middle and passive are used traditionally to describe both
morphological distinctions and distinctions of meaning. This is often unfortunate, since, for
example, notall passive forms express passive meaning(e.g. hyép@nv I woke up, Bouaneny
I preferred; for these verbs, 35.17 and 35.26, respectively), and because some verbs have
distinct forms expressing distinct meanings which nonetheless belong to the same
morphological category (e.g. otnoa I made stand and zotnv I came to stand, both
morphologically active ; for an overview of this verb, 35.35).
Another term for the meaning of a particular voice is diathesis (GouAn@nv then has
passive voice morphologically, but no passive diathesis).
Below,several different meanings of the middle-passive voice are distinguished, and these
are linked to the forms that may express them.
35.3-4 Introduction 449
Verbs with and without an Object; Causative Verbs
35.3 A useful distinction for the interpretation of Greek verbs with respect to voice is that
between verbs which normally take an object or complement, and those which do not:
- Verbs that take an object in the accusative, or a complement in the genitive or
dative, express actions in which two(or more) entities are involved, usually because
one somehowaffects the other. These verbs may appearin the passive ( 35.13-15
below): e.g. tUTttw hit, tapaokeudéla make ready, ypagw write, pidéw love,
Seikvuul show, display, ét1BouAeva + dat. plot against, katepy&Copanfinish, achieve.
Verbs that do not take an object or complementexpress actions in which only
one entity is involved; they take only a subject, and cannot normally appearin
the passive: e.g. dtrofvijoKw die, vooéw be sick, BaoiAeUw be king, Baiveo go, walk,
eit be, Epxouai go, come, yiyvoyo become, be born.
Note 1: This distinction is traditionally described as one between transitive and intransitive
verbs. In manycurrentlinguistic treatments, however, transitivity is viewed as a scale rather
than a binary opposition, and there are other reasons whythe terminology is not always helpful
in describing Greek verbs:
transitive is a term often reserved for verbs which take a direct object in the accusative,
which wrongly suggests that Greek verbs taking a complementin the genitive or dative are
intransitive;
there are some Greek verbs, such as poBéoum fear, which do take an object in the
accusative but which should not be seen as properly transitive (for this verb, 35.19;
note that passive aorist 2poBy8nv meansIfeared, never I was feared).
In this grammar, weuse intransitive (intr.) only to clarify the sense of some English verbs
used as translations of Greek ones, e.g. ti\kw (cause to) melt vs. thkouou melt (intr.). For the
difference between thx and thKopo, 35.17 (and the next section).
35.4 Numerous middle-passive verbs which do not take an object or complement, and
which express a change of physical or mental state, have an active counterpart
which doestake an object; this counterpart expresses that an entity brings about
that change in anotherentity. Such active counterparts are called causative verbs.
For example:
éyelpouar wake up causative éyeipw cause to wake up, wake, rouse
Yotauoa come to stand causative iotnu make stand, set up
TrKoua melt causative t1)Kw cause to melt, melt something
puopar grow (up) causative pUw cause to grow
paivoyai appear, seem causative paive cause to appear, show
450 35.4-5 The Verb: Voice
There are also somecausative verbs whose middle-passive counterpart does take
an object or complement:
poPéouai + acc. be afraid of causative poBéw makeafraid, terrify
UlpvioKopal + gen. remember causative pipvijoKxw cause to remember, remind
Note 1: The middle-passive formsofall these verbs tend to occur more frequently than the
causative active ones.
The Morphology of Voice
Voice Distinctions in the Different Tense Stems
35.5 Eachofthe different tense-aspect stems has two or moredistinct conjugationsthat

differ in their expression of voice:
present stem ( 12):
active conjugations in -w (thematic) e.g. tapacKeudlw, &yo, ypaqw,
and -u1 (athematic) paives, iotnui, SiScp1
middle-passive conjugations in -yo (thematic e.g. tapacKeudZopa, &youa,
and athematic) ypaqopat, paivopa, iotapan,
didopual
aorist stems ( 13-14):

active conjugations in -(o)a ((pseudo-) e.g. tapeoKxevaca, tyyayov,
sigmatic) and -v or -xa (the- Eypawa, onva, Zotnoa and
matic and root) EoTHV, EOWKa
middle conjugations in -unv ((pseudo-) e.g. Tapeoxevacduny, hhyayduny,
sigmatic, thematic and root) éypawauny, éonvauny,
eoTNOauNV, Esounv
passive conjugations in -@nv and -nv .g. TrapeokeuaoOny, Hxeny,
(@n-aorists and n-aorists) éypdony, éodvénv and éodvny,
EoTabny, E508nv
- future stems ( 15-16):
active conjugations in -ow/-& .8. TAPACKEUGOW, AEw, ypayoo,
(sigmatic and Attic) paver, SeiEw, oTHTW, S00
middle conjugationsin -copai/ e.g. TapacKkeudooual, &ouat,
-otpar (sigmatic and ypayoual, pavotpan,
Attic) SeiEoua, oTrooua, Sacouar
passive conjugations in -6éjoopa1 e.g. TapackevacEnoopal,
and -tjoouo YPAgTCOLAl, Pavnoopal,
oTtabnooual, So8joovnat
perfect stems ( 18-19):

active conjugations in -a (kappa, e.g. tapeoKxevaKa, Nya, yeypaga, Tepnva
aspirated, mixed) and trépayxa, 5 5e1ya, ZotnKa, 545aKxa
middle-passive conjugation in -pou .8. TAPECKEVAOUAL, TYYUQL, YeyPaLYOL,
TEMAOYAL, SEdErypyar, EoTAYaI, SE5opa1
Note 1: As these examples show,the voice system of someverbs is very complex: torn: has
two morphologically active aorists and a total of four different aorists (Zotnoa, ~otny,
gotnoduny, éotabnv); paive has four different aorists too (Epnva, éonvdauny, éocvny, éoavnv),
as well as two morphologically active perfects (1répayxa, Trépnva). For an overview of these
specific verbs, 35.35.
Verbs with Only One Voice; Verbs Switching Voice between Tense Stems
35.6 Some verbs have only one morphological voice: for instance, do@evéw be weak,
é0éAw be willing, have only active forms.
Verbs with only middle-passive forms (much more frequent than verbs with
only active forms) may be further distinguished with respect to the type of
conjugation they havein the aorist (and future):
Middle-only verbs (media tantum): verbs that have middle formsin the aorist
(and future), e.g. hyéoucn lead, guide, consider (aor. fyynod&unv), kTdopuan acquire
(aor. éxtTnodunv), unxavdouacontrive (aor. gunyavnoduny).
Passive-only verbs (passiva tantum): verbs that have only passive formsin the
aorist (and future), e.g. BoUAouor want, prefer (aor. ZBouASnv), SUvapoan be able
(aor. 25uvtOnv), poBéopuan be afraid (aor. epoBnOnv).
For more details on middle-only verbs and passive-only verbs, 35.21-9 below.
Note 1: Middle-only and passive-only verbs are often grouped together and then called
deponent verbs (a term borrowed from Latin grammar): it is useful, however, to distinguish
between the two categories, since they tend to express different kinds of meanings.
Note2: Several passive-only verbs do have middle formsin the future (butarestill referred to
in this grammaras passive-only ): for examples, 35.31
35.7 Manyverbs switch voice between tense stems. Note in particular the following
groups:
- A large numberofactive verbs of moving, acquiring, perceiving and saying have
a corresponding middle future, e.g. Baive go, walk (fut. Byoouat), pevyw flee
(fut. pevEoua), AopBaveo get, take (fut. Aywouc), dpdo see (fut. Syouat); cf. also
eit be (fut. Zooucn). For a fuller list of such verbs, > 15.40.
The verbs éAioxoyabe captured, puouai grow, iotapar come to stand and Svopar
dive have correspondingactive root aorists ( 13.39-50) é&Awv was captured, épuv
grew, totnv came to stand, and é5uv dived. These verbs also have corresponding
active perfects tAwKa, 1épuKa, ~oTNKa, and Sduxa. For details, 35.17, 35.28.
Note 1: Apart from éAioxoyum, each of these verbs has an active causative counterpart: pu
cause to grow, totnu make stand, set up, 5U(v)w submerge, with a corresponding sigmatic
aorist: Epuoa, EoTnoa, E5uoca.
- Several other active perfects (usually of the stem type, 18.21) correspond to
middle-passive formsin othertenses:e.g. pf. téonva (paivoyo appear, seem),pf.
a&troAwAa (dmrdAAupor perish), pf. métroi8a (treiBouo believe, obey), pt. yéyova
(yiyvouai become, be born). For details, 35.17 with n.3.
- Some suppletive verbs ( 11.13) use different voices in their different verb
stems: thus e.g. middle-passive Epyoua go, come hasactive aorist fAPov, active
épwtdo ask has middle aorist jpduny (in Attic), etc.
Middle-Passive Meanings
Indirect-Reflexive Meaning
35.8 With most verbs whoseactive forms take an object, middle-passive forms can be used -
also with an object - to indicate that the subject has a special interest in (ie. benefits
from) the action expressed by the verb. This meaningis called indirect-reflexive.
Indirect-reflexive meaningis expressed in the aorist and future by middle forms
(i.e. aorist -unv, future -ya1).
Contrast the following pairs of examples:
(3) tAcia Kai érikoUpous TrapaoKkevacdusevor SigBnoav és Thy vijoov. (Thuc. 3.85.3)
Having procured ships andallies they crossed overto the island. Middle.
(4) vautixov TrapeoKkevaCov Sti TreUwouoés Thy AgoBov. (Thuc. 3.16.3)
They prepareda fleet to send it to Lesbos. Active.
The middle rapaonevacdyuevoi in (3) indicates that the subject has prepared the
ships andalliesfor their own benefit - they will use them; the active trapeonevalov
in (4) does not express whether the subject especially benefited or not (the subjectis
here preparing the fleetfor someoneelse).
(5) ot yap Kw Tol got vids oiov of éxeivos KaTteAitreto. (Hdt. 3.34.5)
For you do not have a son yet suchas he hasleft you. Middle.
(6) xatéAitre SE TOUS Te SvVOUS Kal TOUS doFbEveas Tis oTpaTiis. (Hdt. 4.135.2)
Heleft behind the asses and those of the army who were weakened. Active.
The middle uatareitrouais used in the context of dynastic succession, as in (5).
The royal family benefits from the birth of a son which may guarantee its
continuation. In other contexts active natadsitrw is used, as in (6).
35.8-11 Middle-Passive Meanings 453
(7) e&trd dAUpgwV Tro1eUvToN oitia. (Hdt. 2.36.2)

They make food from a coarse grain. Middle.
(8) of &otol GAcup& Te Kai GAgita étroieuv. (Hdt. 7.119.2)
The townspeople made wheatand barley meal. Active.
Thefoodpreparedin (7) is used by the subject ofrovetvtai themselves; thefood in
(8) is made by the townspeople for the Persian king.
Note1: Indirect-reflexive meaningis usually easily recognizable by the presence of a direct

object, as in (3), (5) and (7).
35.9 Observethe specific meaning of the indirect-reflexive middle with verbs such as:
active middle
aipgéw take aipgouai choose
aitéw ask, demand aitéoua beg
a&troSideui give back &tro8iSopasell
ypaow write ypaqopai indict
piobde let, hire out pio8doparent (for oneself)
Tiuwpéw avenge, help (+ dat.) tipwpéopoai take revenge on (+ acc.)
tive pay, atone tivoyoi make pay, avenge, punish
xpd give an oracle xpaouai consult an oracle
Note also that compoundsof tiénu and inu occur frequently in the indirect-reflexive middle,
often with specific meanings: e.g. xatati#eyon deposit, lay aside (katati®nun put down),
trpooteuon admit, accept, allow (rpooinulet near). For other compoundsof inuw, tiénu and
lotnul, 735.17 nn.1-2, 35.27 n.3.
35.10 Passive forms of these verbs normally have passive meaning: e.g. étroi8nv was done, epuAdyOnv
was guarded. In somecases, passive forms express the passive variant of a particular indirect-
reflexive meaning: note particularly aipgw take, middle aipéoumchoose (aor. ciAdunv), passive
aipgouar be taken or (moreoften) be chosen (aor. *\pé8nv).
The perfect middle-passive of these verbs may, like the present, express both indirect-
reflexive and passive meaning: e.g. tetroinuai have done for one s own benefit (indirect-
reflexive) or have been done (passive): the passive sense is much more common.
Direct-Reflexive Meaning
35.11 Primarily with verbs that denote a habitual physical treatment, like Aovw bathe,
Kelp cut hair, koouéw adorn, d&Acipw anoint - so-called verbs of grooming -
the middle-passive voice mayindicate that the subject applies the action to himself:
direct-reflexive meaning. A few other verbs whose middle-passive voice may have
direct-reflexive meaning are trapacKeudlw prepare, yupvdalw train, otepavdw
crown, TatTw array, 5éow knead (the middle Sépoyon means masturbate).
Direct-reflexive meaning is expressed in the aorist and future by middle forms

(i.e. aorist -(o)aunv, future -copoi/-otpan).
(9) otk éAovoaTt @& Stoutrep éyéveto. (Ar. Plut. 85)
Hehasn't bathed since he was born.
(10) Utd tois popiais dtroPpeéer | otepavacdpevos KaAduo AeTrTG. (Ar. Nub.
1005-6)
Youll run races beneath theolive trees, having crowned yourself with fine reeds.
(11) peta Tod yupvdleoban HAcivavto. (Thuc. 1.6.5)
In the course of their exercise they anointed themselves.
(12) tois aicypois | tynqiotai tpotépois Bivety, | Gud58 Téws .. . Ev TOIs TPOAUPoOIC!
SepeoGar. (Ar. Eccl. 705-9)
It s been decreed that the ugly onesget to fuck first, while you haveto jerk off
in the doorway in the meantime.
Active forms of these verbs (which take an object) indicate that the action is
performed on someoneother than the subject:
(13) mpdtov pév adtov éri PAaTTAV Hyouey, | Zeit 2Aoduev. (Ar. Plut. 656-7)
First we took him to the sea, then we bathed him.
Note 1: The middle of verbs that do not belongto this limited set of verbs cannot normally
express direct-reflexive meaning: when the subject performs the action on himself this is
expressed by meansofa reflexive pronoun (éuautév,etc.). Thus toideveta cannot mean he
educates himself, Aveto. cannot mean hereleases himself (instead, this would be trondeve1
éautov, Aver Exutov). For example:
(14) fitter attov cis thy OGAaTTav. (Dem.32.6)
He throws himself into the sea.
35.12 Middles such as xeipouo, tapaoKkeuéloum, etc. may also have indirect-reflexive meaning,
for which 35.8 above; this is the only possible interpretation when these verbs are
construed with a direct object, as e.g. in (1) and (3). Passive forms of these verbs express
passive meaning: e.g. éAou@nv was bathed, éxoounfny was adorned, tapeoxeudobny was
made ready, totepavmtny was crowned. The perfect middle-passive of these verbs may,
like the present, expressall three meanings, e.g. tapeoxeUaoua have prepared X (for one s
own benefit) (indirect-reflexive), have prepared oneself (direct-reflexive), have been pre-
pared (passive).
Passive Meaning
35.13 Passive meaning occurs only with verbs which take an object in the accusative, or
sometimes with verbs that take a complementin the genitive or dative, 30.21,
30.39. The middle-passive voice in this case expresses that an action is performed
35.13-14 Middle-Passive Meanings 455
on the subject by someoneelse. The object/complementin an active construction

serves as subject in the passive construction.
Passive meaning is expressed in the aorist and future by passive forms, usually
by 8n-aorists, sometimes by n-aorists.
(15) Kai Sint&to trap hiv Tov &travta ypdvov 6 AotU@idos Kai érraidevOr Ud Tot
Tatpds Tot éuov. (Isae. 9.27)
Astyphilus lived in our house the whole time, and was brought up by my
father. traiSevw takes a direct object in the accusative: compare 6 Tratnp 6 éuds
érraidevoe Tov AotugiAov my father educated Astyphilus .
(16) ai S& Kdpon atta Hoav SeSopévai Ud TeUBou Mndooc5n. (Xen. An. 7.7.1)
Thesevillages had been given to Medosadesby Seuthes. SiScyu takes a direct
object in the accusative: compare Tautas Tas nayias E5e5aonE1 DEVENS MnBoodSn
Seuthes had given these villages to Medosades .
(17) émiBouAeuduevoi S1éG0u01 ravta Tov Piov. (Pl. Resp. 417b)
They will pass their entire life being plotted against. émiBoudAevw takes
a complement in the dative: compare émiBouAeveavtois he plots against them .
Note 1: n-aorists with passive meaning include &mnAAdynv was removed (éTraAAdtTH
remove; darnAAdcxOnv also occurs, 35.17), éBA&Bnv was damaged (PAdtrtw harm,
damage), 2ypagnv was written (ypdgw write), dpnv was flayed (Sew skin), kdtnv was
struck (xé11 hit), gppipnv was thrown (pint throw; éppip@nv also occurs), étutny was hit
(tutTo hit).
The vast majority of passive aorists are @n-aorists.
Note 2: The middle aorist of éyw have, hold and its compounds mayalso have passive
meaning:
(18) oi venvion obKétT1 dvéotnoay, GANév TEAei TOUTW ~oyovto. (Hdt. 1.31.5)
The young men did notrise again, but endedtheir lives like this (lit. were held in this
end ).
35.14 The agent (the entity controlling the action) of a passive verb is often not
expressed; it may, however, be expressed by:
utro (sometimes trapd, pds or éx) + genitive:
(19) 7 Sewov ... EAeWUBepov dvta U1rd SoUAOU GpxeoGan. (Pl. Ly. 208c)
It is really terrible as a free man to be commanded bya slave. Also cf.
(15)-(16).
- a dative of agent ( 30.50), usually with perfect passives and adjectives in -téos:
(20) d&vapvtjow tyuds Ta TOUT TreTTpayyEeva. (Xen. Hell. 2.3.30)
I will remind you of the things that have been done by him.
35.15 Someactive verbs take both an object and another complementin the accusative
( double accusative , 30.9), e.g. gpwtda tivé T1 ask something ofsomeone, aitéw
tiv& t1 demand something ofsomeone. When suchverbsare putin the passive, the
object ( someone ) is used as the subject of the passive verb, the second comple-
mentstill stands in the accusative:
(21) éteAeUTnoev ov... Tov Sijpov aitnoas Swpeds. (Din. 1.17)
Hedied without having asked the people for gifts. Active, object and comple-
ment in the accusative.
(22) év aitnGeis TOAAG Sides. (Pl. Tht. 146d)
Although you were asked for one thing, you give many. Passive, with év as
complement in the accusative.
However, with verbs that take an object and a predicative complement ( 30.10),
both constituents are put in the nominative when theverbis passive:
(23) lpixpdtnv otpatnyov ecidovto. (Xen. An. 6.5.49)
They appointed Iphicrates general. Active, object and predicative complement
in the accusative.
(24) tyyepcov Sé Kai KUplos Hpebn Didrtrtros atrdvtwv. (Dem. 18.201)
Philip was appointed leader and masterofall. Passive, subject and predicative
complement in the nominative.
35.16 A few active verbs which do nottake an object mayalso serveas the passive to different verbs
(suppletion, 11.13): &trofvjoKxe die, be killed (passive of &troxteive kill); petvyw flee, be
prosecuted (passive of 81ako prosecute); éxtritrtw fall out, be banished (passive of éxBa&AAw
throw out, banish). Note also middle-only &Aioxoum be captured (passive of e.g. aipéw take).
These verbs are construed as other passives (e.g. with Uré + gen. to express the agent).
Change-of-State Verbs
Change of Physical State or Position
35.17 Verbsthat express a changeof (physical) state by a spontaneousprocess, a change

ofbody position or changeof position of a group are often middle-passive. These
verbs usually have active causative counterparts. The most commonverbsofthis
typeare:
Middle-passive Active causative
G8poifouar gather, get together d@poilw gather someone/thing
&traAAdttopai depart a&TOAAaTTa® remove
Suopal dive Su(v)w cause to dive, submerge
éyeipopal wake up éyeipw wake, rouse
ToTayar cometo stand fotnut makestand,set up
KAivopan lean, recline KAIvoo cause to lean
Kopifopar journey,travel Kopieo convey
35.17 Middle-Passive Meanings 457
(dr)dAAUor perish (dr) dAAUp destroy, lose

THYVUpat be fixed, becomesolid trrhyyvun affix, fasten
TTOpevouat travel TTOpevoo make go, convey
étyyvupot burst, break ényvupl (cause to) break, shatter
oTEAAopal set out, journey OTEAAD dispatch, send
OTpeMopat turn around OTPEDW turn someone/thing around
ouAAgyoual gather, come together ouAAéyw gather someone/thing,collect
opdAAopan stumble, err opdAhw cause to stumble
oolopar get to safety, escape oalw save, makesafe
TIKONAL melt TIKOO cause to melt
TpéTrOpaN turn around (intr.) Tpétrw turn someone/thing around
TpEMopan grow (up) TPEDW cause to grow,nourish,rear
paivoyal appear, seem paiva cause to appear, show
puopat grow (up) Uw cause to grow,bring forth, beget
Note 1: Observethe specific meaning ofvarious compoundsoftotnun: &viotayanstand up (to

speak) (&viotnu make stand up), aégiotaya cometo stand at a remove, revolt (&giotnuset at
a remove, incite to revolt), kaBiotaya acquire a position (kaSiotnu install, set down),
épiotayai come to stand at, gain charge of (épiotnu make stand at, put in charge of), etc.
Change-of-state verbs usually have passive forms in the aorist (@n-/n-aorists) and
future. A significant numberof n-aorists belongs to this category. E.g. &trnAAd&ynv
departed (also émrnAAdyOnv), etropevOnv travelled, gotéAnv set out, ouveAéyny gath-
ered, opaAnv stumbled, towOny escaped, étdxnv melted, epdvnv appeared, seemed.
However, the verbs iotayai come to stand (iotnui), SUopai dive (SU(v)w) and
puoual grow (up) (pUw) have corresponding active root aorists: éotnv came to
stand, #5uv dived, éguv grew (up).
Note2: In somecases a thematic middle aorist occurs to express this meaning: e.g. &étraAdunv
perished (&trdéAAupo1), hypounv woke up (éyeipouo; next to tyépOnv), étpatréunyv turned
around (tpétrouan; next to étpdtrnv/étpéeqOnv).
To this category also belong compounds such as émrtifeya attack, apply oneself to
(émitidnu set against, impose) and (é)ieucr hasten towards, long for ((ép)inu let go
towards): these have middle root aorist forms, e.g. étre@éunv attacked.
Some of these verbs have corresponding active perfects (normally of the stem
type, 18.21): e.g. éyptyopa be awake, éotnxa stand, dAwda have perished, be
dead, tégnva have appeared.
Note 3: Such perfect forms express the state resulting from the spontaneousprocess, change
of (body) position, etc.: for instance, being awake (yptyopa) is the state resulting from
waking up (éyeipoua), standing (oTnKa) is the state resulting from coming to stand
(iotapan).
(25) otSétepor otdEv TrAgov Eyovtes EQavynoay 7) Tpiv Tipaynv yevéoba. (Xen.
Hell. 7.5.27)
Neither party turned out to have anything more than before the battle
occurred. For paivouan + ppl., 52.10; for ovdétepor ovdév, 56.4.
(26) oi Xion Kai of GAAO1 oUpPayol oUAAEyevTEs Eis " Epecov EBouAEUOaVTO. . . TrEUTTELV
eis AaxeSaipova trpgoBeis. (Xen. Hell. 2.1.6)
The Chians and otherallies, having gathered in Ephesus, resolved to send
emissaries to Sparta.
(27) x 5 ToUTOU dviotavTo oi pév éx TOU adTONdTOU, AgEovTes & éyiyvooxov. (Xen.
An. 1.3.13)
After this some stood up on their owninitiative, in order to say what they
were thinking.
(28) Kai tis &pyfis ardSe1 iw Eyer Tis THv APnvaioov év ol Tpdtrw KatéoTN. (Thuc.
1.97.2)
And(mydiscussion) can show of the empire of the Atheniansin what wayit
acquired its power.
(29) °Q Laxpates, Zon, éyptyopas 7) Kafevders; (PI. Prt. 310b)
Socrates, he said, are you awakeor are you sleeping?
35.18 The active (causative) counterparts of most of these verbs may themselves have middle-
passive forms which express indirect-reflexive or passive meaning. This results in highly
complex voice systems: thus &@poiZouo. may mean get together (change-of-state, aor.
t\8poioGnv) butalso either gatherfor oneself (indirect-reflexive,aor. f\8poiocunv) or be gathered
together (passive,aor. f\8poic8nv). For the cases of iotaya cometo stand and paivoumappear,
seem 35.35 below.
(Change of) Mental State
35.19 To the category of change-of-state verbs also belong several verbs which express
a (change of a) certain mental state. These verbs tend to take an object or
complementin the middle-passive; they also have active causative counterparts.
Examplesare:
Middle-passive Active causative
uipvnoKopar + gen. call to mind, remember wipvnoxw remind,call to mind
dpyiZopon + dat. be(come) angry dpyiloo make angry
TreiBopuon + dat. believe, obey TrEIBoo convince, persuade
poBgouai + acc. be(come)afraid poPéw makeafraid,terrify
These verbs have passive aorists: guvjo@nv remembered, wmpyio8nv was angry,
étreloOnv believed, obeyed, époBiOnv wasafraid.
35.19-24 Middle Passive Meanings 459
(30) tivi tpdtres | XpepwAos tretrAoUTHK éatrivns; ot treifoyon. (Ar. Plut. 335-6)
How has Chremulusgotrich all of a sudden? I don'tbelieve it.
(31) Kai por pndév dpylobijs- ovSEV yap pAatipov éed oe. (Dem. 20.102)
And don't get angry with me: for I will not say anything offensive about you.
(32) tis SE obK &v TroAgUIOs PORNPEIN iScov SinuKpivnyevous OTrAitas; (Xen. Oec. 8.6)
And what enemy would notbe afraid on seeing carefully arranged hoplites?
Note 1: trei8ouc also has a thematic middle aorist which expresses this meaning: ém@dunv
believed, obeyed (next to étreio@nv, which is more frequent in later Greek). In addition,it has
an active perfect, 1étroi@a believe (next to téte1opo1, more frequent in prose).
35.20 The passive forms of these verbs may also express passive meaning: e.g. aor. étreio8nv was
persuaded, époBiOnv was madeafraid; pf. téte1opm be convinced/persuaded.
Middle-Only Verbs and Passive-Only Verbs

35.21 Middle-only verbs andpassive-only verbs can express any of the meanings treated
above, as well as various similar meanings (the basic meaning of subject-
affectedness is relevant in each case).
Middle-only verbs belong to categories which use middle aorist and future
forms (e.g. indirect-reflexive meaning, 35.8 above), passive-only verbs mostly
belong to categories which usepassive aorist and future forms(e.g. change-of-state
verbs, 35.17-19 above).
Indirect-Reflexive Meaning
35.22 Some middle-only verbs express indirect-reflexive meaning (the subject benefits
from the action). Examplesare:
Seyopar - edeEaunv accept
épyaloua- cipyaodunv achieve, work
KTGOMaL - EKTNOAYNV acquire
Qveopat buy (with suppletive aor. émpidunv)
35.23 These middle-only verbs mayalso get passive forms to express passive meaning: éxtnHOnv was
acquired, cipyaotny was achieved, twvn8nv was bought. The perfect middle-passive may have
both senses: e.g. eipyaouo have achieved/be achieved, éaovnuca have bought/be bought.
Reciprocal Meaning
35.24 Some middle-only verbs indicate that the subject is (part of) a group of which the
members perform an action on each other: reciprocal meaning(this is similar to
direct-reflexive meaning, 35.11). Some of these verbs take a complementin the

dative. Examplesare:
&ywviJoua - jyoviodunv fight, struggle
Udxouar - Euayeoaunv fight against (+ dat.)
&uAAdcouat - HuiAAnodunv contend with (+ dat.), strive
Note 1: The verb &uAAcoucnstrive, contend also has passive aorist hwiAANPnv strove (more
frequent in classical Greek). The verb S1aAéyouo converse, which can be grouped underthis
header, uses only passive aorists 51eAeyOnv/SieAeynv conversed.
Change-of-State; Mental State
35.25 Some middle-only verbs express a changeof state or position ( 35.17):

AMIKVEOMAL - AQIKOLNV arrive
yiyvopar - éyevounv become, be born (later also aor. éyevrjOnv was born;
act. stem pf. yéyova, later also mid. pf. yeyévnuat)
Etropuar - goTréunv follow
EPXOLaL go, come(with suppletive active aor. nAGov)
oixopat depart (no aor., fut. oixrjcoyat)
TETOMOL - ETTHOUNY fly
35.26 Passive-only verbs usually belong to the category of mental (change-of-)state

verbs ( 35.19). Examplesare:
aidgouan - HSeo08nv be ashamed,respect (+ acc.)
&ySopa- ny8éoOnv be angry with/about(+ dat., also with ppl.)
BovAouar - BouAneny want, prefer
Siavogouan - Sievondnv think, suppose, intend
évOupgouar - évebuunOnv ponder(+ acc.)
étripeA( )opan - étreveAOnv take care of (+ gen., also with effort clause)
étrioTayal - hmotnhonv know,be able
TSopar - hoénv be glad, be happy about(+ dat.)
oi(o) yon - anenv think
Note 1: Classical Greek also has an active causative counterpart tj8w make glad
corresponding to Soya, developed in post-Homeric Greek, but never widely used.
Other Middle-Only and Passive-Only Verbs
35.27. Remaining verbs generally belongto one of the following groups:

- Verbsof intentional or unintentional mental activity (the subject is affected

mentally or emotionally), notably verbs of perception: e.g. (intentional)
a&xpodopailisten to, tryéouon believe, consider, Bedoyagaze at, view admiringly,
Aoyilopan reckon, calculate, unyavéoua devise, plan, oxétrtoya look, examine,
texuaipopuoai judge from signs; (unintentional) aio&dvouai perceive, notice,
dogpaivoyar smell;
- Verbs that express certain types of speech: dpcoyo pray, aiticoyuai accuse,
&pvéouor refuse, deny, Séouor ask, beg, esyouor pray, péuouor censure,
dédAogupopan lament, UToyvéouar promise.
These verbs are nearly all middle-only (i.e. have (sigmatic) middle aorist and
future forms: e.g. goxeydunv examined, teacdunv viewed, tAoyiodunv calcu-
lated, ttiacdunv accused, tueupaunv censured). The verbs Séou0 and d&pvéopan,
however, are passive-only (with @n-aorists @en@nv asked, tpvnOnv refused).
Note 1: From the fourth century onwards, more passive forms are found in these meanings
(the @n-aorist was gaining ground in the developmentof the language): e.g. aogpdvénv
smelled, tioyio®ny calculated.
Note 2: yeéuqoya also occurs as a verb expressing a mental state in the meaning blame, be
angry at, and then takes the correspondingpassive aorist éuéugOnv blamed.
Note 3: There are also some active verbs whose middle-passive counterparts express these
types of meaning: e.g. yeUw have (someone) taste (something), yewouo taste (perception);
tidy make X into Y, ti®euon regard X as Y (mentalactivity); with toiéw make, the idiom trepi
TOAAOt/dAiyou troigouai value highly/little (mental activity); oupBouAetw give counsel,
oupBouAevouar ask counsel (type of speech).
In somecases an active causative verb was developedin a later period to correspond to
one of these middle-only or passive-only verbs, e.g. dogpaive cause to smell, 8edw cause to
see; these arerare.
35.28 The verb &Aioxoyar be captured (with active root aorist ékAwv, and active perfect
EcdAwKa/TAwKa) is passive in meaning.
35.29 The passive-only verb SUvapon be able (aor. éuvyOnv, uvdo@nyv) is difficult to
classify.
Further Particulars
Middle Future Forms with Passive Meaning
35.30 In classical Greek (especially in poetry), middle future forms frequently have passive or change-of-
state/mental state meaning. In these meanings,there is sometimesan aspectual distinction between
the use of the future middle andthe future passive: the future middle (built on the aspect-neutral
future stem, 33.6), can be used for ongoing or repeated actions, whereas the future passive (built
on an aorist stem in @n/n (+ o, 16.1) is used for actions presented as a complete whole.
(33) tv S Tis Spa Kai BouAnsh, KoAaoOtoeTaI TH TpEeTTOVON Cnpia, oi 5 &yaboi TiunoovTat ToIs
TpoonKouoly &GAo1s Tis &petis. (Thuc. 2.87.9)
Should, then, someonechoose to go on doing so (misbehaving), he shall be punished
with the appropriate penalty, while the brave shall be honoured with the appropriate
rewardsof valour. The dya6oi will be continuously (or each individually) held in esteem,
as opposed to the wrongdoers who will be punished once.
(34) Kai ei Kkataotpéyovta Tuas ASnvaion, tais yév Uetépais yvaouais Kpatioouol, TH 8
auTtaey dévéuati Tipndtjoovtai. (Thuc. 6.80.4)
Andif the Athenians subdue us, they will be victorious due to your decisions, but
they will meet with honour in their own name. The bestowing of honour on the
Athenians for their putative victory is presented as a single, complete whole.
(35) év tots yap oiKetorow dotis Zot dvip | xenoTds, paveitan Kdv TdAEl Sikatos dv. (Soph. Ant.
661-2)
The man whois good in family matters, will be seen to be just in the city as well.
A generic/repeated action.
(36) gavijcetan 5é traiol Tois avTOU Euvaov | &5eAds abTds Kai Tathp. (Soph. OT 457-8)
He (Oedipus) will turn out to live together with his own children, the same manboth as
brother andas father. A single moment will bring the truth to light.
This aspectual difference apparently disappeared in about the fourth century, whenfutures in
-(8)noouo became more prominent.
35.31 Similarly, many passive-only verbs have (only) middle futures until (at least) the fourth
century: e.g. BouAoua want, prefer, aor. éBouAneny, fut. BouAnoopua; étiotayoa know, be
able, aor. }motHOny, fut. étriotiooua; Séou01 ask, need, aor. éenOnv, fut. Sehoouon; &yPouat
be angry, aor. HxBéobny, fut. &yPéooua (also &yPeobhoopan); etc.
Synonymous Active and Middle Verbs
35.32 A few verbs have approximately the same meaningin the active and middle voice:
e.g. BouAeUeo/BouAevouan consider, deliberate, dpydaw/dpycouaset out, start, get in
motion (but é6pudw can also be causative, cause to move), ToMiteUw/TroAitevouabe/
act as a citizen. In some cases which form is chosen dependson the individual
preference of an author.
Overviews
Overview of the Middle-Passive Meanings and Forms of Some Important

Types of Verbs
(Active) Verbs which Take an Object/Complement
35.33 Examplesinclude traiSeva, Avo, Tice, SNAdco, Troigw, and mostotherverbstaking

an object.
35.33-5 Overviews 463
present aorist future perfect

active TTA1IOEUW ETTAIDEUTa TTA1ISEUTO TTETTOIDEUKA
educate
indirect-reflexive TIOISEVOLAL eTrarsevoaunvy taimdevooyai TreTTALsSEeupa
educate for oneself
passive TICIOEVOAL eTra1devnv Tra1devOrjooual Ttretraideupat
be educated
Verbs Whose Middle-Passive May Have a Direct-Reflexive Meaning
35.34 Examples include trapackeudloo, koouew, Kelp, yuuvalo, oTE~avda,etc.:

active TrapaoKeuala TAPEDKEVATa TIAPACKEUAGw TTAPEOKEVAKA
prepare, make ready
indirect-reflexive TTAPAOKEVaACOUAl TWApEOKEVAoCaENV TapacKEUcooLal TTAPEOKEVACHAI
prepare for oneself
direct-reflexive TapacKkevaloual TTApECKEVAOaUNnY TrapacKkEUGooual TIAPEOKEVACHAL
prepare oneself
passive TrapaoKevaloual Tapeokeuaobny tapacKkevac8hooual TapeoKEevacual
be prepared, be
made ready
Verbs Whose Middle-Passive May Have a Change-of-State Meaning
35.35 Examples include gaives, iotnu, &bpoila, ardAAupl, opGAAw, PoRBEoLaN,etc.:

active paiva EOTnVva Pave TregayKa (rare)
show
indirect-reflexive paivouont éonvapny pavotyat TEMACUAL
showfor oneself
change-of-state paivoual épavny pavncouai/pavotpai Tmrépnva
appear, seem
passive gaivouat epavOnv gavérjoopar TEPACHAL
be shown
1
In the meaning seem, paivoyo(+ inf.) need not denote a changeof state ( becomevisible ) but may
refer to a state proper ( be visible ). This sense is probably derived from the change-of-state meaning.
The perfect 1égpnva inherently expresses a state ( have appeared , be visible ).

active lott gEOTNOA OTNOW
make stand, set up
indirect-reflexive ioTQyal EOTNOAUNV OTT|OOUal EOTOU
make stand for oneself
change-of-state loTopat goTny OTHOOLAL gOTNKA
come to stand
passive ioTapat eoTabny otabnoouai EOTOAUQL
be made to stand
Overview of the Meanings Expressed by Aorist and Future Conjugations

35.36 The figure below details the meanings which different types of aorist and future
forms can express (blocks indicate types which consistently express a certain
meaning; more sporadic casesare listed separately):
on i
TyoBouny é6éunv
SSI LOLOL : P nodD
e.g. e.g.
apikounv EoTnyv :
émBdounv 25uv -(8)nv : 35.30-1 | -(8)hoopuen
GrwAdunv >
eee eee eee ee
Eoxounv EcAGV
36
Impersonal Constructions
Introduction
36.1 Impersonal verbs have no subject in the normalsense. Such verbs always appearin
the third person singular (and, if marked for gender, neuter). They can be further
divided in the following categories:
- Quasi-impersonalverbs, for which an (accusative and) infinitive or subordi-
nate clause functions as the subject; for details, +36.3-10 below. For example:
(1) Sei pe yiyveo® AvSpopddav. (Ar. Thesm. 1012)
I must become Andromeda(lit. Tt is necessary that I become Andromeda ).
The accusative-and-infinitive construction ye yiyveoboar AvdpouéSav serves as
subject of Sei.
(2) mpdSnAdv gotiw St1 Taides SvTEs KOADS ETraldevOnoav. (Hyp. Epit. 4.27)
It is evidently clear that when they were children they were well educated.
The ét1-clause serves as subject of mpddnAdv éotw; note that mpd&nAovis neuter.
- Proper impersonal verbs, which have no subjectat all. This groupis virtually
limited to weather terms, expressions of time, and impersonal passive con-
structions; for details, >36.11-15 below. For example:
(3) veigper. BaBoudé. (Ar. Ach. 1141)
It s snowing. Blast! Weather term.
(4) Sn Sé dwée
ty Kai étretraidvioto avTois as és EtritrAouv. (Thuc. 1.50.5)
It was already late and the paean had been sungby them asif for the attack.
Time expression and impersonalpassive; lit. there had been paean-singing .
Someproperimpersonalverbs do not have a subject, but do take other obligatory
constituents:
(5) Kai wd&vu y ... péAe por TOUTV av épwtas. (Xen. Oec. 11.9)
I am indeed very concerned aboutthe things about which you ask. Impersonal
ude there is concern takes complements in the dative (person to whomthereis
concern) andin the genitive (thing about which there is concern).
466 36.1-4 Impersonal Constructions
Note 1: English impersonal verbs use the so-called dummy pronoun it, e.g. It is raining.
With English quasi-impersonalverbsit anticipates the subordinate construction, e.g. It is
clear that he is coming (cf. That he is comingis clear.)
36.2 Forinfinitives of impersonal constructions, 51.10 n.1, 51.20 n.1. For participles
of impersonal constructions (especially the accusative absolute construction),
52.16, 52.33.
Quasi-Impersonal Verbs and Constructions
Verbs
36.3 The following common quasi-impersonal verbs take an (accusative-and-)

infinitive construction as their subject (51.11):
Sei (ue) + inf. it is necessary (for me) to, I must/ought
xen (ue) + inf. it is necessary (for me) to, I must/ought
(6) Ti Sei Has, © dvBpes, udyeoGan; (Xen. Hell. 7.4.25)
Why, men, must wefight?
(7) yuvaixa yap yp) tdvta ouyxope_tv doe. (Eur. El. 1052)
A woman must accede to her husbandin everything.
Note 1: Sei is also construed (as a proper impersonal verb) with a genitive in the meaning
there is a need for (something); 36.15 below.
36.4 The following quasi-impersonal verbs take an (accusative and) infinitive as sub-
ject, and frequently also a complementin the dative:
Soxei (uo1) + inf. it seems a goodidea (to me), I decide
eEcoti/tdpeoti (uo1) + inf. it is possible/permitted (for me), I can
ugteoTi (uo1) + inf. it is my nature, I am capable
tpétre (uo) + inf. it is fitting/becoming (for me), it suits (me)
TpoonKel (uo1) + inf. it is fitting/becoming (for me), it suits (me)
oupPaiver (uo) + inf. it happens (to me)
oupgépet (yor) + inf. it is of use (to me), it is advantageous (for me)
Avoitedct (yor) + inf. it is profitable (for me)
éveoti (uo1) + inf. it is in my power, I am able
(8) Kai 2o ev avtois étri Tis Iugpas trAciv. (Thuc. 7.1.2)
They decided to sail for Himera.
36.4-8 Quasi-Impersonal Verbs and Constructions 467
(9) ph oxu8partral , & téxvov. | ob yap mpéete: oo To oToliv Tas Sgpis. (Ar.
Lys. 7-8)
Don't frown,child. It doesn t suit you to knit your eyebrows.
The simplex got: (so accented) is often used instead ofotit is possible:
(10) Kai tatita ... 2071 por | koutreiv. (Soph. OC 1344-5)
AndI can boast these things.
36.5 With some of these verbs, there sometimes appears to be little difference between their
construction with a dative complement and the construction with an accusative-and-
infinitive:
(11) &ya@ois Te Uuiv TpootiKer eivar. (Xen. An. 3.2.11)
It is fitting for you to be brave.
(12) Uyas tpootKer ... dueivovas ... eivor. (Xen. An. 3.2.15)
It is fitting for you to be braver (moreliterally: it is fitting that you be braver ).
36.6 Especially in poetry, bare prepositions are sometimes used instead of forms compounded with
impersonal éoti: thus e.g. ta&pa (so accented, 24.37) for té&peon, péta for uéteot, Evi for
EVEOTI:
(13) ti yd&p ot ré&pa por pEeAea oTEvdyerv; (Eur. Tro. 106)

For whyis it not permitted for me, unhappyone, to wail?
36.7 In poetry, the form Ave1 is sometimes used instead of AuvorteAei.
Neuter Adjectives; Nouns
36.8 The neuter singular of many adjectives is used with a third-person singular form
of eit be in quasi-impersonal constructions, taking an (accusative-and-)infinitive
construction or ét1-clause. For example:
aioypdév éoT1 it is shameful
a&vayKaidov éoT1 it is necessary
STAdv éoT1 it is clear
Suvatov éoTl it is possible
KaAdv éoTl it is good, honourable
oidv Té £071 it is possible
pavepdov EoTI it is clear
XaAeTrov goT! it is difficult
Some nounsare similarly used in quasi-impersonal constructions. For example:
avaykn éoti it is necessary
Péuis EoTi it is right, proper
(14) yoAetrov oti Trepi Thy attiUTdbeow BU0 Adyous d&vexTds eitreiv. (Isoc. 5.11)
It is difficult to make two speeches about the sametopic in a tolerable fashion.
468 36.8-11 Impersonal Constructions
(15) troAU yap ovy oidv TE Hy A116 TOG GAAOU OTpaTEUPaTos Sickel. (Xen. An. 3.3.9)
w
For it was not possible to make a pursuit far away from therest of the army.
For &AAos meaning rest (of) , 29.50.
(16) éuoi dveyxn éoti TrOAAH Ponfeiv TH ... tratpi. (Isae. 2.1)
It is absolutely necessary for me to help myfather.
36.9 With such adjectives and nounséoti is very often omitted ( 26.13):
(17) SfAov S11 Té&V ypnotév Tis... et. (Ar. Plut. 826)
It is clear that you are one of the good men.
(18) ob Bépis cicop&v | Spyia ceuva. (Ar. Thesm. 1150-1)
It is not proper to look on the holyrites.
36.10 The adverb correspondingto these adjectives may be used in the impersonal construction zxe1
+ adverb it is ..., the impersonal counterpart of the construction éyw + adv. (for which
26.11). For example:
(19) dvayKaios hpiv éxer SnAdoai pds Uueas ... (Hdt. 9.27.1)
It is necessary for us to makeclear to you...
Proper Impersonal Verbs and Constructions
Weather and TimeExpressions
36.11 Weatherverbs such as the following are used impersonally:

Vel it rains / it is raining
&OTPATITE! thereis lightning
veigel it snows/ it is snowing
xeicel there is a storm
Bpovt& there is a thunderstorm
oelel there is an earthquake
(20) fudpas ... éyeivace tpets. (Hdt. 7.191.2)
It stormedfor three days.
(21) tot adtot unvds iotapuévou zorioev. (Thuc. 4.52.1)
In the early part of the same month there was an earthquake.
Note 1: Such verbs also appear with a god as subject: Ue1 6 6265 the god sends rain/it rains,
Eoeioev 6 beds the god shook the earth/there was an earthquake.
Note 2: These verbs sometimes take the place whereit rains, snows, etc. as their object. This
construction may, in turn, be put in the passive, with the place as subject:
(22) émt& 8é étéeov peta TATA OvK Ue THY Onpnv. (Hdt. 4.151.1)
For seven years after this there was no rain in Thera.
(23) Geto Téoa tf yOpN THv EAAHVoov. (Hdt. 2.13.3)
There is rain everywherein the land of the Greeks(lit. the entire Greek land is rained
upon).
36.11-14 Proper Impersonal Verbs and Constructions 469
Note 3: Somewhat similar to weather verbs (and regularly treated as impersonal verbs) are
some instances of third-person verbs referring to procedural actions whose subject is an
unspecified person to be supplied from the context, e.g. caAtriZer the trumpet sounds(lit. (the
trumpeter) sounds the trumpet ), éxjpug a proclamation was made(lit. (the herald)
proclaimed ), govjnve the signal was given(lit. (the appointed person) gave the signal ).
36.12 Someexpressionsof time use an impersonal form ofeii be:

Owe éoT1 it is late
(24) H5n ... &uqi HAiou Sucpds ty. (Xen. An. 6.4.26)
It was already aroundsunset.
Impersonal Passives and the Impersonal Use of Verbal Adjectives in -téov
36.13 Occasionally, a third-person singular passive form without a subject is used of

verbs which do not take an object ( 35.3) or which take a complement in the
genitive or dative. Such impersonal passives occur particularly with the perfect
passive; the agent maybe expressed in the dative ( 30.50):
(25) otK GAAws avtois tretrévynta. (Pl. Phdr. 232a)
Their labour has not been in vain (lit. there has been laboured by them ).
(26) uoi... BeBotOntai TH TebvedTi Kai TH vduo. (Antiph. 1.31)
I have lent myaid to the dead manandto thelaw(lit. there has been given aid
by me ). Bonbéa takes a complement in the dative ( 30.39).
Note 1: More commonly (with verbsthat do take an object), a subject for such passive forms
can be supplied from the context, or occurs in the form of a subordinate construction:
(27) Kat& 5 ToUTo Tot dpEos EpuAaoooy, ws Kai TIPdéTEpdV HOI SeS7|AWTAI, Daxéwv yiAlo1
éTAita1. (Hdt. 7.217.2)
At that part of the mountain,as I have said before, a thousand Phocian hoplites stood
guard(lit. as (it) has been made clear by me ).
(28) éeytprotai Tous &dikoUvTas ToIo1 StkaoTais Tapadotvan. (Ar. Vesp. 591)
It has been decided to hand overthe culprits to the judges. The infinitive napaSotvan
serves as subject to éwrjpiotai.
36.14 To this category belongs also the impersonal use of neuter adjectives in -téov:
(29) otKx &trootatéov ét1 TOU TroAguou ... GAA éBeAovTi itgov Ettri TOUS A@nvatous.
(Thuc. 8.2.1)
Weshould nolonger stand aside from the war, but willingly go against the
Athenians(lit. there should no longer be stood aside , there should be gone ).
For details on this construction, 37.3.

470 36.15 Impersonal Constructions
Proper Impersonal Verbs with a (Dative and) Genitive
36.15 The following impersonal verbs take a complement in the genitive ( 30.21),
usually combined with a complementin the dative for the person involved:
Set (uol) Tivos there is a need (for me) for something, I need
ugteoTi pol T1v0s I have a share in something
EeAEl Lot T1vos I care for something, something is of concern to me
WETALEAEL Lol TIVOS I am sorry about something,I regret
TPOOT|KE! Ol T1VOS something pertains/belongs to me, I have something
to do with something
(30) t&v yap TatpHwv os d&kapt yéTeoTi oor. (Ar. Av. 1649)
You havenot even the smallest claim to your father s possessions.
(31) viv toivuv Upiv petopeAnodto THv Tetpaypevoov. (Lys. 30.30)
So now you oughtto regret the things you have done.
(32) tévu a&trAoty éotw Siayvvor butv Utrép TaUTHs Tis Sikns, Kal oUSEév Sei Adyoov
ToAAdv. (Dem. 56.37)
It is very simple for you to cometo a verdict concerningthis suit, and thereis
no need for a long exposition. Note that ovéév is an adverbial accusative
( 30.18,lit. there is in no way a need ); it is often so used with Sei (similarly Set
Tl, there is in some way a need ).
Note 1: Sei is also construed with an (accusative and) infinitive, 336.3 above.
Note2: yéAei por is also construed with an effort clause (é1rws + fut. ind.), +44.
Note 3: wetopéAer + dat. is also construed with a participle (dative-and-participle
construction, 52.15), sometimes with a ét1-clause ( 41.3-15).
37
Verbal Adjectives
Types of Verbal Adjectives

37.1 Greek has twotypes of verbal adjectives (adjectives formed from verb stems):
adjectives in -téos, -tTéa, -Téov;
adjectives in -tds, -tH, -tdv (the accent varies: sometimes, in compounds,
-TOS, -Tn, -ToVv).
For the formation of these adjectives, 23.29, 23.34. For the use of participles
(which are also a kind of verbal adjective), 52.
Adjectives in -téos, -tTéa, -Téov
As Predicative Complement
37.2 Verbal adjectives in -téos, -téa, -téov (also called gerundives) express a passive
necessity: the word or phrase with which the adjective agrees is to undergo
a certain action, e.g. taidSeutéos (éoti) (he is) to be educated, ta tpaxtéa the things
which must be done (substantivized, 28.23).
Such adjectives are used as predicative complementwith the linking verb eiyi be
(though the linking verbis in fact often omitted, 26.13):
(1) é&v 8 tT15 KaT& T1 KaKds ylyvntal, KoAaoTEOS éoTi. (PI. Grg. 527b)
If someone becomesbad in somerespect, he ought to be punished. (xoAdlw)
(2) otKotv atta (&ppovian), hv & éya, &paipetéan; (Pl. Resp. 398e)
Aren't these modes of music, I said, to be done away with? (agaipéw)
If expressed, the agent appears in the dative ( 30.50):
(3) tatta pév ov, © &vbp_es Sikaotali, ToUTois Trointéa Tv. (Andoc. 1.136)
Theseare the things, menofthe jury, that had to be done by these men.(sroiéw)
(4) vouetnTéos S por | DoiBos. (Eur. Jon 436-7)
I must rebuke Phoebus. (vou@etéo)
472 37.3 Verbal Adjectives
Impersonal Use
37.3. The neuter singular form in -téov (rarely the plural -téa) may be used imperson-
ally (36) to indicate that an action ought to be performed. Thedative is used to
express the agent ( 30.50), if present. This construction is used:
with verbs that do not take an object/complement(these cannot otherwise be
used in the passive, >35.3):
(5) eioitéov ciow 8éotiv. (Men. Cith. 63)
I should go inside(lit. there is to be gone inside ). cioeyn cannot normally be used
in the passive.
(6) év éoTriow ool TPSTa KivSuveuTéov. (Eur. Supp. 572)
First, you must run a risk behind yourshields(lit. there is to be run a risk by
you ). (mvSuvevo)
with verbs that take an object or complement; in this case such objects or
complements are expressed in the case-form required bythe verb:
(7) té&oav KoAoxeiav ... peuxtéov. (Pl. Grg. 527c)
Every kind of flattery must be avoided. pevyw takes a direct object in the
accusative.
(8) &kpoatéov Upiv év pépel TOV KpEITTOVeov. (Ar. Av. 1228)
It s now yourturn to obey yoursuperiors. dupodopuai takes a complement in the
genitive, 30.21.
(9) ti tatt dAUw; Telotéov Tratpds Adyors. (Eur. Hipp. 1182)
Whyshould I be distraught at this? The words of a father must be obeyed.
Treifouan takes a complement in the dative, 30.39.
Note 1: Such expressions maybe seen as roughly equivalent to 5ei/ypr + inf; for (7), for
instance, cf. Sei pevyeiv T&oav KoAaxelav. This similarity was clearly felt by Attic authors,
who sometimes express the agent with an accusative (the case to complement8¢i/ypn) rather
than a dative:
(10) ot utSouAcuTgov Tous voy Zyovtas Tois oUTW KaKa®s ppovoton. (Isoc. 9.7)
Menofintelligence should notserve as slaves to those who are perverted in this way.
Note 2: With verbs which have a different meaning in the active and middle-passive(e.g.
tei6e persuade, convince and teifoua obey, believe, »35.19), the impersonal verbal
adjective in -téov is ambiguous, and maycorrespondto either meaning. The construction
or context makes clear which meaningis intended. For example, with (9), compare:
(11) tous pUAakas éxeivo évayKaoTéov Trotiv kal Teiotéov. (Pl. Resp. 421b)
The guardians must be forced and persuadedto dothis. 1re:oTéov correspondsto active
tret@w, which takes a direct object in the accusative.
37.4 Adjectives in -tés, -1H, -Tdv 473
Adjectives in -16s, -tn, -Tov
37.4 The adjectives in -tés, -Tn, -Tov either express a passivestate (like a perfect passive
participle) or express passive possibility:
KpUTITOS hidden (passive state; upumTa)
TOAls apUAaKTos an unguarded city (passive state; puAdtTa)
TOTOS reliable (= who can/may betrusted , passive possibility; trei@opian)
TroTapos SiaBatdés a fordable river (passive possibility; S:aBaivw)
(12) S8i8a ov, ci SiSaxtdv, 2 Stou pofF}. (Soph. Trach. 671)
Explain to me,if it may be explained, the cause of yourfear.
Note 1: Passive possibility should here be taken to include a range of nuances, such as
permission (as in (12)), right , appropriateness , etc.
Several adjectives have both meanings,e.g.:

&yVwOoTos unknown; unknowable (yivvaouw)
&dpaTos unseen; invisible (6pda)
Note 2: A few of these adjectives have both passive and active meaning:
Suvatés which can/maybe done(passive); capable, powerful (active) (SUvayat)
&trpaktos intractable, unprofitable, not to be done (passive); unsuccessful (active)
(a1rpdtT)
38
Questions, Directives, Wishes,
Exclamations
Introduction: Sentence Types and Communicative Functions

38.1 In principle, utterances belong to one of three different sentence types:
- declarative:e.g.
(1) & &év , ot Sixaia Spas. (Soph. OC 831)
Stranger, what you are doing is wrong.
interrogative: e.g.
(2) oUTos, Ti Spas; (Ar. Av. 1567)
Heythere, what are you doing?
imperative:e.g.
(3) pt) Spa Téde. (Soph. OT 1064)
Do notdothis.
Sentence type is determinedprincipally by the mood of the main verb ( 34) and
by the intonation of the utterance.
Note 1: It is sometimes not straightforward to determine the sentence type of an

individual utterance: our knowledge about the intonation of Greek utterances is
limited, and written punctuation and accents were added only after the classical period
( 1.12-13). Modern editions of texts are typically based on the evidence provided in
medieval manuscripts.
Note 2: Desideratives (wishes) and exclamatives (exclamations) are sometimes
distinguished as additional, separate sentence types. For wishes and exclamations,
38.38-42 and 38.43-51.
38.2 Although there is a correlation between the sentence type of an utterance and
the communicative functions that may be performed by that utterance (such
functions include request , wish , command , assertion , question ), one and
the same linguistic form may (in different contexts) serve various commu-
nicative functions. For instance, each of the following examples is in the
interrogative form, but the communicative functions they perform are
different:
38.2 Introduction 475
(4) EY. ti ov; tromoeis tatito; :: AL. ut) Sd6xer ye ov. (Ar. Thesm. 208)
(Euripides:) So what s your answer? Will you dothis? :: (Agathon:) Don't you
count on it. Interrogative tromjoeis Tatra; is used in a question, a genuine
requestfor information, which is answered by Agathon.
(5) ou Ut)... Toitoeis Gtrep of TeuyoSaipoves oUTOI; | GAN ev~ruer. (Ar. Nub.
296-7)
Don't do what these poor-devil poets do, but speak words of good omen.
Interrogative ov ur)... Trotjoeis ... ; (lit. won't you refrain from doing ... 2 )
expresses a command; 38.32.
(6) iows Kal UGAIOTO Trpetrel WEAAOVTE Exeiog ATTOSNMEIV SiaoKoTEV ... TWEepi Tis
aTOoNpIas Tis EkeT ... - TL yap Gv TIS Kal Troiot GAAO Ev TH LEXI NAiou Suopdv
xpdove; (Pl. Phd. 61d-e)
Perhaps, in fact, it is most fitting to investigate living there (in the Underworld),
since I am aboutto go andlive there. For what else might someonedoin the time
until sunset? ti &v Tis troioi is phrased as a question, but used to assert something
( there is nothing else that we can do ) - this is a rhetorical question (38.19).
Conversely, different linguistic forms may serve similar communicative functions.
For instance, each of the following examples serves as a request or commandto
someone to speak (for the different nuances of each of these constructions,
38.31-7):
(7) A ye, TEpaive oouUs Adyous. (Eur. Ion 1348)

Speak, finish what you were saying. Present imperative.
(8) pepe TOUTS pol aTpEKkews eitré. (Hdt. 7.47.1)
Come,tell me this truthfully. Aorist imperative.
(9) ti ooi tot tot Svoy; ovK épeis; (Ar. Pax 185)
Whaton earth is your name? Won't you speak? Interrogative with ou + future
indicative.
(10) Aeyos av- evous 8ovoépeis So Gv Aéygs. (Eur. Jon 1336)
Please speak: you will say whatever you say kindly. Potential optative.
(11) eitteiv oi TrPds BaolAEa, MapSovie, as yo THS5e Adyoo. (Hdt. 8.68.1)
Tell the king for me, Mardonius, these things as I say them. Imperatival
infinitive.
(12) Sei o¢ Adyeiv T1 kaivov. (Ar. Nub. 1032)
You must say something new. 5e7 + accusative + infinitive (declarative
sentence type).
(13) autois ... Upa&s KeAeUw Aeyelv. (Xen. Cyr. 3.3.39)
I bid you to speak to them. xeAeva + accusative + infinitive (declarative
sentence type).
(14) Ti o1yas; oUK éxpiy o1yav, téxvov. (Eur. Hipp. 297)
Whyare yousilent? You shouldn't besilent, child. Interrogative, followed by
modal éypijv (34.17; declarative sentence type).
476 38.2-6 Questions, Directives, Wishes, Exclamations
Note 1: The technical term for the communicative function of an utterance (as distinct from
sentence type)is illocution or illocutionary force .
Note 2: For examples of the imperative mood used to express non-directive communicative
functions, 34.20.
38.3 This chaptertreats:

the basic forms of questions, and someof the communicative uses to which the
Greek interrogative sentence type may be put ( 38.4-24);
the basic constructions used for directives (commands, requests, exhortations,
etc.), and some other constructions used to perform similar communicative
functions ( 38.25-37);
the different constructions used in wishes ( 38.38-42);
somepoints about exclamations ( 38.43-51).
Questions
Introduction: Basic Terminology

38.4 There are two main types of questions:
Questions that are answered byyes or no: yes/no-questions - cf. Are whales
fish? A subset of this type consists of questions that give two (or more) alter-
natives to choose from: alternative questions or double questions - cf. Are
whales fish or mammals?
Questions that are answered by specifying one or more persons, things, places, etc.
(or no one , nothing , etc.). Such questions are commonly knownas wh-questions
(as they are, in English, usually introduced by a wh-word , such as who?, when?,
why?etc.), or as specifying questions: cf. What kind of animal are whales?
38.5 For indirect/dependent questions, i.e. the representation of questions in indirect

speech/thought (cf. Engl. He asked what kind of animal whales are), 42.1-8.
Yes/No-Questions and Alternative Questions
38.6 Questions may beintroduced by various particles. Yes/no-questions introduced

by &pa (59.43) or mH (59.48) are neutral: they do not explicitly expect or desire
a particular answer:
(15) QO. dpa gopwtas Hvtiwa téxvnv pnyeivon; :: TQ. éywye. (Pl. Grg. 462b)
(Socrates:) Do you ask me what kind of art I claim it (rhetoric) to be? ::
(Polus:) Yes, I do.
38.6-10 Questions 477
(16) Ol. 4 Kév Sdpo1c1 Tuyyaver Taviv Trapay;| :: 1Q. ot S71 . (Soph. OT 757-8)
(Oedipus:) Does he happento be in the house now?:: (Iocasta:) Certainly not.
Frequently, no particle at all is used to introduce a neutral yes/no-question:
(17) Onoevs tw HhudptnKev és o Guaptiav; (Eur. Hipp. 320)
Has Theseus committed some wrongagainst you?
38.7 By using a question introduced by ov, &p ov, or ovKotv ( 59.33), a speaker
signals that he expects or desires the answerto be yes (cf. in English the similar
use of the negative, of a negative tag question , or surely):
(18) ovyi EuvijKas rpdoGev; (Soph. OT 360)
Did you not understand me before? / You understood me before, didn't
you? / Surely you understood mebefore?
(19) Tlpa&tov pév atté&v toutewv, kaittep Svtwv yevvaiov, dp ovK eioi Tives ...
&pioto1; :: Eioiv. (Pl. Resp. 459a)
(Socrates:) In the first place, among these men themselves, even though they
are noble, are there not some whoarethebest? :: (Glaucon:) Indeedthere are.
38.8 By starting a question with pn (seldom &pa un) or pév, a speaker signals that heis
reluctant to accept a positive answeras true, often to convey apprehension or
surprise (cf. Engl. really?, surely not?, or the use of a positive tag question ):
(20) AAAG un &pxitéeKTwv Bours yeveobar ... OtKouv zywy ,, épn. (Xen. Mem.
4.2.10)
But you don t want to becomeanarchitect, do you? / But surely you don't
want to becomean architect? Indeed I don't, hesaid.
(21) i80U, Tépen. pdv étrioyxeiv cor 0K; (Ar. Pax 1042)
Look, here I am. You don't think I ve taken long, do you?
38.9 Occasionally, questions are introduced by pésv ov, indicating that the speakeris reluctant to
accept a negative answeras true:
(22) Al. udsv ot TrétroiBas; 4 Ti cor TO SucyeEpEs; | :: MH. tétroifa. (Eur. Med. 733-4)
(Aegeus:) Surely you do not distrust me? Or whatis yourdifficulty? :: (Medea:) I do trust
you.
38.10 Alternative questions in Greek have 4 or between the parts that make up the
question. They can be (but do not have to be) introduced by trotepov/trotepa
(which marksthe question as an alternative one, and cannotbetranslated):
(23) aétepa 8év oiKors, 7) 'v &ypois 6 Adios,| 7 yfis 2m GAANs THEE oupTritrTer Move;
(Soph. OT 112)
Did Laiusfall to this murder in the house, in the fields, or on other ground?
(24) OA. &voobev 7) Kater; ... 2: NE. 768 2&Utrep6e. (Soph. Phil. 28-9)
(Odysseus:) Above you, or beneath you? :: (Neoptolemus:) Here, above me.
Specifying Questions
38.11 Specifying questions in Greek are introduced by a question word - an interroga-

tive pronoun, adjective or adverb (these begin with t- or 1r-, 8.1-2). The most
commonare:
tis; / TH who?, what?; which?
Ti; / 81a TH; why?
TOTEPOS; whoof the two?; which ... of the two?
TO005; how large? (sg.); how many?(pl.)
Toi0s; whatsort of?
Tro; where?
Trot; to where?
TrOBEV; from where?
OTE; when?
Trdds; how?
TH;
~
along which route?, in what way?, how?
Note 1: Observe the accentuation of these question words: tis who?, what?; which? (always
with acute, 24.2) as opposedto indefinite t1s some(one), a(n), (a) certain, néte when? as
opposedto indefinite tote sometime, etc. For details, 24.38 n.1.
Note 2: Ionic forms begin with x- rather than t-: kés, Kdte, etc. (25.12).
38.12 Interrogative pronounsandadjectives can be used pronominally (independently,

as a noun) or adnominally (modifying a noun): 26.22-3.
(25) Kata tis yout; (Soph. OT 1500)
Andthen whowill marry you? Pronominal.
(26) Tis we TOTHOS ET1 Trepipever; (Soph. Ant. 1296)
Whatfate still awaits me? Adnominal: tis modifies 1étyos, agreeing with it in
case, numberand gender.
(27) OU trévu, Ty 8 éyo, EtTuXES OU A yoo. Tota uny, eqn, A yers; (Pl. Resp. 523b)
You have quite missed my meaning,I said. What kind of things do you
mean? , he asked. Pronominal.
(28) Kai tro? &8iKkhpata Cnteid Etepa peiloo THv ecipnugvoov &kovoa; (Din. 3.17)
Andwhatkindofotherinjustices, greaterstill than those which have already been
said, are you seeking to hear about? Adnominal: 1roi(a) modifies &8inryyata.
38.13 Interrogative pronounsand adjectives also frequently occurin a predicative relationship with
a noun (cf. the similar use of demonstrative pronouns, 29.34):
(29) &AAK Troia TatTa Ayers; (PI. Cra. 391e)
But whatsort of instances are you referring to? 1roia is predicative with tatra:lit. you are
referring to these instances (being) of what sort? .
38.14-18 Questions 479
38.14 In Greek, question words mayfunction as obligatory constituents and modifiers not only
of the main verb (as in the examples above), but also of subordinate constructions such
as participles:
(30) 6 8& KaAAias ti BouAduevos éTider THY iketnpiav; (Andoc. 1.117)
With what motive(lit. wanting what ) did Callias place the bough (on the altar)? rt
is object of BouAduevos: note that such examples often do not permit literal transla-
tion into English.
The Use of Moods in Questions
38.15 Most direct questions have the indicative (cf. (15)-(30) above). However, other
moods occur, particularly the potential optative ( 34.13) and counterfactual
indicative (34.16):
(31) trd&s 8 , ® ZaxKpates, &v ciev wevdeis Sova7 AUtra1; (Pl. Phib. 36c)
But, Socrates, how could there be false pleasures or pains? Potential
optative.
(32) ti dv dtrexpives por, ei o¢ Hpdunv: ... eitré, TI Gv atrexpiv ottws épwTnbeis; (PI.
Men. 72b)
What would have been your answerto me,if I had asked you: °... ; tell me,
what would you have answered if asked such questions? Counterfactual
indicative.
38.16 The(first-person) subjunctive is used in deliberative questions ( 34.8):

(33) Ti Spdpev; ayyeAAcupev és dATade | 4 oty Exopev; (Eur. Or. 1539-40)
What must we do? Should wereport this to the city? Or should we keep quiet?
(34) GAN exdiSayx8H Sita SuooePeiv, tatep; (Soph. Trach. 1245)
Am I to be taught, then, father, to be ungodly?
38.17 Deliberative questions are sometimes introduced by BouAsi/BouAsoé_e do you want, or (in
poetry) 8éAeis/BeAeTe:
(35) @ Aeis | ueiveouev adtod; (Soph. El. 80-1)
Wouldyoulike us to stay here?
Further Particulars
Is That a Question? - Non-Standard Communicative Functions of the
Interrogative Sentence Type
38.18 Manyexpressionsin the interrogative sentence type are not used by speakers to
elicit information, but perform other communicative functions ( 38.2 above),
e.g. assertions, commands/requests,etc.
38.19 Any type of interrogative may be used in rhetorical questions, i.e. interrogatives
which (although they have the appearance of a genuine question) actually have
the force of a (strong) assertion. Cf. e.g. (25) above: Oedipus question Kata Tis
yauei; does not really invite his children to come up with the names of future
husbands, but asserts that they will never marry (Oedipus makes this implicit
assertion explicit in his next line: ovx gotiw ovSeis, o texv there is no one, my
children). In (28), trota &8ikhuata Cnteite implies there are no greater injustices .
Rhetorical questions are very frequent in Greek literature, particularly in
oratory.
Note 1: When usedrhetorically:

yes/no-questions with ot/&p ot imply that the answeris yes (38.7); neutral questions
imply that the answeris no ;
specifying questions imply that the answeris an emptyset : tis in (25) implies no one ;
troia in (28) implies of no kind ; specifying questions with a negative imply the answer all
(e.g. tis oU ... ; who not? implies everyone ); cf. also next note.
Note 2: Observe the following idiomatic expressions (these are in essence rhetorical
questions):
1s yp ov; certainly, of course(lit. for how not? ); 1a&s yép; certainly not (lit. for how? );
ti y&p ov; certainly, of course (lit. for why not?); ti yép; certainly not (lit. for why? ).
For yép in these expressions, 59.14.
38.20 The following types of interrogative are regularly used to express commands/
requests (directives):
Questions with ot + second person future indicative (neg. ot un): 38.32.
- Questions with (ti) od + first- or second-person present/aorist indicative:
38.33.
Answers
38.21 To answeryes/no-questions:
Affirmative answers ( yes ) may be expressedby:

the repetition of the focus ( +60.20-4) of a question in the answer: cf. (19) above, eioi yes,
there are answering &poveiot; are there not?;
a personal pronoun reinforced by ye (especially Zywye), when the question asks
whethera person is doing something:cf. (15) above, Zywye I am, answering épwt&s are you
asking?;
first-person verbs expressing afhrmation or agreement: pnyi I say so, 6uoAoy& I agree;
variousexpressionsoflikelihood and truth: évéyxn (that s) inevitable, paivetan (so) it seems,
eixds (ye) (that s) likely; 2071 tatta that is the case, &AnOF true; Tas 8 0b;/TAs yap ot;/Ti yap
ov; (338.19 n.2);
38.21-5 Directives 481
affirmative adverbs and adverbial phrases (the Greek equivalents of yes, certainly, by all
means, of course, etc.): vai, udAa, udAa ye, UaMIOTO, TévU ye, TaVTétraAcl ye, TAaVTaTrAO! Mev
ouv,etc.
Negative answers may be expressedby:

ot not (so accented; a verb has to be supplied from the question), e.g.:
(36) NE. ov aioypdv fyi Sita TO weuvdt A yery;| :: OA. otk,ei T6 owBFval ye TO WEtSOs Hépel.
(Soph. Phil. 108-9)
(Neoptolemus:) Do you not think it disgracefulto tell lies? :: (Odysseus:) Not(i.e. I do
not think it disgraceful ) if the lie brings us salvation.
A translation no will often be preferred for ot. It may be reinforced byparticles (e.g. otv in
(20) above, otiKxouv tywye indeed I don't, Sita in (16) certainly not).
tot not at all, obdSapds certainly not, and 1&s> yép;/ti yp; certainly not.
Note 1: For the use of yap and ye in answers to yes/no-questions, 59.14, 59.53.
38.22 Alternative questions, which present a choice between two possibilities, are normally
answeredby oneofthese possibilities: cf. (24) above.
38.23 Specifying questionswill naturally be answeredbyan item thatsatisfies the information asked
for, e.g.:
(37) 2Q. & pire Doidpe, Troi 51 Kal obey; :: DA. Tapa Auoiou ... Tod KepaAou: Tropevouat Sé
pds tepitratov fw telyous. (Pl. Phdr. 227a)
(Socrates:) My dear Phaedrus, where are you going, and where are you coming
from? :: (Phaedrus:) From Lysias, the son of Cephalus; and I am going for a walk
outside the wall.
38.24 Speakers may, of course, also provide non-answers to any type of question (e.g. otK oi5a
I don t know), or no answeratall.
Directives
Basic Constructions
38.25 Commands, suggestions, requests, exhortations (etc.) in the second or third

person are regularly expressed by the imperative:
(38) ov ovv éxeivais Agye STI GvTi KUVds Ei MUAGE. (Xen. Mem. 2.7.14)
You musttell those women,then, that you are their guardian in place of a dog.
(39) Aeyétwo 8 UTrép Udy ul Gtrep Gv Kayo Agyoo. (Ar. Lys. 210)
Let one woman, on behalf ofall of you, repeat exactly whatI say.
For self-exhortations in the first person (most often plural), the hortatory sub-
junctive is used:
(40) icpev étri Tous TroAguious. (Xen. Cyr. 1.5.11)
Let us move against our enemies.
38.26 Negative commandsandrequests (prohibitions) in the second person are formed

with pn andeither the present imperative or the aorist subjunctive (uy + second-
person aorist imperative and uy + second-person present subjunctive do not
occur):
(41) motous Sé ut vouiZe QUOE! QUEOPaI d&vVOp~trOUs. (Xen. Cyr. 8.7.13)
Don't think that men are born trustworthy by nature.
(42) ut yap GAAo T1 vopionte Thy yiv avTav 7 Sunpov. (Thuc. 1.82.4)
Don't considertheir land to be anything other than a hostage.
In the third person, uy is most commonly used with the imperative (either
aorist or present), but the subjunctive (most often aorist, seldom present) also
occurs:
(43) Kal pndeis atT& patra voulodtw eivon. (Xen. Cyn. 2.2)
And let no one think that these things are meaningless. Aorist
imperative.
(44) UtroAGBn Sé uNdeis cos OUSEV TrPCOT|KOV UUdv KnSdyeba. (Thuc. 6.84.1)
Andlet no one supposethat we are concerned for you when we have nothing
to do with you. Aorist subjunctive.
In the first person, the hortatory subjunctive + yn is used:
(45) ut) péAAcpev Sq Tode TIAAEWw Kai Sdxverv. (Ar. Av. 352)
Let s not wait any longer to pluck and bite these two.
38.27. Each of these constructions may be preceded byinterjectionslike a&ye(te), pépe(te),

i@1 (often with 57): come (on), go ahead:
(46) dye 51, © Apiaie, ... cité Tiva yvouny éyxeis. (Xen. An. 2.2.10)
Comenow,Ariaeus, say what your opinionis.
(47) pépete, Tot Aortrod pt) TrePapesa attot. (Hdt. 6.12.3)
Come, let us not listen to him in the future. For the infrequent construc-
tion of treiPoucn with the genitive, 30.21.
38.28 Indirect directives, i.e. the representation of a command/request in indirect

speech/thought ( 41.1-2; cf. Engl. He told him to leave (indirect) as opposed to
Leave! (direct)), are expressed in Greek by means of a manipulative verb (verbs
meaning command, request , beg , etc.) followed by a dynamic infinitive. For
details, +51.8-15.
38.29 Overview of basic directive constructions:
first person second person third person

positive (commands, subjunctive imperative imperative
exhortations, sugges-
tions, etc.)
negative (prohibi- ut + subjunctive ut) + present impera- wr + imperative (or

tions, warnings,etc.) tive or ut + aorist subjunctive)
subjunctive
Difference between Present-Stem and Aorist-Stem Imperatives/

Subjunctives
38.30 The difference between present and aorist imperatives/subjunctives in these

constructions is purely aspectual ( 33.63-5): present-stem forms (with
imperfective aspect) present the action to be carried out as a process, i.e. as
ongoing or repeated; aorist-stem forms (with perfective aspect) present an
action as a single complete whole:
(48) XQ. kai viv 1} ToUTwv détrdTtepov BouAel Troie1, Zo~@Ta 7 atroKpivou. :: MOA. &AA&
Troijow Tata. Kai wor ATOKpIval, @ DZaxKpates: Etreld1] Fopyias daropeiv coi
Soxéei Trepi Tis PNTOPIKT|s, OU AUT Tiva or) Elven; (Pl. Grg. 462b)
(Socrates:) So now please do whichever of these you like, either ask the
questions or answer them. :: (Polus:) All right, I will do so. So, answer
me, Socrates: Since you think Gorgias is confused about oratory, which
craft do you say it is? Socrates uses the present imperatives égo@ta and
atroupivou to press Polus to undertake a certain process (the pres. imp. is
often so used in procedural commands: Polus is to act either as ques-
tioner or as answerer ). Polus aorist imperative &trdéupivan is a request to
answer a single question.
The present imperative/subjunctive may also function as a request to get an action
underway (this is sometimes called the immediative use of the present
imperative):
(49) dvayvobi 5 por AaBaov TtouTovi ... Tov vdpuov, &>5 SiapprSnv ovK é& ...
avayiyvwoxe. (Dem. 24.32)
Take up and read aloud for me this law, which plainly forbids ...
Go on, read it out. The aorist imperative refers to the reading out in its
entirety (a command to do something), whereas the immediative present
imperative refers to the process of reading out (a command to be doing
something).
(50) Kai por, & &vbpes ASnvaion, ut) PopuBhonte, undé&v Sd oo T1 Uyiv péya Adyelv ...
eis AeApous eAGaov etoAunoe ToUTO yavTeUcacfal Kal, OTrTep A yo, UT)
BopuBeite, co avbpes tpeto yap 1) ei Tis Eno ein copwtepos. (Pl. Ap. 20e-21a)
And please, Athenians, do not interrupt me, not even if I shall seem to be
saying something outrageous to you... Whenhearrived at Delphi, he dared to
put the following matter to the oracle - and as I have said, gentlemen, please do
not interrupt me - he asked whether there was someone wiser than myself.
With the aorist subjunctive (ur) @opuBrionte, Socrates formulates his requestas
a simple instruction not to perform a certain action. He is not (yet) interested in
the process of not-disturbing, only in the basic fact of non-disturbance. Later,
when the possibility that the audience will cause an uproaris at its peak (Socrates
is about to say something outrageous, uéya Aéyeiv), he reformulates the request
using the present imperative (ur) OopuBeite: the process is now relevant, as the
previously stated request (note Strep Aéyw) becomes operational .
The present imperative/subjunctive is also used to command someoneto continue
or (with un) cease doing something (continuative use):
(51) gotw ov dotis BoUAEeTaI Urd THY CUVdvTav BAdTITEDBaI UGAAOV 7 EeAcioban;
&troKpivou, @ c&yate- Kai yap 6 vouos KeAevel ctroxpiveoGar. (Pl. Ap. 25d)
Is there anyone whowishesto be harmedby those around him rather than be
helped? Keep answering, good man, for the law demands that one keeps
answering. Socrates question is part of an ongoing series of questions.
(52) yuvanki 81 tavTy TH viv ouvoikéeis pt) ouvoixee. (Hdt. 9.111.2)
Stop living with this woman with whom youareliving now.
Note 1: Perfect imperatives and subjunctives are rarely used, but have their normal aspectual
value(s) when they are. For the use of the third-person passive perfect imperative, 34.21.
Other Expressions Used as Directives; Differences between These

Expressions
38.31 There are several other idiomatic ways to express commands and requests in
Greek(cf. also (7) (14) above). The reasons whya speaker mayselect onedirective
expression over another are complex, having to do with differences of social status
between speaker and addressee, the urgency andseverity ofthe directive, the desire
to be polite, etc.
The most frequent alternative expressions with directive force are listed below.
38.32 Interrogatives with od + second-person future indicative function as urgent

commandsorrequests, or (with ot un) as urgent prohibitions (also 33.44):
(53) ot Kai oU at duoAoyrtoels UNndév Ur Eno &SiKeioban; (Xen. Cyr. 5.5.13)
Will you not for your part also agree that you have in no way been wronged
by me? (= agree that... ! )
38.33 Interrogatives with (ti) ov + first- or second-person present/aorist indicative are

used to express a request or suggestion (also 33.21, 33.33):
(54) AO. ti ot Kadotpev Sfita thy Auoiotpatny,| frrep SiadAdEciev Huds dv ydvn; | ::
AA. vai te o1o. (Ar. Lys. 1103-5)
(Athenian:) Let s call Lysistrata, then, since she s the only one whocan reconcile
us. :: (Spartan:) By the two gods,let s. ora is Laconian ( >25.1) for Gea) (dual).
(55) Ti ov, épnv éyo, ov Kai Tpddixov Kal Itrtriav éxaAdgoapev Kal ToUs WET aUTAY,
iva étraKovowol hudy; :: T&vu pév ovv, Zon 6 Tpwtaydpas. (Pl. Prt. 317d)
Let's call , said I, Prodicus and Hippias and those with them aswell, so they
can listen to us. Absolutely , said Protagoras.
Note 1: The difference between present and aorist indicatives in such questions may be
purely aspectual (and not temporal): 33.33 n.1 (and cf. 38.30).
38.34 Strws (neg. Stross pt) + second/third person future indicative (the construction of
effort clauses, -44) can be used independently to express an emphatic exhorta-
tion/warning. dts is not a conjunction in these cases:
(56) Strws ov ~oeobe Gvbp_es &E101 Tis EAcuBEpias Ts KeKTNOGE. (Xen. An. 1.7.3)
You must, then, be men worthy of the freedom which youpossess. For the
case of ts, 50.13.
38.35 The second-person potential optative (with dv) may havethe force of a cautious
commandor request ( 34.13):
(57) TOS" Sv ut trpogoban Has paBorte. (Thuc. 1.36.3)
You should learn from this not to betray us.
Similarly, the first-person potential optative may be used to express a cautious
self-exhortation: this is often found when the speaker has been invited to do
something:
(58) ID. otxotv Agyelv ev xpt) of, pavOdvelv 8 eye; 2: OP. A yous &v. (Eur.
IT 810-11)
(Iphigenia:) Isn't it proper for you to speak, then, and for meto be informed?::
(Orestes:) I shall speak.
38.36 Especially in circumstances where a speaker wishes not to be too direct (for
instance in addressing a superior), he or she may use an impersonal construction
such as 8¢i/xpn;:
(59) Sei 8 ob ToioUTwv, GAN Strws Ta TOU Beod | pavTe? S&piota AUCOEV, TOBE
oxoTreiv. (Soph. OT 406-7)
Thereis no need for such things, but to examine how we maybestresolve the
oracles of the god. The chorus advises Oedipus, its king.
38.37 The infinitive is sometimes used in directives - the imperatival infinitive (Lat.
infinitivus pro imperativo), to express the proper procedure to be followed in
a specific type of, mostly conventional, situation:
(60) ci uév yap &Eidypeos Soxéels eival cewuUTa Toio1 éyoiol TETyEaoWw avTIMbfjval,
ov Sé ... udyeoBar- ei SE CUyyivMoKeEai Eival hoowyv, ov SE... SeoTPOTH TH
od ... ABE és Adyous. (Hdt. 4.126)
Forif you think yourself capable of opposing my power, then you mustfight.
But if you admit you are weaker, then come to terms with your master.
The infinitive udxeo@a1 expresses the proper procedureto follow in warif one
party thinks it has a chance ofwinning. The imperative éA¢ is what the speaker
(Darius) actually wants the addressee to do. For apodotic 5é (twice with ov 5é),
59.17.
(61) oU vuv tottov Ttév &vEpa tratioov tatita troietvta, iva ut) oiknio TroAguw
ouvexn... ETEav SE AUTOV TrEepIAGBns, Trol elV OKWS UNKETI KEIVOS és EAANVas
étrigetou. (Hdt. 5.23.3)
Stop this man, then, from doing this, so that you may not be embroiled
in a civil war. And when you have him in your grasp, proceed to take
measures so that he never returns to Greece. troie expresses the proce-
dure to follow in dealing with the threat posed by Histiaeus (rottov tov
d&vdpa).
Note 1: The imperatival infinitive is a dynamic infinitive (the negative is un, and the
difference betweenpresent andaorist infinitives is purely aspectual; 51.4).
Wishes
Realizable and Unrealizable Wishes
38.38 In wishes that a speaker considers realizable the cupitive optative without dvis
used ( >34.14), sometimes introduced byei@¢, ei yap or ws (poetic): would that , if
only , may ... ,, I wish that ... . The negative is un:
(62) yévoito ... KaT& vdov Tol, Baoiletd. (Hdt. 7.104.5)
Mayit go accordingto plan for you,sire.
(63) ci8 , © Adote, OU ToIoUTOS dv giAos Hiv yévoio. (Xen. Hell. 4.1.38)
Mayyou, my dearest man,being such as you are, becomeourfriend.
38.39 In wishes that (the speaker thinks) can no longer come true - unrealizable
wishes - the modal (secondary) indicative (aorist, imperfect, or pluperfect) is
used, always introduced byei@e or ei yap (34.18). The negativeis 1:
(64) ci® Hv Opéotns TAnoiov KAUov T&S. (Eur. El. 282)
If only Orestes were nearbyto hear these things!
38.39-42 Wishes 487
(65) ci®e ue Kadpetaov évapov otixes év Koviciow. (Eur. Supp. 821)

Wouldthat the ranks of the Cadmeans had laid mein the dust. évapovis an
unaugmentedaorist (of évaipw slay ).
Note 1: Unrealizable wishes do not express hopefor the realization of an action, but rather
serve as a regretful or resigned commentona situation which can no longerbealtered.
38.40 Unrealizable wishes may also be expressed by a form of the imperfect a@erov +
infinitive (lit: I ought to have, I owed ...).
(66) ddedre ... Kiipos Civ. (Xen. An. 2.1.4)
If only Cyruswerealive.
(67) dAgoGai & ddpeAov TS huepa. (Soph. OT 1157)
Would that I had perished that day.
Note1: ei yap dqeAov/adpedev can stand on its own, meaning Jf only!; the thing longed for in
such instancesis clear from the context.
Difference between Present-Stem and Aorist-Stem Forms
38.41 The difference between aorist and present optatives in realizable wishesis one of
aspect ( >33.63-5): present-stem optatives (with imperfective aspect) regard an
action as ongoing/repeated, aorist optatives (with perfective aspect) regard an
action in completion, as a single whole.
(68) Ano¥eis y UTrd AnoTav éoGio1 Kpibas Ldvas. (Ar. Pax 449)
Mayhe be captured by bandits and eat only barley.
(69) Kal untroT atts uaCav Sie pdyor. (Ar. Pax 3)
And mayit never eat a tastier cake than that one.
In (68), the chorus use a present optative to emphasize the habitual/ongoing duress
that they wish the subject to suffer from. In (69), the speaker is talking about
a single and discrete action of cake-eating, as appearsfrom the use of the aorist.
Note 1: The perfect optative is very rarely used in wishes, but has its normal aspectual
value(s) whenit is (e.g. te@vainv I wish I were dead).
Note 2: The immediative and continuative nuances described above for the present
imperative ( 38.30) may occasionally be detected in the present optative.
38.42 Similarly, in unrealizable wishes, the difference between imperfects and aorist
indicatives (or with deAov, present and aorist infinitives) is aspectual. In practice,
unrealizable wishes about the present use present-stem forms (impf., pres. inf.: cf.
(64) and (66) above), while unrealizable wishes referring to the past normally use
aorist-stem forms(aor. ind., aor. inf.: cf. (65) and (67)). Also -34.18 n. 1.
Exclamations
Introduction: Basic Terminology

38.43 Exclamatory sentences express a speaker's strong emotion (surprise, indigna-
tion, anger, happiness, etc.) towards an action, person or thing. In principle,
any sentence can be an exclamation (this is signalled in English by an
exclamation mark - e.g. Alice did a great job! - but no exclamation mark is
used in standard Greek texts). However, special sentence types, whose form
indicates that an exclamation is being expressed, can also be used (in English,
for instance, by means of an inverted word order: Did Alice ever do a great
job!).
38.44 Several types of exclamation needto be distinguished:

Exclamations of degree or wh-exclamations (cf. Engl. What a great job!):
In Greek, such exclamations are expressed by means of the definite relative
adjectives and adverbs(oios, é00s, os, etc.);
- Nominal exclamations(cf. Engl. Great job!): In Greek, such exclamations are
expressed by meansof the nominative or genitive case;
Sentence exclamations(cf. Engl. Did Alice do a great job!): To the extent that
such exclamations are expressed through a special construction in Greek, the
infinitive is used (38.51).
38.45 Exclamatory sentences in Greek are often accompanied by vocatives and/or

interjections (pet, oipo1, etc.).
38.46 For indirect exclamations, i.e. the representation of exclamations in indirect

discourse (cf. Engl. He was amazed at what a cool car John drove), 42.9-11.
Exclamations of Degree
38.47 With exclamationsof degree, the speaker expresses his/her surprise or emotion at
the fact that a situation or thing has in some respect (quality, quantity, etc.)
exceeded his expectations. To express this type of exclamation, Greek uses the
definite relative adjectives (oios, dé00s, etc.; 8.1). The adjective may modify
a noun (adnominal use) or be used pronominally ( 26.22-3):
(70) © td, 600 Tocyuata zyxels év TH Seittrven, ci dvayKn oor éti travta TH
Aekapia TaAUTaA Siateivey Tas xEipas Kal AtTroyEevEeoBal TOUTWV TOV TAaVTOSaTrav
Bpwpdtov. (Xen. Cyr. 1.3.4)
Oh grandfather, how manytroubles you haveat dinner, if you haveto stretch
out your armstoall those dishes and havetotasteofall those different kinds
of food! dca modifies tedypuata, agreeing with it in case, number and gender.
38.47-50 Exclamations 489
(71) & SUoSaov, oia taoyouev. (Eur. Alc. 258)

My unhappy wife, what (lit. what kind of) things we suffer! oia is used
pronominally, as the object of tmaoxoyev.
The relative manner adverb ws how is used to qualify either adjectives (or
adverbs) or verbs (with the latter it expresses the remarkable degree to which an
action is carried out):
(72) tratroud§, ws KaAtdouny éxer. (Eur. Cyc. 153)
Myoh my! Whata beautiful smell it has!
(73) @ piAta®Aipov, a5 o &tipaZer tatip. (Soph. Ant. 572)
Mydearest Haemon,howyourfather dishonours you!
38.48 The definite relative adjectives may be used predicatively (cf. the similar use of interrogative
adjectives and demonstrative pronouns, 38.13, 29.34):
(74) Sony éxeis thy Suvauiv, avok Seotrota. (Ar. Plut. 748)
Howgreat is the power you wield, lord my master! donv is used predicatively with thv
Suva(note the article), the object of éyers.
(75) otav éx1Svav tHvd Equoas. (Eur. Jon 1262)
Whata viper is this woman you have begotten! oiav Zyi5vav is used predicatively with
Tv, the object of Epucas.
These examples differ subtly from (70)-(71). In (74), for instance, the exclamation only
concerns the predicative part; one could paraphrase the sentence as you wield power and
howgreatis it! By contrast, in (70) the exclamation concerns the whole expression d0a
Tpayuata ExeEls.
38.49 Exclamations of degree frequently omit a verb:

(76) o Zed troAutiyn® , as Kadai. (Ar. Eq. 1390)
O much-honoured Zeus, what beautiful women!
Nominal Exclamations
38.50 Nominal exclamations express a speaker s surprise or emotion about a person or

thing. They can be expressed by the nominative case (often with the interjection &
added) or by the genitive of cause ( 30.30). With the latter construction an
interjection (such as get, oipo1 or ddyo1) is virtually always present (interjections are
a direct expression of grief/indignation/etc., to which the genitive is then added to
convey the cause ofthat grief/indignation/etc.):
(77) DA. yéypage yap 51) 6 Auaias Treipa@pevov TIva TOV KaAdy, OU Ur Epaotot &é,
GAA att 51) TodTO Kai KeKduweuTar... 2: LO. & yevvaios. (Pl. Phdr. 227c)
(Phaedrus:) For Lysias represents one of the beautiful boys as being seduced,
but not by a lover. That s the clever thing aboutit. :: (Socrates:) O, noble man!
Note the accentuation of the interjection & (not vocative a).
(78) olor taAaivnys dpa tijose cungopas. (Soph. El. 1179)

Ah, so sad, then, is this misfortune! More literally Alas, then, for this
misfortune.
Note 1: With interjections such as oii, the genitive of cause is used to refer to the second
and third person; to refer to him/herself, the speaker uses the nominative:
(79) otpor t&Aawa. (Soph. Ant. 554)
Ah, poor me!
The Exclamatory Infinitive
38.51 The infinitive is used in exclamations to express surprise or indignation at the

very fact that a certain situation obtains. The subject, if present, is expressed in
the accusative (accusative-and-infinitive construction, 51.21):
(80) Ba&Ar és Kdpaxas. TolouTOVi Tpégelv KUVa. (Ar. Vesp. 835)
Damnit to hell! Oh that anyone would keep such a dog!
(81) éué traSeiv T&Se, | ped, Eu TraAcdqpova KaT& Te yaw oixetv. (Aesch. Eum.
837-8)
That I should have been treated so - ah! - and that I, old and wise as I am,
should live underthe earth!
39
Introduction to Complex Sentences
Definitions; Functions of Subordinate Clauses
39.1 In chapter 26, an account was given of simple sentences, which are structured
arounda single predicate and several obligatory and optional constituents. When
a sentence contains more than onepredicate, we speak of complex sentences.
39.2 Predicates can combine to form complex sentenceseither

- by co-ordination (also parataxis ,lit.: placement next to );
- or by subordination(also hypotaxis ,lit.: placement under ).
In subordination, one predicate is superior to another in the structure of the
sentence, in that the subordinate predicate fulfils a syntactic role with its super-
ordinate predicate:
(1) tote pév ov... @etTrvNTrOINOAVTO Kai Exopnonoav. (Xen. Ages. 2.15)
Then they took dinner and went to sleep. Co-ordination - two main clauses
are co-ordinated by xai.
(2) tote pév oUV ... Sertrvntroinoduevor éxoipnOnoav. (Xen. Hell. 4.3.20)
Then, having taken dinner, they wentto sleep. Subordination - the subordinate
predicate, which here takes the form of a participle (Semvntromoduevoi), fulfils
the role of predicative modifier (26.26) with the superordinate predicate
Exoiunenoay.
Superordinate predicates such as éxowwnSnoav in (2) will be called matrix
predicates below; the clauses in which such predicates stand will be called matrix
clauses.
39.3 Subordinate predicates may fulfil all syntactic roles which nominal elements can
fulfil. Thus they may be an obligatory constituentof the matrix predicate (subject,
object, complement), an optional constituent with that predicate (adverbial
modifier, predicative modifier) or, in the case of many relative clauses and
participles, a modifier within a noun phrase.
(3) rdAguov ... oie Trpoot}KelHiv UTropéverv. (Isoc. 6.89)
I think that it is fitting for us to endure war. The infinitive construction
consisting oftpoonnew and everything that dependsonitfulfils the role ofobject
492 39.3-5 Introduction to Complex Sentences
(an obligatory constituent) with the main predicate oipau; in turn, the infinitive
construction mréAguov UTropévew fulfils the role of subject (again an obligatory
constituent) with trpoonnerv.
(4) KaAAiotny yap paxny viknoavtes Kal Sdfav avis ueyiotnv AaBdvtes... obSEev
BéATIov Te&ttouoN. (Isoc. 5.53)
For although they wona splendid victory and acquired a very great reputation
from it, they are no better off. The two co-ordinated participle constructions
fulfil the role ofpredicative modifiers in the clause centred around 1pdattovow.
(5) éxeivor 8 , oUs OUTOI GTIMAECAY, .. . TEPAS EXOUOI THs TAPa TV xBpdv Tipepias.
(Lys. 12.88)
But those men, whom these men havekilled, are beyond getting satisfaction
from their enemies. The relative clause ots ... &ta@deoav fulfils the role of
attributive modifier with éxeivor, a constituent of the matrix clause centred
around the predicate éyovon.
39.4 Examples (3) and (4) make clear that co-ordination and subordination are recursive pro-
cesses: subordinate predicates can themselves have further subordinate predicates, or be co-
ordinated with other subordinate predicates. Schematically, the hierarchical structure of the
examples can be rendered as follows:
(3) oipan
Lo TTPOOT|KEIV HIV
Lo TTOAEMOV ... UTTOMEVEIV
(4) oudév BéATIOV TIpaTTOUVOIV
.. VIKNOOVTES 79tTTTo ... AaBdvtTes ... a,
Note that in (3) tpoonxeiv is the matrix predicate of the infinitive construction 1éAeyov
utropevelv. Thus there is a difference between the terms matrix predicate/clause and main
predicate/clause : the latter term refers only to the outermost matrix clause, in whichall
subordinate constructions are embedded(e.g. oiin (3)).
Types of Subordinate Constructions

39.5 As the examples given above show,Greek displays three major types of subordina-
tion, defined in terms of the verb form of the subordinate predicate:
infinitives (e.g. (3));
participles (e.g. (2) and (4));
finite clauses (e.g. (5)), which contain a subordinator (conjunction,relative
pronoun,etc.) and finite verb (with a personal ending).
39.5 Types of Subordinate Constructions 493
Note 1: Just as predicates may determine the case of the nominal constituents in a simple
sentence (e.g. taidetw educate takes an object in the accusative, but Bonféw aid takes
a complementin the dative), so matrix predicates often pose constraints on the expression
of tense, mood and other features of the subordinate predicate.
In (4), for instance, a choice of oipai think predeterminesthe selection of an infinitive for
the object, because this verb always takes an infinitive (and not a 611/s-clause orparticiple,
51.19 with n.1); the samerestriction exists for tooonKew (51.8).
In (2), the participle is built on the aorist stem, implying that the taking dinner
temporally preceded the going to sleep : the matrix predicate functions as the temporal
anchorfor the subordinate predicate ( 33.57). Furthermore, the participle agrees with the
subject of the matrix predicate.
Althoughall these forms involve strategies of subordination, the term subordinate

clauseis usually reserved for the last category. In the structure of this book, too, we
first treat different kindsof finite subordinate clauses (40-50), while the syntax of
the infinitive and of the participle are treated separately in 51 and 52.
An overviewof the various subordinate constructionsis given in 53.
40
Introduction to Finite Subordinate Clauses
Subordinators
40.1 The following types of subordinators introduce Greek finite subordinate clauses:
conjunctions (671, os, ci, Ste, étrei, 51671, un,etc.);
- relative pronouns(és, 7}, 6; dots, etc.), relative adjectives (oios, d005; Strolos,
dtrodos, etc.), or relative adverbs (év6a, cs; Strws, etc.);
in indirect questions, interrogative pronouns(tis, etc.), or indefinite relative
pronouns(déoTh<,etc.).
Note 1: Greek finite subordinate clauses always have a subordinator, in contrast to English,
where such subordinators may sometimesbeleft out (contrast He said that I was clever with
He said I was clever, The man that/whom I saw was ugly with The man I saw wasugly).
The only exception in Greek is the use of the subjunctive after second-person BowAet/
BouAcoée or GéAe15/8éAeTte, for which 34.8 n.2, 38.17. (This is perhaps best seen as a case ofco-
ordination, rather than subordination, however.)
Functions and Types of Finite Subordinate Clauses

40.2 The following types of subordinate clause function as obligatory constituents
with certain kinds of matrix predicates: the subordinate clause functions as subject
or object with the matrix predicate (and the subordinate clause therefore cannot be
left out). Such clauses are called complementclauses:
declarative subordinate clauses (indirect statement), introduced by 6m or as
( 41);
- indirect questions, introduced by «i / wétepov ... 7) / cite ... cite, interrogative
pronouns/adjectives/adverbs (tis, trdéoos, tot, etc.), or indefinite relative
pronouns/adjectives/adverbs (do715, 6trd00s, dtrou,etc.); and indirect exclama-
tions, introduced by definite relative adjectives or adverbs (é00s, os, etc.)
( 42);
- fear clauses, introduced by ph (43);
- effort clauses, introduced by étras ( 44).
40.2-5 Moodsin Subordinate Clauses 495
Note 1: These clauses are also often called substantival clauses (because they fulfil the same
syntactic role that maybe fulfilled by noun phrases,i.e. substantives) or object clauses . Note
that, in spite of the terms complementclause and object clause , such clauses may also
function as subject, e.g. in éAéyeto 611... it was reported that ..., where the ém-clause is
subject of éA¢yeto.
40.3 The following types of subordinate clause can be added to a matrix clause
optionally; the subordinate clause functions as an optional adverbial modifier
with the matrix predicate. Such clauses are called adverbial clauses:
purposeclauses, introduced byiva, étrws, ws, or un (45);
result clauses, introduced by dote ( 46);
temporal clauses, introduced by éte, étrei, trpiv, Ews, etc. (47);
causal clauses, introduced by 6m or 81671 (48);
conditional clauses, introduced by «i (also concessive clauses introducedby «i
Kat/Kai ei) (49).
40.4 Finally, relative clauses ( 50), introduced by the relative pronounsés, dots, etc.
or by relative adjectives suchasoios, éc0,¢,etc., typically function as an (attributive)
modifier of a head (pro)noun in the matrix clause (the antecedent). However,
there are also autonomous relative clauses, which lack a nominal antecedentin
the matrix clause ( 50.7) and function as constituents in the matrix clause by
themselves. Such clauses can or cannot be omitted depending ontheir function in
the sentence.
Note 1: Because they usually modify an antecedent noun,relative clauses are often called
adjectival clauses . But autonomousrelative clauses are not properly adjectival .
Otherrelative clauses function as optional adverbial modifiers (particularly those

introduced byrelative adverbs such as év@a, os: -50.34-40).
Moodsin Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate Clauses Which Use the Same Moodsas Independent

Sentences
40.5 Several types of subordinate clause use the same moodsas are used in indepen-
dent sentences ( 34):
declarative 611/s>-clauses (41);
indirect questions ( 42; the same moodsare usedasin direct questions, for
which 38.15-17);
causal clauses ( 48);
496 40.5-8 Introduction to Finite Subordinate Clauses
someresult clauses with Hote ( 46.4 5);

digressive relative clauses ( 50.6, 50.17).
In the first three of these (611/cos-clauses, indirect questions and in causal clauses
introduced by 671), an oblique optative may replace the moodusedin historic
sequence ( 40.12-14).
Note 1: The main moodsusedin all these clauses are the indicative, potential optative (+ &v)
and counterfactual modal (secondary) indicative (+ év). The optative and modal indicative
in wishes and the imperative and subjunctive in commandsareall very rare in subordinate
clauses.
Subordinate Clauses with Required Moods
40.6 Several types of subordinate clause grammatically require the use of a certain
mood:
fear clauses (fear for the future): the subjunctive (clauses expressing concern
about the past or present use the indicative) ( 43);
- effort clauses: the future indicative, sometimes the subjunctive ( 44);
purposeclauses: the subjunctive ( 45).
In each of these types, an oblique optative may replace the moodusedin historic
sequence ( 40.12-14).
Moodsandthe Use of &v in Temporal, Conditional and Relative Clauses
40.7 In temporal clauses ( 47), conditional clauses ( 49) and restrictive relative
clauses ( 50.6, 50.18-22) a speaker may use different moods and/orthe particle
&v to express differences with respect to the time,reality or likelihood of the action
in the subordinate clause. These constructions are discussed in detail in the
relevant chapters; since these types share certain features, however, some general
points may be madehere.
40.8 Various factors play a role in the choice of moods in temporal, conditional and
relative clauses:
whetherthe action referred to is in the past, present or future;
whetherthe speakerrefers to a single action or a repeated/habitualaction;
in conditional and somerelative clauses, in addition, whetherit is considered
likely, (remotely) possible, or no longer possible that an action will take place
(or is taking place/has taken place), or if no such attitude aboutthe likelihood of
the action is adopted(i.e. a neutral attitude).
40.9 Moodsin Subordinate Clauses 497
Note 1: Temporal clauses always present an action as taking place: no distinctions between
different degrees of likelihood are expressed by such clauses.
40.9 The following constructions are commonly used in temporal, conditional, and
relative clauses:
Indicative: used by a speaker (in temporal clauses andrelative clauses) to refer to
actions which factually took place in the past or are taking place in the present, or
used (in conditional and certain relative clauses) when a speaker adopts a neutral
attitude towardsthereality/likelihood of a past, present or future action:
(1) étre181) &E Onoeus ... SnpoKpatiayv étroinoev ..., Tov... Baoidéa OSE ATTOV 6
Stjuos Npeito éx mpoKpitav. ([Dem.] 59.75)
And when Theseushad established a democracy, the people nonetheless chose
their king from a select few. Temporal clause with aor. ind.; the narrator
presents the establishment of the democracy as a factual event in the past.
(2) ... Tepi YirepBopéwv eipnuéva ... ZoT1... Ounpw év Emrydvoion, ci 51) TH EdvT1
ye Ounpos tatita t& Etre étroinoe. (Hdt. 4.32)
There is discussion of the Hyperboreans by Homerin his Epigoni, if indeed
Homerdid write that work. Conditional clause with aor. ind.; the narrator
expresses a neutral stance: he gives no verdict on whether Homer wrote the
Epigonior not (though a degree ofscepticism is expressed by 1é éovti ye;for such
scepticism in neutral conditional clauses, 49.4).
Prospective subjunctive + &v: to refer to actions which the speakerpresents as
occurring (temporal clauses) or probably occurring (conditional/relative
clauses) in the future; the main clause normally has a verb form with future
reference (e.g. a future indicative, imperative, hortatory subjunctive, etc.;
>33.63-A4):
(3) dtrdtepos av opddv ... we USAAOV eV Troi}, | TOUTW Trapadaow This MuKvds Tas
twias. (Ar. Eg. 1108-9)
Whicheverone of you twotreats mebetter, to him I will return the reins of the
state. Relative clause with &v + subj., main clause with fut. ind.; the speaker
refers to good treatment in the future, which he considers very likely.
Indefinite subjunctive + &v: to refer to actions which occurhabitually (repeat-
edly, typically, generically) in or up to the present; the main clause normally has
a present indicative referring to an habitual action (33.15):
(4) &v Saxptoa udAlota ... Toitjon TdAIv, oUTOS Ta viKNThpIa gépel. (Pl. Leg.
800d)
Whoeverbest succeeds at makingthecity cry, that man (always) carries off the
palm ofvictory. Relative clause with &v + subj., main clause with pres. ind.; the
speakerrefers to a recurring situation in thecity.
In historic sequence, the indefinite construction (referring to actions which
took place repeatedly in the past) is expressed by iterative optative without &v
( 40.13); the main clause usually has an imperfect referring to a habitual action
in the past (33.24):
(5) dxas yap Terxtnpens Troitjoele, TO EvOedTEV YOPATA XOv Trpds Ta TElyec ErrBee.
(Hdt. 1.162.2)
Wheneverhe had locked them upinside their walls, he would next heap up
moundsagainst the walls and destroy the city. Temporal clause with opt., main
clause with impf.: the narrator refers to repeated build-upsto sieges.
Note 1: The prospective construction (sometimes called anticipatory ) is the default

construction for temporal/conditional/relative clauses referring to the future; in temporal
clauses it is the only possible construction ( 47.8). Note that English in such cases uses
present-tense forms (the so-called concealed future,cf. treats in the translation of (3)).
Note 2: Different labels such as prospective and indefinite for subjunctive + &v are
traditional, but the distinction between the two types should not be pressed too hard: both
constructions refer to an unspecified time. Whether &v + subjunctive is to be called
prospective or indefinite depends on the verb used in the matrix clause: if the matrix
clause has a verb with future reference (fut. ind., imp., etc.), a subordinate clause with &v +
subj. is prospective ; if the matrix clause has a pres. ind. expressing a repeated action or
general truth, &v + subj. in the subordinate clauseis indefinite .
Evenso, the distinction is sometimesirrelevant:
(6) Toto Uudy Sonar... - av Sia THY aUTAV Adywv dkoUNTE HOU dTrOACyOoULEVOU Sr dovTrEp
elada Agyelv ... ute Bauder prjte CopuBetv TouTOU Evexa. (Pl. Ap. 17c-d)
This thing I ask of you: if/whenever you hear me defend myself using the same words
which I am accustomedto speak, not to be surprised or to make a disturbance on that
account. The dynamicinfinitives in the matrix clause (@aupdcewv and GopuBeiv, dependent
on Séouan) havefuture reference, and &v + subj. could therefore be seen as prospective ; at
the same time, the sentence refers to a general prescription, so an indefinite reading is
equally valid.
40.10 In conditional and somerelative clauses (but not temporal clauses), the following
additional constructionsare possible:
Potential optative: to refer to actions in the future (or a different reality), of
which the speaker considers it possible (but no more than that) that they will
occur; the main clause normally has potential optative + dv (34.13):
40.10-12 Moods in Subordinate Clauses 499
(7) i ev TIs TOV TpaylKdv Trointav ... Toijoeiev év TeaywSia Tov Oepoitny UTrd
Tov EAAhvoov oTepavowpevov, ovdeis &v Uudv Utropeiverev. (Aeschin. 3.231)
If some tragic poet should portray Thersites in a tragedy being crowned by the
Greeks, none of you would abide it. Conditional clause with opt., main clause
with &v + opt.; the speakerrefers to a possible (but not very likely) plot ofa tragedy.
Counterfactual modal (secondary) indicative: to refer to actions in the pre-
sent or past, which the speaker considers no longer possible; the main clause
normally has counterfactual modal indicative + &v (34.16):
(8) ci TO Kai Td ETrOiNoEV &vEpetrOs OUTOOI, OUK dv atreBavev. (Dem. 18.243)
If this man had donethis or that, he would not have died. Conditional clause
with secondary ind., main clause with &v + secondary ind.: the doing of this or
that is presented as no longer possible. For to nai t6, 28.30.
40.11 The following table summarizes the possible constructions:
Temporal, Conditional and Relative Clauses

construction/meaning subordinate clause matrix clause
factual/neutral: indicative any tense/mood
prospective: subjunctive + &v future indicative, etc.
indefinite: subjunctive + &v present indicative,etc.
(in historic sequence:) iterative optative without dv imperfect
Conditional and Relative Clauses (only)
construction/meaning subordinate clause matrix clause
potential: optative (without dv) optative + dv
counterfactual: secondary indicative (without &év) secondary indicative + év
Sequence of Moods; the Oblique Optative
40.12 In many(butnotall) types of subordinate clause, the use of moods maybeaffected

by the tense ( 33.1-2) of the matrix clause:
if the verb in the matrix clause is in a non-past tense (present, perfect, future) -
this is called primary sequence - the use of moodsis normally notaffected;
if the verb in the matrix clause is in a past tense (imperfect, aorist,
pluperfect) - this is called historic (or secondary) sequence - a so-called
oblique optative is regularly used in the subordinate clause, replacing the
mood that would be used in primary sequence, although that original
mood mayalso be retained ; the tense stem is always unchanged.
For example:
(9) ...6... 8 501k yoo pt 1hONP Uyeis. (Dem. 9.65)
... Which I am afraid you might suffer.
(10) 10a pr... w&Borté T1. (Xen. Cyr. 2.1.11)
I was afraid that you might suffer something.
(11) troAuv pév pdBov Hiv trapeixete pt TI WHONTE. (Xen. Cyr. 4.5.48)
You gave us muchfear that you might suffer something.
In (9), in primary sequence (after pf. ind. 5¢5o1n(a)), the subjunctive 1d@nrt(e) is
used in a fear clause (43.3). In (10), in historic sequence (after aor. ind. #5e10a),
the oblique aor. optative td@orre replaces an aor. subj. Finally, in (11), in historic
sequence(after impf. trapeiyete), the aor. subj. 1d&@nrte is retained.
(12) Aye: 6t1 Tapa Tot attot dvepatrou zye1 TO d&pyupiov. ([Dem.] 48.37)
Hesaysthat he has got the money from his ownslave.
(13) cite... 671 TapaotrdvSous Upas Exon. (Lys. 12.74)
Hesaid that he held you to be oathbreakers.
In (12), in primary sequence (after pres. ind. Aéye), the indicative eyeis
a standard moodin a declarative é11-clause (41.7); in (13), in historic sequence
(after aor. ind. citre), the oblique pres. optative éyoi replaces a pres. ind.
Note 1: Thus, unlike English, Greek does not normally have a sequence of tenses with back-
shifting (compare Hesays that he has, Hesaid that he had; for fuller discussion, 41.1), only
a sequence of moods. For exceptions, 41.15.
Note 2: It is often said that in historic sequence the original tense or mood is either
retained or replaced by an oblique optative of the same tense stem. Such formulations
are a didactic convenience and occasionally used in this grammar. However, they should not
be taken to reflect what speakers actually consciously do, nor should it be inferred that the
oblique optative is a more markedor unexpected construction. In most contexts, the oblique
optative is the more common,even default, option ( 41.13 n.1, 45.3).
In historic sequence, there is a nuanced difference between retaining the original

mood and using the oblique optative. For detailed discussion and examples ofthis
difference in various types of subordinate clause, 41.13-14, 43.3 n.2, 45.3 n.1, 48.2.
40.13 Indefinite subordinate clauses ( 40.9) in historic sequence alwaysuse the itera-
tive optative (without dv; in primary sequence, they have &v + subjunctive): thus
there is no choice in such cases between using the optative and retaining an
original mood.
40.14 If a subordinate clause in historic sequence that may take the oblique optative
itself has another subordinate clause, that subordinate clause too may (but does
not haveto) take the optative:
40.14-15 Moods in Subordinate Clauses 501
(14) goxdtre: 6 MevexAtis Straws ... Eooito atTa& dotis CHvta ... OTPOOTNOO1.
t
(Isae. 2.10)
Menecles wondered how he might have someoneto attend to him whilestill
alive. Relative clause (60715 ... ynpotpogriooi) subordinate to an indirect
question (61ws ... att), which is itself subordinate to éoxudtrer; fut. opt.
éooito replaces fut. ind. gota; fut. opt. ynpotpoprioo: replaces fut. ind.
ynpotpogroei. For relative clauses with a fut. ind., 50.24.
In such clauses, prospective/indefinite dv + subjunctive is replaced (if not retained)
by optative without dv:
(15) ArreiAnoe TH yuvaiki ST1 i ut) BoUAoITO Exotica, &kouoa Troijoo! Tatita. (Xen.
Cyr. 6.1.33)
He threatened the womanthat if she did not chooseit willingly, she would do
these things against her will. Conditional clause (ei ... Exotoa) subordinate to
a declarative ét1-clause (611 ... tatita), itself subordinate to nrreiAnoe: fut. opt.
tromooi replaces fut. ind. troimoe; pres. opt. BovAorro replaces pres. subj.
BouvAntrai + av.
Attraction of Mood
40.15 In subordinate clauses modifying a matrix clause with a potential optative + &v ( 34.13) or
a cupitive optative ( 34.14), the finite verb in the subordinate clause sometimesalso appears in
the optative (rather than in another, expected mood): the action is thus presented as part of the
possible or wished-for scenario. This phenomenonis known asattraction of mood. For example:
(16) BowAowT dv huss tavtas EoAwAEvan, | iva Tas TeAeTas AdBorev adTO! Tddv Gedv. (Ar. Pax
412-13)
They'd want usall annihilated, so they could take over the rites of the gods themselves.
Purpose clauses with iva normally take the subjunctive (45.3); here, the optative AdBouev is
used instead, as the moodattracts to that ofpotential BovAowrT dv.
(17) &8o1 Tis Hv Exaotos eidein texvyv. (Ar. Vesp. 1431)
Mayeveryone perform thecraft that he is knowledgeable of. The optative eiSein is attracted
to cupitive Sor: the relative clause introduced by *v would otherwise have taken indefinite &v
+ subj.
Attraction of mood also occurs in subordinate clauses modifying matrix clauses with
a counterfactual modal (secondary) indicative ( 34.15-18). In such clauses the verb in the
subordinate clause is a secondary indicative. For example:
(18) gBouAdunv 8 av, @ BouAt, Lipova thy abTiv yvaunv égyoi Exe, iv dypoTepav udv
a&kovoavtes TAANGT Padias Eyveote TA Sikara. (Lys. 3.21)
I would have preferred, Council, for Simon to have the sameintention as myself, so that you
might have easily cometo a just verdict after hearing the truth from both sides. Purpose
clauses with iva take the subjunctive (or optative in historic sequence): in this case the
secondary indicative is found, attracted to counterfactual éBovAdunv adv.
41
Indirect Statements
Introduction: Indirect Speech
Direct versus Indirect Speech
41.1 A reporter mayrepresent speech (or thought) in one of two forms:

Direct: John said to Jane: I want to see you.
Indirect: John said to Jane that he wanted to see her.
Direct speech conveys the impression that John s wordsare reported in the same
form in which he spoke them (whether John actually said anything ofthe sort is an
open question). Indirect speech conveys the impression that the reported words
are given from the perspective of the reporter, necessitating certain changes to
their original form. These changes include:
Indications of grammatical person: in direct speech, person indications
(I, you, he) are oriented on the perspective (or deictic centre ) of the person
whose wordsare reported. In the first example John and Janearereferred to
by first-person I and second-person you respectively, evoking the roles of
speaker and addressee which John and Janefulfilled in the reported speech
situation. In indirect speech, such indications are oriented on the reporter's
perspective. In the second example both John andJaneare referred to by
third-person pronouns (he, her) from the perspective of the reporter, as
John and Jane are not the speaker and addressee of the current speech
situation.
Tense: in direct speech tense is oriented on the temporal perspective of the
person whose words are reported. In the first example, the present tense
want is used, expressing the idea that the moment of wanting (to see Jane)
was in the present for John when he spoke. In indirect speech tense is
oriented on the temporal perspective of the reporting speaker: in
the second example, the past tense wanted expresses the idea that the
moment of wanting to see Jane is in the reporter s past. This operation is
called the back-shifting of tense.
Subordination vs. co-ordination: direct speech is not explicitly subordinated to
a verb of speaking or thinking : the syntactic relationship between the two
clauses is best thought of as paratactic (39.2). By contrast, indirect speech is
41.1-2 Introduction: Indirect Speech 503
explicitly subordinated to a verb of speaking or thinking , in the example above

through the conjunction that.
Thefirst two changes are not mechanical, but depend onthe relationship of the
participants and time in the reported and in the current speech situation. For
instance, if the reporter reports John s utterance to Jane (who was also the
addressee in the reported speech situation), the appropriate indirect report is
Johnsaid to you that he wantedto see you. Furthermore, some languages(including
Greek) mayuse paratactic indirect speech and subordinated direct speech ( 41.16
and 41.5).
Types of Indirect Speech

41.2 Different types of utterances ( 38.1) are subordinated to a matrix verb in
different ways when theyare indirectly reported:
Indirect declarative clauses, called indirect statements or that-clauses: these
are regularly introduced by 671 or ws that; this chapter is concerned with such
6T1/ws-clauses.
Depending on the matrix verb, indirect declarative constructions may also
take the form of a declarative infinitive or participle: for these constructions,
51.19-27 and 52.8, 52.10.
Note 1: For the differences between declarative infinitives and 611/cs-clauses, 51.19 n.1;
for the differences between declarative participles and 611/as-clauses, 52.28. For an
overview,also 53.1-4.
Indirect interrogative clauses, called indirect questions; 42:

(1) viv épwths ci Exw oe 5184Eoun. (Pl. Men. 82a)
Nowyou are asking whether I am capable of teaching you.
Indirect exclamations; 42:
(2) tov Adyov SE cou 1rdAa Gauudoas Zxw, Sow KaAAio Tot TrpoTtépou atrNnpydow.
(Pl. Phdr. 257c)
As for your speech, I have all this time been surprised how much more
beautifully you managedit than yourearlier one.
Indirect commands; Greek uses the dynamicinfinitive for these, 51.2-4,
51.8-15:
(3) téutrev ovv éxéAeuev atTtous vais. (Thuc. 7.31.4)
So he ordered them to sendships.
504 41.3-6 Indirect Statements
Indirect Statements
Verbs Introducing Indirect Statements
41.3 There are many verbs which maytake 511/«s-clauses. Someofthe most frequentare:
aicoFdvouo learn that, hear that
&KOUW hear, be told that
&yGoya be angry that
VlyVvaoke realize that, recognize that
Seikvupl point out that
SHAdv (g0T1) it is clear that
S18doKo teach that
AEyoo/eitrov say that
uavOdveo learn that
oida knowthat
d6pao see that
Tuvédvouat learn that
paiveTar it is clear that
opdaloo say that
xaipoo be glad that
Note 1: Many verbs which take indirect statements do not involve speech, but rather knowledge,
(mental) perception, or emotion (these verbs are also regularly construed with a participle,
52.10). In the case of impersonal expressionslike 57Adv got: and paivetou, there is not even
a clearly defined reported speaker . In such cases, it is perhaps not quite appropriate to speak of
indirect speech and a corresponding direct speech , but the term is a convenient shorthand.
Subordinators Introducing Indirect Statements
41.4 Indirect statements (that-clauses) are introduced by 671 or ws.
Note 1: Alternative subordinators for indirect statements are Strws (next to ws), 1671 (next to 671;
1671 usually introduces causal clauses, 48.2), oUvexa and é80Uvexa (both confined to poetry).
41.5 671, but not on the whole os, is sometimes used to introduce direct speech; this use is known as
ott recitativum:
(4) étrel 5 Mpd evos eitrev St1 avTdseit Sv Cryteis, eitrev 6 GvOpwrros TaSe: ... (Xen. An. 2.4.16)
WhenProxenussaid (that) I am the very man youare looking for , the man said the
following:...
41.6 In classical Attic 611 is the default conjunction (and a> becomesprogressively rarer over time).
as is mostly used if the reporter expressly wishes to convey that the truth of the reported
41.6-7 Tense and Moodin 6ti/as-Clauses 505
statement is open to doubt. But asis also used to give the meaning howor howit can be said
that (compare 1réds Agyeis; What do you mean? / Howisit that you say ... ? ), and so is often
employed in (factual) summaries:
(5) A youow ws ovdéev kaKdv 0S aioxpov eipyaouEvoleiotv. ya 8 EBouAduNy dv avToUs GANGA}
Aéyeiv. (Lys. 12.22)
They say that they have not perpetrated any wicked or disgraceful act. I would wish they
speak the truth. Through the use of as the reporter indicates that he believes the reported
speakers statement to be false.
(6) KaTnydper TPATov pev ws ETA TH Expopay avTi Tpocio, ETEITA ws AUTT TeAeUTdOA
sioayyeiAere kai ws exelvn TH xpdve Tre1oGein, kal Tas eiadSous ois TPdTIOIs TIPOOIETTO .. . Kal
TOAAG TH yevdueva TAVTA &kpIBAs Sinynoato. (Lys. 1.20)
She accused him,telling first how after the funeral he had approachedher, then how she
endedupacting as his messenger and how mywife in time was persuaded, and the waysin
which she usedto let him into the house ... Andall the other things that had happened
she told me in detail. The use of as how suggests that the reported speaker focused in
a detailed way on how the reportedstates of affairs came about; 61: that would not carry
the same suggestion: compare She told me how he had approachedher to She told me that
he had approached her . The reported speaker said more thanis reported in the as>-clauses,
so that the report only presents a summary of whatoriginally was a much lengthierstory.
Note, too, the co-ordination of as with ois tpdtro1s.
(7) tyotuat Toivuy, & BouAn, éudv Epyov &troSeiEEn, os, etrerS1] TO Ywpiov ExtNoduny, oT Ada
oUTEe onKds évijy év auTa. (Lys. 7.5)
I believe therefore, membersof the Council, that it is my task to prove (howit can be) that
whenI acquired the estate, there was neither an olive tree nor a stump onit. The speaker
summarizes beforehand the points which he will go on to present in greater detail.
Tense and Moodin 611/«s>5-Clauses
In Primary Sequence
41.7 In primary sequence ( 40.12) - ie. after verbs in a primary tense (present,
future, perfect), and also after imperatives, potential optatives and modal indica-
tives - the tense stem and moodof the correspondingdirect speech are retained:
(8) A yer 8cs HEIs HAGopeEv Eri Thy oikiav Thy ToUTOU doTpaKov ExovTES, Kal 0s
teiAouv atte éyo d&troKteveiv, Kal ws TOUTS got 1 TrPdvoia. (Lys. 3.28)
Hesays that we cameto his house carrying pieces of broken pottery and that
I threatened to kill him, and that this constitutes premeditation . Direct
speech: rAGov, HrreiAel, éoTiv.
(9) Kai guoi ovSeis Adyos ~oTta ETI, Ev TI TKOXW, WS TapAVdUws ATrWAdUNV.
(Antiph. 5.96)
AndI will have no reasonleft for complaining, if I am convicted, that I have
been destroyedillegally. Direct speech: &trwAdunv. Note that the destroying
may take place in the reporter'sfuture, but by the time he will speak about it, it
will be in the past.
(10) GAA citron &v Tis ST1 Tratides SvtEs Eucvoavov. (Xen. Cyr. 4.3.10)
But perhaps someonewill say that they learned when they were boys. Direct
speech: éudv@avov.
(11) trapeAaov tis ... Seat ... GS Of ... SESouA~pEVvol viv oUK dv éEAeUPEPOI
yévowtTo &ouevor. (Dem.2.8)
Let someone come forward and show that those who have been reduced to
slavery would not now welcometheir freedom. Direct speech: ot &v yévowTo.
In Historic Sequence
With Verbs of Speaking
41.8 In historic sequence ( >40.12) i.e. after a verb in a secondary tense (imperfect,
aorist, pluperfect, and after historical presents) the tense stem and mood may be
the sameas that of the corresponding direct speech (in contrast to English, then,
Greek does not back-shift tense):
(12) QUTIKa SE Es TE TOUS STNMOUS MaTIs ATTikeTO wWS AOnvain Ieiwiotpatov kaTayel.
(Hdt. 1.60.5)
Word soon reached the demes that Athena was bringing Pisistratus back.
Direct speech: uatdye. Note back-shifted was bringing in the translation.
Note also as ( 41.6): as the reader already knowsfrom the preceding context,
it is in fact not Athena whois bringing back Pisistratus.
(13) é&trexpivato ... 6T1 eifougvois avToIs OU UETapEAToel. (Xen. An. 7.1.34)
He replied that they would not regret obeying. Direct speech: upiv ov
uetaueAroe. Note back-shifted would ... regret in the translation.
(14) Kpoioos 5 of EmraAiAAoynoe ... ws ETrapGeis TH HAVTNiw EOTPATEVOATO ETT
Tlépoas. (Hdt. 1.90.3)
Croesusrecapitulated for him ... how, encouragedby the oracle, he had gone
to war against the Persians. Direct speech: géotpatevodunv. Note back-shifted
had gone to war in the translation.
(15) EugiAntos ... Agyél TWpos auUTOUS OT1 TréTrE1oNar TaUTa ouUpTOIeiV Kal
QUOAdyNKA aUTa pebEEev Tot ~pyou. (Andoc. 1.62)
Euphiletus said to them that I had consented to join them and hadagreed to
help him in carrying out the crime. Direct speech: 1rétreiota, @poAdynue. Aéyel
is historical present (33.54); note back-shifted had consented and had
agreedin the translation.
41.9-10 Tense and Moodin 611/cs5-Clauses 507
41.9 Alternatively, the oblique optative is used instead of the indicative mood of the
verb in direct speech; the tense-aspect stem stays the same:
(16) eitrov 671 o ion pév SoKoiev &Sikeiv of APnvoion. (Thuc. 1.87.4)
Theysaid that they thought the Athenians did them wrong. Direct speech: jyiv
Sonotvo1. The present indicative is replaced by a present optative. Note thatfirst-
person iv is replaced by the indirect reflexive third-person pronoun ogio1
(29.18).
(17) Aeyev Sti Te1oGein Ud TOUTAV ENO KaTawedSeo@ar. (Antiph. 5.33)
He said that he had been persuaded by these men to lie about me. Direct
speech: étreioOnv. The aorist indicative is replaced by an aorist optative.
(18) eitev as Tov Magdaydva pidov tromoowro. (Xen. An. 5.6.3)
Hesaid that they would make the Paphlagonian their friend. Direct speech:
tromooueba. The future indicative is replaced by a future optative.
(19) étréoteAAov ... Kai GAAO1 TOAAOI TH ZevogavTi ws SiaBeBAnuéevos cin. (Xen. An.
7.6.44)
Manyothersalso sent word to Xenophon,that he had been slandered. Direct
speech: 51aBéBAnoa. The perfect indicative is replaced by a perfect optative (in
the usual periphrastic form, 19.9).
41.10 In principle, the present optative replaces both the present indicative and
imperfect, and the perfect optative both the perfect indicative and pluperfect.
In practice, however, the confusion which this could cause is avoided, in that
the imperfect and pluperfect are only very occasionally replaced by an
optative:
(20) cixe yap A yei Kal Sti pdvoi Tdv EAAjvaov Baoirsi cuvercxovto év TAatanais,
Kai 611 Uotepov oSeTTM@TIOTE OTPATEVOAIVTO éTri BaoiAga. (Xen. Hell. 7.1.34)
For he could state both that they alone among the Greeks had fought on the
side of the king at Plataea, and that they had never since undertaken
a campaign against the king. Direct speech: uai ouvepayoueba ... nai...
ovdetratrote géotpatevodueba. Note that while the imperfect is retained, the
aorist indicative is replaced by an aorist optative.
(21) tatta yév tot Opxopueviou Oepodvpou iKouov, kai T&S TIPdS TOUTOION, Gs
QUTOS AUTIKA AEyol TAUTA TIPds A&VEpaTrOUS TrTPOTEPOV T yeveoOar év TTAataifjo1
Thy paxny. (Hdt. 9.16.5)
This is what I heard from Thersander of Orchomenus, andhe addedtoit
that he himself had immediately told the story to others, before the battle
of Plataea took place. Direct speech fAeyov, not Aéyw (the optative, unu-
sually, replaces an imperfect). Note mpdotepov 7 yevéoOan év TAataijo1 tHv
udaxnv, which shows that the whole clause belongs to the past with respect to
T}HOUOV.
41.11 Potential optatives (+ &v, 34.13) and counterfactual modal indicatives (+ &,
34.16-17) are alwaysretained in indirect speech:
(22) &treAoyotvto ws obK &v Trote OUTW HHpo1 Hoav ws... (Xen. Hell. 5.4.22)
They pleaded that they would never have been so foolish as to ... Direct
speech: oun dv Tuev.
(23) tréuwas trpds Tov AepxuAiSav eitrev STi EABO1 &v Eis Adyous, Ei SuTPOUS A&Bol.
(Xen. Hell. 3.1.20)
He (Midias) sent to Dercylidas and said that he would meetto negotiate with
him,if he could first take hostages. Direct speech: éA@oyn &v.
41.12 Thepossibilities for tense and moodin indirect statements in 5tT1/cs>-clauses after
a secondary tenseare set out in the followingtable:
Tense/Mood
Direct
Speech Direct Indirect
pres. ind. 6 Zwxpdatns éTIoTOAyp&ger eltrev STL O ZwKpaTrs ETIOTOATypagel / ypaqor
Socrates is writing a letter (pres. ind./opt.)
Hesaid that Socrates was writing letter
(Socrates was writing while the reported speaker
spoke)
impf. © ZwKpaTns ETIOTOATW Eypag_ eittev 611 6 LoKpatns étiotoAny éypage (/ypaqo1)
Socrates was writing a letter (impf. / pres. opt. (rarely))
Hesaid that Socrates had been writing letter
(Socrates was writing before the reported speaker
spoke)
fut.ind. 6 ZwxpdtTns éemotoAny ypdyer eitrev 6T1 6 DooKpatns etrioTOAHy ypawer / ypdwo
Socrates will write a letter (fut. ind./opt.)
Hesaid that Socrates would write a letter
aor.ind. 6 ZwKxpatns eticToAT ~Eypawe eilrev OT1 6 DKAETIOTOATEypawe /ypdawele
Socrates wrote a letter (aor. ind./opt.)
Hesaid that Socrates had written a letter
pf. ind. 6 ZwKpaTns ETIOTOATY yeéypage eitrev 6T1 6 DwKpaTns ETrIaTOAyéypage / yeypaqor
Socrates is the writer of a letter (pf. ind. /opt.)
Hesaid that Socrates was the writer of a letter
pipf. © ZwKpaTns ETIGTOATEyeypagel _eiTrev 6T1 6 ZoKpaTngs ETIOTOANY Eyeypagel
Socrates wasthe writer of a letter (/yeypagor)
(plpf. / pf. opt. (rarely))
Hesaid that Socrates had been the writer of a letter
opt.+ &v 6 ZwKpaTns ETIOTOATY ypawetev Gv eitrev STL O ZwKpaTngs ETLOTOAT ypayelev av
Socrates maywrite a letter (opt. + dv)
Hesaid that Socrates might write a letter
ind.+ dv 6 Zwxpartns EoTOATEypayev Gv eitrev 671 6 ZoKpaTns EtoTOATy ~ypayev av
Socrates would have written a letter (ind. + dv)
He said that Socrates would have written a letter
41.13 Tense and Moodin 611/cs-Clauses 509
41.13 In those cases in which the reporter has a choice, there is a nuanced difference
between retaining the mood of direct speech in historic sequence and using the
oblique optative:
The oblique optative signals that the reporter presents everything from his own
temporal perspective: he puts himself between the original speaker and the
addressee, emphasizing his role as mediator.
The use ofthe moodof the corresponding direct speech presents the content of
the speech emphatically from the perspective of the reported speaker. As such,
the construction functions as a distancing device: it may suggest that the
reporter believes the reported words to be false or otherwise inappropriate, or
that the reported words were of particular importance in the reported speech
situation (crucial to the reported speaker and to the addressee) and less impor-
tant in the current speechsituation.
Such nuancesareespecially clear in instances in which both constructions are used
in single reports:
(24) Et: SE Gul SeiAnv ES0fav troAeuious dpav imtréas ... Ev w@ SE TIAILovTO TKoV
A£yovtes Oi TPOTEUMBEVTES OKOTTOI STI OUY itrTrEis Eloi, GAA UTrOCUy1a veLoIvToO.
(Xen. An. 2.2.14-15)
While it was still late in the afternoon, they thought they saw enemy
horsemen ... While they were arming themselves, the scouts who had
been sent ahead said that they were not enemy horsemen, but yoke-
animals grazing there. The part of the message of particular importance
to the soldiers is that which corrects their expectations: contrary to what
they believed, the animals they saw were not enemy horsemen (but yoke-
animals).
(25) 6 8Epunveus cite TePoIOTI STI Tapa PaclAgws TropevovTal TIPds TOV CaTPaTIN.
ai Sé dtrexpivavto S11 ovK évtatia ein, GAN actréyer Sov Trapacdyynv. (Xen.
An. 4.5.10)
Theinterpreter said in Persian that they (the Greeks) were on their way from
the king to the satrap. The women answered that he wasn't there, but was
about a parasang away. Theinterpreter tells a white lie to some local women
to find out the satrap s whereabouts (the Greeks are not actually on their way
to him, but trying to avoid him) - the reporter does not take responsibilityfor
TopevovTal TIpos Tov oaTpatnv. The mostsalient part ofthe women s answeris
not their assertion about where heis not (the Greeks had suspected that he was
not there; hence they took this route), but their assertion that he is only
a parasang away.
Note 1: The optative is the more common construction throughout classical prose
(discounting indicatives which cannot easily be replaced by the optative; 41.14),
although there are differences between individual authors. However, the future and perfect
optative are both rare forms andtheindicative of these tenses is more often retained than
that of the present and aorist. Furthermore, the oblique optative rapidly disappeared from
commonuseafter ca. 300 BCE.
Note 2: The future optative is used almost exclusively as oblique optative in indirect speech
contexts (althoughit also occurs in effort clauses, 44.2).
41.14 Notall present indicatives in historic sequence are readily replaced by the optative. If the
speaker/narrator wishes to stress that a reported state of affairs obtained in the reported
speaker s past and continues to obtain in the present, the optative is not usually found. For
such indirect statements, it is not quite correct to say that the present indicative from the
corresponding direct speech has been retained: tense is oriented on the reporter s now . Note
that in English, too, the tense is normally not back-shifted under these circumstances(cf. the
translations of (26)-(27)):
(26) Kayo Eyveov atTov ST1 Yor xaAeTraivor SiaotéAAOVTI TH Aeyoueva ... aveuvoOny otv Tot
Kovvou, STi wor KaKEivos yoAeTraiver ExdoToTe STAaV AUT wn Utreike, éTeITa ou TTTOV
émiueAeitar as Guabotis dvtos. (Pl. Euthd. 295d)
I realized that he (Euthydemus) was angry with me for making distinctions in his
phrases ... I remembered that Connus, too, becomes angry with meevery time I do
not give in to him and that afterwards he devotesless attention to me becausehe believes
that I am stupid. Euthydemusis no longer angry with Socrates when thelatter reports his
anger. By contrast, Connus getting angry and (not) paying attention are habitual actions
(note éndotote and the indefinite), which continue to the present time. Note that the
reason for the alternation of the indicative and optative in this example is different from
that in examples such as (24)-(25).
(27) tatita... érotee, Eriotd&pevos ST1 TH Sikaio Td &Sikov TroAeuidv got. (Hdt. 1.96.2)
These things ... he did, understanding that injustice is the enemyof justice. The 6t-
clause contains a generalization whichis always valid, including at the reporter s time; for
this use of the present indicative, >33.16.
The future indicative also occasionally pertains to the reporter s future, and not onlyto that of
the reported speaker:
(28) totto ... 6 T1Beis TOV vopoV Eidev, STL TOUTWV LEV OUSels EloeTaI TOV EXUTH KEXAPIOLEVOV
UYadV, Oi Peoi SE cloovtar Kai TO Samdviov Tov ut TK Sikare whgioduevov. (Dem. 19.239)
This ... is what the legislator saw, that not one of these men will know which oneof you has
done him a favour, but that the gods and the divine will know whoevercasts an unrighteous
vote. The procedure underdiscussion (secret voting) is still in place and, as touUtwv shows
( 29.30), what matters to Demosthenesis the currenttrial, the outcome of which depends on
the jurors future voting.
41.15 Tense and Moodin 611/cs-Clauses 511
With Verbs ofPerception, Knowledge and Emotion
41.15 With verbs of perception, knowledge and emotionin a secondary tense, Greek on the whole
uses the same constructions of 6tT1/cs-clauses as after verbs of speaking: either the tense stem
and moodof the corresponding direct speech are used, or the oblique optative:
(29) ottos 6 Kéuoov éteAeUtHoEev Stratis ... Kal hv TpEeoBUTEpOs Ste ETEAEUTA. Kal Eyoo étrE181)
foBouny Sti ovolds TE Zot Trepryevéobar ... ([Dem.] 48.5)
This man Comondiedchildless and was quite old when he died. And when I became
aware that he wasnot able to recover, ... Pres. ind. retained ( direct speech : ovy oids Té
éotiv Treptyevéobat).
(30) étei 8 AoGovto of pév EAAnves STi Baoidels ov TH OTPATEUMaTI év ToIs OKEVOMdPOIS
ein... (Xen. An. 1.10.5)
Whenthe Greeks became aware that the king was in their baggage train with his
forces, ... Oblique optative ( direct speech : BaoiAeus év Tois onevopdpors éoTi).
However,a third construction is also possible, which resembles the back-shifting of tenses
found in English: present and perfect indicatives of the original direct speech are represented
by imperfects and pluperfects, and future indicatives are represented by ZyeAAov + future
infinitive. This construction is not used after verbs of speaking, but it is the only construction
of é6t1/cs-clauses after d6pd/eiSov see :
(31) Kai eb8Us Zyvwoav rdvtes STI EyyUs Trou ZoTpatoTredeveto Paorreus. (Xen. An. 2.2.15)
And immediately everybody realized that the king was camping somewhere nearby.
Direct speech : otpatotreSevetan he is camping .
(32) év TroAAf 54 a&tropia foav oi EAAnves, évvootuevor ... Sti eri Tats Bacidéws AUpats
Tloav, ... &yopav Sé ovSeis Et: Trapéeferv EveAAev ... TEpousSeSxeoav SE avtous Kal oi olv
Kupw &voBdavtes BapBapo, pdvoi Sé KaToAEAEtevor Toav. (Xen. An. 3.1.2)
The Greeks were naturally in great perplexity, reflecting that they were at the King s gates,
that no one would provide them with a market any longer, that the barbarians who had
made the upward march with Cyrus had also betrayed them, and that they wereleft on
their own. Direct speech : hoav for gopév we are , TapéEew EueAAev for Trapééei he will
provide , tpouvSeSaxueoav for 1podeSanaow they are traitors , uatadeAempévoi Hoav for
natanereippeba we areleft .
Note 1: In this construction, the indirect statements are not presented as thoughts of the
subject of the main clause, but as independentfacts from the reporter s temporal perspective,
on which the subject of the matrix verb reflects. By contrast, the use of the indicative of the
corresponding direct speech (29) or of the optative (30) after verbs of perception,
knowledge and emotionhastheeffect that the reported statement is presented as a mental
content which occurred to the subject of the matrix clause in the past.
Note2: Forthe use of participles with verbs ofperception, knowledge and emotion, 52.10,
with further discussion at 52.17-28.
512 41.16 Indirect Statements
The Continuation of Indirect Speech

41.16 Indirect speech often consists of more than onesentence. Reporters have several
ways of indicating that the indirect speech extends over more than one
statement:
To each newsentence a new verb of speaking can be added; formsof pnui with
a declarative infinitive ( 51.19-27) are particularly frequent:
(33) oi 8& oTpaTiéta1 ExoTrTov Tas TUAAS Kal EAeyov 6T1 ASiKkMTATA TéOXOIEV
exBaAAduevoi cig TOUS TroAguious: KaTaoyioElv TE TAS TrUAAS Epacay, ei UN
éxdvtes avoi ouoiv. (Xen. An. 7.1.16)
The soldiers were beating on the gates and kept saying that it was most
unjust that they were being thrown out into enemyterritory. And they
said that they would smash downthegates, if they would not volunta-
rily open them.
- A shift from a dti/os-clause to a declarative infinitive can also take place
without an inserted zon:
(34) # 5& dtrexpivato STi BovAoITO pév &travta TH Tratpi xapileo@al, Gkovta pévTOI
TOv TAISa yaAETrov Elva vouilely KaTOAITEIv. (Xen. Cyr. 1.3.13)
She answered that she wished to please her father in everything, but that
she believed it was difficult to leave her son behind if he did not want
her to.
Since the oblique optative is a clear marker of indirect speech, its use can
indicate that a report continues beyonda single sentence:
(35) AcEa Sti Tov pev vdyov ov Sikalos you TrpoKabiotain Didoxpdatns ...
diaBaAAwyv eis TO SikaotTnpiov ... A pEevTor ... BS1aBaAAo1, padios
eEeAeyyxOtjooito weuddouevos: eiev yap of ouveldotes TroAAol ... Kai eitrov ...
Tata év TH Sikaotnpio. (Antiph. 6.21-3)
I said that Philocrates had noright to place legal impediments in my way, by
slandering mebefore the court; that, however, concerning the contentofhis
slander, it would be easy to prove that he waslying. Afterall, there were many
witnesses. This was whatI told the court.
- Another frequent way of continuing reported speech is by switching from
indirect to direct speech, with or without an inserted Zon:
(36) éAeyov 611 y@ TrdévTo Einv TeTTUOLEVOS TH ylyvouEVa Ev TH Oikia- Zoi ouv, Zpny,Mw
e eot1 Suoiv STrdéTepov BouAei EAcoGau, ... (Lys. 1.18)

I said that I had heardall about what was happening in my home. Therefore ,
I continued, two options are open to you, whichever you want, ... .
41.16-19 Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Speech 513
(37) étrei 5¢ &qixovTo éTri oTAbpdv, eUOUs Hotrep ciyev 6 Zevopdyv éABcov Trpds Tov
Xeipicogov Tm1aTo avTtév STi OvY UTreuErvev, GAA tWvayKalovto gevyovTes Gyo
uaxeoBat. Kai viv U0 KaA® Te Kayaboo Avdpe TEBVaTOV Kail OUTE AvEAEOBal OUTE
Pawar 25uvdueba. (Xen. An. 4.1.19)
Whenthey reached a staging area, Xenophon immediately went, without
further ado, to Chirisophus and reproached him for not waiting, but forcing
them to fight andretreat at the same time. And now, two great men are dead
and we could notcollect their bodies and bury them.
Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Speech

41.17 Reported sentences in indirect speech (whether they are statements, interroga-
tives, commands or exclamations) can have their own subordinateclauses. In the
corresponding direct speech, these would be subordinate clauses to the main
clause. In English,cf.:
Direct: John said to Jane: I want to see you as soonas arrive.
>
Indirect: John said to Jane that he wanted to see her as soon as hearrived.
In Greek, the use of moodsin such subordinate clauses is largely similar to that
described above ( 41.7-15), with a few further points of note.
41.18 In primary sequence,all subordinate verbs retain the tense stem and moodofthe
corresponding direct speech ( 41.7):
(38) Agyouow as, étre1dav Tis &yabds dv TeAcuTHON, HEYAANV LOIpav Kai Tiny Exel.
(Pl. Cra. 398b)
They say that, when someone whois gooddies, he enjoys great esteem and
honour. Direct speech: étreiddv ... TeAeution, ... éxet (habitual temporal
clause with &v + subjunctive, 47.9).
(39) Agyouot, 611 ei capKwBns Tv, uaKpoPiatepov Ty
&v TO yévos. (Arist. Part. an.
656a16-17)
Theysay that, if it were more fleshy, the species would live longer. Direct
speech: ei ... tv, ... &v mw (counterfactual conditional clause with a modal
secondary indicative, 49.10).
41.19 In historic sequence, all tense stems and moods may be retained ( 41.8).
Alternatively, indicatives may be replaced by an oblique optative of the same
tense stem ( 41.9), with the exception of the imperfect and pluperfect
( 41.10).
(40) éarekpivato 6T1 pavedvoiev oi pavOdvovtes & OK étriotaivto. (Pl. Euthd. 276e)
He answeredthat learners learned things which they did not understand.
Direct speech: uavOdvouol ... & on étriotavtai. The present indicative in the
relative clause is replaced by a present optative.
(41) elye yap Agyew ... as Aaxedaipovion 81& ToUTO TroAgutoElav avTois, STI OUK
éSeArjoaiev wet AynoiAdcou éAeiv tr atTov ot5é Bical Edoaiev aUTOV év AUAIS1
Th Aptéuidi. (Xen. Hell. 7.1.34)
For he (Pelopidas) was able to explain how the Spartans had waged war
against them, because they had not been prepared to go with Agesilaus
against him andhad refused to let him makesacrifices to Artemis in Aulis.
Direct speech: étrodéunoav npiv, 6tT1 ovH HOEATIoauEV ... OUSE ... EidoapED.
The aorist indicatives of the causal clause are replaced by aorist optatives.
41.20 In historic sequence, modal secondary indicatives and all optatives remain
unchanged ( 41.11). But subjunctives (in any use) may be replaced by the
optative; if dv was required for the subjunctive, it disappears:
(43) eS0Kel. . . ci UT) EQVACaV OT AUTO!.. . EUAAaBovTEs TOUS AVOpas, TPOdOPTval av
wéAis. (Thuc. 6.61.2)
It seemed that, if they themselves had notfirst arrested the men, the city
would have been betrayed. Direct speech: ei ur) épOcoapev ... TpOUEdON av.
The aorist indicative, required by the counterfactual conditional ( 49.10), is
retained.
(43) eitrov OT1 atrioiev Gy, ei cpio GopdAgiav YETA TOV STrAwWY ATrIoUOI S1doiev.
(Xen. Hell. 5.4.11)
They said that they would withdraw,if they (the Thebans) wereto allow them
safe passage with their weapons while withdrawing. Direct speech: d&triomev &v
ei Gopdadeiav didoire. The optative required by the potential conditional
( >49.8) is retained in indirect speech.
(44) NATiCov UTO THv O@METEePHV aUTdV Traldwv ynpoTpognGEevTes, Etreldt
TEAEUTT|OEIAV TOV Biov, Taprnoeo#al. (Lys. 13.45)
They imagined that they would be taken care ofby their own children in their
old age and, whentheydied, that they would be buried by them.Direct speech:
éTrelSav TEAEUTT}OONUEV ..., TapNodpEeba. av + aorist subjunctive, required by the
temporal clause referring to the future ( 47.8), is replaced by an aorist
optative, without dv.
(45) Kipaovos eitrovtos OT! goBoitTo pun dikaloAoyouuEvos TrEeplyevoiTO Nav oO
MiAitttros ... (Aeschin. 2.21)
And when Cimonsaid that he wasafraid that Philip would get the better of us
in pleading his cause ... Direct speech: poBoduar ut) tepryévnta. The aorist
subjunctive, required by the construction of verbs of fearing in primary
sequence ( >43.3) is replaced by an optative.
41.20-22 Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Speech 515
Note1: Since it is potentially unclear whetheran aorist optative represents an original aorist
indicative or subjunctive, aorist indicatives are often retained in subordinate clauses in
indirect speech, while aorist subjunctives are more readily replaced by the optative.
Note 2: Somecases allow for more than onefeasible interpretation of an optative, typically
either as replacing original subjunctive + &v, or retaining an original optative:
(46) of 5é TreuBévtes AEyouo1 Kupe 611 wooigv Te Tous Acoupious Sikaios, viv T , ei BoUAoITO
iévan étr avTOUs, Kal ogeis oUpYaxol UTré&pEOIEV Kal TytjoolwTo. (Xen. Cyr. 4.2.4)
Those who were sent told Cyrus that they had good groundsfor hating the Assyrians
and that now,ifhe wished to marchagainst them,they themselves would,in fact, be his
allies and his guides. Direct speech: wootyév te ... viv T , xv BouAn/ei BoUAoIO ... nai
auToi ouppayol UTrapEopev nai rynodueba. Pres. opt. BouAorro may represent either &v +
pres. subj. (prospective conditional clause; direct speech: if you wish ) or pres. opt.
(potential conditional clause; direct speech: if you should wish ). Both options are
compatible with the future optatives of the apodosis, replacing future indicatives (the
option with an original optative would represent a commontype of mixed conditional,
49.17; this would add a note of politeness). Note further the emphatic indirect
reflexive pronoun ogeis (equivalent to avtoi in direct speech), and the use of viv to
refer to the present moment of the reported speech.
41.21 Subordinate clauses which are not part of the reported words, but whichare inserted as
a commentbythe reporter, are presented from the temporal perspective of the reporter: the
oblique optative is then not used, and imperfects and pluperfects can be used in a manner
similar to English back-shifting (cf. 41.15 with n.1):
(47) 7Se1 874 cagdds, oiuai, ToUTO STi viv, vik gotaciale yey AUTH Ta OetTAAdy, Kai Depaion
TpAToV ov ouvyKkoAoUGouy, éxpatotvto S OnPaior kal udynv hrtHvTo Kai TpdéTralov at
aUTaV EloTKEl, OUK 2veoTl TrapEABEiv, ci BonBrjoeo@Uuets. (Dem. 19.320)
For he (Philip) knew perfectly well, I suppose, that now, when things in Thessaly were at
variance with him, and the Pheraeans, for one, were refusing to join him, and the Thebans
were being beaten andlosing in battle and had a trophy erected over them, it would be
impossible to force the passage if you would cometo the rescue. The temporal clause is an
additional commentby the reporter, Demosthenes. Hadthe clause been presentedfrom Philip s
perspective, otacidlet, cuvanoAoubotiow, etc. would have been expected. Observe that the
other subordinateclause, ei BonOrjae@ , does represent Philip s temporalperspective: this is clear
from the retainedfuture indicative BonOrjoe06@ (for which, 49.5).
41.22 These rules also apply in subordinate clauses which are subordinated to a declarative (accu-
sative and) infinitive ( 51.19-27) in historic sequence:
(48) otSeis fv SoTis oUK deTo, Ei Udy ZoorTO, TOUS... KpaThoavtas &pgerv. (Xen. Hell. 7.5.26)
There was no one whodidnot think that, if a battle were to happen,the victors would
rule. Conditional clause (ei ... éoorto) subordinate to the accusative-and-infinitive
construction Tous upatioavtas apéew. Fut. opt. éoorro replaces fut. ind. fora.
516 41.23 Indirect Statements
41.23 Occasionally, the declarative infinitive is used in subordinate clauses in indirect speech, when
the matrix clause is also reported in the infinitive:
(49) Adyetoan... étreid1 x Tis Odo1os tautns iévor ... eritrveVoal voTov péyav Te Kai é aiotov.
(Hdt. 3.26.3)
It is said that when they were crossing (the desert) from that city Oasis, a strong and
violent southern wind blew upon them.Direct speech: é1re16n joa. . . éétrvevoe voTos;
the indicative in the émrei51-clause is replaced by an infinitive.
42
Indirect Questions and Indirect
Exclamations
Indirect Questions
Introduction: Direct versus Indirect Questions
42.1 Indirect (or dependent ) questions are the counterpart in indirect speech/thought
of direct questions:
direct: e.g. tis ci; who are you?; (j/apa) étroinoe tott0; has he done that?
indirect: e.g. {pat& tis eips he asks who I am; ovx« Sn ei Toto étroinoev I didn't
know whetherhe had donethat.
For direct questions (types, use of moods, etc.), +38.4-24. For indirect speech/
thought in general, 41.1-2.
Verbs Introducing Indirect Questions
42.2 Indirect questions can be introduced by verbs of asking, wondering, learning,

telling, showing, knowing, etc. Some examplesof such verbsare:
ayyeAAw report, announce
é&tropgeo be at a loss
VlyVvaoka (come to) know, recognize
SeikVULL show
gpwTho ask
Baud wonder
uavedva learn
oiSa know
Tuvédvopat learn
Opaw see
Verbs which refer to knowledge or (mental) perception may take indirect ques-
tions when the matrix clause expresses a lack of knowledge, as in I don t know
if ... , (Do you knowif ... ?, Who knows if ... ? (cf. (2)-(3), (13)-(15), (18)
below).
518 42.3-5 Indirect Questions and Indirect Exclamations
Subordinators Introducing Indirect Questions

Yes/No-Questions and Alternative Questions
42.3 Indirect yes/no-questions are introduced by ei whether,if:

(1) viv épwtas ci yw oe 8154Eon. (Pl. Men. 82a)
Nowyouare asking if I am capable of teaching you.
(2) tis oiSev ei KaTO oT evay?s Tae; (Soph. Ant. 521)
Whoknowsif below these things are free from blame?
(3) tis ov 6 yumodpevos Ei TO TPOOTKOV E1505 KEpKISo¢ Ev STrOIWOUV EVAKeita; (PI.
Cra. 390b)
Whoislikely to know whetherthe correct form of a shuttle resides in a certain
piece of wood?
42.4 Indirect alternative questions are introduced by one of the combinations

Totepov/a... 4, ci... H, ei... cite or cite ... cite whether/if ... or. The negative
in the second memberis un:
(4) épwt& rétepov BovAeTaneiptyny 7) TdéAEuov zyerv. (Xen. Hell. 3.2.1)
He askedif he wanted to have peace or war.
(5) &@ptoat ... ci Tov Aitovos | pAdyyov ouvinu , i Beoiot KAgTTOLan. (Soph. Ant.
1216-18)
Observe whether it is Haemon s voice that I recognize, or if I am being
deceived by the gods.
(6) Kai Sei e1s Taxa | cit eVyevtys TeQUKasEIT ... KaKT). (Soph. Ant. 37-8)
Andyouwill soon show whetheryouare noble by nature or cowardly.
(7) oxotreite cit dp8Hs AoyiZouon TavT cite pt). (Dem. 15.11)
Consider whetherI reason rightly or not.
Specifying Questions
42.5 Indirect specifying questions can be introducedeither by the regular interroga-

tive pronouns/adjectives/adverbs(tis, 1dé00s, trot, etc.; 8.1-2, 38.11), or by the
corresponding indefinite relative pronouns/adjectives/adverbs (beginning with
6-: doTIs, OTT4005, Strou, etc.; 8.1-2).
(8) dtavoépwt& Tis Te Kai TOPEV Tré&per ... (Soph. Phil. 56)
Whenheasks you whoand from whereyouare ...
(9) épwtdvtos yap ZtpatoKAgous Gots avUTa atroSHoe TH yptata ... (Isoc.
17.37)
For when Stratocles asked who would give him the money ...
(10) 2ABav S o ApwoTnoa Hs TpoynAdtou | pavias dv EABOIW és TEAOS Tréveov T
éudv. (Eur. IT 82)
I came and asked you how I might reach the end of this whirlwind of
madness and of mytroubles.
42.5-8 Indirect Questions 519
(11) totto 8 &pt1 Tpwotwv, Stras xpi) Tois dvdpaor ypauevov A yelv Trepl alTOv.
(Pl. Tht. 198e)
This, then, was my question just now, in what terms one should speak about
them (Jit. using terms in which way it is necessary to speak about them ).
42.6 Asin direct questions (38.14), question words may function as obligatory constituents and
modifiers not only ofthe finite verb, but also of subordinate constructions suchas participles:
(12) 2A@av 8 6 Zevopday errtpeto Tov ATrdAAw Tivi dv Bedv GUav Kai eUyouEevos KAAAIOTE Kal
&piota gAGo1 thy 6S6v. (Xen. An. 3.1.6)
Xenophon wentand asked Apollo to which of the gods he should offer and pray in order
to best and most successfully complete the journey(lit. offering and praying to which of
the gods ). tin is indirect object with 6Uwv and evyduevos.
The Use of Moodsin Indirect Questions
42.7 In indirect questions, the same sequence of moodsis used as in 611/cs-clauses of

indirect statement ( 41.7-14): tense and mood are unchanged (relative to the
corresponding direct question) with a matrix clause which has a non-past tense
(primary sequence):
(13) xeivos 8Strou | BéBnxev ovSeis o15¢. (Soph. Trach. 40-1)
No one knowswhere that man hasgone. Direct question: trod BéBnuev;
(14) éya pév otk 018 Strws Sv Tis capéoTepov éTrBei erev. (Dem. 27.48)
I for my part do not know how someonecould showit more clearly. Direct
question: rads av éTrideifeiev;
Theoblique optative of the same tense stem may(but does not have to) be used in
a past-tense environment(historic sequence):
(15) tov Midvav 8 008 otis Zotiv ovdeis HSe1. (Dem. 29.29)
As for Milyas, not a single person even knew who he was. Original mood
retained; direct question: tis éot1v; For the double negative o05 . . . ovSets, 56.4.
(16) gpn... Tapayevécban EpmTwpéeven ETEPG UTTO ETEPOU Strou Ein ApSiaiios 6 yéyas.
(Pl. Resp. 615c)
He said that he had been present when one was asked by another where
Ardiaeus the Great was. Oblique optative; direct question: trot éoT1;
Note1: For the difference between the use ofthe oblique optative as opposedto retaining the
original mood, 41.13-14.
42.8 The exact same rules hold for deliberative questions ( 34.8, 38.16): in primary
sequence,the deliberative subjunctive is retained, in historic sequencethe optative
may beused:
520 42.8-11 Indirect Questions and Indirect Exclamations
(17) Kal Epwt& 57 THs ye PdtrTy. (Pl. Phd. 115d)

Andhe asks how heis to bury me. Primary sequence; direct question: 1rés o
GarTO;
(18) 6 Apiotets ... HIrépnoe .. . dTToTEPWOE SiaKivbuvevoTn xwptoas. (Thuc. 1.63.1)
Aristeus was at a loss as to which direction he should risk taking. Historic
sequence, with retained subjunctive; direct question: totépwoe Sianivbuvevow;
(19) ovx ws Eri1BupotvTes Tis 2E650u pwthoate ci Eloite. (Xen. Cyr. 4.5.21)
It was not outof desire for the expedition that you asked whether you should
go on the expedition. Historic sequence, with oblique optative; direct question:
EEIMPEV;
Indirect Exclamations
Introduction: Direct versus Indirect Exclamations

42.9 Indirect (or dependent ) exclamations are the counterpart in indirect speech/
thought of direct exclamations:
direct: e.g. oid5 o11 What a man heis!
indirect: e.g. Paupdlo oids om: I am amazed at what a man heis.
For direct exclamations, 38.43-51. For indirect speech/thought in general,
41.1.
Note 1: Only exclamations of degree have an identifiable construction in indirect speech/

thought - there is no separate construction for nominal exclamations and sentence
exclamations (for these categories, 38.44).
Verbs Introducing Indirect Exclamations

42.10 Indirect exclamations are used in particular to complement verbs which refer
to the expression of emotions, such as 8aupalw express surprise/admiration and
KaTtoikteipa/-ipe feel/show pity, and after verbs which refer to a process of
reflection, such as év@upéopuanreflect.
Construction of Indirect Exclamations

42.11 Indirect exclamations of degree are introduced in the same wayas their direct
counterparts, by the definite relative adjectives or adverbs (oios, d00<,etc.; as).
They follow the constructions of indirect statements ( 41.7-14): in primary
sequence, tenses and moodsof the correspondingdirect exclamationsare used;in
historic sequence the optative may be used. The negative is ov:
42.11 Indirect Exclamations 521
(20) evvonbéevtes 5é 01h Te TAOYOUOW UO THv Acoupiwv ... TatTa év@upoupEevols

ES0 ev aUTOIS vUV KaAOv eivan &trootijvan. (Xen. Cyr. 4.2.3)
But as they reflected what(terrible) things they suffered at the handsof the
Assyrians ... - when they reflected on these matters, they thought now was
the right time to revolt. Direct exclamation: oia tdaoyouev.
(21) 6 yév 81) TUT eitreov arnel, KATOIKTIP~V THY Te yUVaiKa olou &vBpds OTEPOITO
Kal Tov &vSpa olav yuvoika KaToAITrOV oUKET Sworto. (Xen. Cyr. 7.3.14)
Whenhe hadsaidthis,heleft, feeling pity for the woman,thinking of what
a husband she was robbed, andfor the man,reflecting what a womanheleft
and would neversee again. Direct exclamation: oiou avépos oTepeirat . . . oiav
yuvaina HaTaATrav ounET SwWeETAl.
(22) éaupalev ... 6 AUoavipos as KaAd vév TH Sévbpa ein. (Xen. Oec. 4.21)
Lysander expressed his admiration at how beautiful the trees were. Direct
exclamation: a> nada Ta Sév6pa éoTi.
Note 1: Indirect exclamations should be distinguished from indirect questions ( 42.1-8

above), introduced by the interrogative pronouns/adverbs (1és, etc.) or the indefinite
relative pronouns/adverbs(étras, etc.). Compare to (22):
(23) lows ... Bauudleis OU THs Ey avAwKa cot atToUs TpEpovTos. (Xen. Cyr. 2.4.9)
Perhaps you wonder how I have spent money on them while you maintained them.
In (22), @aupdce is followed by an indirect exclamation and means express admiration
at something ; in (23), it is followed by an indirect question and means wonder about
something .
43
Fear Clauses
Introduction; Verbs of Fearing and Apprehension

43.1 Subordinate fear clauses, introduced by pn that (negative ut ot), may complement
verbs of fearing, apprehension, anxiety, suspicion, etc. Some examples of such
verbsare:
Sé501ka fear, be afraid that
poPéouat be afraid that
S 05 goTi there is a fear that
Kiv8uvds éoT1 there is danger/risk that
pdBos éoTi there is a fear that
&Bupew be anxiousthat
ppovTileo be worried that
UTTOTITEUO) suspect that, be concerned that
43.2 In combination with a fear clause, these verbs may express:

fear/apprehension that an action will occur in the future: u7 (ot) is followed by
an aor./pres. subjunctive or, in historic sequence, optative; e.g. poBotpor ph
touto troijon I am afraid that he may do that;
fear/apprehension that it will prove in the future that an action is currently
taking place or has already taken place: un (ot) is followed by a pres./pf.
subjunctive or, in historic sequence, optative; e.g. poPotuor pt) ToUTo trol}
I am afraid that he may (prove to) be doing that;
disappointment/apprehension concerning (the consequences of) an action
whosereality has already been ascertained(i.e. about facts): un (ot) is followed
by a pf./pres. indicative; e.g. poBoGya pn ToUTO Trorei J. am afraid that he is doing
that(i.e. he is, Ifear, doing that).
Note that, in these constructions, yy should generally be translated that (i.e. not
with a negative).
Note 1: Several of the verbs listed above also have different senses in combination with
different constructions. For instance, poBotpcfear may, with varying senses, be followed by
a dynamicinfinitive ( be afraid to do something ), indirect questions (e.g. doubt whether ),
prepositional phrases (e.g. with trepi be afraid for ), a direct object ( be afraid of ), etc.
Thereis, in particular, a great deal of overlap between verbs of fearing and verbsofeffort
( -44.6-7, also for the use of verbs of effort with fear clauses).
43.3 Construction and Meaning of Fear Clauses 523
Construction and Meaning of Fear Clauses
Fear for Possible Future Actions
43.3 Whenthesubject s fear or apprehension concerns an action which maypossibly

occurin the future, the fear clause has wn (ov) + aorist or present subjunctive:
(1) tadt otv trepi pou Se5orke pt) SiapPape. (Ar. Vesp. 1358)
So that s his worry about me, that I'll be corrupted.
(2) oi Tepogwv otpatnyoi Tru@dpEevor TO TAGs TV Iddeov vedv KaTAappadroay pT)
ot Buvatoi yéveovtai UTrepBaAeoban. (Hdt. 6.9.1)
ThePersian generals, upon learning the numberof Ionic ships, feared that they
would not be able to defeatit.
(3) oi péylotov Suvdpevor ... aioyUvovtal ... KaTaAeitrely ouyypayupata éauTdyv,
Sdfav poRoupevor Tov EtreitTa ypdvou, pt) copiotal KaAdvtaa. (Pl. Phdr. 257d)
The most influential men are ashamed to leave their writings behind, afraid
that they will, in the opinion of posterity, be knownas sophists. Observe that
poBoupevoris construed here with a direct object (66&av;lit. afraid ofthe opinion
ofposterity ), which is then elaborated by the fearing clause. Such elaborating
fearing clauses are not uncommon.
In historic sequence, such fear clauses frequently have an oblique optative,
although the subjunctive mayalso beretained:
(4) of tmpds tois Kepxupaiois ... Seioavtes ut) Strep év Noutrdxtw yévoito,
ériBonfotor. (Thuc. 3.78.2)
The (Peloponnesian) division facing off against the Corcyraeans, fearing that
exactly what happened at Naupactus would happen (again), sent a relief-party.
Optative; note that émiBonfotvon is historic present.
(5) of 5 AakeSaupdviol .. . Ev PUAAKs TOAAT Toav, poRoUpEVO! UT) OPiol vemTEpdv TI
yévnta. (Thuc. 4.55.1)
The Spartans were very much onthe defensive, afraid that some unexpectedill
would befall them. Subjunctive retained.
Note 1: The difference between the use of present and aorist subjunctives/optatives in such
fear clauses is purely one of aspect ( 33.63-5). Aorist subjunctives/optatives are the most
common (so in (1)-(2) and (4)-(5)), since the action feared is usually presented as a
complete whole. By contrast, in (3), pres. subj. koAd&vtai is used to refer to an ongoing
reputation.
Note 2: For the difference between the oblique optative and retaining the subjunctive,
41.13. The difference between yévoito in (4) and yévnta in (5) appears to be that
subjunctive yévnta presents the fear from the perspective of the Spartans, whereas the
optative yévorto presents the Peloponnesians fear as moderated by the narrator.
524 43.4-5 Fear Clauses
Fear for (Uncertain) Present or Past Actions
43.4 Whenthesubject s fear or apprehension concerns an action which maypossibly

be occurring in the present or mayalready have occurred, but whose certainty
has not beenascertainedyet, the fear clause is construed with a present or perfect
subjunctive:
(6) Seivdds &BupS pt) BAEtrov 6 ydvtis f. (Soph. OT 747)
I am very worried that the seer can see. For BAégtrav jh, 252.51.
(7) yuvatixes, cos SE501Ka pt Trepartépeo | tretpaypyev 7 Hol ave So dpTics Z5pcov.
(Soph. Trach. 663-4)
Friends, how I fear that I have gone too far in everything that I have just been
doing!
In historic sequence, such fear clauses mayagain get the oblique optative:
(8) t& Tepi ToU Mvaoitrtrou autétrtou pév OUSEvds HKNKOEL, UTT@TTTEVE SE LN dTraTNS
Evexa Aeyorto. (Xen. Hell. 6.2.31)
He had not heard the news about Mnasippus from any eye-witness, and he
suspected that it was being told to deceive him.
Note 1: Observe that present subjunctives/optatives are also used in fear clauses concerning
future actions (e.g. (3) above). Perfect-stem subjunctives/optatives are, on the whole,
relatively rare in fear clauses.
Use of Fear Clauses to Express Disappointment
43.5 Fearing verbs (normally in the first person) may also be used to express the
subject's regret, disappointment or apprehension about (the consequencesof) an
action which has beenascertained to be true: in such cases un (ov) is followed by
a perfect or present indicative:
(9) viv 5 poBotpeba ut) dupoTepwov Gua haptihKapev. (Thuc. 3.53.2)
As matters stand, we must, we fear, conclude that we have been deceived in
both regards.
(10) S£501K& 0°, © TpeoPiTa, Ut) TANydv Séer. (Ar. Nub. 493)
I m afraid, old man, that you need someblows.
In such cases the fearing construction does not express an actual fear as such,butis
rather used as a hedge , i.e. to assert the content of the fear clause in a polite or
careful fashion (this device mayalso be usedironically, as in (10)).
43.5-6 Construction and Meaning of Fear Clauses 525
Note 1: The perfect indicative is especially commonin such clauses (signifying that an
undesired state exists as the result of a completed action). The aorist indicative is not
normally so used in classical Greek, although it is found in Homer:
(11) Sete ur 814 avta Ged voveptéa eitrev. (Hom. Od. 5.300)
I am afraid that the goddess has said everything truthfully.
Independent Use of wn + Subjunctive
43.6 For the independent use of uy (ot) + subj. (the construction of fear clauses) to express
a cautious or anxious statement, 34.10.
44
Effort Clauses
Introduction; Verbs of Effort, (Pre)caution and Contriving

44.1 Effort clauses (introduced by étrws that, sometimes as) are used to complement
verbsof effort, (pre)caution, contriving, etc.; some examples of such verbsare:
ETTILEAOUQL take care that, ensure that
evAaBgoual take care that, ensure that
UéAEl Lol I take care that(lit. it is ofconcern to me that )
unyxaveéoual contrive that, devise that
dépao see to it that
TapaoKkevalouat makepreparations in order that
TTO1@) make,ensure that
OKOTIEW see to it that
OTTEVdW strive to
ppovTileo take care that
QUAdTTO/-opal be on one s guard (in order) that
In combination with a é1rws-clause (or as-clause), these verbs express an effort or
precaution which ensures that a certain action will or will not take place in the
future: e.g. unxavOvtai étrws ToUTO yevnoetat they contrive that this will happen.
Note 1: Many of the verbs listed above also have different senses in combination with
different constructions; for instance, dpa is most often used as a verb of perception (see);
ppovtile is also used as a verb of fearing (be concerned that, with fear clauses, 43.1).
In particular, effort verbs are also often construed with purpose clauses (44.3 below),
and with dynamic(accusative-and-)infinitive constructions ( 51.8, including as verbs of
hindering, 51.34). Thereis, finally, a great deal of overlap between verbsof effort and verbs
of fearing ( 44.6-7).
Construction of Effort Clauses
44.2 Effort clauses are introduced by é1rws (sometimes os) (so) that and followed by
a future indicative; the negative is 61rws un:
(1) totto Sei trapaoxeudoaoa, Stras as KPdTIOTA axyouuEsa. (Xen. An. 4.6.10)
We must prepareto this end, that we fight as well as possible.
(2) dpa &Strws WEt}oopEv TOUOSe ... 2E Gotews. (Ar. Eccl. 300)
See to it that we expel these men from thecity.
(3) puAattEé 8 Strws pt) Thy BdAavov Extpaéetar. (Ar. Vesp. 155)
Andtakecare that he doesn t eat the bolt-pin.
The future indicative is normally retained in historic sequence ( 40.12),
although the future optative also occurs(rarely):
(4) Empacoov Strays Tis BorPea HEe1. (Thuc. 3.4.6)
They were trying to ensure that some form of help would come.
(5) émrepeAcito Sé Stras pryte Korto1 pte AtroToi Tote EooivTo. (Xen. Cyr. 8.1.43)
Hetook care that they would never be without food or drink.
44.3 Effort clauses are similar in sense to purpose clauses (with étrws/as/iva + subj./
opt.; >45.2-3). Indeed, verbsof effort are fairly often construed with a purpose
clause with étrws/as> (but not iva), ie. followed by a subjunctive rather than
a future indicative. This is especially frequent in Xenophon:
(6) émipeAntéov ... Straws TeeMeovtTat oi trtro1. (Xen. Eg. mag. 1.3)
Care must be taken that the horsesarefed.
44.4 Occasionally, such clauses are construed with étrws (wn) &v + subjunctive; the use of &v +
subjunctive (prospective, 40.9, cf. 45.4) may suggest that it is considered very likely that the
objective aimed at will occur:
(7) Kai adtds Te OnP& Kai Tov GAAov EtripeAettar Stras dv Onpdory. (Xen. Cyr. 1.2.10)
Hetakes part in the hunt himself and ensures that the others huntas well.
44.5 After verbs such as oxotréw and ppovtilw,it is sometimesdifficult to distinguish effort clauses
from indirect questions (61s may then also be the counterpart of 1a&s> how?; 42.5):
(8) tweis ... o8SéEv QPOVTIJoEV, OUSE OKOTOGUEV STIS ETTaVOpFacoLEV aT. (Isoc. 7.15)
Wedo notgive it any thought, nor do weseetoit that we put it (the city) right. Or, as an
indirect question: consider how we will put the city right .
Further Particulars
Interference between Fear and Effort Clauses
44.6 Not infrequently, verbs of effort are construed with fear clauses (with uy + subjunctive/
optative). The fear or apprehension concerning a future or present action expressed by such
fear clauses ( >43.3) is combined with the matrix predicate s meaning,i.e. strive to ensure
that something feared may not happen or strive to ascertain that something feared is not
happening . In such cases yt may betranslated that not, forfear that, lest:
528 44.6-8 Effort Clauses
(9) ... Iva | oxomrijte ... ur) Kal trpoottéon | Uyiv ... tedypua Seivdv Kai eyo. (Ar. Thesm.
579-81)
... So that you watch out that some great danger doesn t actually happen to you. Aor.
subj.: fearfor a future action.
(10) puAcgar ut Opdoos téexn pdBov. (Aesch. Supp. 498)
Be on your guardlest audacity breed fear. Aor. subj.: fearfor a future action.
(11) UroBAgtrouo hyas oKoTrodvtai 1 evBos | pt yorxds EvSov 7 Tis etroKeKpUULEvos. (Ar.
Thesm. 396-7)
They look at us suspiciously, and right away start checking to makesure that there isn t
a lover hiddeninside. Pf. subj.: fearfor a present state.
Note 1: In examples such as (9) and (10) it is sometimes also possible to interpret the
construction as a purposeclause (with py + subj.), for which >44.3.
44.7 Conversely, verbs of fearing are occasionally construed with effort clauses (with dtras un + fut.
ind.):
(12) 8 801y Stras | pt THs cloTriis THOS avappréei Kax&. (Soph. OT 1074-5)
I fear that sorrows will break forth from this silence.
Note 1: This construction may imply that the subject of the fearing verb intends to make an
effort to avert the thing feared.
Independent Use of é1rws + Future Indicative
44.8 For the independentuseof Stress (un) + fut. ind. (the construction of effort clauses)
to express a strong command, 38.34.
45
Purpose Clauses
Introduction
45.1 To communicate the (intentional) purpose of an action, Greek can use the
following expressions:
a purposeclause(also called final clause), treated below;
a future participle, frequently combined with as ( 52.41);
arelative clause with a future indicative (50.24);
certain prepositional phrases(e.g. étri + dat.; 31).
Note 1: Greek, unlike English, does not normally use the infinitive to express purpose.
However, an infinitive with purpose-value mayoccurafter verbs of going, giving or taking:
51.16-17.
For é&v + subj. or ei + opt. expressing purpose(in the hope that), 49.25. For éote-clauses
expressing an intendedresult, 46.9.
Construction of Purpose Clauses

45.2 Greek purpose clauses are introduced by iva, é1rws and sometimes ws in order
that, in order to, so that, (so as) to.
Negative purpose clauses are introduced by iva un, Stress pt, os uh and occa-
sionally by ut alone: in order that not, etc., to prevent/avoid that.
Note 1: In poetry, the conjunction dgpa is occasionally used in purposeclauses.
45.3 In primary sequence, the mood in purpose clausesis the subjunctive:

(1) té&v traiScov Evexa Bourei Civ, iva attoUs éxOpéwns Kai Traidevons; (Pl. Cri. 54a)
Doyouwishto live for the children s sake, so that you mayraise and educate them?
(2) tropeveoOe Euttpooev, Straws ... AavOdvanev STI TAcKioToOv ypdvov. (Xen. Cyr.
4.2.23)
You must marchin frontof us, in order that we may go undetectedfor as long
as possible.
(3) Sievootvto Tas TrpoaBdoels ... PUAACOELY, STTWS UT)... A&BOMas d&vaBdvTes
oi troAguior. (Thuc. 6.96.1)
They decided to guard the access routes (of the mountain), to prevent the
enemy from ascending it unnoticed by them.
530 45.3-4 Purpose Clauses
In historic sequence, purpose clauses frequently use the oblique optative

( 40.12), although the subjunctive mayalso be retained:
(4) émpeoBevovto ... 1pds Tous APnvaious éyKANYaTa Tro1loUpEVOl, STrAs OGioWw STI
ueyioTn Tredgaois ein Tou TroAeueiv. (Thuc. 1.126.1)
Making complaints, they sent messengers to the Athenians,in order to have as
great an excuse for waging waras possible. Oblique optative.
(5) oi trAkious addy, pt
iva dtr olkou Go, YONATA ETaEAVTO avTi THv veddv. (Thuc.
1.99.3)
The majority of them, to avoid being away from home, furnished money
instead of ships. Retained subjunctive.
Note 1: For the difference between the optative and the retained subjunctive, 41.13.
The difference between cin in (4) and aoin (5) appears to be that the subjunctive aon
presents the intention from the perspective of the subject of the matrix clause (the narrator
takes no responsibility for their motives), whereas the optative ein presents the purpose of an
action as moderated by the narrator.
In examples where the subjunctive and optative are used next to each other, the subjunctive
tends to highlight the purpose more immediately relevant for the subject of the verb:
(6) tdvSe Sé civexa dvijyov Tas véas, iva SF Toto EAANo1 unde puyetv eE7), GAA .. . Soiev tiow
Té&v ét Aptepiotoo a&yoviopétoov.(Hdt. 8.76.2)
Theyput out their ships for the following reason, that it would not be possible for the
Greeks to escape, but that they would be punished for their achievements off
Artemisium. The retained subjunctive 2& presents the purpose which is most immedi-
ately relevantfor the subject; the optative Soiev presents a secondary purpose.
The subjunctive is also used in cases wherethe original purposeis still valid at the moment of
speaking (41.14):
(7) toutov évexa éyevvndn Tadv doTtpwv doa... Eoxev TPOTIAS, Iva TOBE Gs SuoIdTATOV T TA
TEeAgw ... Caw. (Pl. Ti. 39d-e)
For these reasons were generatedall those stars which turned themselves around, in
order that this (universe) would be as similar as possible to the perfect creature.
The purpose for the design of the universe is still valid in the speaker s present.
Note 2: The difference between the use of present and aorist subjunctives/optatives in
purpose clauses is one of aspect ( 33.63-5). For instance, in (3) the aor. subj. Ad@won
expresses an action in its entirety (the enemyis not to escape noticeat all), whereas the pres.
subj. AavOdvoopev in (2) expresses an action in process (note 611 TAiotov xpdvov).
45.4 After étras or ws (but not iva), purpose clauses sometimes have &v + subjunctive:
(8) Setp 200 , Straos Gv Kal copawtepos yévy. (Eur. Alc. 779)
Comehere, so that you may become wiserstill.
(9) as 8 Gv pdOns ... &vtd&Kouoov. (Xen. An. 2.5.16)
So that you mightlearn,listen to mein turn.
Note 1: This is the prospective use of &v + subj. (40.9), and a prospective nuance maybe
present: the purpose is presented as something whichvery likely will occur.
46
Result Clauses
Introduction
46.1 To communicate the (intentional or unintentional) result of an action, Greek uses

the following expressions:
aresult clause (also called consecutive clause) with Sorte, treated below;
- arelative clause, often with éotis or with oios, etc. (50.25); for the infinitive
after oios, etc., 46.10.
46.2 Result clauses in Greek are introduced by ote (infrequently by ws) (so) that,
(so as) to. In the matrix clause, there is often a signpost anticipating the result
clause. Such signposts are wordslike (also 8.1-2):
ouTe(s) so, in such a way
TOLOUTOS, TOIAUTNH, TOLOUTO such, of this kind
TODOUTOS, TOOAUTN, TODOUTO so great, so much, so many(pl.)
eis TOUTO + gen. to such a degree of ...
eis ToooUTO(v) + gen. so far in ..., to such an extent of...
46.3 There are two possible constructionsfor result clauses:

wote + the moods of independent sentences (normally the indicative): expres-
sing an actual result ( 46.4 6);
ote + infinitive (or acc.-and-inf. construction): expressing a potential (nat-
ural, inevitable) result ( 46.7-11).
Construction of Result Clauses
With the Moods of Independent Sentences
46.4 When ote is used with an indicative, the result is presented as fact, i.e. actually
taking place at a particular point in time. The negativeis ov:
(1) ott trovnpds got... dote ... Tomoapevev attov Tpoilnviev ToAitny ...
KataoTtabeis &pxwv e eBadrev tous TroAitas éx This 1TOAEws. (Hyp. Ath. 15.5-11)
Heis so vile that, after the Troezenians had given him citizenship, when he had
been installed as magistrate, he expelled the citizens from thecity.
532 46.4-6 Result Clauses
(2) t TO&v iBieov emripéAgia ... TOUS ... TrAOUGloUs éuTrOSilel, ote TrOAAGKIS OU
KolWWVvoUGTis EkKANoias. (Arist. Pol. 1293a7-9)
Thecare of their private affairs hinders the rich, so that they often do not take
part in the assembly.
(3) attouUs ... és KivSuvov Kabiotacav, Hote TEAS houxiav tyov. (Thuc. 2.100.5)
They put themselvesat risk, so that in the end they desisted.
46.5 Other moodsof independent sentences mayalso be used:

ote + &v + optative (potential, 34.13) indicates that a possibility (actually)
results from an action;
- dote + &v + modal indicative (counterfactual, 34.16) indicates that as the
result of an action, another action would (have) comeaboutif certain conditions
had been met (but they are/were actually not met):
(4) ottw yap &uqoTtépwv opddpa Tretreipacte, ote Kai ToUs GAAous UyEIs &pioT &v
S1ScEarte trepi attdév. (Isoc. 18.44)
You are so very experiencedin both things, that it is you who mightbest teach
the others about them.
(5) tous otpatimtas Tov plofdv d&treoteépnoev, Hote TO Lev ET Exelveo TOAAAKIS dv
SieAuOnoay, Sick SE Tov EgeaoTta ... vaupayotvtes évixnoav. (Isoc. 4.142)
Hedeprived the soldiers of their pay, so that, had it been up to him (16 pév ér
éneiva; but it wasn't up to him), they would have been disbanded more than
once; but thanks to their commander, they won a navalbattle.
wote Introducing a New Sentence
46.6 Frequently, dote occurs at the start of a new sentence (as printed in modern
editions). In such cases, dote may betranslated the result was that ..., as a result,
or therefore, so:
(6) Baoides ... 50... KUupw ... &treyvaxevan Tot udyeo@ar- dote TH UoTepaia
Kijpos étropeveto usAnuevens UGAAOv. (Xen. An. 1.7.19)
It seemed to Cyrusthat the king had decided againstoffering battle. As a result
Cyrus proceeded morecarelessly the next day.
(7) tives Gv toUToIs TOV GAAwv EAAtvwv jipioav ... dpett; ote Sikaiws ...
TE&PIOTEIA Tis VaULaXias EAaBov Trapa Tijs EAAKSos. (Lys. 2.42-3)
Whoamongthe other Greeks could have vied with these men in valour? So it
wasjust that they received from Greece prize of prowessin the sea-fight. adore
indicates the result of the Athenians superlative valour, which Lysias asserts by
way of a rhetorical question ( >38.19).
46.6-7 Construction of Result Clauses 533
This occurs frequently when ote introduces a commandor a direct question:

(8) @vntot trépuKas Tratpds, HAEKTpa, ppdvel, | BvNTds 8 "Opéotns: Gote pt Aiav
otéve. (Soph. El. 1171-2)
You are sprung from a mortal father, Electra, keep that in mind, and Orestes
is mortal. So do not wail excessively.
(9) tpooter Stytrou ... x&piv attous éyelv... DoTe THs ov PonPr}oouot piv étr
Qpaotrdv; (Dem. 16.13)
Surely, I think, they oughtto be grateful ... How, therefore, can they refuse
to help us at Oropus?
Withthe Infinitive
46.7 When oote¢/as is used with the (accusative and) infinitive, the speaker presents
the result as one which naturally or inevitably results from the action in the
matrix clause. It is not specified whether or not the result actually occurs or has
occurred, merely that the action in the matrix clauseis of a kind which enables
or favours the bringing aboutof the result. The negativeis 7:
(10) ye yap oUtws ote ut) oryav mrpétrerv. (Soph. Trach. 1126)
Thesituation is such that it is not right to keepsilent.
(11) treipdoopon otto Troieiv dote Kal Was Eve Etranveiv. (Xen. Cyr. 5.1.21)
I will try to act in such a way that you praise meas well.
(12) tov pév GAAOv ypdvov oT Siexeiunv oteptyte Autreiv tyte Aiav étr éxeivy ivan
6 Ti Gv é8 An troseiv. (Lys. 1.6)
For some time I behaved towardsherin such a wayas not to harassher, nor to
have it be too much up to her to do whatevershe wanted.
Note 1: The difference between dote + the moods of independent sentences and sorte +
infinitive may beillustrated from examples such as the following:
(13) eis ToT d&qixvettar BSeAUpias GoTe TUTITELW ETTexeipnoe TOV GvOpwTrov. (Dem. 25.60)
He cameto sucha level of disgrace that he tried to strike the man.
(14) GAA& Euvétrecev és ToUTO dvdyKns ote Etrryelpfjoar GAANAOIs Tous KopivGious Kat
Aénvatous. (Thuc. 1.49.7)
But it cameto the point of necessity for the Corinthians and Atheniansto attack each
other.
In (13) - part of a forensic speech - the attackitself is presented as a relevantfact which

has taken place at a certain point in time: that fact is presented as the result of poor
character. In (14) - part of a narrative description of a naval battle, in which the
Athenian fleet is gradually drawn into a fight in which it wanted no active part - the
principal import of the sentence is that the (climactic) point of the battle was reached
where the two sides had no option but to engage; that they didinfactfight is implied (and
clearfrom the surrounding context).
534 46.7-10 Result Clauses
Note 2: The difference between ote + present infinitive and Sorte + aorist infinitive is one
of aspect: 33.63-5.
46.8 Theinfinitive is used by default:

after a negative matrix clause (e.g. (15));
after a comparative with 7 wots ( more X than to = too X to; e.g. (16));
whenthe matrix clause is a conditional clause(e.g. (17)):
(15) ot yap GAxty Exouev ote ut) Gaveiv. (Eur. Her. 326)
We donot have a defence against death (lit. so as not to die ).
(16) xatapavéotepov 7) Hote AavOdveiv ot TrpobUUws EuvetroAguel. (Thuc. 8.46.5)
(Tissaphernes) engaged in warwith a lack of zeal that was too clear to escape
notice (lit. clearer than so as to escape notice ).
(17) ciouv unyavt Tis yévoito Hote dA yevéobar ... E paoTdv Te Kal TAIS1KOv ...
(Pl. Symp. 178e)
If, then, there were some methodsothat a city of lovers and their favourites
might exist ...
Note1: In each of these cases the use of the infinitive rather than the moods of independent
sentences is expected: there is no question of an actual result: in (15) and (17) the action
leading to the result is itself not presented as actually taking place; in (16) the construction
indicates that the actual situation is in conflict with the result (Tissaphernes lack of zeal was
so obviousthat it was not possible for it to go unnoticed).
46.9 The infinitive is also used when the @orte-clause refers to an intendedresult:
(18) trav troiotow dote Siknv pn S1Sdva1. (Pl. Grg. 479c)

They do everything so as to avoid being punished.
Note 1: Again, the use of the infinitive is expected in such cases: the matrix clause expresses
an action which is performed in such a way thatit (naturally) leads to the intendedresult.
Herein also lies the difference between Sote-clauses referring to an intended result and
purpose clauses ( >45; purposeclauses do notspecify the nature of consequence between the
matrix clause and the subordinate clause). These clauses are, however, similar in sense to
effort clauses (44).
46.10 Whenthe matrix clause has a signpost like to1ottos, toootitos ( 46.2), a result clause may
also be formed using the correlative adjectives oios, 6005 ( 8.1) with the infinitive (the
sense is similar to the construction with ote + infinitive described above):
(19) éya ... to1ottos oios ... undSevi GAAw TreiPeoBar 7 TH Adya Ss... (Pl. Cri. 46b)
I am the type of man whofollows nothing but the reasoning which ...
46.10-11 Construction of Result Clauses 535
This sometimes occurs without a preceding form of to1ottos, etc.:

(20) éAcitreto Tis vuKTOS ScOV OKOTalous SieAGetv TO TreSiov. (Xen. An. 4.1.5)
So muchof the night remained that they could cross the plain in the dark.
The use of the infinitive distinguishes such result clauses from correlative clauses introduced
by ojos, 6005 with a finite verb (for which 50.28), giving them an unambiguousresult
meaning.
46.11 For the redundant use of dote with obligatory infinitives after verbs such as trei®wo, 51.17.
47
Temporal Clauses
Introduction
Expressions of Time When
47.1 To communicate when an action takes place, Greek can use the following
expressions:
a prepositional phrase with temporal meaning ( 31):
(1) pet& tatita... oi OnBaior ... d&rijAGov oikade. (Xen. Hell. 7.1.22)
After this, the Thebans went home.
a temporal adverb;
a dative or genitive used as an adverbial modifier of time ( 30.32, 30.46, 30.56):
(2) Kai 51 kai TéTE TEWAITEpOV OUVEAEYNEV: TH Yap TpOTEpala étrelS1) EENAGOpEV
ék ToU Seouwtnpiou éottepas, ... (Pl. Phd. 59d-e)
Andonthat occasion we gatheredat an earlier hour. For on the day before,
when wehadleft the prison in the evening,...
a connected participle or genitive absolute expressing a temporal relation
( 52.35-7)
(3) tatt éxovoavtes oi oTpatnyol ... &trAGov. (Xen. An. 2.2.5)
Having heardthis, the generalsleft.
a subordinate temporal clause (treated below):
(4) étrei KateoTpatotredevovto oi EAAnves ... , aTrAAPOV of BaépRapor. (Xen. An.
3.4.18)
Whenthe Greekswere setting up camp, the foreigners withdrew.
Note 1: For impersonal expressionsoftime, e.g. dwé éottit is late, 36.12.
Conjunctions Used in Temporal Clauses

47.2 Temporal clauses are introduced by one of the following subordinating
conjunctions:
étrei, étre151) (Ion. étreite) after, when; now that
OOS after, when
OTE when,after; now that

OTTOTE when(ever); now that
éetrei/cos TAXIOTO as soon as
Tika at the momentthat, (exactly) when
EQS so long as or until
uexpr (ov) so long as or until
EOTE so long as or until
piv (1) before or until
TpdTepov7 before
gv @ while
és 6 until
e/a ot since
Whenfollowed by &, the conjunctions étrei, étrei54, Ste and Strdte become, by
crasis ( 1.43- 5), értyv/étredv/étray, étreidav, Stav and dtrétav.
Note 1: Combinations such as év @, consisting of a preposition and relative pronoun

( while < during (the time) that ) were fossilized to such an extent that they may be seen as
individual conjunctions (note that they are never separated: wefind e.g. év & 8é, not év 5é @).
Moodsand Tenses Used in Temporal Clauses
47.3 Different kinds of temporal relations are expressed in Greek not only by the
selection of different conjunctions, but also by the selection of different tense-
aspect stemsfor the verb in the temporal clause. For instance:
étret + impf. when but étrei + aor. ind. after, when ( 47.7)
Eas Gv + pres. subj. so long as but Eos Gv + aor. subj. until (47.12)
47.4 The use of moods(and the negative) in temporal clauses varies according to the
nature of the temporal relationship between the subordinate and matrix clause.
There are three main types:
temporalclausesreferring to (a single action in) the past, with a secondary(i.e.
past-tense) indicative, negative ot; 47.7;
temporal clauses referring to the future, with subjunctive + &v (prospective),
negative pn; 47.8;
temporal clauses referring to a repeated/habitual action: such clauses have
subjunctive + &v (indefinite) if the temporal clause refers to the present or
future, or an iterative optative (without dv) if the temporal clause refers to the
past; the negative is ph; >47.9-11.
47.5 The conjunction trpiv can be followed both byfinite verb forms in various moods
and by aninfinitive; -47.14-16 below.
538 47.6-7 Temporal Clauses
Temporal Clauses with Causal Force
47.6 In non-narrative contexts ( 33.13), clauses introduced byétret, étre15n,étreite, Ste

and (morerarely) éméte and as are also used with causal meaning: nowthat, as,
since.
Whenthey are so used, the moods andtenses used are those of independent
sentences. The negative is ov. These clauses are treated separately in 48.3-5.
Note 1: The use of an indicative with present reference (pres. ind., pf. ind.) with any of these
conjunctionsgenerally indicates that the clause has a causal sense. Such clauses are thus not
treated in this chapter.
Temporal Clauses Referring to a Single Action in the Past

47.7 Temporalclausesreferring to a single action in the past use a secondary (i.e. past-
tense) indicative: aorist, imperfect, or pluperfect; the negative is ob. The matrix
clause may haveanypasttenseor, rarely, a present tense. The difference between
the tenses of the subordinate clause is aspectual; in temporalclauses, there is nearly
always an implication of relative tense (33.57). Generally:
the imperfect, by presenting the action of the subordinate clause as incomplete,
suggests that the action of the subordinate clause is going on at the sametime as
that of the matrix clause (simultaneity);
- (morerarely) the pluperfect, by referring to an ongoingstate (resulting from
a previously completed action), suggests that that state exists at the same time as
the action of the matrix clause (simultaneity);
- the aorist indicative, by presenting the action of the subordinate clause as
complete, suggests that the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of
the matrix clause (anteriority):
(5) as éyewpyotpev év TH N&&oo, é6rytevev éxet trap tiv. (Pl. Euthphr. 4c)
When wewere farmers on Naxos, he was a labourer for us there. Imperfect,
simultaneous.
(6) Apioios ...wpaxileto Kai of olv atta. év© B& wTAILovTO TKov ... oi
Tpotrenodevtes oxoTrol. (Xen. An. 2.2.14-15)
Ariaeus put on his breastplate and so did those who were with him. While they
were arming themselves, however, the scouts returned. Imperfect,
simultaneous.
(7) ére151) ob TpOUyapeE! 7 TEOGESEXOVTO, aTrABov Er Avtioons. (Thuc. 3.18.1)
Whenit was not turning out for them as they expected, they left for Antissa.
Imperfect, simultaneous.
47.7-8 Temporal Clauses Referring to the Future 539
(8) EBSopaios dp Exapev Ew Tov iepot éteAeUTNoe. (Xen. Hell. 5.3.19)

On the seventh day after he had fallen sick, he died outside the sanctuary.
Aorist, anterior.
(9) étrei SE TapeoKevaoto duoTEpols, Noaés xeipas. (Thuc. 3.107.4)
As soon as everything was prepared on bothsides, they were lockedin battle.
Pluperfect ( had been prepared by both sides ); the resulting state is presented as
simultaneous with joav (for the immediative interpretation of this impf.,
+33.52).
Note 1: Temporal clauses with a negative (such as (7)) often have a causal connotation.
Note 2: In narrative texts, clauses with conjunctions meaning when, after (étei, ét1re18%,
étreite, ws, OTE, OTrdTE, tvika) or while (év @) usually precede the matrix clause (as in (5)- (9)),
whereas clauses with és 6 until follow the matrix clause. Such sentences exhibit a so-called
iconic ordering: what camefirst is presented first, what camelast, last. (Another factor
influencing initial placement is the frequent function of temporal clauses as setting , for
which 60.32).
Particularly hvixa-clauses, however, may also follow the matrix clause, in which case the
temporal clause generally expresses the more importantaction, and often includesan idea of
delay or surprise:
(10) Kai HSn ... qv d&ugi &yopav TANBoucay..., Hwika Matnyuas ... teopaivetau. (Xen. An.
1.8.1)
It was already aboutfull-market time, when Pategyas appeared. Note that the jvina-
clause is construed, unusually, with the historical present (1pogpaivetai); the historical
present is rare in subordinate clauses.
Temporal Clauses Referring to the Future

47.8 Temporal clauses referring to the future always have &v + subjunctive (prospec-
tive, 40.9); the negative is uy. The matrix clause haseither a future indicative or
another verb with future reference (e.g. imperative, hortatory subjunctive, etc.;
33.63-A4).
The difference between the use of present and aorist subjunctives is aspectual,
typically implyingrelative tense (as above in 47.7):
- &v + present subjunctive (imperfective aspect) normally suggests that the
action in the temporal clause is situated at the same time as the action in the
main/matrix clause (simultaneity);
&v + aorist subjunctive (perfective aspect) normally suggests that the action in
the temporal clause is situated before the action in the main/matrix clause
(anteriority):
(11) Kal év © &v C&pev, ows, ws EoiKev, EyyuTaTw éoduefa Tot eidevor ... (PL.
Phd. 67a)
And while welive, we will, it seems, be nearest to knowing in the following
way ... Future indicative in the matrix clause; the present subjunctive implies
simultaneity.
(12) eEGpfw pév ouv éyo tik dv Kaipds 1) Tratd&va. (Xen. Hell. 2.4.17)
I will strike up the paean whenthe timeis right. Future indicative in the
matrix clause; the present subjunctive implies simultaneity.
(13) TOUS UEIs Hou, ETTELISaV HBHOWOI, TIUwpToaobe, & dvpes. (Pl. Ap. 41e)
Gentlemen, you must punish my sons whenthey have grownup. Imperative
in the matrix clause; the aorist subjunctive implies anteriority.
(14) viv cov pol Soxéel, EtreTaX1OTA VUE ETrEABY . . . dTTAAAKooeoPan. (Hdt. 4.134.3)
So nowit seemsbest to meto depart as soon as nighthasfallen. The dynamic
infinitive dtraAAdooeo@ahas future reference; the aorist subjunctive implies
anteriority.
Note 1: Perfect-stem subjunctives (other than of oi5a) are infrequently used in such clauses;
when they do occur the perfect has its normal aspectual value (33.6, 33.34-7), which in
temporal clauses typically implies simultaneity:
(15) étav yap év Kakois | H5nq PeBrikns, Tay évraivéoers etry. (Soph. El. 1056-7)
Eventually, when you find yourself in trouble, you will approve of my words. Future
indicative in the matrix clause; the perfect subjunctive (referring to an ongoing state)
implies simultaneity.
Note 2: Greek does not normally use a future indicative in temporal clauses referring to
the future (for causal clauses with fut. ind., 48.3 with n.1; for conditional clauses,
49,5).
Note 3: Observe that English typically uses a present-stem form (a concealed future ) in
temporal clauses referring to the future (e.g. live in the translation of (11), is in (12)).
Temporal Clauses Referring to a Repeated or Habitual Action

47.9 Temporal clauses referring to a repeated or habitual action in the present or
future have &v + subjunctive (indefinite, 40.9); the negative is ur. The matrix
clause contains a generalized statement, usually in the present indicative.
The difference between aorist and present subjunctives is aspectual, normally
with an implication of relative tense (as above):
(16) oi yap &dikoupevor trdvtes cioiv, 6TréTav Tis Thy TA &S1x7}. (Pl. Leg. 768a)
Everyone is being wronged whenever someone wrongs the city. Present
indicative in the matrix clause; the present subjunctive implies simultaneity.
47.9- 10 Temporal Clauses Referring to a Repeated or Habitual Action 541
(17) ueyiotn yiyvetar owtnpia, | Stav yuvt tpds GvSpa un Stxootath. (Eur. Med.
14-15)
It is the greatest source of safety, when a womanis not at odds with her
husband. Present indicative in the matrix clause; the present subjunctive
(18) tik &v obv 6 d&yoaov EAN TOU TroAguou, T&S Tis EUKEPAS ExUTOV o~el. (Dem.
60.25)
Whenever,then,the test of war has arrived, everyone handily saves himself.
Present indicative in the matrix clause; the aorist subjunctive implies
anteriority.
47.10 Whenthe temporal clauserefers to the past, it has an iterative optative (without
av). The matrix clause normally has an imperfect, sometimes a pluperfect.
The difference between the aorist and present optatives is aspectual, normally
with an implication of relative tense (as above):
(19) eOnpevev airo imtrou, oToTe yUUvaoal BovAoITO EaUTOV TE Kai TOUS TITTTrOUS.
(Xen. An. 1.2.7)
He used to hunt on horseback whenever he wanted to give himself andhis
horses exercise. Imperfect in the matrix clause; the present optative implies
simultaneity.
(20) étrl TH Alyevi, OTOTE UT) XEIUGV KWAUOI, Ep~puer. (Xen. Hell. 6.2.7)
He put up a blockade(lit. anchored ) at the mouth of the harbour, whenever
a storm did not prevent it. Imperfect in the matrix clause; the present optative
(21) eTreldT) yap TrpooBGAorEev GAANAOIs, OU Padiws atreAUOVTO UTTO Te TOU TIAT|GOUS
Kai SyAou Tév vedv. (Thuc. 1.49.3)
Each time they had charged each other,it was not easy to untangle them, due
to the multitude and throng ofships. Imperfect in the matrix clause; the aorist
optative implies anteriority.
Note 1: Perfect subjunctives/optatives (other than of oiSa) are not frequently used in such
clauses; when they do occur the perfect stem has its normal aspectual value, which in
temporal clauses typically implies simultaneity:
(22) Tous 5 Trapadidopevous vouous SoKipaodtw mpotepov t BouAN Kai oi vouobeTai ot

TEVTAKdO101 OUsS Of SHudTan eiAovTo, étre1Sav SuwpdKworv. (Andoc. 1.84)
The laws which are handedovershall be scrutinized beforehand by the Council and
the five hundred Lawgivers elected by the Demes, when they are under
oath. The imperative Soupaodtw is a general instruction: the condition of being
sworn in (éreiSav duapdouwor, perfect subjunctive) is simultaneous with Sompacdtw.
47.11 In general statements, the optative (without &v) is infrequently used in temporal clauses which
do notrefer to the past:
(23) 6... xaov Tewav payor dv STroTe BowAoito. (Xen. Mem. 2.1.18)
Hewhois hungry willingly may eat whenever he wants.
This occurs especially when the main clause has a potential optative with &v, as in (23)
(cf. potential conditional clauses, +49.8; such cases may beseen as instances ofattraction
of mood, 40.15).
EWS
47.12 The conjunction gs can mean either as long as or until. The interpretation
depends on the aspectual value of the (subordinate) verb it is found with:
With a verb form expressing incompleteness (present indicative, imperfect/
pluperfect, &v + present subjunctive, present optative), gas = as long as,
indicating that the action of the matrix clause is simultaneous with, and condi-
tional upon,the action in the temporal clause;
- With a verb form expressing completeness (aorist indicative, &v + aorist sub-
junctive, aorist optative), gws = until, expressing that the action of the matrix
clause reaches its end when the action in the subordinate clause takes place.
Theéws-clause typically follows the matrix clause.
Some examples:
(24) otdév yap KwAver SiapuBoAoyfjoai Tpds GAAT|AOUS Ews EEeoTiv. (PI. Ap. 39e)
For nothing prevents us from chatting with each otheras longasit is possible.
Ews + present indicative: as long as ; single present action.
(25) Ews 5é dqeiottKn Tdéppwhev, EpaiveTd Ti yor A yeo@au. (Pl. Tht. 208e)
As long as I was standing at a distance, it seemed to me that there was
something in the discussion. éws + pluperfect: as long as ; single past action;
for the idiom Aéyo Ti, 29.42.
(26) épier TO Sdpu Sie Ti\s xEIpds, Ews E&Kpou Tot oTUpakos a&vTEAGPeTo. (Pl. La.
184a)
Helet the spear slip through his hand until he gripped it by the butt-end of
the shaft. Zs + aorist indicative: until ; single past action.
(27) Ewotrep Gv EuTrvew Kai Oids TE , OU UT) TAVOWLA pIAocOgéY. (Pl. Ap. 29d)
As long as I am breathing and able, I will certainly not stop practising
philosophy. gs dv + present subjunctive (prospective): as long as; action
(continuing) in the future; for od un + subj., 434.9.
47.12-14 tptv 543
(28) GAAK xen, Zon 6 ZoKxparTns, érddeatta ExdoTns huepas ~ws Gv &etrdontEe.
(Pl. Phd. 77e)
Ah, said Socrates, you must sing charmsto him every day until you have
charmedawayhisfear. Zws5 dv + aorist subjunctive (prospective): until ; action
in the future.
(29) trepiepévopev otv ExkoToTe Ews dvolyGein TO Seouwtipiov ... étreiSi) Sé
évo1yGein, ciofjev Tapa Tov Zwoxpatn. (Pl. Phd. 59d)
So we would wait, every time, until the jail was opened; and when it was
opened, we would go to see Socrates. és + aorist optative: until ; repeated
action in the past.
47.13 Therarer conjunctions gote and yéxpe1 (ot) function in the same wayas ws. Two examplesare:
(30) éya ev ouv gote pev ai oTrovdal foav oUtroTe ETaUOUNY Yas ... oikTipwv. (Xen. An.
3.1.19)
As for me,then, as long as the treaty wasin effect I never ceased pitying us.
(31) eudyovto airé Te Tébv vedov Kal Tis yfis HEXEI Of AGnvaio: dtréTrAeuoay eis Ma&SuTov. (Xen.
Hell. 1.1.3)
They fought in naval and land battles until the Athenians sailed away to Madytus.
TTpiv
47.14 The conjunction trpiv (also trpiv 4, and sometimes trpdétepov 7), which expresses
that the action of the subordinate clause is posterior to that of the matrix clause,is
construed in two ways:
- Whenthe matrix clause is negative (or has an intrinsically negative verb
like dtrayopetw forbid, &uvatév (éoT1) it is impossible, etc.), tpiv is
usually followed bya finite aorist-stem form. In such cases, tpiv can be
translated with before or until (or, leaving the negative in the matrix
clause untranslated, only when). The rrpiv-clause typically follows the
matrix clause:
(32) trpdtepov 8ovk tw yévos &Bavdtoov, piv Epws Euvepersev &travta. (Ar. Av.
700)
Andthere was norace of immortals before Eros mixed everything together.
Aorist indicative; single past action.
(33) ot tpdtepov Kak®v tTravoovta ai WdAeis, piv dv év attais oi piAdcogol
a&pEworv. (Pl. Resp. 487e)
Thecities will cease their wrongdoings only when the philosophers assume
powerin them. dv + aorist subjunctive (prospective); future action.
(34) dmnydpeve pndéva BaAAEv, piv Kipos éutrAnoGein Onpdv. (Xen. Cyr.
1.4.14)
He forbade anyone from throwing a spear until Cyrus had gotten his fill of
hunting. For the construction after verbs of preventing, 51.35; the aorist
optative égumAnodein is oblique, replacing prospective dv + subjunctive
( 40.14); the direct command would have been e.g. un BadAdete Trpiv dv
Ktpos éutrAno6h @npdiv.
Whenthe matrix clauseis affirmative (not-negative), 1piv is normally followed
by the (accusative and) infinitive. In such cases, tpiv can be translated only with
before, not with until:
(35) Aéyow &v HSn. Trpiv Adyenv 8, Was TOS! | Etreptoopat Ti prkpdv. (Ar. Lys. 97-8)
Pll make my speech momentarily. But before makingit, I'll ask you this,
a small issue.
(36) dAiyov Sé Tpiv huss dmevoan pdx éyeyover év TH Motedaia. (Pl. Chrm. 153b)
Not long before we went back,a battle had taken place in Potidaea.
(37) tv tiv, dvak, Adids tro? hyepoov| ytis Thode, tpiv of THvS dtreuOUverv TdAn.
(Soph. OT 103-4)
Once, mylord, Laius was the king of this land, before you had control of this
city.
Note1: trpiv-clauses, either with finite verbs or with infinitives, cannot normally themselves
be negated.
Note 2: Posteriority may also be expressed by éws, 47.12.
47.15 Occasionally in poetry, and rarely in prose, tpiv with a finite aorist-stem form occurs
after an afhrmative main clause (and may in suchcases be translated with either before
or until):
(38) Aydunv 8 dvip | doTdv peyioTos Tév éxel, Tpiv por TUXN | ToIkS Ergot ... (Soph. OT
775-7)
I was considered to be foremost amongthe citizens there, until the following chance
event befell me: ...
47.16 In poetry and Herodotus (and, according to the manuscript tradition, Thucydides), &v is
occasionally omitted in mpiv-clauses referring to the future or a habitual action:
(39) otx Zotw dSoTis adTov eoaiprocetat | ..., Tpiv yuvoik guoi pebF. (Eur. Alc. 848-9)
No onewill free him until he releases the woman to me. For ox gotiv 6oT15, 50.12.
Note 1: mpiv 7 is never followed by &v, taking only the subjunctive when referring to the
future or a habitual action.
47.17 Comparative Temporal Clauses (cos Ste/cos 67r6Te) 945
Comparative Temporal Clauses (ws 6t¢/ws oTrdTs)

47.17 éte and émdéte are sometimes combined in poetry with ws (ws Ste/ws StréTe as
when), in comparisons and similes, comparing one situation to another. The verb in such
clauses is regularly omitted (in such cases ws éte may betranslated with like, as it were):
(40) xpucdas Utrootdoartes ... | Kiovas, ws STE Bantov pzyapov | 1éEouev. (Pind. Ol. 6.1-3)
Putting up golden columns, wewill build, as it were, a marvelloushall.
48
Causal Clauses
Introduction
48.1 To communicate for what reason, motive or cause the action expressed by a verb
takes place, the following expressionsare regularly used in Greek:
modifiers in the dative ( 30.45), or, with verbs of emotion, in the genitive
(30.30);
preposition phrases, especially with S14 and évexa ( 31);
circumstantial participles, especially when modified by os or &te ( >52.38-9);
certain types of relative clauses ( 50.23);
causalclauses, introduced by 6m or 81671, or by one of the conjunctions used in
temporal clauses (étrei, etc.); these are treated below.
Note 1: Reason, motivation and causeare also frequently expressed in sentences introduced
by the particle yap ( 59.14-15). Thereis a significant difference, however, between causal
clauses (adverbial subordinate clauses), which are syntactically integrated in a complex
sentence ( 39), and explanatory yd&p-clauses, which form new independent sentences.
Compare the two constructionsin:
(1) tatta és Tos TavtTas EAAnvas &tréppipe 6 Kipos Ta trea, STI &yopas OTHOGUEVOI Avi} TE
Kal PTO! KPEWVTaL- AUTO! yap o1 Tlepoa1 ayopfior ovsdsEev EHBao1 ypGoFal, USE ogi EOTI TO
tTrapatrav é&yopn. (Hdt. 1.153.2)
These words Cyrus meantas an insult against the whole Greek nation, because they set
up market-places and buyandsell there; for the Persians themselves do not tend to use
markets, and in fact have no market-placeat all. In the é71-clause Herodotusascribesto
Cyrus a reason for his (unfriendly) words to the Greeks (dtréppwe), while in the ydp-
clause Herodotus explains why Cyrusspecifically mentioned markets to the Greeks.
Notealso that only 611/8:1611-clauses (not y&e-clauses) can answer a question expressed by 11;
and 814 ti; why?, for what reason? (cf. e.g. examples (2) and (5) below).
Construction of Causal Clauses
OT1 and S10T1
48.2 In causal clauses introduced by the conjunctions 6m and 81671 (in poetry also
68ouvexa and otvexa), the moods and tenses used are those of independent
48.2-3 Construction of Causal Clauses 547
declarative sentences ( 34). The indicative is by far the most common mood;
counterfactual indicatives (+ &v) and potential optatives (+ &v) also occur.
The negative is ov:
(2) OE. S1& ti Stra KAatoopan; | :: ZT. Sti THv Trayerdv evetiders GpuaAASoov. (Ar.
Nub. 58-9)
(Servant:) Why then will I be punished? :: (Strepsiades:) Because you were
putting in one of the thick wicks.
(3) dxvé eitreiv ST1 OUK Eyw TI A yoo, 1671 por vuvdr éetréTANEas eitrévTi auto. (PI.
Tht. 158a)
I hesitate to admit that I don t know whatto say, because you've scolded me
just now whenI said that.
(4) of t A @nvoaion évduilov foo&oGan ST1 oO TTOAU évixoov. (Thuc. 7.34.7)
The Athenians thought themselves vanquished, because they were not decid-
edly victorious. Note that in this example it is the narrator who provides, as an
independent fact, the reason for the Athenians thinking,i.e. the é11-clause does
not present the Athenians own explanation for the loss they believed themselves
to have suffered (contrast (6) below, and 41.21). For the translation ofpresent-
stem hooaobaand évinwv, 33.18.
(5) ti trot otv ... T&v éYoi TeTTPayLEVOoV OFX! WEVNTOI; STI TV GSiKnUcTov dv
éueuvyto THv autov. (Dem. 18.79)
Whyonearth, then, doesn t he mention the things done by me? Because he
would have been reminded of his own unlawful deeds (if he had mentioned
them, but he didn't).
In historic sequence (when the verb in the main clause is imperfect, aorist or
pluperfect) the oblique optative ( 40.12) mayalso be used in a causal clause,
whenthe reasonis reported oralleged:
(6) tov TlepixAga ... xdxiZov S6T1 oTpaTnyos av ouK étreSckyor. (Thuc. 2.21.3)
They abusedPericles on the groundthat, although he wastheir general, he did
not lead them out.
Temporal Conjunctions with Causal Force
48.3 The temporal conjunctions étrei, étre15y, Ste and (less frequently) éméte are also
used with causal force. This occurs specifically in non-narrative text ( 33.13).
The subordinate clause most often refers to the present: moodsusedare those of
independentsentences,i.e. present indicative, perfect indicative, constative aorist
indicative, but also future indicative, potential optative (+ &v) and counterfactual
modal (secondary) indicative (+ &v).
548 48.3-4 Causal Clauses
Note 1: Observe that the moods used in such clauses do not normally occur in proper
temporal clauses ( 47.4), but are the sameas those used in 611/8:6T1-clauses treated above.
48.4 Whensuch clause precedesits matrix clause, it expresses cause or reason; the
matrix clause regularly has a form with future reference (fut. ind., imp., etc.;
33.63-4):
(7) étrel UE AvayKaleis SeoTTOTEK Tov ENOV KTEivElV OUK EGEAOVTA, PEPE AKOUOW...
(Hdt. 1.11.4)
Nowthat you are compelling meto slay my master against mywill, pleaselet
me hear ... Pres. ind. in the éei-clause; hortatory subj. in the main clause.
(8) viv Sé érerS1) OUK eBéAeIs Kai Euoi Tis GoyoAia éoTiv ... eit. (Pl. Prt. 335c)
But now, since you do not wantto and I have an obligation, I m off. Pres. ind.
in the étre15rj-clause; ein in the main clause has future reference (33.19).
(9) OTE... SlakeKpipeda ywpls Tas Te KaDAPAS NOOVvas Kal Tas... akabdapTous...,
tpootdpev ... (Pl. Phib. 52c)
Nowthat we havea distinction between the pure and the impurepleasures,
let us add ... Pf. ind. in the ére-clause; hortatory subj. in the main clause.
(10) étrel SE TaSE AxivSuvdtepa ESo ev eivan, hiv... dtroAoyntéov. (Antiph. 4.4.1)
But since we have decided that this is the safer course of action, we must
conduct the defence. Constative aor. ind. ( 33.28) in the étrei-clause;
atrodoynréov in the main clause has future reference.
When such a clause with étrei or é1e157 follows its matrix clause, it nearly
always expresses the motivation for making the preceding utterance. ws is
also so used:
(11) GAN 2uod pév OU TUPAVVEtGOUO , étrel PUAGEOLAL | Kai popraw Td Elgos. (Ar. Lys.
631-2)
But they won't control me, since I'll be on guard and bear my sword.Fut.
ind.
(12) Aaxedaipovioi ... akovTas TPOGdyouo!l Tous TroAAous és TOV KivSuvoy, ETrel OUK
&v tote évexeipnoav hoontevtes Tapa TroAU avéis vaupayeiv. (Thuc. 2.89.4)
The Spartanslead the majority into dangeragainst their will, since they would
never have ventured to fight at sea again after having been defeated very
severely (if they hadn't been forced, but they were). Counterfactual modal
secondary ind. + &v.
(13) Tpoiévar BéATIOTA védv, | ds OUTOS 6 TdTLOs ZoTiv OU Ta Onpia | Ta Seiv Epaok
éxeivos. (Ar. Ran. 277-9)
Wedbetter move on, as this is the place where that man said there are
terrifying creatures. Pres. ind.
48.5 Construction of Causal Clauses 549
étreilwos Introducing a New Sentence
48.5 When used to provide a motivation for the preceding utterance, étrei and ws
regularly introduce a new sentence (as printed in modern editions), and may
occurafter a change of speaker:
(14) ti rote Agyeis, & TéKvov; as OU pavOdveo (Soph. Phil. 914)
Whaton earth are you saying, child? For I do not understand.
(15) le. untpds T45 Apiv expépers CnTHYaTAs| :: TIP. étrei y 6 Saipoov BouAetou. (Eur.
Ion 1352-3)
(Ion:) Are you laying out the meansto find my motherhere? :: (Priestess:)
Yes, since the god wantsit.
49
Conditional Clauses
Introduction
49.1 A conditional sentence consists of:
- a subordinate conditional clause (the protasis): If Achilles is shot in the

heel, ...;
a matrix clause (the apodosis): * ... (then) he will die.
The whole of the conditional sentence expressesthat the realization of the action
in the matrix clause depends ontherealization of the action in the subordinate
clause.
By using different types of conditional sentences, speakers can indicate their
assessmentof the likelihood/factuality of the condition s fulfilment. In English,
cf. e.g.:
(1) If Achilles has (in fact) been shotin the heel, he will die. A neutral or open
condition: no indication of likelihood/factuality.
(2) If Achilles were to be shot in the heel, he would die. A remote or future
hypothetical condition: fulfilment is possible (in the future), but no more than
that.
(3) If Achilles had been shot in the heel, he would have died.
A counterfactual , unfulfilled , or past hypothetical condition: fulfilment
is no longer possible.
Along such lines, Greek has a complex system offive basic types of conditional
clauses: neutral, prospective, potential, counterfactual and habitual conditions.
Each type expressesa different attitude of the speaker towardsthe likelihood of the
condition in the protasis being fulfilled. Different moods and tenses are used in
each of the different types.
49.2 Greek conditional clauses are introducedbysi. If ei is joined with dv, it becomes
ékv, Hv or &v through crasis ( 1.43-5). The negative in the protasis is nearly
always pn.
49.3 The definition of conditional sentences given above, that the realization of the action in the
apodosis depends on the realization of the action in the protasis, holds for a majority of
49.3-4 Neutral Conditions 551
conditional sentences, but not for all. In some conditional sentences, the protasis specifies
a condition on the truth or relevance of (putting forward) the apodosis:
truth: e.g. Ifmy sources are correct, Achilles has died. Achilles death does not depend on the
correctness of the speaker s sources; the truth of the statement Achilles has died, however,
does (and Achilles maystill be alive);
relevance: e.g. Ifyou're interested: Achilles has died. Again, Achilles death does not depend on
the addressee s interest, nor does the truth of the statement Achilles has died (Achilles is in fact
dead); the condition pertains to whetheror not the utterance of that statementis itself relevant
or of interest to the addressee.
The latter type of conditional clause is often called an illocutionary condition ; such condi-
tions function as an adverbial disjunct ( 26.15).
An example in Greek of the former type (truth) is (9) below; examples of the latter type
(relevance) are (7) and (37).
Neutral Conditions
49.4 In neutral conditions, the speaker gives no indication of the likelihood of the
realization of the action in the protasis. The speaker simply puts forward that ifit
is true that X or if it is the case that X , then Y .
Neutral conditions have¢i + indicative in the protasis; any mood and tense may
be used in the apodosis.
(4) &&16 5é, © BouAn, ci péev 51K, uNndeplas ouyyvouns Tuyxaverv. (Lys. 3.4)
I do not ask, Council, to meet with any forgiveness if I am guilty.
(5) ci... Upa&s olovta... Ud Tév SiaPoAdv TreioGévtas KaTayngieioGal Lou, oUK &v
Paupcooi. (Lys. 9.2)
If they think that you, having been persuadedbyslander, will convict me, that
would not surprise me.
(6) ci peyGA éyKaAdv dAly étrp&Eato, ot ... ToUTO TeKunpldv goTww ws Tf Siaita ot
yéyovev. (Isoc. 18.14)
If, when he was making enormous demandshe exacted only little, this is not
evidence that there was noarbitration.
(7) péAAw KTeveiv cou Buyatép, ei BOUAN paGeiv. (Eur. Or. 1578)
I intendto kill your daughter, if you care to know.
The use of a neutral condition often implies a degree of scepticism on the
speaker s part, which may be madeexplicit by adding a phrase like (ws) éAn8a>
really, truly:
(8) ci ydp tis ws GANPHs yaiper TH eiptvn, Tois oTpaTHyois, av KaTnyopovotw
&travtes, Xapavtiis xetTw. (Dem. 19.96)
For if anyoneis truly pleased with the peace, let him be thankful for it to the
generals whom everyoneis accusing.
552 49.4-6 Conditional Clauses
(9) AAkpeovidor Sé éupavéws TAeuUbEpwoay, ei 51) OUTOI ye GANBEws Toav oi TH

Tlu inv dvatreioavtes Trooonuaivery Aaxedaipovioio: éAeuSepotv tas A nvas.
(Hdt. 6.123.2)
Clearly the Alcmeonidsset (the city) free, if it is in fact true that they were the
ones whopersuadedthe Pythia to indicate to the Spartansthat they should free
Athens.
Neutral Conditions with a Future Indicative in the Protasis
49.5 In the case of a neutral condition with a future indicative, the apodosis often
carries a connotation of unpleasantness, undesirability, etc. Conditionals with
the future indicative are therefore often found in threats, appeals, warnings,
etc.:
(10) i 8attdv ciow TioSe ANwounxFovds, | Tavow kTuTTrOUVTA BUpsov dvacEeiovT&

te | Kdpas, TP&XNAoV GapaTos ywpis Teuov. (Eur. Bacch. 239-41)
But if I catch him within this land, I will make him stop making noise
with the thyrsus and shaking his hair by severing his head from his
body.
(11) 6mye ot othoeTtan, SijAov, ei ut TIS KWAUGEI. (Dem. 4.43)
That he will not desist unless someonestops him, that muchisclear.
Note 1: In many grammars, conditions with ci + future indicative in the protasis are
called future most vivid conditions or emotional future conditions, because they
are often found in threats, etc. Such terms are not always applicable, however:
the value of the indicative is really no different than in other neutral conditions,
although this value lends itself well for contexts of scepticism, threat, etc. (the
speaker indicates simply that the action in the apodosis (e.g. punishment,
destruction) will follow if the condition in the protasis is fulfilled, leaving it to the
addressee to assess the likelihood of that fulfilment). For other loaded uses of the
future indicative, 33.43.
Prospective Conditions
49.6 Prospective conditionsare by far the most commontypeof conditionals referring
to the future. By using this type of condition, the speaker presents fulfilmentof the
condition as very well possible/likely: If X happens - and I consider it very well
possible thatit will, then Y will happen.
Note 1: This type of condition is often called future more vivid or future open in
grammars.
49.6-8 Potential Conditions 553
Prospective conditions in Greek have é&v + subjunctive (prospective, 40.9) in

the protasis, and a verb form with future reference (e.g. future indicative, impera-
tive, hortatory subjunctive; 33.63-4) in the apodosis.
(12) é&v 8& viv KaTaAngéeis drroPdvw, d&vdoia dvelSN Tois Traiciv UTroAcipo.
(Antiph. 2.2.9)
If I am now taken into custody anddie, I will leave shameful disgrace to my
children. Future indicative in the apodosis.
(13) TeUxpo ..., Av BoAn, onptwarte | péAew pév hudv. (Soph. Aj. 688-9)
If Teucer comes,tell him to take care of me. Imperative in the apodosis.
(14) kai pe pndeis UTrOAGBH atraptav Tov Adyov Tis ypagfis, Eav eis EAANvIKaS
Trpd&§eis ... 2utréow. (Dem. 18.59)
Andlet no one suppose that I am separating my argument from theindict-
ment, if I touch upon Greekaffairs. Prohibitive subjunctive in the apodosis.
In this example &v + subj. might also be taken as indefinite, 40.9 n.2.
(15) dv oon Tre1BapEeda, otTE 6 yewpyos yewpyds EoTaI oUTE 6 Kepapets Kepapeus.(PI.
Resp. 420e)
If we obey you,the farmerwill not be a farmer, northe potter a potter. Future
indicative in the apodosis.
(16) fw... xpdvov tive LEAANs Ev TH OUTS peverv, Uyletvot TPATOv Sei oTpatoTredo0u
ut) &ueAtjon. (Xen. Cyr. 1.6.16)
If you are going to remain in the sameplace for sometime, yourfirst concern
must be a clean place to camp.57 + inf. has future reference.
Note 2: Note that in the translations above, the English conditional clauses typically have
a simple present (a so-called concealed future).
49.7 The difference between the use of present and aorist subjunctives is aspectual,
typically implying relative tense relationships (33.57). As a rule:
- &+ aorist subjunctive implies anteriority, as in (12) (13);
&+ present subjunctive implies simultaneity, as in (15) (16).
Note 1: As always, such implications of relative tense are typical (holding in a majority of
cases), but not necessary. For instance, in examples such as (14), and perhapsalso (12), the
aorist subjunctive seemsto refer to a coincident action. For discussion, 33.58-62.
Potential Conditions
49.8 Potential conditions also refer to the future (although a future which is consid-
ered less likely to occur), or refer to a hypothetical possibility. The speaker con-
siders fulfilment of the condition possible, but no morethan that. It is usually
implied that the condition is only remotely relevant: If X should/were to happen,

Y would happen, If X happened, Y would happen.
Note 1: This type of condition is variously called future less vivid , should-would or future
remote condition in grammars.
Potential conditions have ei + optative in the protasis and &v + optative (potential
construction, 34.13) in the apodosis.
(17) trapay@eis 5é UTrd THVvBe ei Sixes GAoinv, dtrodpainv dv. (Lys. 9.21)
But if, summonedby them,I wereto be unjustly convicted, I would run away.
(18) G£Ao1s dv, ci cHoopI Oo , d&cyyeiAai Ti por | Eds "Apyos éABdov Tois ENois éxeT MIAOIS;
(Eur. IT 582-3)
Wouldyoubewilling, if I saved you, to go to Argos and convey a message to
myfriends there?
(19) Guas yap &v avtous &ticloit ei ToIntdTAa yryv@oKoiTe Trepi TOV TOAITOV.
(Isoc. 20.19)
For you would be paying disrespect to yourselves, should you have such an
opinion about the citizen population.
(20) ei 5 Ut Evds Spyorto 7 ppovdor KaT& TaUTO, Gyaydov T av Ein Kal TOAAG
KpaTIoTOV TraVTOV 2Oveov KATA yvounv Thy éunyv. (Hdt. 5.3.1)
If they were ruled by one man,or united in purpose, they would be invincible
and byfar the strongest ofall races, in my opinion.
49.9 The difference between the use of present and aorist optatives is aspectual;
typically relative-tense relationships are implied. Asa rule:
ei + aorist optative implies anteriority, as in (17) -(18);
ei + present optative implies simultaneity, as in (19)-(20).
Counterfactual Conditions
49.10 Counterfactual conditions indicate that the speaker considers the fulfilment of
a present or past condition impossible or no longer possible: If X were true, Y
would betrue (but X isn t true) or If X had happened, Y would have happened
(but X didn t happen).
Note 1: This type of condition is variously called unfulfilled , unreal or hypothetical in

grammars.
Counterfactual conditions have ei + modal (secondary) indicative in the protasis

and modal(secondary) indicative + &v ( 34.16) or a counterfactual construction
without &v (34.17) in the apodosis.
49.10-12 Habitual Conditions 555
(21) ioai wiipor atte éyévovto- ei SE Ula Wripos pETETTEGEV, UTTEPWPIOT Gv.
(Aeschin. 3.252)
Thevotes cast over him weretied; andif a single vote had gonethe other way,
he would nowbe banished(butit didn t go the other way).
(22) kai tatta ei pév tiotouv, éerdyyew av éZtytouv. ([Lys.] 8.9)
Andif I disbelieved these things, I would seek to test them (but I don't
disbelieve them).
(23) ei... 6 KapBuons éyvwodyee kal atrijye Otriow Tov oTPATOV, ... Tv av dvT\p
coos: (Hdt. 3.25.5)
If Cambyses had relented andled his army back, he would have been a wise
man (but he didn't give up).
(24) ot yap 208Stras ObK HvavTIM#y dv YO! TO EiwGds ONUEIOY,Ei LT) TI EUEAAOV Eyoo
&yatov red eiv. (Pl. Ap. 40c)
For the familiar sign would absolutely have stopped me,if something good were
not about to happen to me(butit is about to). For ov yap 08 61rws on, 50.39.
(25) ei yap we TOTE Tpou, eitrov &v 6t1... (Pl. Prt. 350c)
If you had asked methen, I would havesaid that ...
(26) GAN ci o eye Tpdunv- ... Ti &v yor atrexpive; (Pl. Jon 540e)
But if I asked you ... ; how would you answer me?
49.11 The difference between modal imperfects, pluperfects and aorist indicatives is
aspectual. In practice, however:
the aorist indicative usually refers to something which would have happenedin
the past, as in (21), (24) and (25); but contrast (26), where aor. jApdunv and
&trexpive are usedto refer to a single question-and-answerpair in a hypothetical
(unreal) scenario;
the imperfect usually refers to a something which would be occurring in the
present, as in (22); so too the (rare) pluperfect, as in (21); less frequently they
refer to the past, as in (23); imperfect éueAAov, together with the infinitive
(51.33), mayalso refer to a counterfactual future scenario, as in (24);
observethat the protasis and apodosis mayrefer to different times, as in (21) and
(24).
For further examples, > 34.16 n.3.
Habitual Conditions
49.12 Using a habitual condition, speakers indicate that a recurring action is dependent
on something else happening, in other words, that one repeated or habitual action
leads to another: If ever (~ whenever) X happens, then Y happens. Different
constructions are used for present andpast habitual conditions.
Note 1: This type of condition is variously called indefinite , generic or general .

49.13 Habitual conditions referring to the present have &v + subjunctive (indefinite,
40.9) in the protasis and typically have a present indicative (expressing
a repeated action or a general fact) in the apodosis:
(27) édv ... voudeTth Tis eUvoia Agyoov, | oTuyeis. (Soph. Phil. 1322-3)
If someone admonishesyou, speaking with good intentions, you detest him.
(28) aiti&oGe 5 TOAAdKIs Eatratayv Uyas adtous, éav un avd Sv &v UpEis TOdTrOV
BovAnoée yévnta. (Dem. 62.25.1)
But you often accuse someone of deceiving you, whenevereverything does
not go the way you want.
Habitual conditions referring to the past have (iterative) optative without &v in
the protasis and an imperfect (or pluperfect) in the apodosis:
(29) té&v 5é TOAAdy Ei TIs aioBoITO, éoiya Kal KaTeTrETTANKTO. (Dem. 9.61)
Andif ever anyone among the commonpeople learned ofit, he would keep
silent and bein terror.
(30) Gyiv Sé, ei Tr S o108e, yptata Utipye Koi] TAdioTa THv Td&vtov EAATVoov.
(Dem. 23.209)
Andyou had, if ever you lacked something, funds surpassing all Greeks in
your treasury.
Note 1: Observe that the construction of habitual conditional clausesis, in the subordinate
clause, identical to that of prospective conditions (éév + subj.; 49.6) or, when referring to
the past, to potential conditions (ei + opt., >49.8). It is only with reference to the matrix
clause thatit is possible to determine which type of subordinate clauseis at issue.
49.14 The difference between the use of present and aorist subjunctives/optatives is
aspectual, typically implying relative tense relationships:
&+ aorist subjunctive/optative implies anteriority, as in (28) and (29);
&+ present subjunctive/optative implies simultaneity, as in (27) and (30).
49.15 In poetry and Herodotus, év is sometimes omitted (ei + subj. is used):

(31) &AN&vEpa, kei Tis 7] copds, TO LavOdvery | TdAN aioxpdv ovdév. (Soph. Ant. 710-11)
But there is no shame in a man learning much,evenif he is someonewise. For xaiei (ei
by crasis), -49.19-21. &v8pa is subject with (16) uavOdvew, 51.41.
49.16 The difference between habitual conditional clauses and habitual temporal clauses ( 47.9-
10) is sometimes difficult to grasp. The protasis of a habitual condition refers to something
that sometimes occurs and other times does not occur (the apodosis applies only in the cases
that it does occur); habitual temporal clauses, on the other hand, refer simply to something
which takes place more than once. In general, both may betranslated with whenever:
(32) étre1St 5 reoouEiEeiay, of ériBdton ... étreipdvto Tais GAANAwV vavolv étriBaiverv. (Thuc.
7.70.5)
And wheneverthey (the ships) came close the marines tried to board each other s ships.
(33) ei vév étrionev of ASnvaion, UTexapouy, ei 8 dvaxwpoiev, érexeivto. (Thuc. 7.79.5)
If the Athenians attacked, they (the Syracusans) would retreat, and if they (the
Athenians) withdrew from battle, they (the Syracusans) would press upon them.
The habitual temporal clause in (32) refers to a type offighting that took place more than
once during the navalbattle between Athenians and Syracusans. The habitual conditional
clauses in (33) refer to Athenian actionsin battle that cannot take place simultaneously:if
the one action (attacking) occurs, the other (withdrawing) does not. The apodosis in each
case describes the Syracusan military response depending on the action undertaken by the
Athenians.
Further Particulars
Mixed Conditionals
49.17 Although most examples from Greek texts follow the prototypes above, there are
also many mixed conditionals where a protasis and an apodosis from different
types are used together. The protasis and apodosis separately have the senses
outlined above. Some possible combinationsare:
- Neutral protasis with future indicative, potential apodosis:
(34) trdvtav yap &bAlmtatos &v yevoiuny, ei puyas &dikws KaTaoTHooLa. (Lys.
7.41)
I would become the most unfortunate of all men, if I am to be driven into
exile unjustly
Potential protasis, future indicative in the apodosis:
(35) dAws yap ei BAoipev oKoTTEIVv Tas MUCEIS Tas THY AvEpaTrV, EUPTIOOLEV TOUS
TOAAoUs auTéyv ote Tv o1tiwv yaipovtas. (Isoc. 2.45)
For should we wish to examine the nature of men as a whole, weshall find
that most of them do nottake pleasure in food.
- Potential protasis, non-future indicative in the apodosis:
(36) ei yap ov yor BéAo1s ouvetvan, EEapKel Kai oUSéva GAAOv Cyto. ([Pl.] Thg. 1274)
For should you be willing to take me on, that is enough, and I seek no other.
(37) 6 xpuods, ci BovAoIo TAANOF Adyery, | ExTewe Tov udv TraiSa Kai KépSn TA od.
(Eur. Hec. 1206-7)
For if you were willing to speak the truth: it was gold, and yourprofit, that
killed my child. On this example, also >49.3.
Various other combinations occur.
49.18 Occasionally, two different types ofprotasis are found in quick succession, referring to
different possible outcomes which are presented with different degrees of likelihood:
(38) ci pév ov TIpds ExaoToOV aUTaéV Tas TIPdEEIs TAS EUarydpou TrapaBdAAoev ...,
out dv 6 ypdvos Tois Aeyoudvois apKéoeiev- tv SE TpPOEAdEVOI TOUS
EUSOKIUWTATOUS ... OKOTTOMEV ... , TOAU ... OUVTOUMTEPOV S1aAExEnooLEBa
tepi avtdév. (Isoc. 9.34)
If we were to comparethe deeds of Evagoras with those of each of them,the
time would notsuffice for the telling. But if we select the mostillustrious of
these rulers and perform our examination,ourdiscussion will be much more
brief. Potential condition (ei + optative), referring to the less likely (and by
implication less desirable) course ofaction, followed by a prospective condition
(7v + subj.), referring to the morelikely one.
(39) dot ci pév &trownoreiobe ToUTwV, OUSEV Seivdv BdEe1 adTtois eival ... ék TdV
ULETEPOV OgeEAcio#al EXv SE KATAYNHIOGHEVO! PavaTou TIUNONTE, ... TOUS...
d&AAous Kooplwtépous Troinoete 7) viv cio. (Lys. 27.7)
Therefore,ifyou acquit these men,they will think that makinga profit at your
expenseis in no way dangerous; but ifyou condemn them and sentence them
to death, you will make the rest more orderly than they are now. Neutral
condition (with a connotation of undesirability: ci + fut. ind.) referring to the
verdict the speaker does not hopefor, followed by a prospective condition (édv +
subj.) referring to the verdict the speaker wants.
Concessive Clauses: ci xai and xai ¢i
49.19 Conditional clauses introduced by kai ei or ei ( ... ) wai even if are known as
concessive clauses, and express an exceptionalor unlikely condition. Therealization
of the action of the apodosis is presented as contrary to expectation given the
realization ofthe action in the protasis, yet in the end notaffected by thatrealization.
All types of conditional occur, and the use of moods and tensesis as described
above. The negative counterpart of such clauses is expressed by 008 ¢i/und ei not
even if. The apodosis may have duos all the same, nevertheless, to emphasize the
contrast between protasis and apodosis.
(40) GAA TOI Kai TdeVTA TaUTa TreTTOInKE Kal GAAa TOUTHV TroAAaTrAdoIa, OUSEIs
&v SuUvaito autis dvacyéo8ar Thy yaAreTrétynTa. (Xen. Mem. 2.2.7)
Yet let metell you: even if she has doneall these things, and far morebesides,
still no one could put up with her vile temper. Neutral condition.
(41) totto pév, | 008 A BEAN, Spacer trot . (Soph. Phil. 981-2)
That he will never do, even if he wishes to. Prospective condition.
(42) kai Tov GAAOv xpdvov eifioto ouKopavteiv, TOT Gv Etravoato. (Isoc. 21.11)
Even if he had been accustomedto bring slanderousaccusations in former
times, he would have given up the practice then. Counterfactual condition.
(43) ti\s yij\s kpatotvtes Kal BaAdTTINS EipyolvTo, SUvaivT &v KaAds Siafiv. (Xen.
Hell. 7.1.8)
With control overthe land, they could live comfortably even if they should be
cut off from the sea. Potential condition.
Note 1: For this adverbial use of kai, and oU&é as its negative counterpart, 59.56.
Note2: Notall instancesofxai i or ci kai are concessive: in somecasesof kai¢i, kai is simply
a coordinating conjunction:andif,
(44) ote yap dv troveiv te étT1 UGAAOV Suvaito Kal ei EAkol Tis aUTOV 7 @Boin ATTOV dv
opdAAorto. (Xen. Eq. 7.7)
Forin this way,(the horse) will be able to last longer, and if someone dragsor pushesit,
he will stumble less quickly.
Andin somecasesof i (. . .) kai, kat has narrow scopeovera single element of the subordinate
clause:if... as well; ifalso ...; if, in fact...:
(45) AN. GAA 018 &péoKouo ofs UdAIo@ SBeiv pe yer. | 3 1. ei Kai SuvHon y -. (Soph. Ant.
89-90)
(Antigone:) But I know that I am pleasing those whom I must please aboveall. ::
(Ismene:) If you will in fact be able to. xai has scope over Suvrjon only.
49.20 The difference between xai ci and ei kai may be describedas follows:
«ai ei (where xat has scope overthe entire ci-clause) tends to emphasize that the action in
the apodosis will be realized, may be realized, would have been realized (etc.), in spite of
any unfavourable conditions, including the (extreme) one given in the protasis - thus,
(43) could be paraphrased They will live comfortably - Even if they are cut off from
the sea.
ei kai (where xai has scope over the predicate or another element within the ci-clause) puts
focus on the action in the protasis, often to emphasize its unlikely nature - thus, example
(40) could be paraphrased Evenif she Has doneall those things (which is unusual/unlikely/
exceptional), no one could standher.
In practice, however, the difference is often very slight. xai ei is, on the whole, the more
frequent of the two combinations.
49.21 In somecases an indicative in the protasis expresses an action whoserealization is presup-

posed - i.e. that action is not presented as in doubt. In such cases ei kai and xai ei may be
translated although, even though:
(46) kai yap ef tévns epuv, | oto: Té y Bos Sucyevés TrapéEopor. (Eur. El. 362-3)
Even though I am poor, I will show that my character is notill-bred. The speaker is
poor.
Such concessive relationships are more commonly expressed by xaitrep + ppl., for which
52.44.
Comparative Conditional Clauses: ws ci, ootrep ci and @otrep av ei as if
49.22 To compare an action with another, hypothetical one (cf. Engl. as if, like), Greek
may combine ei with comparative as or dotrep (for which, 50.37), often with &v
added: wes ei, dotrep ei, Wotrep Kvei.
Such clauses normally take an optative (potential conditional clauses, 49.8) or
a modal (secondary) indicative (counterfactual conditional clauses, 49.10):
(47) @ Aynoidae, Sotrep ei év avTois einuev Tois TroAeuions, OUT Yo! ONYaiveTat.
(Xen. Hell. 3.3.4)
Agesilaus, it is as if we were in the very midst of the enemies that a sign is
given to me.
(48) tpds udvous Tous Trpoydvous ToUs NETEPOUS CULBaAdvTES SLOIws Sie~Pdpnoav
otrep &v ei pds Gtravtas dvOpatrous étroAgunoav. (Isoc. 4.69)
Fighting against only our forefathers, they perishedasif they had waged war
against all of mankind.
Note 1: For participles with éotrep (with a comparative interpretation), 52.43.
49.23 as ei, dotrep ei and dotrep dvci are often written as one word: woei, ootrepei, oTrepavel.
49.24 aol, ootrepel and wotrepavei (written together or apart) are frequently found withouta finite
verb in the conditional clause:
(49) &ANotv ebvoia y at, | udtNP woe! Tis TIOTA. (Soph. Ant. 233-4)
Well, I speak with goodintent, like a mother whom youcantrust.
(50) xa KoAoids obTOOI | &veo Kéynvev OoTrep|l Seikvs Ti por. (Ar. Av. 50-1)
Andthejay here is craning its neck and openingits beak as if showing me something or
other. ya = nai 6 by crasis, 1.43-5.
ei/éxv in case, in the hope that
49.25 Clauses with é&v + subjunctive or (in past contexts) with ei + (oblique) optative
sometimes have a force similar to that of purpose clauses, best translated in the
hope that. Such clauses normally follow their main clause:
(51) 18°, dvTIBOAD o°,7, Fv Tras Kopiowmpar To Bde. (Ar. Ach. 1031)
Come, I m begging you,in the hope that I may retrieve my two oxen.
(52) étrétrAei otv ... 1Pds Thy DUyNV..., Et Tes TepiAdBor... Tas vats. (Thuc. 8.42.1)
So hesailed in the direction of Syme, in the hope that he might in some way
intercept the ships.
Such instances cannotreally be called conditional clauses: the fulfilment, truth or
appropriateness of the main clause does not depend on thefulfilment of the action
in the subordinate clause.
Note 1: This fact (that there is no relation of dependence between main clause and
subordinate clause) makesit relatively straightforward to distinguish this type of ei-clause
from genuine conditional clauses. Note that example (52), in a narrative past tense, can
easily be distinguished as well from conditions on the truth or appropriateness of the matrix
clause (for which 49.3 above), although it is feasible that this use is an extension of the
latter type.
Note 2: The use of moods in such clauses is fundamentally the same as in purpose
clauses ( 45.3-4; subjunctive or, in past contexts, optative). The difference between
purpose clauses with iva/étrws/as>s and this type appears to be that the use of the
conditional conjunction (ci/é&v) explicitly indicates that the realization of the action
hoped for is uncertain, and not controlled by the subject of the verb in the matrix
clause.
épm w(t) on the condition that
49.26 A separate type of clause expressing conditionality is introduced by é@ or é@ ote

on the condition that (for éri + dat. with conditional force, 31.8). Such clauses
usually have an infinitive (sometimes the future indicative). The negativeis 7).
(53) dieuev os, étri TOUT EvTOL, Ep OTE UNKETI... OIAoTogeiv (PI. Ap. 29c)
Weareletting you go; on the condition, however, that you will no longer be
a philosopher.
(54) EuveBnoav ... ép@ eiaow éx TMeAotrovvtjoou UtdéotrovSo1 Kal pnd etrote
éTriPrnoovtTaavtis. (Thuc. 1.103.1)
They made an agreement on the condition that they would leave the
Peloponnese bound bya treaty and neverenter it again. éfiaow, formally
a present-tense form, is functionally a future indicative, 33.19.
Conditional Clauses in Indirect Discourse
49.27 Whenanentire conditional sentenceis reported as indirect speech or thoughtafter

a verb of speaking/thinking/etc. in a past tense (historic sequence), the oblique
optative may be used, both in the protasis and in the apodosis; if the optative
replaces subjunctive + &v in the protasis, dv is dropped:
(55) iyyeit ouv, ci uév Was EAorTO, pidous Etri Tos Sikalors aiptoeoGai. (Dem. 6.12)
So he thoughtthat if he chose you, he would choosefriends, based onjustice.
Direct speech: éav attous EAwpau, pidous étri ToIs Sinaiors aipr}oopat.
The oblique optative is not used in the case of counterfactual conditionals or
potential conditionals. For further details, +41.19-22.
562 49.28 Conditional Clauses
Overview of Conditional Sentences (Basic Types)
49.28 The following overviewlists the basic types of conditional sentence described above:
past present future

protasis apodosis protasis apodosis protasis apodosis
neutral el + past any tense/ ei+pres. anytense/ ci + fut. any tense/
ind. mood ind. mood ind. mood
i TOUTO KoAao@noe- ei TOUTO KoAaoOnoe- ei TOUTO KoAao8noe-
ETTOINOE Tal Tro1ei Tal TTOINOE! Tal
If he has he willbe If he is he willbe Ifheis todo he will be
done that punished. doingthat punished. that punished.
Often used in threats, warn-
ings, etc.
prospective éxv + subj. fut. ind./
etc.
éav TOUTO KoAao toE-
TOInon| Tal
Ifhe does he will be
that punished.
potential cit+opt. av + opt.
ei TOUTO KoAaoéein
TTOINGELE av
Ifhe were to he would be
do that punished.
counter- ei+aor.ind.a&v+aor. ci+impf. av + impf.
factual ind.
ei TOUTO éexoAGo8n ei TOUTO EKOAaCETO
eTTOinoev &v etroiet av
Ifhehad hewould Ifhewere he would be
done that havebeen doingthat punished.
punished.
Thedifference between aor. ind. and impf. is aspectual: the
past-presentdistinction indicated hereis a rule of thumb
only.
habitual ci + opt. impf. éxv + subj. pres. ind.
£1 TOUTO EKOAaCETO EavToUTO KOoAdleTal
TTOINGELEV Troinon
If he did that he would Ifhedoes he is
always be that punished.
punished.
50
Relative Clauses
Introduction
Relative Pronouns, Adjectives and Adverbs; Definite and Indefinite

Relatives
50.1 Relative clauses are introduced by oneof the following relative pronouns/adjec-
tives/adverbs:
Definite Indefinite
Pronouns
OS OOTIS who(m), which, that
Adjectives
o10¢5 OTTOIOS such as, of the kind that
6005 OTTODOS as great, much (sg.)/many(pl.) as (often best
translated by all who(m) )
Adverbs
gvba, ou OTroU where
evOev, obev 6Tré_ev from where
eva, of OTrol to where
q omy along which/where, by which/where,as,like, in
the way of
OOS OTTOS as, like, in the way of
Note 1: For the forms of the relative pronoun in Ionic, 25.31. For the use of thearticle as
relative pronounin poetry, 28.31.
Note 2: The indefinite pronouns, adjectives and adverbsare also used in indirect questions
( 42.5); otos and é00¢ are also used in direct and indirect exclamations ( 38.47-9, 42.9-11)
andin result clauses (46.10). dtres is also used in effort clauses (44) and purposeclauses
( 45). For other uses of cs, 57.
50.2 As a generalrule:
the definite relative is used when the relative clause refers to a specific (identifi-
able) entity; when there is an antecedent (a word or phrase in the matrix clause
to which therelative refers) it will often have thearticle;
564 50.2-3 Relative Clauses
the indefinite relative is used when therelative clause refers to an unspecific

(unidentifiable, generic) entity, ie. when the relative could refer to any of
a numberof entities or when the precise referent is unknown; whenthereis
an antecedentit will usually not havethearticle.
(1) tis f yuvt SiT éotiv fy the1s Gyoov; (Soph. Trach. 400)
Who,then,is the woman with whom you have comehere? A specific womanis
meant; note the use of the article with the antecedent, 28.1.
(2) yuvt) 8 dtrdvtos avSpds ftis 2k Sduwv | és KaAAOS doxel, Sidypag ws otcav
Kakty. (Eur. El. 1072-3)
A woman who, when her husband is away from home, concernsherself with
beauty, write her off as no good. A certain type of woman, nota specific woman
is meant; note the lack ofarticle with the antecedent. For the theme construction
(nominative absolute), 60.34.
50.3 The distribution between é< and doris is, however, not always easy to accountfor:
Note particularly that in relative constructions with indefinite subjunctive + &v oriterative
optative (50.21 below), the definite relative is more common:
(3) étreiSav 52 kpUyworyi}, avnp Tenyevos UTrd THis TAEWS, Ss Sv... &Elcdoe1 TPOT|KN, A yet ETT
auvtois étraivov Tov Trpgtrovta. (Thuc. 2.34.6).
After they have buried (the fallen), a man elected by the state, who is pre-eminent in
reputation, pronounces the appropriate eulogy over them. The relative pronoun does not
refer to a specific person (the speaker changes yearly), and the antecedent has noarticle, yet the
definite relative pronounis used.
Indefinite dotis &v + subj. does occur, suggesting that even extreme cases should be taken
into account (whoeverat all ...):
(4) Kai Av tives és THY ABnvaiov yiiv iwor TroAguion ... , ageAeiv Aaxedaipovious A®nvaious
TpdoTI STw &v SUvwvtai ioyupotata. (Thuc. 5.23.2)
Andif enemy forces invade Athenianterritory, (the treaty states that) the Spartans must
cometo the Athenians aid in whatever most effective manner they can.
Conversely, dot1s is sometimes used to refer to a very specific person or thing, with
a definite antecedent:
(5) éya ... | waivouor; ot &AAov, SoTis &trOAgoas KaKdv Adyos | dvoraPetv GEAcis. (Eur. JA
388-90)
Am I mad? No,you are, whoafter losing an evil wife are seeking to take her back.
For the nuances that éoT1s-clauses typically have in such cases, 50.6 n.2 and 50.23.
50.4 The definite relative may be compounded with trep (Gotrep exactly who), expres-
sing identity. The indefiniteness of an indefinite relative may be emphasized by
adding trote (Sots tote whoever).
Note 1: For otv addedto indefinite relatives to express universality, 59.35.
Correlative Clauses
50.5 Relative pronouns, adjectives and adverbs are frequently anticipated or followed
by a demonstrative pronoun,adjective or adverb in the matrix clause. For instance:
Matrix clause Relative clause
OUTOS d0(TI15) that man... who
TOIOUTOS 0105 such ... as
TOOCOUTOS 6005 so great/many ... as
evTavba gv0a there ... where
ouTo(s) OS such ... as
Such clauses are called correlative clauses. For the full system of correlative
pronouns,adjectives and adverbs, 8.
Clauses introduced by relative adjectives and adverbs (wherecorrelation is
particularly frequent) are treated more fully below, 50.27-40.
Digressive, Restrictive and AutonomousRelative Clauses

50.6 Twotypesof relative clause may be distinguished:
Restrictive (or determinative ) relative clauses: the information in the relative
clause servesto identify the antecedent, or limit it to a certain subset:
(6) 16 DiAoKtHpovi ék pév THs yuVvarKds 1] TUVEKE! OUK Ty Traldiov ovdéEv. (Isae. 6.5)
Philoctemon had nochild by the womanhewasliving with. Therelative clause
helps to identify the antecedent: without it, it is unclear to which woman the
speakerrefers.
(7) tétep Gv BovAolo ToUTous Tols otpatimtas os Atomreifns viv éyer ...
eu@eveiv ..., 7)... Si1apbaptivar; (Dem. 8.20)
Would you want those soldiers that Diopithes now hasto thrive, or to be
destroyed? The relative clause limits the group of soldiers to a specific subset.
The use of moods andtensesin restrictive relative clauses is similar to that in
temporal/conditional clauses ( 50.18-22 below).
- Digressive (or non-restrictive , explanatory ) relative clauses: the relative
clause gives additional information that is not required to identify or specify
the antecedent. In other words, the antecedentstill refers to the sameentity ifthe
relative clauseis left out:
(8) ...é&nenKdtes... Thy Louoida yuvaixa,7) KaAAIoTH 51) Agyetan év TH Aoia yuvn
yevéoda, ... (Xen. Cyr. 4.6.11)
... having selected the lady of Susa, whois said to have been the mostbeautiful
womanin Asia, ... The relative clause is not requiredto identify the - apparently
well-known - lady of Susa, but provides additional information abouther.
(9) otéyar ... ciow ... o05E TH SHU THv oTpatintav, av aveu Tueis oUK av
Suvaipesa oTpateveoGar. (Xen. Cyr. 6.1.14)
Thereis also no shelter for the rank andfile of the soldiers, without whom we
would not be able to wage war. The relative clause does not identify, or
determine a subsetof, the soldiers.
Digressive relative clauses are particularly commonwith proper names. The use
of moodsandtensesin digressive relative clauses is similar to that of indepen-
dent sentences ( 50.17 below).
Note 1: In English, restrictive relative clauses normally do not stand between commas;
digressive clauses normally do (contrast the two relative clauses in The animal that you see
here is a whale, which is a kind of mammal). Only restrictive clauses can use thatas a relative
pronoun (cf. the soldiers that Diopithes has in the translation of (7)) or omit a pronoun
altogether(cf. the woman he wasliving with in (6)).
Note2:Asit is a defining feature of digressive relative clauses that they refer to an identifiable
entity (in that the antecedentof the clauseis identifiable even withoutthe relative clause), the
indefinite relatives dot1s, Stroios, etc. are in principle not suitable to be used in digressive
clauses. Nevertheless, they do occasionally occurin such clauses, and then nearly always have
a causal nuance (for details, 50.23).
50.7 A special type of restrictive relative clause is the so-called autonomousrelative

clause, which has no antecedent:
(10) 10. 78? 2Opewe pe :: KP. tis; .. . :: 1O. DoiBou treogtitw untép &s vouiZouev. (Eur.
Ion 319-21)
(Ion:) The woman whoraised me - :: (Creusa:) Who was she? :: (Ion:)
A prophetess of Phoebus; I regard her as my mother.
Note 1: In translation, an antecedent(e.g. the woman in (10)) often needsto be supplied for
autonomousrelative clauses; grammarsoften treat autonomousrelative clauses as instances
of the omission of an antecedent.
Antecedent, Agreement, Attraction and Connection
Basic Principles of Agreement
50.8 Therelative pronoun éo0(tis) and the relative adjectives (611)d005 and (é11)oios:
agree in gender and numberwiththeir antecedent,
but their case is determined by their syntactic function in the relative clause:
50.8-10 Antecedent, Agreement, Attraction and Connection 367
(11) 68 éotiv dvidv Agyeis. (Ar. Thesm. 635)

This is the man to whom youarereferring. Masc. sg. in agreement with avrp,
acc. as object of Aéyeis. vip = 6 avijp (crasis, 1.45 n.1).
(12) dvip trap hiv got, ... | EAevos &piotdpavtis, ds Agyer. .. (Soph. Phil. 1337-8)
Thereis a man with us, Helenus, an exceptionally gifted prophet, whosays... .
Masc. sg. in agreement with dvrp, nom. as subject of Aéyel.
Note 1: The relative pronoun is sometimes formed according to the meaning rather than the
grammatical form of its antecedent. For this construction according to sense (Gr. xaté
ouveo), 27.11 (also cf. 27.6).
50.9 Greek generally avoids the use of repeated relative pronouns in successive clauses
referring to the same antecedent, especially if the case of the relative pronoun would be
different in the different clauses. Instead, subsequent clauses referring to the same
antecedent either have no relative pronoun of their own, or use a form of attés or
a demonstrative pronoun in the appropriate case:
(13) Apiatos 5 , dv tyeis HOEAOUEV Baoldga Kabiotdvai, Kai ZaxKapev Kal ZAGBouev TIoTa ... , KAL
OUTOS ... MUGS... KaKdds Trolelv Tre1lpaTar. (Xen. An. 3.2.5.)
And Ariaeus, whom we were willing to install as king and with whom we exchanged
pledges, even heis trying to cause us harm.Only the single relative pronoun 6év(acc.; object
ofnabiotavai) is used; thefollowing clause éanapev nai ZAcBopev Trotis not given one of
its own (somethinglike ye ob may be supplied; observe the translation with whom ). Also
note that Apiaios 5é ... is a theme constituent ( >60.33), picked up by resumptive oUtos
(cf. (29) below and 59.15 (14)); this makes it clear that the main clause proper begins only
with uaéi oUTos.
(14) trot 8n éxeivas éotiv 6 dvnp ds ouvebipa Hiv Kal oU por UaAa E50xels Bauder avTov. (Xen.
Cyr. 3.1.38)
Where, then,is that man, who used to hunt with us and whom,I think, you admiredgreatly?
The man is subject in the relative clause (nom. 6s), but would be object in the subsequent
clause (dependent on @aupdCev): instead of a second relative pronoun, avrtovis used.
50.10 In the case of autonomousrelative clauses, masculine (or feminine) relatives

usually refer to individuals or groups of people, neuter pronounsto things ; the
case is again determinedbythe function in therelative clause:
(15) of tds dAeis Zxouo1 ... | Tots avOapiAAois ciot TroAcui@tator. (Eur. Jon
605-6)
Those who hold cities are most hostile to their competitors. Masc. pronoun,
referring to people; nom. as subject oféyouo1; the clause as a whole is subjectofeioi.
(16) ot pév Bia | 1pd&er1s & BouAe. (Eur. fr. 953.42-3 Kannicht)
You will do what you want by force. Neut. pronoun, referring to things or
actions.
50.11 Autonomousrelative clauses occur particularly frequently after prepositions. The preposition
may then function either in therelative clause, or in the matrix clause:
(17) otk éyw, & Zaxkpates, Strws Xpt) Tpds & Aéyeis EvavTiotoban. (Pl. Cra. 390e)
I don t know howto argue against what you are saying, Socrates. m1pds functions in the
matrix clause (i.e. depends on évavtiovo@ai), while the autonomousrelative clause comple-
ments pds: cf. évavtiovobai pds Tatta & Aéyeis argue with the things that you are
saying .
(18) Kai K&Aer Trpds ots EEeuaptupnoev. (Aeschin. 2.19)
Andcall those before whom he made the deposition. mpds functions in the relative
clause (i.e. depends on é&euaptupnoev); the autonomous relative clause, including the
preposition, serves as object: cf. ud&Aes toutous, mpos ots é euaptupnoev call those
before whom he made the deposition .
50.12 Observe the following idiomatic uses of autonomousrelative clauses:

- Autonomous relative clauses with the neuter pronoun 6, and typically with
a superlative adjective, can stand in apposition to an entire clause or sentence, e.g.
6 8 tdvtwv Seivdtatov and what is the worst thing of all: ..., kai 8 tévtwv
Paupaotétatov and the thing that is most amazing of all: ...; goti is nearly always
omitted from such clauses (cf. what is the worst thing ). For this use, compare the
closely parallel use of phrases with the neuter article, e.g. 1d Sewdtatov ( 27.14):
(19) 5 8& péyiotov Texunpiov: Afjyos yap 6 TlupiAdutrous ... (Lys. 19.25)
But the strongest piece of evidence is this: Demus, son of Pyrilampes,.. . Lit. but whatis
the strongest evidence, ... . Note the use ofyap (for which 27.14 n.1), which cannoteasily
be translated.
Autonomousrelative clauses are sometimes used in combination with a third-person form

of existential eipi (26.10): ZoT1v 60715 someone(there is someone who), cioiv oi some (there
are some who), etc., and with the negative otx gotw doT1s no one (there is no one who):
(20) ovx &v ein dois OUK ETI TOIs yeyevnuevors &yavoxToin. (Lys. 1.1)
Everyone would be angry(lit. there would not be anyone who would not be angry ) at what
has happened.Forthe use of the optative, >50.22.
The construction was heavily fossilized, so that 1 could be used even with the
plural (ZoT1oi, Zotdv, etc., some), and even in past or future contexts (in spite of
present-tense éotiv):
(21) ... aioBavouevor 8 Tous cULWaXoUS TaVTAS LEV GBUUOS EXOVTAS TIPOS TO UaXEoBal, ZoTISE
ols avTa&v ovSé &xBouEevous TH yeyevnuéven ... (Xen. Hell. 6.4.15)
... and observingthatall the allies were unenthusiastic aboutfighting, and that some of
them were not even displeased about what had happened... éo7: .. . ods does notrefer to
the present (this example comes from stretch of narrative); the accusative is due to the
accusative-and-participle construction following aioPavopevor, 52.13; note also how the
phrase as a whole hasits own attributive genitive avT&v.
50.13 Antecedent, Agreement, Attraction and Connection 569
Relative Attraction
50.13 An exception to the rules of agreement is the so-called attraction of the

relative. The relative nearly always takes on the samecaseas its antecedent if
(and onlyif):
therelative clause is restrictive;
- a form of és, oios or écos (but not their indefinite forms) is object in its relative
clause, internal object, or subject of an infinitive, i.e. when an accusative is expected;
the antecedentis in the genitive or dative:
(22) Strws ov éoeobe Avbp_es &E101 Tis éAcuGEpias Ts KeKTNOGE. (Xen. An. 1.7.3)
You must, then, be men worthy of the freedom which you possess. Object of
néntnode, but genitive under the influence of tijs éAeuepias which is genitive
complement with &é1o1.
Attraction also occurs in autonomousrelative clauses, i.e. when the genitive or
dative antecedentis not expressed:
(23) tw 8émiderx67... woAitns dv... To1otitos oios OvSeis GAAOS dv TEIs ioueEV, .. .
(Isoc. 15.106)
If he is shownto be a citizen such as no other of the men (that) we know, ...
Object with iouev, but genitive under the influence of the construction of the
matrix clause: o5eis &AAos is construed with a partitive genitive. The relative
clause is autonomous.
(24) tiva yap eixds Tw ATTov Tatta Umnp_etijon 7) Tov dvteirévtTa ois éexeivor
éBouAovto trpayGiven; (Lys. 12.27)
For whowaslesslikely to receive such orders than the man who had spoken
against what they wanted to be done? Subject of the infinitive tpay6fva
(accusative-and-infinitive construction expected with éBovAovto), but dative
under the influence of avtemdvta (which takes a dative complement).
Therelative clause is, again, autonomous.
Relative attraction occurs particularly frequently after prepositions, often in auton-
omousclauses:
(25) étrawe oe éq ois A yeis. (Xen. An. 3.1.45)
I praise you for what you say. Object of Aéyeis, but dative after éri.
(26) tatita pév otv édow, at att&v 5 av autos BePiwoKxev Gp§ouor. (Dem.
18.130)
Those things, then, I will leave alone, but I will begin with precisely the
ways in which he himself has conducted his life. Internal object
( 30.12) of BeBionev, but genitive after ano; att&v modifies the entire
relative clause.
Note 1: Veryrarely, relative attraction occurs when a nominative or dative (rather than an
accusative) is expected in the relative clause:
(27) dAiyor av éya évtetUxnka (Pl. Resp. 531e)
a few of those that I have encountered; a dative is expected with évtetuynua, but
a genitive is used underthe influence of the construction of the matrix clause (partitive
genitive modifying dAiyoi).
Inverse Relative Attraction
50.14 In some cases an antecedent preceding its relative clause attracts to the case of the relative
following it (rather than appearing in the case expected for its syntactic function). This is
knownasinverse attraction:
(28) toArteiav 8 ofav eivar ypt Tapa pdvois Hyiv éotiv. (Isoc. 6.48)
Anda form of governmentsuchasit ought to be exists only with us. 1rodrreiav is subject of
éotiv, so the expected case for it would be nominative; instead, it attracts to the accusative
case of oiav (acc. with given ypn).
(29) tov &vbpa TotTov, Sv 1éAan| CnTeIs ... | ..., OUTS Eotiv évOdSe. (Soph. OT 449-51)
This man, for whom you have long been looking,is here. tov &v8pa totrovis subject of
éotiv, but attracts to accusative év (object of ¢nteis). Note the resumptive pronoun outos,
which picks up tov &v8pa tottov andis in the expected case.
Note 1: Inverse attraction occurs only with nouns whose expected case is nominative
(primarily with subjects of passive verbs, verbs which do not take an object, or with eiuit be,
as in (28) (29)) or accusative. It occurs only with constituents functioning as theme or
topic in their clause ( +60.25-9, 60.33); the rest of the clause always follows the relative
clause.
Incorporation of the Antecedent in the Relative Clause
50.15 Sometimes the word that should be antecedent is incorporated into a relative clause.
The case of this antecedent is identical to that of the relative pronoun (as determined by
the rules above; attraction is not unusual):
(30) ¢i S tTIva 6pan ... kaTaoKeudlovTa ... Ts apxo1 xopas ... (Xen. An. 1.9.19)
If he saw that a man wasorganizing the country over which he ruled ... Therelative
clause is object with uataoueudcovta; the genitive is complement with &pxon.
(31) tovtous ... dpxovtas étroie: Ts KaTeoTpEPETO ywpas. (Xen. An. 1.9.14)
He appointed them as rulers of the territory which he was subduing. With relative
attraction: object with xuateotpégeto, but genitive as attributive modifier of &pyovtas.
50.15-17 Moods and Tenses in Relative Clauses 571
(32) Imtroxpatns 68 Tewtaydpg ouyyevouevos, T dv asta hepa ouyyevytai, BeAtionv dtreio1.

(Pl. Prt. 318d)
Hippocrates here, upon coming underProtagoras tutelage, will go away a better man on
the day that he has come underhis tutelage. fwgpa, with its relative clause, is an adverbial
modifier of time with dtreion.
Incorporated antecedents do not have the article. They may be seen as the head of a
noun phrase, with the relative clause as a modifier ( 26.16-18). This construction occurs
particularly when the relative clause expresses salient information that identifies the
antecedent .
Note 1: For this construction,cf. e.g. Engl. I took what books she gave me.
Relative Connection
50.16 The relative pronoun is occasionally used to introduce a new independent

sentence (the antecedent stands in a previous sentence). This is called
relative connection. The relative in such cases has a function similar to
that of a demonstrative or personal pronoun (and may be translated as
such):
(33) dvipav yap étrigavav aoa yi tagos ... os viv UpEts CnAwoavtTes ... UT
Teplopaof_e TOUS TrOAEUIKOUS KivSUvous. (Thuc. 2.43.3-4)
For menof renownall the earth is a grave-monument. These men you should
now emulate in your turn and notstay aloof from the dangers of war. For the
translation of the participle C(nAdoavtes, 52.6.
(34) fuiv 8 St) SiSwow "HAEKkTpav Zyew | Sdyapta ... fv otro avip 6Be ...
| joxuv év evvf}. (Eur. El. 34-44)
To me hegave Electra, to have as my wife. This woman I have never brought
dishonourin bed. For Tas translation of avnp 65e, 29.29.
Moodsand Tenses in Relative Clauses
In Digressive Clauses
50.17 In digressive relative clauses, the use of moodsand tensesis identical to that of
independent sentences ( 34). The indicative is by far the most common; the
potential optative and modal indicative occur regularly; very rarely also the
imperative, hortatory subjunctive, or cupitive optative, etc. The negative is nor-
mally ov, unless yx is required (e.g. in a wish with the optative).
(35) darijAdev eis Egecov, 7) dtréye: ATO TdpSewv Tpidv huepadv d5dv. (Xen. Hell.
3.2.11)
Heleft for Ephesus, which is a three-day journey from Sardis. Indicative.
(36) AdAuv ..., dv ox &v SUvaiode Gveu TrAOIav SiaBfven (Xen. An. 5.6.9)
the Halys, which you could not cross without boats ... Potential optative.
(37) Kpatiipés ciow ... av Kp&T Epewov. (Soph. OC 472-3)
There are mixing-bowls, the brims of which you mustcover. Imperative.
(38) toiatt éBovAevo : dv époi Soin Siknv. (Eur. El. 269)
Such were his schemes: may he requite me for them. Cupitive optative; note
the relative connection ( >50.16).
In Restrictive Clauses
50.18 In mostrestrictive relative clauses, the use of moods and tenses is very muchlike
that of temporal/conditional clauses; thus, the following can be found in restric-
tive relative clauses.
50.19 Indicative; the negative is either ot or uy - the latter with a conditional or generic
nuance:
(39) ..., iveitres Trapbévou yapis Adyous | obs OUK akOUEIW Tas yapouLevas Trpétrel.
(Eur. IA 1107-8)
... in order that I may, away from the maiden, speak words whichare notfit
for girls who are getting married to hear.
(40) dv ph ov ppdZeis 1réds UTroAGBoiw &v Adyov; (Eur. IA 523)
How can I understand your meaningif you do not makeit clear to me?(lit.
which you do not makeclear ).
In (39), with negative ov, the relative clause refers to specific words which
Agamemnonis planning to say, which marrying girls should not hear. In (40),
with negative ur}, the relative clause has a conditional nuance (note the transla-
tion ifyou do not makeitclear ).
(41) Gyeis dpa pavOdvovtes & OUK TIrioTaoGe, Guabeis Svtes EuavOdvete. (Pl. Euthd.
276b)
So when youlearned the things which you did not know, you were ignorant
when youlearned them.
(42) adétepov yap oi pavOdvovtes pavPdvouow & étriotavtan7) pn
& étriotavtan; (PI.
Euthd. 276d)
Dolearners learn things they know or things they don't know?
In (41), with ou, the relative clause refers to the set of specific things which
learners did not know butthen learned. In (42), with un, the relative clause refers
generically to whatever things the learners do not know.
50.19-22 Moods and Tenses in Relative Clauses 573
Note 1: For the conditional/generic force of un, cf. uw + participle: 52.40, 52.48.
50.20 Prospective:in restrictive relative clauses referring to the future, &v + subjunctive
(prospective, 40.9) is regularly used; the negative is uy. The matrix clause has
a form with future reference, e.g. future indicative, imperative, etc. ( 33.63-4):
(43) 1& dv&pi dv dv EAnode treicopan. (Xen. An. 1.3.15)
I will obey the man whom you choose.
(44) d&kovovtes Kai cot Kai THv ToU AoKwvikot aipnodpeta dv Kpatiota Sox7}
eivar. (Xen. An. 7.3.8)
Wewill, listening to both you and the Spartan s messengers, choose the
option which seemsbestto us.
50.21 Habitual: in restrictive relative clauses referring to an habitual or repeated action,

av + subjunctive (indefinite, 40.9) is used in clauses referring to the present, and
iterative optative without dvis used in clausesreferring to the past; the negativeis
ut). The matrix clause normally has a present indicative or imperfect, respectively:
(45) écrotiver Cnuinv tiv
dv oi ipges TET. (Hdt. 2.65.5)
He pays whatever penalty the priests determine. For the Ionic relative pro-
noun tnhv, 25.31.
(46) Kai ots yév i501 eUTaKTWS Kai C1wTTH idvTas, TPOGEAAUVOV aUTOIS ... ETTT}VEL.
(Xen. Cyr. 5.3.55)
And whomever he saw moving in an orderly fashion andin silence, he
approachedandpraised.
Note 1: In poetry and Herodotus, &v is sometimes omitted from the indefinite construction
with subjunctive: 49.15.
50.22 The following (less frequent) types normally have a strong conditional nuance
(for the use of moods, 49.8-11):
Potential: in restrictive relative clauses referring to a (remotely) possible action,
an optative without &v is used in the relative clause (negative un). The matrix
clause has a potential optative with dv:
(47) tym yap dxvoinv pév dv eis TK TACT EuPaiverv & Hiv Soin. (Xen. An. 1.3.17)
For I would hesitate to embark in the vessels that he might give us (= if he
were to give us any ).
Counterfactual: in restrictive relative clauses referring to an action which can no
longerberealized, a modal (secondary) indicative without &vis used in the relative
clause (negative 7). The matrix clause has a modal secondary indicative + dv:
(48) ote yap &v avtoi étrexelpotuev patel& pt) HmioTépeba, .. . oUTE ToOIs GAAOIS
ETTETPETIOMEV ... GAAO T1 TIPATTELV 7) 6 T1 TIPATTOVTES OPOds EUEAAOV TIPGEEIv.
(Pl. Chrm. 171e)
For (in the hypothetical scenario under consideration) neither would we
ourselves undertake to do anything that we did not understand(= if we did
not understandit ), nor would weentrust to the others to do anything other
than whatthey werelikely to do well when doingit (= if they werelikely ... ).
Note 1: In both these constructions, the use of moodsis perhaps best seen as an instance of
attraction of mood ( 40.15).
Further Particulars
Relative Clauses Expressing Cause, Purpose, or Result
50.23 Relative clauses may have a causal nuance; this nuance occurs primarily with
digressive clauses (since these are not neededto identify the antecedent, they come
to express other meanings). Causal relative clauses usually have the indicative
(negative ov):
(49) @aupaotdy Troteis, ds Hiv ... oUSév Sides. (Xen. Mem. 2.7.13)
You do strange thing, you whohavegiven us nothing (= because you have . .. ).
The use of the indefinite relative éoT15 in digressive relative clauses ( 50.6 n.2)
often expresses such a causal nuance:
(50) Aofia 5& uéuqopan, | Sotis p étrdpas Zpyov dvooiwTatoyv, | Tois pév Adyors
nugpave, Tois & Epyouowwov. (Eur. Or. 285-7)
I blame Loxias, who drove me to do a most unholy deed and then cheered me
with words, but not in deed (= because he drove me... ).
(51) oixtipév té pe |... , GoTIs Hote TrapBévos | BEBEUXa KAatwv. (Soph. Trach.
1070-2)
Have pity on me, who am crying loudlylike a girl (= because Iam ... ).
50.24 Relative clauses with the future indicative (digressive or restrictive) often express
a nuanceof purpose (negative yu):
(52) GANci eri tov KAgoov , Ss abot Thuepov| éxmnviettai Tavita. (Ar. Ran. 577-8)
I m going to get Cleon, who'll wind this out of him today(= so that he'll... ).
Digressive.
(53) étroxpUTrteoban yap Kai SiaSveoGa1 Kal Tavta troreiv é cov pt) AertoupyTEls
TouToio! peudOnKkas. (Dem. 42.23)
For you have learned how to be secret, how to evade, and how to do every-
thing which will permit you to avoid rendering public service to these men
here. Restrictive.
50.24-6 Moodsand Tenses in Relative Clauses 575
Note 1: The future indicative may be used even after a past tense matrix verb: this
construction is similar to indirect statement, suggesting that the relative clause expresses
the intentions/thoughts underlying the action ofthe matrix clause; indeed, the oblique future
optative typical of indirect statement (41.13 n.2) is sometimes foundinthis typeofrelative
clause.
(54) of 14 Shy tpidxovta dvbpas EAgoGan, of Tos ... vdyous ouyypayoudt, Kab os
joAiteuoouo1. (Xen. Hell. 2.3.2)
The people decided toelect thirty men to codify the laws according to which they were
to govern. Future indicatives after a past tense (#50 e).
(55) of 5& tpidKovta TpgBnoav ... 8p OTe cuyypawar vdpuious, kad oUoTtiwas TroAlTevooITO.
(Xen. Hell. 2.3.11)
Andthe thirty were elected on the condition that they would codify laws according to
which they were to govern. Oblique future optative.
50.25 Relative clauses with the indicative which follow their matrix clause mayalso have
the nuance of a result clause; such clauses are often anticipated by ows, To1ottos
etc. in the matrix clause (cf. result clauses, 46.2). The indefinite relative édoTis
occurs frequently in such clauses; the negativeis ov:
(56) tis oUtTw paivetar doTis OU BoUAETal oor giAos eivar; (Xen. An. 2.5.12)
Whois so mad that he doesn t wish to be yourfriend?
(57) ti ovx &v rpd& eiev 6 To1otTos, doTIs ypdupata AaBoov pn dréSwxKev dpbds Kai
Sikaios; (Dem. 34.29)
What would henotdo, the kind of man that has taken letters and not related
them in due and proper course?
Nuances of purpose and result may be combined when a matrix clause with
to1ouTos, etc. is followed bya relative clause with a future indicative:
(58) xpeittév gotw ... Tos ToIOUTOIS THV Epyav éTriTibecba, & Kai TPEOBUTEPHD
yevouéven étrapkéoei. (Xen. Mem. 2.8.3)
It is better to take up such types of work as will sustain you even after you
have grownolder(= to sustain ... ).
Note 1: For the use of oios, dc0s, etc. with an infinitive in result clauses, 46.10.
Potential and Counterfactual Constructions in Restrictive Clauses
50.26 Aswell as in digressive clauses ( >50.17 above), potential optative + av (negative

ou) and counterfactual modalindicative + &v (negative ot) also occurin restric-
tive relative clauses:
(59) ox go0@Stou Biyow dv évSixotepov. (Eur. El. 224)

There is no one whom I might touch with more right. Autonomous(i.e.
restrictive), potential optative + dv.
(60) trpds tTatta 51) dkovoate & yw oUK dv TroTe EiTrov TOUTOU évavTioyv,Ei UT) HO!
TavtTatracw &yvapoves éS0xeite civar. (Xen. An. 7.6.23)
In replyto this, listen to words which I would never have spoken to that man s
face, if you did not seem to me to be utterly senseless. Autonomous(i.e.
restrictive), counterfactual ind. + dv.
(Cor)relative Clauses with Relative Adjectives or Adverbs
50.27 The use of moods and tenses in (cor)relative clauses introduced by relative
adjectives or adverbsis identical to that in relative clauses introducedbyrelative
pronouns,as described above.
With Relative Adjectives (oios, étroios, dco, 6Trd005)
50.28 Therelative adjectives oios, étroios, da0s, and Strocosare frequently anticipated (or
followed) in the matrix clause by an antecedent in the form of a demonstrative
adjective (to1ottos, tooottos,etc.):
(61) otdeis tooatta &yobd Tetroinxe Thy TOAW Soa OUTOS HSiKnkev. (Lys. 30.33)
No one has done so much goodfor the city as this man has doneit harm.
(62) Sixaioi gote kai Uyeis Trepi TOUTHV TOLOUTHy EXEL Thy yv@uny oiavtrep Kal avTol
Trepi autdév ~oyov. (Andoc. 1.3)
You too are right to pass such a verdict on them as they passed on themselves.
However, such clauses are also frequently reduced (i.e. autonomous), occurring
without a demonstrative in the matrix clause:
(63) otTa Bt e 7ABov oyedov &travtes Kai of MijSo1 TAN Sc01 ouv Kuag&pn Etuxov
oxnvotvtes. (Xen. Cyr. 4.2.11)
The result was that nearly all came out, even the Medes, except all those who
(as many as) happened to be encamped together with Cyaxares.
(64) éxaiov ois Toto Epyov fv détrdcmv UN avToi éSgovto. (Xen. Cyr. 4.5.36)
Those whosetask this was burned whatever(as many things as) they did not
need themselves. Both the subject and object of éuc1ov are expressed by
autonomousrelative clauses (subject: ois ... Hv, object: 6téowv E6é0vTO).
Note 1: Only whenthey are preceded by a demonstrative, as in (61) (62) can the relative
adjectives oios/é00s be translated with as (with the demonstratives being translated with
such ..., as much ..., as many ..., etc.): in other cases the translation required for the
relative is respectively such as, as much as, as many as, etc., as in (63) (64).
50.29-34 Clauses with Relative Adjectives or Adverbs 377
50.29 Clauses with a relative adjective also frequently stand in apposition ( 26.24) to
a noun, whichservesas its antecedent:
(65) Kai éx pév To TPwTOU GAdVTOS XOAETTAdS oO: &VEPwTTOL, 6001 Kai é5 TK TTAOIA Kal
dAKd5a TIVE KATEQUyoOV, és TO OTPaTdTrESOV EEEKopilovto. (Thuc. 7.23.2)
The men from thefirst (fort) that was taken, as many of them as had beenable
to take flight on board boats and merchantships, had difficulty reaching the
camp. The dco1-clause stands in apposition to oi &vOpooTrol.
(66) ... &BA , oa uNndeis Tv Eudv TUXO1 MiAev. (Soph. Phil. 509)
... pains, such as none of myfriends may suffer. Note the cupitive optative in
a digressive relative clause.
50.30 Plural forms of d005 and é1rd00s are frequently anticipated by a form of ta&s:
(67) otpatnyov Sé attéov dtréde1ge Trd&vtT@V dc01 és KaotwAot treSiov &Bpoifovta. (Xen. An.
1.1.2)
He appointed him commanderofall those who gatherin the plain of Castolus.
Note 1: These forms (with or without an anticipating form of més) are often best translated
with all who, everything that, etc. - cf. also the translations of (63)-(64) above.
50.31 Relative attraction ( >50.13) occurs in correlative clauses with relative adjectives as well:
(68) MiSav ... dowv Ewpaka ... 6 yds Taos KaAMOTOS. (Xen. Cyr. 1.3.2)
Ofall the Medes that I have seen, my grandfather is the most handsome. Object of
éapana, but genitive under the influence of MrySav.
50.32 The neuter forms oiov and oia are often used adverbially, in which case they can well be
translated with for example, for instance, such as:
(69) viv Sé trepi dAiyas oiKias ai KaAAIOTAI Tpayewdion ouvTifevtat, oiov Trepi AAKYEwva Kall
OiSitrouv Kai Opgotnv ... (Arist. Poet. 1453a18-20)
But asit is, the best tragedies are composed about only a few families; for example about
Alcmeon,Oedipus, Orestes, ...
50.33 For the use of (tocoUtw ...) d60q@, as a dative of measure with comparatives, to express the
more ... the more, 32.11. For the use of ojos, dc0s, etc. with an infinitive in result clauses,
46.10.
With Relative Adverbs

Relative Adverbs ofPlace (and Time)
50.34 Correlative clauses introduced by adverbsofplace (ot,év@a, oi, S8ev, 7h, etc.; dtrou,
étroi, etc. 8) may be anticipated or followed by a demonstrative adverb:
(70) ti otv éyw évtatOa Adiknoa d&yayav Upas EvOa Tr&ow piv é5dxer; (Xen. An.
7.6.14)
Whatinjustice, then, did I commit by leading you where(there, where) you all
decided to go?
But such clauses are more often reduced(i.e. autonomous, without a preceding
demonstrative adverb):
(71) S&o tyuds Eva TO TPGyya éyéveto. (Xen. Cyr. 5.4.21)
I will take you to (the place) where the event took place.
(72) é@rpa StrouTtep Etrituyyavorev Onpiors. (Xen. Cyr. 3.3.5)
He hunted wheresoever they came upon animals. Note the iterative optative,
50.12.
50.35 Autonomouscorrelative clauses of this type can be used together with existential gotw
( >50.12 above): otiot there is a place where, somewhere, totSte there is a time when,
sometimes.
50.36 Temporal clauses introduced by dte/é1éte ( 47) are in essence also adverbial correlative
clauses of time, usually reduced . Their correlative nature may be seen mostclearly in cases
where they are anticipated or followed by téte, for instance:
(73) ei8e oon, & TlepixAeis, TOTE ouveyevouny Ste Seivdtatos EauToU Toba. (Xen. Mem. 1.2.46)
Ah,Pericles, if only I had metyouat the time when youwereat yourcleverest. For éautoi,
29.19.
Relative Adverbs ofManner: Clauses of Comparison
50.37 Clauses of comparison are introducedby the relative adverbs os, étras, dottep,
and xa@drtrep (just) as, (in such a way) as. They are sometimes precededor followed
by ottw(s) (kat) thus, in this/that/such a way (also), so (too):
(74) Tldvu, én, Eyer ots ws Aeyeis. (PI. Phd. 68c)
It is indeed just as you say,he said. For éye1 + adv., 26.11 and 36.10.
(75) otTa yap Troiow Strws dv ov KeAeys. (Pl. Euthd. 295b)
I will act in such a way as you command.Prospective subjunctive + dv.
(76) dotep oivos Kipvatai Tois Tv Tivdvtwv TpdTrols, OUTH Kai MIAia Tois TdV
Xpwpeveov teow. (Dem.fr. 13.27 Baiter-Sauppe)
Just as wine is mixed with the customs of those who drink it, thus also
friendship is mixed with the characters of those who enjoyit.
However, most clauses of comparison are reduced (i.e. autonomous, without
a preceding ottw(s)): only the entity with which someone or something is com-
pared is expressed. Therelative adverbs can in suchcasesalso be translated with as,
like:
50.37-40 Clauses with Relative Adjectives or Adverbs 379
(77) troia: Straws Apiotév oo1 Soxei eivan. (Xen. Cyr. 4.5.50)
Do as it seemsto be best to you.
(78) Kai w dgeide® fh TUyn | Gotrep TTepdv Trpds aifép Augpa wid. (Eur. Her.
509-10)
And fate took it away from mein a single day like a feather into the sky.
(79) trepnotapeta 51) kabdtrep &BANTAI TIPds TOUTOV at Tov Adyov. (Pl. Phlb. 41b)
Let us then like athletes position ourselves around this argument, in turn.
Note that in (78) and (79), the comparative clauses have no finite verb: this occurs
frequently with comparative clauses.
50.38 The relative 7, may also have this sense ( >8.2), and maybeanticipated by tavtn:
(80) Geos ... uapTUPAS TroloUpEvo! TrelpacduEeba GuUveoBa TroAguou GpxovTas TauTH f av
vonyfoée. (Thuc. 1.78.4)

Taking the gods as our witness, we will attempt to ward youoff, ifyou begin hostilities, in
whatever manner(in that way which) you choose.
50.39 Observethe idioms Zotdtrws there is a way in which;it is possible that, obx« ZotwStrws there is
no way in which; it is impossible that; 50.12 and 50.35 above.
50.40 For comparative Sotrep ci and Sotrep dv ci, >49.22 4. For comparative participles
with dotrep, 52.43.
51
The Infinitive
Introduction
Basic Properties
51.1 Infinitives are verbal nouns:
they are like nouns in that they mayfulfil syntactic roles which are typically
fulfilled by noun phrases(subject, object, complement; 26.3), and in that they
may be modified by the article;
they are like verbs in that they are marked for tense-aspect and voice; may be
construed with an object, complement,etc.; modified by adverbs;etc.
Overview of Uses: Dynamic and Declarative Infinitives, Articular

Infinitives, Other Uses
Without the Article: Dynamic and Declarative Infinitive
51.2 The use of the infinitive without the article can be broadly divided into two
categories:
the dynamic infinitive: to complement verbs meaning must , can , be able ,
etc. (modal verbs); want , desire , dare , try , etc. (desiderative/volitional
verbs); be good at , teach how to , learn how to , etc. (practical knowledge
verbs); command , suggest , compel , etc. (manipulative verbs); begin , stop ,
etc. (phase verbs); and certain adjectives and nounswith similar meanings; for
details, 51.8-18;
the declarative infinitive: to complement certain verbs of speech and verbsof
belief and opinion, introducing a form of indirect statement ( 41.1-2); for
details, 51.19-27;
51.3 As complements, the dynamic anddeclarative infinitive are different in nature:

- The dynamic infinitive expresses an action, the realization of which is enabled,
attempted, desired, forced, necessitated, asked for, etc. The action may or may
not berealized.
- The declarative infinitive expresses the content of someone's speech or belief

about an action. This content (so-called propositional content) may or may
not be true.
(1) 4 8 Taptootis... éxéAcuoce... THY... PwE&dvnv Cdoav katateuciv: Kal éyéveTo.
(Ctes. fr. 15.56 Lenfant)
Parysatis ordered Roxaneto be cut up alive. And so it happened. xatateueiv,
complementing neAeva command , is a dynamic infinitive. Parysatis asks for
a gruesome execution. The narrator then continues to say that this execution
was actually carried out.
(2) prpi toivuv éya (Kal ... undeis pOdveo TO LEAAOV aKoUON, GAA Gv GAnPEs F
oxoTreitw), ... KaXAAIOv Kéoveova T& TElyn OTioa1 OeuiotoKAgous. (Dem. 20.74)
NowI maintain (andlet no one take offence at what is coming, but consider
whetherit is true) that Conon has put up the walls in a more laudable manner
than Themistocles. otfjoa1, complementing pnui say , is a declarative infinitive.
Demosthenes puts forward his opinion and asks his audience to consider
whether that opinionis true orfalse.
(3) 20& Sé Kai Tois TH Abnvaiav otpatnyois ... TAeiv ... Tatta 5 BouAopEevous
Troiiv &vEepos Kal yelpav SiexwmAuoev autous. (Xen. Hell. 1.6.35)
The generals of the Atheniansalso decidedto sail. But although they wanted to
do this, the wintry, stormy weather prevented them. troiiv is a dynamic
infinitive, complementing BouAouévous, a verb of wanting (so too TrAéiv, after
a verb of deciding, impers.o0&e). The Athenian generals wantto go ahead with
the expedition; the narrator goes on to say that the expedition is in fact not
realized.
(4) o& on troreiv attous & BovAovtar GAAG pr EAeyye. (Pl. Grg. 467b)
I claim that they are not doing what they want: refute me if you can. troveiy is
a declarative infinitive, complementing a verb ofspeech/opinion (pnui). Socratesputs
forward his own opinion and challenges his addressee to prove that opinionfalse.
The dynamic infinitive and the declarative infinitive have in commonthat they do
not in themselves specify whether the action is or is not realized or whether the
propositional contentis or is not true.
Note 1: The infinitive differs in this respect from the supplementaryparticiple, which on the
whole specifies the action it expresses as realized or the propositional content as true
(52.8).
Note 2: The dynamic infinitive is so called because it refers to actions which exist
potentially (Gk. év Suvéuer). This infinitive is in some workscalled prolative .
Note 3: With a few verbs taking a dynamicinfinitive, notably those meaning force or
compel (e.g. d&vaykdloo, BidZopar), but also toAudw dare and &pyoum begin, the full
realization of the matrix verb entails the realization of the action expressed by the
infinitive as well:
582 51.3-7 The Infinitive
(5) mpadta pév tous Audous fvayKace Tas KuUpou évToAds émteAgetv ék TouToU be
KeAeuopoouvns AuSoi Thy Ta&oav Siatav Tis Cons peteBadov. (Hdt. 1.157.2)
Hefirst compelled the Lydians to carry out Cyrus instructions. And becauseof his
order the Lydians changed their whole wayoflife. The compelling of the Lydians is
carried out and completed. As the subsequent sentence shows, their following Cyrus
orders is realized as well.
(6) mpdtos Sé KAEapxos Tous abTot oTpatiotas éBidZeTto ivan: of 8 adTov Te EBAAAOV Kal Ta
UTroluy1a T& éxeivou, étrel GP§arvto trpoigvan. (Xen. An. 1.3.1)
Clearchuswasthefirst who tried to compel his own troops to march on. Butthey pelted
him and his pack-animals with stones, every time they began to moveforward. éBid@eto
is a conative imperfect, which suggests that the action was neverfully realized ( >33.25).
As the subsequent sentence shows, the soldiers in fact do not march on .
Note 4: Some verbs may be complementedeither by a dynamicinfinitive or by a declarative
infinitive; the difference in complement correspondsto a difference in meaning of the matrix
verb. For full details on these verbs, -51.28-33. Some verbs mayalso be construed with
a participle, >52.22-7.
51.4 The differences detailed above correspond to several crucial differences of con-
struction between dynamic and declarative infinitives:
The negative with dynamic infinitives is uy) (51.13), with declarative infini-
tives nearly always ot ( >51.22-3);
- The dynamic infinitive is never modified by &v, whereas the declarative infini-
tive may be modified by &v (51.27);
- The future infinitive is never used as dynamic infinitive, the perfect infinitive
rarely; infinitives of all tense-aspect stems are usedas declarative infinitives. For
full details on the interpretation of the tense-aspect stems in infinitives,
51.15 (dynamic) and 51.25-6 (declarative).
With the Article; Other Uses
51.5 A neuterarticle (in any case, always singular) may be addedto an infinitive to
turn it into (the head of) a noun phrase. Theinfinitive itself never declines: +d
TaiSevelv, ToU TraiSeveiv, etc. For full details on this use, the articular infini-
tive, 51.38-45.
51.6 Some remaining usesofthe infinitive are treated in 51.47-9.
51.7 For the infinitive with Sorte (or oios, etc.) in result clauses, 46.7-11. For the
infinitive with é (te) on the condition that, 49.26. For the infinitive with trpiv,
47.14.
51.8 The Dynamic Infinitive 583
The DynamicInfinitive
Verbs Taking a Dynamic Infinitive

51.8 The following classes of verbs take a dynamicinfinitive as their complement:
Note 1: Many of the verbs below also have different constructions, in which case they no
longer belong to the specific class under which theyare listed below. For instance, the verb
yavédveo is used as a verb of practical knowledge (learn (how) to) taking a dynamic infinitive,
butalso as a verb ofintellectual knowledge (Jearn that), in which caseit takes a supplementary
participle ( 52.10) or a é11/as-clause (41.3).
For an overview of verbs belonging to different classes taking either a dynamic or
a declarative infinitive, +51.28 32. For verbs taking either an infinitive or a participle, 52.
22-7. For a complete overview of different classes of verb and the type of complements they
take, 53.
- Modalverbs - the verb expresses the need or possibility of an action taking

place, e.g.:
Set it is necessary to
SUvaual be able to
e eotl it is possible to, it is permitted to (+ dat.)
EXO can, be able to
TTPOOT|KEI it is fitting to
XPT it is necessary to
(7) oxotréeiv SE ypt) Tavtds xeratos tiv TeAeuTH. (Hdt. 1.32.9)
It is necessary to examinethe endofevery thing.
(8) 008 ... vduov EEouol SeiEau Kad Sv é fjv abTH tatita mpdEaun. (Isae. 10.11)
And they will not be able to produce a law according to whichit was allowed
for him to dothese things.
Verbsof practical knowledge - the subject learns, teaches, or knows how to do

something,e.g::
S1SaoKo teach (how) to, instruct how to
éTrioTayar know how to
uavedvao learn (how) to
(9) traiSevois ... KaAT) SiScoKE yptjoGa1 vdpors Kal Agyev Trepi THv Sikaicov. (Xen.
Cyn. 12.14)
A good education teaches (a man) to observe laws and to speak about whatis
right.
584 51.8 The Infinitive
Desiderative/volitional verbs - the subject intends, wishes or resolves that an

action should berealized,e.g.:
aipgopat chooseto
BouAeua/BouAevouar deliberate, resolve to
BovAopan wantto, prefer to
Siavogopat decide to, intend to
Soxet it seemsright to,it is decided to (+ dat.; 36.4, 51.30)
é8éAa be willing to, wish to
oTrousdalw makehasteto, strive to
(10) mrpdtov Sé SinyjoacGan BovAopon Ta TrpayGevta TH TeAcUTAaia huepa. (Lys.
1.22)
First I want to go through the things which happenedonthelast day.
(11) ot yap Adyoior Tov Biov otrouSdalouev | AauTrPdv TrocioBoar Ya&AAOV 7) Tos
Spopévois. (Soph. OC 1143-4)
It is not in wordsthat I strive to give mylife renown, so muchasit is by my
deeds.
- Verbs of ordering, forcing, manipulating - the subject forces, tells or asks
someoneelse to do something,e.g::
aitéw ask to, require to
avayKaloo force to, compel to
S oyan ask to, require to
KEAEUW commandto,bid to
TreiBoo persuadeto
(12) KeAever ue Mapddvios pévovta attot teipdoGai tis MeAotrovvioou. (Hdt.
8.101.2)
Mardonius commands me to stay here and make an attempt on the
Peloponnese.
Note2: To this category belong also verbs of preventing, hindering, etc.; for these, 51.34-7.
Note 3: For verbs of speaking (e.g. A¢yw) used as verbs of ordering, 51.32.
Somephase verbs- the verb expresses somephaseof the action (beginning or

end), e.g.:
d&pyYouat begin to, be thefirst to
TTAUGD stop/prevent (someone from doing something)
(13) é&x T&v Sé Tpa@TaV TPATOV &p§ouanA yeiv. (Eur. Med. 475)
I will begin myspeechat the very beginning.
Note 4: These and other phase verbs are (more) regularly construed with a participle
( 52.9); for the difference between the two constructions, 52.27.
51.9-10 The Dynamic Infinitive 585
51.9 The dynamicinfinitive is also used to complement certain adjectives and nouns
with meanings similar to those listed above, i.e. expressing ability, possibility,
need, desire, etc. Some examples:
Adjectives
&E10¢5 worth(y)
Seivds goodat, skilful, impressive
TriT15E105 suitable
ikavos competent, adequate, capable
oids TE capable
Pad10¢5 easy to
Nouns
copa (éoTi) it is time to (+ pres. inf.)
TWEpOS a desire to
oXOAN leisure to, the opportunity to
VOLOS the law (commandsthat), it is customary to
(14) 2 attTdv 8 toUTwv émbdei Ew attTdv emitnSe1d6tepov Tebvavar yGAAov 7

owleoba. ([Andoc.] 4.25)
Based on these very things, I will show that he is more fit to be dead than to
survive.
(15) dpa mpoRaiverv, avipes, hiv got. (Ar. Eccl. 285)
It is time, gentlemen, for us to come forward.
Note 1: The constituent to which such an adjective belongs can be supplied with the
infinitive as its subject (as in (14), where he is subject of te@vavon/omleo@ar) or as its
object (as in (16)). In either case, the infinitive tends to be active:
(16) Av... 6 OemiotoKAss ... &E105 Baupdoon. (Thuc. 1.138.3)

Themistocles was worthy of admiration (i.e. to be admired ). Themistocles can be
supplied as object to @auudoan.
Expression of the Subject of Dynamic Infinitives
51.10 The subject of a dynamicinfinitive is not separately expressed whenit is already

given as an obligatory constituent of the matrix verb governingthe infinitive:
as its subject (when the subjects of the infinitive and its matrix-verb are
co-referential ):
(17) Kai técoepas itrtrous oulevyvuvar Trapd& A1pUoov oi EAAnves pepaby)Kao1. (Hdt.
4.189.3)
And the Greeks have learned how to yoke four horses from the Libyans.
The subject of the infinitive is the sameas that ofpepabrnao1, i.e. oi EAAnves.
This is always the case with verbs meaning begin to , be able to , know how to ,
be willing/strive to , or with passive forms of verbs meaning force , command ,
etc.:
(18) 1a&s>s yap ovbyi yevvddas, | Sotis ye tively ofSe Kai Biveiv udvov; (Ar. Ran.
739-40)
Of course he s a gentleman:all he knowsis how to drink and fuck. The subject
of the infinitives is co-referential with the subject of oiSe (otis).
(19) qvayKdobnoayv ... vaupayfjoai pds Poppiova. (Thuc. 2.83.1)
They were compelled to make a naval attack upon Phormio. The subject of
vaupayroat is co-referential with the subject ofpassive hvayudoOnoay.
as its object or complement:
(20) étreice nev Tiooagépyny un Trapéyetv yptata Aaxedaipoviors. (Isoc. 16.20)
He persuaded Tissaphernes not to give moneyto the Spartans. Ticoagépynvis
object of érreioe, and serves as subject of trapéyetv.
(21) &£ovto attot Travti Tpdtre &treAPeiv AOjvnbev. (Lys. 13.25)
They asked him to leave Athensat all costs. avtod is a complement in the
genitive with égovto ( 30.21); it serves as subject of the infinitive dtreAdeiv.
(22) Baoirets 6 Aifidtrav cupBouAever TH Tepogwv Baoildi ... étr Ai@iotras ...
otpateveofai. (Hdt. 3.21.3)
The king of the Ethiopians counsels the king of the Persians to attack the
Ethiopians. 74 ... BaoiAéi is a complement in the dative with oupBoudAevei
( 30.39); it serves as subject of otpatevec@an.
Note 1: Naturally, dynamic infinitives of impersonal verbs ( 36) also do not have an
explicitly expressed subject (as they have no subjectatall):
(23) ToAAdkis eepydCetar av petapedery dvayxn. (Xen. Eq. 6.13)
He often does what it is necessary to regret. uetauéAew is a dynamic infinitive
representing impersonal yetapéde + gen. (36.15); the inf. depends on dvayun.
51.11 If the subject of the dynamic infinitive is not expressed as an obligatory

constituent of the matrix verb, it is separately expressed in the accusative:
this is called the accusative-and-infinitive construction (or accusative
plus infinitive , accusative with infinitive ; Lat. accusativus cum infinitivo,
Ac]):
(24) dpa 8éxéAcuev dvayvwofijvai TO WHgioua Tot Sthyou. (Aeschin.2.50)
At the sametimehecalled for the decree of the people to be read. 76 wrgioua
is subject ofdvayvwobivai, the entire accusative-and-infinitive construction is
object of énéAevev; note that it is impossible in this case to take To wrjigiopa as
object of énédevev (one cannotgive instructions to a decree).
This occurs frequently with impersonal expressions, suchas5¢7 it is necessary, ypr)

it is necessary, 50&¢ it was decided, tpéte:itisfitting, oidv te (071) it is possible,etc.
( 36.3-5):
(25) Sef oc kaeuSew |... trap guot. (Ar. Eccl. 700-1)
You must sleep with me(lit. it is necessary that you ... ). o¢ is the subject of
navevdew; the entire construction o nabevdew trap éeuoi is subject of Sz
( 36.3).
(26) &0 e trAciv tov AAKiBidSnv. (Thuc. 6.29.3)
It was decided that Alcibiades should sail. rov AAmBidSnv is the subject of
TAeiv; the entire construction TrAeiv Tov AAmBidSnv is subject ofo&e ( 36.4).
(27) Uuds 5é 1rp tre1 GUVETTavElV ... TOIOUTOUS a&vSpas. (Pl. Menex. 246a)
It is fitting that you should join in praising such men. uuas is subject of
ouvetraiveiv; the entire accusative-and-infinitive construction is subject of
mpétret (36.4).
51.12 Predicative complements ( 26.8) and predicative modifiers ( 26.26) of the

subject of an infinitive agree with that subject:
- In the accusative-and-infinitive construction, predicative complements/modi-
fiers agree with the accusative subject (the subject may be implied):
(28) Sei pe yiyveo® Avdpopedav (Ar. Thesm. 1012)
I must become Andromeda. Avdpopé5av is predicative complement agreeing
with pe (subject of yiyveo@(ai)), and thus accusative.
(29) yp pikpav Kai dodevi} yeveo@or tiv dA. (Lys. 12.70)
The city must become small and weak. wxpav and doGevi agree in case,
number and gender with tnhv méAw (subject of yevéo@at).
(30) Kati Ti Si Ka® Ev Exaotov Agyovta SiatpiBeiv; (Isoc. 2.45)
Whyshould one waste one s time on talking about every single instance?
Aéyovta agrees with the subject of dSiatpiBew, which is not expressed;
a generalizing subject in the accusative is implied.
- Whenthesubject of the infinitive is taken from the matrix clause, predicative
complements/modifiers typically agree with the relevant constituent in the
matrix clause:
(31) GAAa te Tré&ptTrOAAa &yab& yiyvort &v, ei To vdpou Tis ToUTOU SUvaITO
éyKpatiys eivan. (Pl. Leg. 839b)
Manyother good things might happen,if someonewereableto be in control
of this law. The predicative complement éyupatns agrees with tis, the subject of
Suvaito ... eivan (the subjects are co-referential).
588 51.12-15 TheInfinitive
(32) viv coi e eotiv, © =evopdr, &vbpi yeveo@ar. (Xen. An. 7.1.21)
~
>
Now, Xenophon,it is possible for you to become a man. Thepredicative

complement dv6pi agrees with oo, the dative complement of eo1w and the
subject of yevéo@an.
Note 1: However, such predicative modifiers/complements also sometimes appear in the

accusative, as this is the case typically associated with infinitive-subjects (and anything
agreeing with them):
(33) AaxeSarpoviors {eoUpiv pidous yevéobar. (Thuc. 4.20.3)
It is possible for you to becomefriends to the Spartans. The predicative complement
gidous appears in the accusative, even though the dat. wpiv is taken as subject for
yeveoOar. Contrast (32).
(34) 6 Zwxpdtns ... cupBouAcver TH =ZevopdvTi éABdvta eis AcAgous &vaKxowdoa TH Bed.
(Xen. An. 3.1.5)
Socrates advised Xenophon to go to Delphi and consult the god. éA@dévra is
accusative, even though the subject for dvanowdoa is taken from dative
TQ) =EVODEVTI.
Negatives with Dynamic Infinitives
51.13 The negative with the dynamic infinitive is yn:

(35) dmiévon 8 éxéAeuev Kal pt) Epedierv, iva odds oikade EABor. (Pl. Resp. 394a)
He ordered him to go awayand notto trouble him, so that he might come
homein onepiece.
(36) udAiota pév ov &v TRouAduny un éxelv Tecypata. ([Dem.] 47.4)
I would muchhavepreferred not to have proceedings.
51.14 Forpt ov, TO pt ov, etc., particularly with verbs of forbidding, hindering, prevent-
ing, abstaining, etc. 51.34-7.
Tense and Aspect of Dynamic Infinitives
51.15 The dynamic infinitive is limited almost exclusively to the present and aorist
stems(the perfect is rare; the future infinitive is never dynamic). Both refer to
actions which may or may not occur, normally posterior to the matrix verb; the
difference between the stemsis purely aspectual ( 33.63-5):
the present infinitive refers to actions as a process (ongoing or repeated;
imperfective aspect);
- the aorist infinitive refers to actions presented as complete and therefore in
their entirety (perfective aspect).
(37) xeivov ... éxéAeuov dvaBdvta étti TUPyov a&yopetoa ws... (Hdt. 3.74.3)
They ordered him to go up on a towerand declare that ... For the translation
of the ppl. dvaBdavta, 52.6.
(38) dveBiBaoav atTov étri TUPYov Kal c&yopevev éxeAcuov. (Hdt. 3.75.1)
They brought him up on a tower and ordered him to (start) speak(ing).
Herodotus twice narrates how Prexaspes is ordered to speak. The aorist infi-
nitive Gyopetoa in (37) looks at the speech that he has to make as a whole
(note that the content of that speech is given by the cs-clause thatwillfollow).
The present infinitive &yopevewin (38) is used to refer to the actual process of
speaking, which Prexaspes is ordered to get underway. Note that the action
expressed by both infinitives is necessarily posterior to éxéAevov (one cannot
command someoneto already be doing or have done something).
(39) Sei... TOV RouAduEvov T1 Trolfjoal Thy TOAW Nudv ayabov Ta @TA TIPATOV UAV
idoaobai- SiepPaptai yap. (Dem. 13.13)
Whoeverwants to do ourcity a good turn mustfirst cleanse your ears. For
they have been corrupted.
(40) OPUNKOTA viv TOV avOpertrov giAov Eival Kal BouAduEVdV T1 Troleiv &yabov Tih
TOAeis &Bupiav TpeWouey, ci KaTAWTNOIOUWEBa. (Dem. 23.194)
The man (Chersobleptes), who has now embarked on a courseoffriendship,
and who wants to (be) do(ing) the city a good turn, we will cause to be
disheartened,if we are to vote down the decree.
In (39) the aorist inf. troifjooindicates that the speakeris not interested in the
process ofproviding benefit to the city, but in anyone's aspiration towards the
simplefact of it. Example (40), on the other hand, concernsa type of behaviour
(present inf. troieiv) which Chersobleptes has already begun (@ppnudta) to
display: he wants to provide some benefit to the city, but this provision might be
interrupted if the Athenians vote the wrong way.
Note 1: The interpretation attached to the present infinitive in (38) is similar to the
immediative nuance of the present imperative, for which 38.30.
Further Particulars
Dynamic Infinitives Expressing Purpose or Result
51.16 A dynamic infinitive is added regularly to verbs meaning give , entrust , take ,
receive , etc., or verbs meaning have(at one s disposal) , to express purposeorresult
(without cote or as). This use of the infinitive is usually called final-consecutive:
(41) tavtnv thy xopav étrétpewe Siaptrc&oai Tois EAAnoiv. (Xen. An. 1.2.19)
That country he left to the Greeks to plunder.
(42) of otpatidta jyGovto, STi obK Eixov &pyupiov émoitileoOar eis TH Tropsiav.
(Xen. An. 7.1.7)
The soldiers were angry, because they did not have moneyto provision
themselves for the journey.
Note 1: This use may be seen - rather than as a special use of the infinitive - as a special
construction of the relevant verbs of giving, entrusting, etc. Thus, for instance, in (41)
étretpewe is construed with a subject ( he ), object (tattnv thy yopav), indirect object (tois
EAAnoiv) and a fourth obligatory constituent in the infinitive (S1:aptréoa1).
Note 2: Especially in poetry, final-consecutive infinitives are sometimes added morefreely -
ie. after other kinds of verbs (and adjectives/nouns):
(43) &pydpueo®éx Kpsioodvoov | kal Tad dxovew KaT1 THVS dAyiova. (Soph. Ant. 63-4)
Weare ruled by men whoare more powerful, so that we (must) obey in these things
and things morepainful than thesestill. The infinitive expresses the result of the men s
superior power (upeioodveov).
Note 3: The final-consecutive infinitive is sometimes called epexegetical ( added to
explain ): however, this term, if used at all, is best reserved for the infinitive limiting the
meaning of adverbs and nouns, for which 51.18.
51.17 Sometimes, dote is added to make explicit the consecutive value of a dynamic infinitive
althoughit follows a verb belonging to one ofthe classes listed in 51.8. In such cases oteis
redundant (and need notbetranslated):
(44) 6 TleBias ... mei: Sote TH vow yptoaoGa. (Thuc. 3.70.5)

Pithias persuades (them)to use the law. trei@w is regularlyfollowed by a bare infinitive.
Dynamic Infinitives Specifying Adjectives and Nouns
51.18 Especially in poetry, the dynamic infinitive is sometimesused to limit or specify the meaning
of an adjective or noun (other than those with the types of meaning listed in 51.9); the
infinitive in this use is often called epexegetic(al):
(45) AeuKdtrwdAos hepa | Taoav katéoxe yoiav evgeyyis iSetv. (Aesch. Pers. 386-7)
White-horsed day, bright to see, covered the entire earth.
(46) KA. év Aiyutrta Sé 1) 1s TO TOITTOV Pris vVevouobeTiobal;:: AO. Gata kai dkotoon. (Pl.
Leg. 656d)
(Clinias:) How then do yousaythat this matteris legislated in Egypt? :: (Athenian:)It is
a wondereven to hearit.
In such cases the infinitive does not express purposeorresult; in sense this use is similar to the
accusative of respect, for which 30.14.
Note 1: Such infinitives tend to be active in form, even though theytypically depend on
a nounor adjective referring to the object of the infinitive (note the translation hearit in
(46)); also 51.9 n.1 above.
51.19 The Declarative Infinitive 591
The Declarative Infinitive
Verbs Taking a Declarative Infinitive

51.19 The declarative (accusative and) infinitive is used in indirect discourse (41.1)
after verbs of opinion and verbsof believing, and after certain verbs of speech:
verbs of opinion and believing,e.g.:
ylyvacka judge that
AoyiZopan reckon that, guess that
voutlo believe that
tyéopat believe that, be of the opinion that
olopa/oipar think that
TOTEUO) believe that, trust that
UTrOAAURavoo assumethat, grasp that
UTOTTTEUW suspect that
To this group belong also verbs meaning seem ,i.e. verbs relating to the belief or
opinion of someoneother than the subject:
paivopan seem (+ dat.; for the difference with paivoua + ppl., 52.24)
SoKEw seem (+ dat.; for other constructions of S0né/So0xei, 51.30)
declarative utterance verbs, i.e. verbs of speech,e.g.:
a&yyédrw report that, announce that
&KOUW hear(in the sense betold that)
SnAdw makeclear that
AEyoo say that
onui say that, claim that
For verbs of denying, -51.34-6.
Note 1: Verbs of speech, apart from gnyi, more regularly take a 6t1/«s-clause.
The declarative infinitive occurs for the most part when it does not represent an actual
utterance, but an opinion or a rumour(in other words, whenthe verb is used moreas a verb
of opinion). Theinfinitive frequently occurs in this way with &xouww(in the sense be told) and
Aeyw (especially with the forms Agyouo: they say and Agyetan it is said), but muchless
frequently with citrov. The infinitive is the standard construction with nui (dt1/«s-clauses
are very rare with this verb), because the verb usually meansclaim (rather than utter), and
with reife convince (for this verb, 51.32):
(47) Kpitiov ... &trétpeTte pdoKav aveAeUGepov Te eivai Kal OU TIPETTOV ... TOV EP@LEVOY ...
TPOOAITEIV MOTTEM TOUS TITWYOUS ... TOU S& Kpitiou Tois To1loUToIs OUX UTTAKOUOVTOS
ouSée GtroTpEeTTOMEevou, AgyeTa TOV ZwxKpaTHy GAAwv Te TOAAAV Trapdvtwv Kai Tov
Eu@uSnyou eitrety Sti Uikdov atTS SoKxoin tdoyelv 6 Kpitias. (Xen. Mem. 1.2.29-30)
He tried to restrain Critias by saying that it was mean and unbecoming to
approach one s beloved like a beggar. But when Critias paid no heed to such
words and was notrestrained, it is said that Socrates said, in the presence of
Euthydemus and manyothers, that he thought that Critias had the sentiments of
a pig. pdonoyv, followed (as almost always) by an infinitive, refers to a general claim
Socrates made about what is and what is not fitting; Aéyetau, followed by an
infinitive (eimeiv), refers to a rumour about Socrates; eiréiv itself, followed by a ét1-
clause, refers to a single utterance made by Socrates.
Expression of the Subject with Declarative Infinitives

51.20 Whenthe subject of the infinitive and the matrix verb governing it are the same
(when they are co-referential), the subject of the infinitive is not separately
expressed:
(48) Utettevov yap Sn étri Baoidéa iévon. (Xen. An. 1.3.1)
For they already suspected that they were on their way to attack the king.
(49) 4 Aooupios eis Thy yapav ... EuBoreiv dyyéAAetou. (Xen. Cyr. 5.3.30)
It is reported that the Assyrian will invade the country. Note the passive:lit.
The Assyrian is reported ....
Any predicative complements or modifiers with the subject (which must agree
with the subject) naturally also occur in the nominative (the nominative-and-
infinitive construction):
(50) GAAG onui ev Eywye, © LTaxpates, Kail AUTOS TolotTOS Eival Ciov ov U@nyi}.
(Pl. Grg. 458b)
But, Socrates, I myself too claim that Iam the sort of man youare suggesting.
Note 1: Naturally, declarative infinitives of impersonal verbs ( 36) also do not have an
explicitly expressed subject (as they have no subjectat all): so e.g. the frequent phrase oipon
Setv (+ accusative-and-infinitive) I think that it is necessary ..., with Setv representing
impersonal &ei in the indirect discourse construction dependenton oiyon.
51.21 In the vast majority of cases, the subject of a declarative infinitive is not the sameas
that of the matrix verb: in this case, the subject is separately expressed in the
accusative (accusative-and-infinitive construction):
(51) éx ToUTav Sé Tdév Aifeov Epacav Tv Trupayibsa oikoSounbivai Try év ueow TV
Topldv gotHkuiav. (Hdt. 2.126.2)
They said that the pyramid standing in the middle of the three had been built
from these stones. Hv Tupapidba ... TV... éoTnaviavis subject ofoinoSopnOFjvan;
the entire accusative-and-infinitive construction complements épacav.
(52) few vouilers TaiSa odv yaias Utro; (Eur. Her. 296)
Doyou think your son will return from beneath the earth? rraiéa odvis subject
of Hew; the entire accusative-and-infinitive construction complements voui¢eis.
Anypredicative complements or modifiers with the subject of the infinitive (which
must agree with the subject) naturally also occur in the accusative:
51.21-5 The Declarative Infinitive 593
(53) trovnpav pév onoouev oT yiyveoBai SdEav, Tovnpay Sé Kai HSovny; (Pl. Phib.
37d)
Shall we say that in this way opinion becomesbad,andthat pleasure becomes
bad as well? trovnpdv agrees with 5d av and Sovny, respectively, the subjects of
ylyveoGat.
Negatives with the Declarative Infinitive
51.22 The negative with the declarative infinitive is normally ot (as it would be in
corresponding direct statements):
(54) Kkudpous... oi... ipges oU5E Speovtes &veyovta, vopilovtes ob KabapovEivai piv
1 i¢ é >
dsotrpiov. (Hdt. 2.37.5)

Thepriests cannot bear evento see beans, believing that it is not a clean kind
of legume. Corresponding direct speech: ov uabapdév éoTi.
(55) Kai viv Sn Tivés Aéyouow ov yryvookelv Tas SiadAayas oitivés cion. (Andoc.
3.36)
And nowalready, someare saying that they do not understand whatthe point
of the treaty is. Corresponding direct speech: ob yryv@onopev.
51.23 However, pn is sometimes used with the declarative infinitive when it corresponds
to an emphatic declaration (often in oracles):
(56) trdvtes potion TO Aortrév pNdév Eivar KepSaAewtepov dpetiis. (Xen. Cyr. 7.1.18)
Everyonewill say in the future that nothing is more profitable than valour.
(57) tpeto yap 81) ei Tis Exot ein Copmtepos. dvEiAev ovv T TuGia undéva copwTEepov
eivan. (Pl. Ap. 21a)
So he asked if anyone waswiser than I am. The Pythia responded that no one
was wiser.
This useofun is fully regular with verbs such as éAtrifw expect, Umoyvéoua promise
and duvuui swear, 251.31.
51.24 Forpt) ov, T6 pi) ov, etc. with verbs of denying, 51.34-6.
Note 1: With gnui, when the verb is used to refer to an opinion/claim that somethingis not
the case, the negative most often is attached to the matrix verb (pnui) rather than the
infinitive. In other words: ot gnu = claim that not, deny that.
Tense and Aspect of Declarative Infinitives
51.25 Theinfinitive of all tense-aspect stemscan be usedas declarative infinitive: which

stem is used dependson the tense-aspect of the form that would have been used in
a corresponding direct statement(i.e. the speech or thought whichtheinfinitive
construction represents, 41.1):
(58) %pacav &RdaAAEw Tous Eeivixous Beous. (Hdt. 1.172.2)

They said that they were expelling the foreign gods. Present infinitive
éuBadArew represents present indicative énBdAAouev ( we are expelling ) from
a corresponding direct speech.
(59) toUtous 5é gaow ... Tous Tleimiotpa&tou Traidas éxBadiv. (Dem. 21.144)
They say that it is these men whoexpelled the sons of Pisistratus. Aorist
infinitive éuBadeiv represents aorist indicative ééBadov ( they expelled ) in
a corresponding direct speech.
51.26 In practice, this means that the various tense-aspect stemstypically get a relative-
tense interpretation ( >33.57):
The presentinfinitive typically expresses an action whichis simultaneous with
that of the verb of speech/belief/opinion:
(60) oi GAAo1 ToUTOV Tov ypdvov ... Z5dKouv ... TEOOKTGOBai TI. (Xen. Cyr. 4.3.3)
During that period the others seemed to be gaining something.
Corresponding direct speech: pres. ind. mpooutévtan.
Thefuture infinitive always expresses an action whichis posteriorto that of the
verb of speech/belief/opinion:
(61) ... 2yovtes... EmitrAa Kal ivdtia yuvaikeia 60a oUSeTI@TIOTE MOVTO KTIOECFaI.
(Lys. 12.19)
... having more furniture and women sclothing than they ever thought they
would get. Corresponding direct speech: fut. ind. urnodueba.
- The aorist infinitive typically expresses an action whichis anterior to that of
the verb of speech/belief/opinion:
(62) ToAu& ... Agyel ... yas ... tatta tromjoavtas ... Tiny Trap& Tr&ow
av@patrois KtHoaoGa. (Lys. 14.32-3)
He has the temerity to claim that you, by doing these things, have won
recognition among all men. Corresponding direct speech: aor. ind.
EnTHoavto/entnoaode.
- The perfect infinitive typically expresses a state (or lasting effects), simulta-
neous with that of the verb of speech/belief/opinion, resulting from a previous,
completed action:
(63) Kai yap T& Optpou o paowén travTa KeKTijoGa1. (Xen. Mem. 4.2.10)
And in fact, they tell me that you possess a complete copy of Homer.
Corresponding direct speech: pf. ind. uéutnoa.
Note 1: There are occasional exceptions to the relative-tense interpretation outlined above
(also 33.58-62): in particular, the present declarative infinitive is sometimes usedto refer
to habitual actions preceding the verb of speech/belief/opinion - i.e. when direct speech
would have the imperfect:
51.26-7 The Declarative Infinitive 595
(64) Kai Tous él THv Tpoydvoov fhudv A yovtas GkOUW ... TOUTM TH ée1.. . xoTjoFan. (Dem.
3.21)
And as a matteroffact, I hear that speakers wholived at the time of our forebears used
this custom. Corresponding direct speech: impf. éxypévto; the action referred to by
xpijoGais anterior to that of dxovw. This interpretation is required given the presence
of the temporal modifier émi tv poydvesv, which refers to the past.
Similarly, the perfect infinitive may be used when direct speech would havethe pluperfect.
&v with the Declarative Infinitive
51.27. The declarative infinitive may be modified by &v, and then has a potential sense
(corresponding to a potential optative, 34.13) or a counterfactual sense (corre-
sponding to a counterfactual modal indicative, >34.16):
(65) oipar dv o¢ tatita Siatrpagdpevov &trotrAiv, ci BouAono. (Xen. Hell. 3.4.5.)
I think that you could sail off having accomplished these things, should you
wantto. av... dtromrAeiv represents dtromrAéors &v (potential opt. + &v) in direct
speech (note the potential conditional clause «i BovAoto).
(66) Kai trd0a dv Sn ole: por ypTaTa Eival, ci OUVEAEyOV ypUciov Hotrep oU
KeAeveis; (Xen. Cyr. 8.2.16)
And how much moneydo you think I would havealready,if I were amassing
gold as you're telling me to do? (But Im not.) av ... eivai represents hv av
(counterfactual ind. + &v) in direct speech (note the counterfactual conditional
clause ei ouvédeyov).
Note 1: In the absenceof explicit clues like the conditional clauses in (65) and (66), context
must determine whether &v + declarative inf. represents a potential or a counterfactual
construction:
(67) of 5 Axapvaves H iouv AnuooSevn ... dtroteixilery avTtoUs, vopilovTes Padins y dv

KTOALOPK7jOal Kal TOAEWS aiel o~ion TOAEuias GtraAAayfvai. (Thuc. 3.94.2)
The Acarnanians urged Demosthenesto build a wall around them (the Leucadians),
believing that they mighteasily win the place bysiege, and berid ofa city continually
hostile to them. av éxtroAiopxijoa nai... atraddAayivai can in this case only represent
potential éxtrodiopujoamev dv and étraAdayeiev av we may easily win the city by siege ,
we may be rid ; a counterfactual interpretation is impossible.
Note 2: Note that the tense-aspect stem of the infinitive is identical to that of the direct speechit
represents: in (65) present-stem dtromAeiv represents present optative d&tromrAéors, in (66)
present-stem civoi represents imperfect (ie. present-stem) fv, in (67) the aorist infinitives
éxtroAlopkfjoa: and dtaAAayfivoi represent aorist optatives éxtroAilopKyjoapev and
aTraAAay ipev.
Verbs Taking Both Constructions

51.28 A number of verbs can be followed either by a dynamic or by a declarative
infinitive. With such verbs, there is a distinction in meaning between the two
constructions (the verbs belong to different classes depending on how they are
construed). The most important onesare given below.
Note 1: For verbs which may be construed with an infinitive or a participle, +52.22-7.
51.29 YlyVvooKw:
with a declarative inf. = judge that (verb of opinion);
with a dynamic inf. = resolve to, decide to (desiderative verb):
(68) éyvwoay oi Trapayevouevol ZtrapTintéwv Apiotdédnyov ... pya dtrodeEaobar
yeydAa. (Hdt. 9.71.3)
The Spartiates that were there judged that Aristodemus had achieved great
feats. Declarative aorist infinitive; corresponding direct speech: dtre5éEato.
(69) oi Sé Kupaton Eyvwoav oupBouaris Trépi és Bedv dvoiomTov év BepayxidSqor. (Hdt.
1.157.3)
The Cymaeansresolved to appeal to the god at Branchidae as to what counsel
they should take. Dynamic aoristinfinitive.
Note 1: For yryva@oxew + ppl. realize that (and other possible constructions), 52.24 n.2.
51.30 SoKEW:
as an impersonalverb (Soxei/50 e/Se5oxta1), with a dynamic infinitive (and

a dative complement) = it seems good to (someone) to (do something) > it is
resolved/decided; someone(dat.) decides to (do something) (desiderative verb);
as a verb with personal forms (e.g. 50x), with a declarative infinitive (and
a dative complement) = seem (to someone) to > someonethinks that ... (verb of
(engendering) belief);
as a verb with personal forms (e.g. 50x), with a declarative (accusative and)
infinitive = think, deem (verbofbelief):
(70) toio1 8 otpatnyoion émiAefapevoio: TO BuBAiov ... 0k pt) KataAéea
Tipdfeivov trpodooin. (Hdt. 8.128.3)
The generals, having read the letter, decided not to condemn Timoxenuswith
the charge of treason. Impersonal verb with dative complement (roior
otpatnyoio!) and a dynamic infinitive (natatrAéai): note the negative un
andthe aspectual interpretation of the aorist stem.
51.30-2 Verbs Taking Both Constructions 597
(71) ei pév dod coi Taeiv Sox ... (Eur. Hec. 788)
If you think that I (lit. if I seem to you to ) have experienced things that are
sanctioned by the gods ... Personal form with a dative complement and
a declarative infinitive. Corresponding direct speech: étraov.
(72) ..., Thy yw... | otx &y Trot és ToooUTOV aixias Trecetv | 2608. (Soph. OC
747-9)
., of whom I thought that she could neverfall to such a depth of misery.
50 (a) is a personal form with a declarative accusative-and-infinitive.
Corresponding direct speech: ovx &v tréoo1. Note the negative ovx and the use
of &v (potential). For the relative pronoun trv, >28.31.
51.31 éAtrifw hope, expect, UTroxvéopar promise and dyvupi swear, state under oath are
followed:
- regularly, by a declarative infinitive - most often with the future infinitive:
éAtrileo = expect that (verb ofbelief), Umioyvéoua = promise that (declarative
utterance verb), duvumi = swearthat (declarative utterance verb);
sometimes, by a dynamicinfinitive - only whenthe subjectsof the infinitive and
matrix verb are co-referential (51.10): éAtrilo = expect, plan to (desiderative
verb), Utricyvéouat = promise to (desiderative/manipulative verb), déuvup =
swearto (desiderative/manipulative verb).
Either way, the infinitive with these verbs always has negative pn:
(73) ... AmriJev Tov Gedv UGAASdV TI TOUTOIOI &voKTioeoGa1. (Hdt. 1.50.1)
... expecting that with such things he would win the god over even more.
Declarative future infinitive.
(74) 16 Pryiov HATrICov TreZf Te Kai Vauoiv Epoppotvtes Padins yelp~oacba. (Thuc.
4.24.4)
They expected to capture Rhegium without difficulty, investing it both by
land and by sea. Dynamic aoristinfinitive.
(75) Utrioyvotvto undév yareTrov attoUs TreiceoGan. (Xen. Hell. 4.4.5)
They promised that they would suffer no harm. Declarative future infinitive;
note the negative.
Note 1: Observethat if such a verb is followed by an accusative-and-infinitive construction,

it must be interpreted as a declarative infinitive:
(76) dyvuow ... | pt Teatro dpEivov ern ToUTOV KapwdiKe undév &koGoo (Ar. Vesp.
1046-7)
He swears. .. that no onehasever heard any comicpoetry better than that. Declarative
aorist infinitive.
51.32 Several verbs of speaking(i.e. declarative utterance verbs), especially A¢yw/eitrov,

but normally not pnyi, can also be construed as verbs of commanding (i.e.
manipulative verbs) with a dynamic infinitive: thus A¢yo + declarative inf. or 611/
os-clause = say that; A¢yw + dat. + dynamic inf. = tell (someone) to.
(77) toutois EAeyov TrAciv Thy Taxiotnv ém EAAnotrévtou. (Dem. 19.150)
I told them to sail for the Hellespont as quickly as possible.
(78) citrov undéva té&v StrioGev KiveioBan. (Xen. Cyr. 2.2.8)
I gave instructions that no one of those behind should make a move.undéva
(note the negative with a dynamic infinitive) is subject-accusative of uveio@an
(the person to whom the command was addressed would have been expressed
in the dative).
To this group also belongs trei®w + acc. + declarative (accusative and) infinitive =
convince someonethat (somethingis the case) (declarative utterance verb); trei®w +
acc. + dynamic infinitive = persuade someone to (do something) (manipulative
verb):
(79) oi 5& Tot Shou trpcotdétai Teifoucw avTov TrévTE LEV vats THY atTOU ogicl
KATOAITEIV ..., Ioas SE AUTO! TANP@OOVTES Ek OMAV atTHvV EuutTrenwerv. (Thuc.
3.75.2)
The leaders of the people persuaded him to leave them five of his ships and
they convinced him that they on their part would man andsend with him an
equal number of their own ships. In this unusual example, treiQovowis
followed first by a dynamic infinitive (uatadameiv), and then immediately by
a declarative (nominative-plus-)infinitive (avToi... EyuTréupeiv; corresponding
direct speech: Euptréupopev).
51.33. tAAw be about/going/likely to, plan to, wait to, delay may be construed with:
a future infinitive (very regularly):
(80) peAAw ... Uds SiddEeiv Sev por T] SiaPoAn yéyovev. (Pl. Ap. 21b)
I am goingto tell you what the source of the prejudice against meis.
(81) LopoKAéa Se... Etri THv TrAEldveov vedv actrotréeuweEvEAAov. (Thuc. 3.115.5)
As for Sophocles, they were going to send him out with the main bodyofthe
fleet.
a dynamic infinitive (uéAAw + pres. inf. is common, and means be aboutto;
WeéAAw + aor. inf. is rare, and normally has a connotation of inevitability - be
doomedto):
(82) XKdtre1 5é 6 peAAw A yerv. :: A ye, Eon. (Pl. Resp. 473c)
Examine what I am aboutto say. :: "Go ahead andspeak, hesaid.
(83) Kal év TH TrapdvTi Kaipd, as Sn EuEAAov ETA KIVoUVEov GAANAOUS &ctroArTrEiv,
UaAAOV atToUS éotjel TH Seve 7 STE EyNQilovTo TrAciv. (Thuc. 6.31.1)
Andin the present moment, when they were set to leave each other amidst
their dangers, the magnitudeof it entered upon them more than when they
had been votingtosail.
51.34-5 The Infinitive with Verbs of Preventing and Denying 599
The Infinitive with Verbs of Preventing and Denying

51.34 Some commonverbs meaning prevent , hinder , forbid , abstain from , etc. and
verbs meaning dispute , deny ,etc.are:
Preventing/hindering/abstaining/etc. Denying/disputing/etc.
é&vaRaAropan delay avTiAgyoo/dvteitrov contradict, dispute
aTrayopevoo forbid é&uqioByntéw dispute
&treitrov (no present) forbid (atr-/2 -/Kat-)&pvéouar deny
&TrEXONO refrain/abstain from % apvds eipn deny
QTTEXO prevent
eipyu prevent, cut offfrom
OUK Edo forbid
PUAGTTOLON beware of
Note 1: For kwAuw prevent, hinder and trauvw prevent, hinder, 51.36 n.1.
Note 2: Another commonconstruction meaning deny is ot gnusay that not, deny that
( 51.24 n.1); this is, however, not construed accordingto the rules given below, but always
with a declarative (accusative and) infinitive.
51.35 The most common construction with such verbs is pH + infinitive (verbs of
preventing, hindering, etc.: + dynamic infinitive; verbs of denying, etc.: + declara-
tive infinitive). The negative in Greek conveys the not-occurring of the action (in
being prevented or denied); in English translation, uy normally cannot be trans-
lated as a negative:
(84) GAA dtrayopetw pt) Troietv ExKAnotav| Tois Opaéi trepi pioBod. (Ar. Ach. 169-70)
But I forbid having a meeting of parliament about paying wages to the
Thracians. Dynamic infinitive.
(85) tov votv T dtreipyel pt) Agyew & PouAetan. (Eur. fr. 88a Kannicht)
He prevents his mind from speaking what it wants. Dynamicinfinitive.
(86) ors, 7) KaTapva ut) SeSpaxevan T&S; (Soph. Ant. 442)
Do you admit or do you deny that you are responsible for these acts?
Declarative infinitive.
Whena verb ofpreventing, hindering or denyingis itself negated,it is followed by
yt) ov (neither negative can be translated as such):
(87) otK &v ToT Eoyov ov THS EEertreiv Tratpi. (Eur. Hipp. 658)
I would never have refrained from divulging this to my father. Dynamic
infinitive; negated verb ofpreventing.
(88) td&v 5 ppatépeov ovdeis dvteitrev OVS HuMeoPrTHOE pt OUK GANS TadTa Eivan.
(Isae. 8.19)
No one of the phratry denied or disputed that these things were true.
Declarative infinitive; negated verb of denying.
51.36 Someotherconstructions that are more or less commonwith suchverbs:

toy) + infinitive, or, when the matrix verbitself is negated, 16 uy ot + inf. (for
the article, 51.38-9):
(89) Kai hudv oi TOAAO! ... olol Te Hoav KaTeyelv TO ET) SaKkpUverv, os SE... (Pl. Phd.
117c)
And mostof us had been able to refrain from crying, but when ...
(90) éxdutraoe, | und &v Td oeuvov Up viv cipyabeiv Aids | TO pt) ov .. . EAetv TAI.
(Eur. Phoen. 1174-6)
He boasted that not even the holy flame of Zeus could prevent him from
taking thecity.
- similarly, in the genitive, tod pH or Tot pH ov + inf.:
(91) mas yap &oKds BU Gvbpas EEe1 TOU pr KaTAdGvan. (Xen. An. 3.5.11)
For each wineskin will prevent two men from going under.
sometimes, with dote pH + inf.:
(92) ci ugAAoipev ToUTOUS clpyelv Hote Ut) SUvacbar BAdtTEW Huds TropeuOevoUS...
(Xen. An. 3.3.16)
If we should plan to prevent them from being able (lit. so that they are
unable ) to harm us on our way ... For the redundant use of dote, 351.17.
sometimes, with a bare infinitive (i.e. without yu):
(93) dAtyous étri OAUVGou a&troTreutrouol, Stres eipywor Tous éxeibev EmmPonPeiv.
(Thuc. 1.62.4)
They sent a few men to Olynthus,to prevent the people there from coming to
aid.
Note 1: The verbs xwAvw prevent, hinder and tratw prevent, hinder are usually construed
with a bare infinitive - observe that tat is much more frequently construed as a phase
verb with a participle (make someone stop doing something; >52.9):
(94) yxd&prv 8 S0Gven thvde KwAver ti os; (Eur. IT 507)
Whathinders you from giving me this favour?
(95) paywdous Etravoe év Tikudv1 &ywvileoGoai T&v Ounpeioov étéeivexa. (Hdt. 5.67.1)
He prevented rhapsodes from holding contests at Sicyon because of the Homeric
poems.
The Construction of Verbs of Hindering/Preventing with Other Verbs
51.37. Several verbs (or nouns/adjectives), which are by themselves not verbs of hinder-
ing or preventing, have meanings very similar to such verbs when followed by
ut) + dynamic infinitive: e.g. Suvopor py + inf. be able not to is similar in sense to
abstainfrom. Accordingly, thereis a great deal of overlap between the construction
of verbs of hindering/denying and other verbs followed by un.
51.37-8 The Articular Infinitive 601
In particular, when such a matrix verbis itself negated, the negative with the
dynamic infinitive is frequently pn ov (one of these negatives must often be
translated):
(96) oteis olds T éotiv GAAws Aéyoov Ut) OU KaTayéAaoTos eivan. (Pl. Grg. 509a)
No oneis able not to sound ridiculous when claiming otherwise.
(97) éya pév 51) Katavodyv Tot d&vbpds Try Te cogiav Kal Thy yevvardTnta ouvTE pt)
uEepvijobor SUvapoar avto oUTE WEUVTLEVOS LT) OUK Etraiveiv. (Xen. Ap. 34)
WhenI consider the man s wisdom andnobility, I cannot help but remember
him, and praise him when I rememberhim (lit. Tam not able notto praise him ).
Note 1: The use of 7 ot in such cases is by no meansconsistent: bare un is often found after
a negated matrix verb:
(98) otto1 pd Thy Anuntpa Suvouor un yeAav. (Ar. Ran. 42)
By Demeter, I can t help laughing(Jit. I am not able not to laugh )!
Also note pt peuvijo@on (not pt ot ueuvijo6an) in (97).
Note 2: Thealternative constructions given abovealso occur, e.g. 16 yt) ov:
(99) KxovSeis yé w &v Treloeiev avOpatreov TO pT) OUK | EABetv ett éxeivov. (Ar. Ran. 68-9)
And noone could persuade me notto go to him.
The Articular Infinitive
Introduction
51.38 The neuter singular article, functioning as a substantivizer ( 28.23-5), may be

added to an infinitive, turning it, together with its complements/modifiers, into
(the head of) a noun phrase. This is called the articular infinitive.
Thearticular infinitive can appearin anycase, but only the article changes form:
.g. TO TALdEVELV, TOU TAlSEVElV, TH TALdEVELV, TO TrAlSEvEv.
Note 1: The articular infinitive is often best translated into English by a gerund, e.g. 1d
traideverv educating. For other possible translations, see of the examples below.
Note2: Articular infinitives, although substantivized, retain all their verbal characteristics.
For instance:
they have voice and tense-aspect; for details, +51.44 5;

they can take objects/complements in the case normally required by the verb: contrast e.g.
TO TOISas Tradeverv educating children (object, acc.) with h traiSwv traideuois the education
of children (objective gen.); for the expression of subjects with articular infinitives, 51.
40-1;
- they can be modified by adverbs: e.g. 16 Kad&s Traidevew educating well.
51.39 Thearticular infinitive can be used like any other noun phrase,i.e. as a subject,
object, or complement of verbs; as an attributive modifier (in the genitive); to
complementprepositions; etc. For example:
(100) otx d&pa 16 yaipetv éotiv ev pdtterv. (Pl. Grg. 497a)
So enjoying oneself is not to fare well. Nominative as subject of éotiv.
(101) ... 16 Civ trepi TrAkiovos Trornodpevol Tot KaAds atrofaveiv. (Andoc. 1.57)
... placing a higher value on living than on dying well. To Civ is accusative
as object of tromoduevol, Tou ... atrobaveiv genitive of comparison after
TrAEiovos.
(102) troAA& 8 &v Tis yor...r1SerkvUvan onpeta Tou ToUTOV ouKogavteiv. (Dem.
36.12)
One could show many proofs that this man is committing slander.
Accusative-and-infinitive construction ( 51.41) in the genitive, as attribu-
tive modifier of onueia.
(103) ot Alav éywye eya Epyov eivar vopileo TO KaTnyopeiv. (Aeschin. 1.44)
I do not consider the accusation to be too great a task. Accusative as subject
of eivan.
For an overview of some particularly frequent uses of the articular infinitive,
51.46.
Expression of Subjects with Articular Infinitives

51.40 Articular infinitives are regularly expressed without a subject:
- to refer to an action in general (ie. when no specific subject is intended): cf.
examples (100), (101) and (103) above;
whenthesubject of the infinitive is identical to a constituent of the matrix clause
(typically the subject):
(104) Kai thy Oetw y Eynue Sia TO owopoveiv 6 TinAeus. (Ar. Nub. 1067)
And Peleus married Thetis on account of his being prudent. Peleus (the
subject of the matrix clause) is understood as the subject of owppoveiv.
In this case any predicative modifiers/complementstake the case of the relevant
constituent in the matrix clause (typically the nominative):
(105) &x tot mpdtepos Agyeiv 6 SiaKeov ioyver. (Dem. 18.7)
The prosecutor is strong due to his being the first to speak. Nominative
Tpotepos agrees with 6 SicdHoov.
51.41 In somecases the infinitive has its own subject, which is expressed in the
accusative (accusative-and-infinitive construction); any predicative modifiers/
complements naturally also occur in the accusative:
51.41-5 The Articular Infinitive 603
(106) nipioxov otSév usciov Aaxedanpoviois 7) ogiow ayafdov tO Apxddas yt)

Tpocdeiobai OnBaicv. (Xen. Hell. 7.4.2)
They found that it was noless a benefit for the Spartans than for themselves
that the Arcadians should not require the help of the Thebans.
The accusative Apuddas is subject of mpoodeioGa. For ogiow, 29.18.
(107) Koi émmBSedelyboo ... yaAeTrOv Sv TO TOAW EVVOHOV yiyveo@au. (Pl. Leg. 712a)
And let it count as proven that it is difficult for a city to become well-
governed. The accusative m1éAwis subject of yiyveoO@a, the predicative com-
plement etvoyov agrees with m1rdéAw(etvouos is of two endings, 5.7-10).
Negative with the Articular Infinitive
51.42 The negative with the articular infinitive is yn:

(108) 16 ur KaKa&ds ppoveiv | F200 péyioTov SaHpov. (Aesch. Ag. 927-8)
Not to have one s mindgoastrayis the greatest gift from the god.
(109) ... tod pt) Avew Evexa Tas oTrovdds. (Thuc. 1.45.3)
... for the sake of not breaking thetreaty.
51.43 For to ph (ov) + inf. and tod un (ot) + inf. after verbs of preventing, hindering or
denying, 51.36.
Tense and Aspect of Articular Infinitives
51.44 In the articular use, like in the dynamic use, the difference between present and
aorist infinitives is often purely aspectual:
(110) ... eidétes ... év TH troifjom Thy TWdAW evdSaiyova ToUs ypnoTtoUs Tv
Trovnpav Siapépovtas ... (Isoc. 8.122)
... knowing that good (leaders) differ from bad ones in making the city
prosperous...
(111) tis otK ofS ... Tots pév SNYoTIKOUs KaAoUUEVOUS ETOILOUS SvTAas dTIOUV
TAHOE UTEP TOU LT) Troleiv TO TIPOoTaTTdHEVOV. (Isoc. 7.64)
Whois unawarethat the people's party , as it was called, was readyto suffer
anything for the sake of not doing what was ordered?
In (110), 16 troifjoan (aor.) expresses the action ofmaking the city prosperous as
a complete whole (i.e. without reference to its process); the overall evaluation of
good leadership depends on leaders having this trait or not. In (111), U1rép Tov...
Trogiv (pres.) expresses an ongoing, consistent posture of defiance.
51.45 However, whenanarticular infinitive is used to refer to an action whichis actually
taking place or has actually taken place(at a specific time and place), the tense-aspect
stem ofthe infinitive often also leads to an interpretation of relative tense ( 33.57):
- the aorist infinitive typically expresses actions anterior to the action of the
matrix clause;
the present infinitive typically expresses actions simultaneous with the matrix
clause:
(112) ... TO T&v TrapBéveav ... uvijya, af Agyovtar Sid TO Piacbijver Ud
Aaxedaipoviov TIvav &troKteivai éxutas. (Xen. Hell. 6.4.7)
... the memorial for the maidens, of whom it is said that they killed
themselves on account of their having been raped by some Spartans.
The aoristinfinitive in to BiaoGAvanrefers to an action preceding the maidens
suicide.
(113) oby oidv Téotiv eitreiv TotTOV Tdv Adyov, as HEIs UEv S1& TO SNOKpaTEio#ar
KaKas éypnodyeta tois todyyaorv.(Isoc. 8.95)
The following claim cannot be made, that we managedouraffairs poorly on
account of our having a democratic constitution. The present infinitive in To
Snuoupateiobai refers to an ongoingform ofgovernment, simultaneous with
exypnoapeta.
Frequent Uses of the Articular Infinitive
51.46 Thearticular infinitive, as noted above, can be used like any other noun phrase(as
subject, object, etc.). It occurs particularly often in the following uses:
the dative of the articular infinitive and 51a To + infinitive are frequently used
as instrumental or causal modifiers:
(114) thy dvoiav et oégpew | TH cwgpoveiv vikdoa Tpouvonodunyv. (Eur. Hipp.
398-9)
Myintention was to bear this madness nobly, overcoming it by means of
self-control.
(115) yodetréds 5é atTtois Sie TO aici ciwPEvai TOUS TIOAAOUs év ToIs &ypois SiaiT&oba1
t avdotaois éyiyveto. (Thuc. 2.14.2)
But because most of them had been used to living in the fields, their
evacuation grieved them.
the genitive of the articular infinitive, especially with the negative(i.e. tot pn +
inf.), is sometimes used with purpose value:
(116) étetyio@n 5é Kai AtoAdvtn ... Tod ut) AnoTds ... Kakoupyeiv tiv EtBoiav.
(Thuc.2.32)
Atalanta, too, wasfortified, so that pirates could not plunder Euboea.
for Td ph (ot) + inf. and tot yh (od) + inf. after verbs of preventing, hindering or
denying, 51.36.
51.47-9 Other Uses of the Infinitive 605
Other Uses of the Infinitive
51.47 Theinfinitive is occasionally used independently in commands(the imperatival

infinitive):
(117) oW 8 por étri thy EAAGSa otpateveoban. (Hdt. 3.134.5)
You must undertake an expedition against Greece.
For details, 38.37.
51.48 Theinfinitive is infrequently used in exclamations:

(118) tis uopias, | tov Aia vopiZew Svta tnAikoutovi. (Ar. Nub. 818-19)
What madness! Tobelieve in Zeus, at your age!
For details, 38.51.
51.49 Finally, the infinitive is used in some idiomatic expressions, for instance:
aos (étros) eitteiv so to say, if I may use this expression,as it were,
practically (often with forms of 1é&s, practically
everyone, ovdeis, practically no one )
(cos) ouveAdvti eitreiv in short, to be brief, to cut to the chase, if I may be
brief
TO OUUTIOV EiTTEV in short, in any case
dAiyou Seiv almost, practically
ENOL SOKEIV it seems to me
Os eikcool it seems/appears, so far as one might guess
EKOEval voluntarily, willingly, intentionally
TO vuv given for the time being
In each of these expressions,the infinitive is used absolutely, i.e. not dependent on
a verb, adjective,etc.:
(119) 2AaBe éx Beot véueois ueydAn Kpoiocov, ws cikdoa, 571 évduice EWUTOV Eival
é&vOpatrav atrdvtev dABiotatov. (Hdt. 1.34.1)
A great vengeance from the godfell on Croesus, so far as one might guess,
because he considered himself to be most blessed of all men.
(120) tétre1opan éyo Exoov eivar undéva &Sikeiv d&vOparroov. (Pl. Ap. 37a)
I am convinced that I do not wrong anyoneintentionally.
32
The Participle
Introduction
Basic Properties; Main Uses
52.1 Participles are verbal adjectives:

theyare like adjectives in that they are marked for case, numberand gender, and
follow the rules of agreement ( 27.7);
they are like verbsin that they are markedfor tense-aspect and voice, and may be
construed with an object, complement, etc.; modified by adverbs;etc.
Note 1: For verbal adjectives in -tés or -té0s, 37.
52.2 The uses of participles may be grouped underthree headings:

Supplementary ( 52.8 28): the participle is used as an obligatory constituent
with verbs:
(1) dSAnv &8ikdv pavioetaa Thy dA. (Dem.24.29)
He will prove to be doing wrongto the city as a whole. 6Anv Gdindv ... tHhv
TéAwis a complement of pavrjoetan.
- Circumstantial ( 52.29 45): the participle is added as an optional constituent
to clauses to express a circumstance, cause, condition, motivation, purpose, etc.
It either agrees with a constituent of the clause (connected use) or is added with
its own subject in the genitive (genitive absolute):
(2) pidos ... EBowvAETo Eivan Tois peyiota SuvapEevoris, iva &SiKdv pr S150in Siknv.
(Xen. An. 2.6.26)
He wantedto befriend those who yielded most power, so that he would not be
punished if he did wrong. ddindv is a predicative modifier agreeing with the
subject of 5:150in ( he ): it can be left out without making the clause iva un 515o0in
Sinnv ungrammatical. It expresses a condition ( if).
(3) adtoi 8 ot SUvavtal... houyiav &yeiv obSevds atTOUs &SiKoUvTos. (Dem. 8.67)
They themselves cannot keep quiet, even though no one is wronging them.
oudevos avtous adinotvtos is an optional constituent added in the genitive
absolute construction (for details, 52.32), expressing a concession ( even
though ).
- Attributive/substantival ( 52.46- 50): the participle is used, normally with

the article, in noun phrases, as modifier (attributive use) or head (substantival
use):
(4) ... Bonfeiv tats dSixouuevais TdAco1. (Xen. Hell. 6.3.18)
... to help the cities that were being wronged.Attributive: modifier with tais
TrOAeo1.
(5) tiptos ... 6 undév &dixddv (PI. Leg. 730d)
The man who does no wrong is honourable. Substantival: used as head of
a nounphrase.
Additionally, the participle is used in various periphrastic constructions. For
these, >52.51-3 below.
Placementof Participles
52.3 Both circumstantial participles and supplementary participles occur in predi-

cative position relative to any (head) noun with which they agree; attributive
participles naturally occur in attributive position ( 28.11):
(6) dpdvtes ... TOUS EauTav itrtréas peVyovtas (Xen. An. 4.3.23)
seeing that their own cavalry was fleeing ... Supplementary participle, pre-
dicative position.
(7) ote oi reCoi Tous trelous éx TIOAAOU geVyovTas E5UvavTo KaTaAapBdaverv. (Xen.
An.3.3.9)
The infantry could not overtake the (enemy's) infantry either, because it
had a head start in their flight. Circumstantial participle, predicative
position.
(8) tous SovAous TrapéAucev | ToUs pevyovtas. (Ar. Pax 742-3)
Hecut loose the slaves who run away. Attributive participle, attributive position.
Tense/Aspect and Mood of Participles
52.4 Each of the tense-aspect stemshas its own participle: the difference between the
stems is aspectual (except for the future stem). In the case of the participle, these
aspectual differences lead to a relative-tense interpretation in a large majority of
cases (33.57):
The present participle typically expresses an action simultaneouswith that of
the matrix verb:
(9) tatta ypdquwv Evvopa ... Zypawya. (Dem. 7.25)
In writing those things I wrote things that were lawful.
The aorist participle usually expresses an action anterior to that ofthe matrix verb:
608 52.4-5 The Participle
(10) xév S ATou TrIuyois | ypawas etrepwo TrPds S&uapTa Try gun. (Eur. [A 98-9)
After writing (a message) on a foldedtablet, I sent it to my wife.
- The perfect participle typically refers to a state (or lasting effects), simulta-
neous with the matrix verb, resulting from a previously completed action:
(11) Urravéyve To pihgiopa 6 yeypagas atitos hv. (Aeschin. 2.109)
He read aloud the motion of which he himself was the author. Being the
authorof somethingis the state that results from writing it.
- The future participle always has a relative-tense interpretation, referring to an
action posterior to that of the matrix verb:
(12) oSétre ... SiAos Ty ... exetvos Tor1ntta ypawov. (Dem. 19.236)
It was notyet clear that that man was going to draft such proposals.
Forthe use of the future participle to express purpose, 52.41.
52.5 Although the relative-tense interpretation of the stems of the participle outlined
above is usually valid, there are numerous exceptions. In such cases, a different
interpretation of a certain tense-aspect stem takes precedenceover(oris presentin
addition to) the conventional relative-tense interpretation:
- Theaorist participle is not infrequently used to refer to an action which does
not precede, but coincides with the action of the matrix verb (so-called coin-
cident aorist participle); the aorist is then used to refer to the action in its
entirety (33.6). This is especially frequent with circumstantial participles used
as a modifier of manner ( >52.42):
(13) YdAcv Sé oUSév UTrOBwTEVTAS, GAAG TH EdVTI YONOGUEVOS Adyel-.. . (Hdt. 1.30.3)
But Solon, notflattering him in any way, but relying on thetruth,said: ...
The flattering and truth-using have not ended before Solon s utterance, but
coincide withit.
(14) Soxei poi Tis OK Gv Guaptetv eitrav ST1... (Dem. 25.6)
It seems to me that someone would not be mistaken in saying that .. . eirabv
and (av) &uapteiv coincide.
(15) xtevd yap attov ... | owas &SeAQav Kai Tatpds AaBoto guov. (Eur. Tro.
359-60)
ForI shall kill him, exacting revenge for my brothers and my father. AacBovo(a)
coincides with utevd; the aorist participle here expresses the effect of the matrix
verb.
- The aorist participle of atelic verbs may also have an ingressive or complexive
interpretation ( 33.29-30):
(16) Kai 6 loydpaxos yeAdoas eitrev- AAAG trailers ev oUYye, pn, & DaKpates. (Xen.
Oec. 17.10)
And Ischomachus burst out laughing andsaid: But you're being playful,
Socrates. Ingressive interpretation.
(17) té&v 8éudv trpoydveov &koUw Tov TPdToV BacieUoavta &ya Te Bacirga Kai
éAeUBepov yevéo@ar. (Xen. Cyr. 7.2.24)
I am told that the first of my ancestors to have been king was both a king and
a free man. Complexive interpretation: BaoiAevoavta refers to the kingship in
its entirety. An ingressive interpretation ( the first ... to have become king )
would also be possible.
A present participle may be used to refer to an ongoing, habitual or repeated
action (33.11) preceding the action of the matrix verb; the present participle in
such cases is sometimescalled an imperfect participle . An explicit indication of
anteriority is usually present:
(18) ... Bote MiAos hutv ovSeis AcAciwetoan, AAG Kal oi TrpdoGev SvTEs TrOAguIO1 Huiv
goovta. (Xen. An. 2.4.5)
... SO that we will have no friend left, but even those who were ourfriends
before will be hostile to us. Attributive dvtes is anterior to goovtan; this
interpretation is forced by mpdoéev.
(19) oi Kopiv6io: péyp1 ToUTOU TrPOBUEws TPdoOOVTES avEICAY Tis MIAoVIKias Kal
appadnoav. (Thuc. 5.32.4)
The Corinthians, although they had acted with zeal up to this point, now
slackened in their desire for victory and became anxious. 1pdooovtes is
anterior to dveioav and appwdnoay, as is made clear by yéxpi ToUTOU.
(20) thy yap xopav oi atToi aiel oikotvTes SiadoyFj Tv Etrrylyvouevoov pEXp1 TOUSE
éAcufgpav 81 apethv trapgdooav. (Thuc. 2.36.1)
For those samepeople, who dwelt in the country continuously, passedit on in
freedom, on account of their valour, handing it over from generation to
generation until the present time. yéyor TodSe makesit clear that oi oinotvtes
refers to several generations in the past; note the distributive use of aiei,
referring to those who dwelt in the land on each given occasion.
Present participles of telic verbs mayalso have a conative interpretation, or an
interpretation as a resultative present ( 33.17-18):
(21) uot 1 éxSiSdvtos Tov TraiSa ... Bacavilev ... ovK HOEANCE TrapadAcPeiv.
(Dem. 29.18)
And when I offered my slave for torture, he did not want to accept him.
Conative interpretation: the speaker attempts to give up his slave butis rebuffed.
(22) étreiSt) Euabe A&troAwAdTas Tous Mépoas Kal vikOvtas Tous EAAnvas, ... (Hdt.
9.76.1)
Whenshelearned that the Persians had perished and that the Greeks had
won, ... Resultative present; note that vindévtas is used in conjunction with the
perfect participle dtroAwAdtas.
For the aspectual values of supplementary participles following verbs of percep-
tion, >52.18-21.
52.6 Just as the tense expressed bya participle is, as outlined above, normally relative to the matrix
verb, the modality (in a broad sense)of a participleis also usually (if not always)relative to the
matrix verb:
(23) iSou-: AaPoov éxTr161 Kal pndév Aitrns. (Eur. Cyc. 570)
Here you go: take it and drink up, and don t leave anything. The matrix verb is an
imperative, and the mood expressed by the circumstantial participle AaBav depends onit:
AaBav is part of the command. For the translation with a main verb (in this case an
imperative), cf. (99) below.
(24) ut) ov Uotepov ToUTo yvaTe, &vaitidv pe SvTa &troAgoavtes. (Antiph. 5.71)
Do not, then, discover later that you have destroyed me even though I was innocent.
atrodéoavtes is supplementary to un yvdte, and as such expresses a hypothetical discovery,
one which the speaker implores the judges not to have to make. Whenhe says this, the
judges have obviously not destroyed him yet by returning a guilty verdict.
Also cf. (29) and (109) below.
av with Participles
52.7 The participle (in any of its uses) may be joined with &v, and then has the force either of
a potential optative (34.13) or a counterfactual indicative ( 34.16):
(25) Kai 6pav To Tapateiyiopa THV Zupakooiov ... PASias av ... Angbev ... (Thuc. 7.42.4)
Andseeingthat the fortification of the Syracusans mighteasily be taken .. . dv Anpéévis
supplementary with épav, and represents AnpOein dv (potential opt. + dv). For more on
supplementary participles + &v, 52.10 n.1.
(26) TotetSaiav ... éAcdv Kal SuvnGeis av atTos Exeiv, eltrep EBouATOn, TrapéSwxev. (Dem.
23.107)
Having taken Potidaea, and even though he would havebeen able to keep it by himself,
had he wantedto, he gave it up. SuvnGeis &v is circumstantial, and represents é5uvij0n &v
(counterfactual ind. + dv).
The Supplementary Participle
Introduction; Verbs Taking a Supplementary Participle
52.8 Theuse ofthe supplementary participle can be broadly divided into three categories:
to complementverbs expressing direct sensory perception ( see , hear ), verbs
expressing somephase of an action ( begin , continue , stop ) and verbs mean-
ing to endure , persist , etc.;
to complement verbs meaning know, recognize , make clear , etc. and verbs
that express an emotionalstate ( be glad , regret , etc.);
- to complement a few verbs that express a certain mannerof being or acting
(tuyxdve happen to, Aav dven be hidden, p8avw anticipate).
52.8 The Supplementary Participle 611
The supplementary participles with the first and second of these groups are
different in nature (51.3 for a similar distinction between the dynamic and
declarative infinitive):
with thefirst group, the participle expresses an action,the realization of whichis
seen, heard, stopped, begun, endured,etc.;
with the second group, the participle expresses the propositional content of
someone's knowledge of, or emotional response to, an action.
All supplementary participles have in commonthat they specify that the action is
actually realized or that the propositional contentis true:
(27) Kai té&v Tis DKuEwv ... EotuNnve TH Baoirdi Davaioo- 6 SE Kai adTds atriKdpEvVOS
as cide Tov Avadyapow troitvta tatta, tofevoas atvtéov d&tréxteive. (Hdt.
4.76.5)
Oneofthe Scythianstold the king, Saulius. And when he cameto the scene in
person and saw Anacharsis doingthis, he shot and killed him. rrovetvrarefers
to an action actually taking place, which is perceived visually by Saulius when
he arrives on the scene.
(28) ud&yous yév yap atpeKews o1da Tatta Tolovtas: Eugavéws yap 81) Troieton.
(Hdt. 1.140.2)
I know with certainty that the Magi do this. For they do it out in the open.
Troiovtas expresses the content ofHerodotus knowledge, which he presents as
fact.
Note 1: Theparticiple differs in this respect from dynamic and declarative infinitives, which
do notspecify the actions they express as realized or the propositional content they express
as true (51.3).
Note 2: Some verbs may be complemented by both kinds of participle; the difference
in complement corresponds to a difference in meaning of the matrix verb. For
details, >52.18-20.
Note 3: The factuality expressed by a participle may (but need not) be cancelled if the matrix
verbitself is not realized, counterfactual, etc. (for this modal dependency, 52.6):
(29) Kai hiv y &v oi8 St1 TpiodopEvos Tad étroie, ef E@Pa ds pevelv KaTAOKEVACOLEVOUS.
(Xen. An. 3.2.24)
And,surely, he would be three times more willing to do these things forus, if he saw us
make preparations to stay. The speaker, using a counterfactual conditional ( 49.10),
imagines what would happenif the Persian king saw the Greeks making preparations to
settle in the king's country. The king is not described as actually seeing anything, nor, as
the previous context shows, are the Greeks actually making preparationsto stay.
(30) Kipos 5 atts... dtrébave... oF... HSeoav atTov TebvnKdTa. (Xen. An. 1.8.27, 1.10.16)
And Cyrus himself perished ... They did not know that he was dead. Xenophonfirst
reports that Cyrus is among the fallen of the battle of Cunaxa; several sections later he
mentions that someofhis soldiers did not know that Cyrus had died. Thefactuality ofthe
participle te@vnxdta is not affected by the negation of fdeoav.
612 52.9 The Participle
Verbs Taking a Supplementary Participle which Expresses an Action which is

Realized
52.9 With the following verbs, a supplementary participle expresses an action whichis
realized:
verbs of direct sensory perception - the subject perceives an action occurring
(almost exclusively with pres. ppl.):
aioPdvopuat perceive, hear (+ gen.), see (+ acc.; >52.20)
&KOU hear (+ gen.; 52.14)
Opac see
TrUVedvoual perceive, hear, see
so-called phase verbs - the verb expresses some phaseof the action (beginning,
continuation or end), e.g. (only with pres. ppl.):
d&pyouar begin
SiateAo continue, go on
Anyo stop, cease
TAU stop (someone (acc.) from doing something)
TOAUOUAL stop, cease
To this category also belong verbs meaning endure,persist, allow, give up:
avéyouat endure, bear
aTaAyopEevn give up
&treitrov (no present) get tired of, fail to
TEPIOPaw allow, permit, stand idly by while
(31) 6p yap attov Trpds Sdpous oTElyovT euous. (Eur. Phoen. 696)
For I see him coming to myhalls. Verb of sensory perception.
(32) 6 vdpos oUTOs SiaTtEAel E~ov Gpoios TO HEXpI ued aT &pxijs. (Hdt. 2.113.3)
This law has continued to be the samefrom its beginning to my time. Phase
verb.
(33) pdvov 81) To aUTO KiIvoiV, &tE OUK &tTrOAsitrov EaUTO, OUTTOTE Atyyel KIVOULEVOV.
(Pl. Phdr. 245c)
Only that which movesitself, given that it never leaves itself, never ceases to
move. Phase verb.
(34) viv 8otv ot oe Trepidyouan | yunvov dv0 obTws. (Ar. Lys. 1019-20)
But right now, I won't permit you to be nakedlike this. Verb in the group
endure, etc.
Note 1: Verbs of perception are also often used as verbs of knowledge: 52.18-19.
52.10 The Supplementary Participle 613
Verbs Taking a Supplementary Participle which Expresses Propositional

Content
52.10 Withthe following verbs, the supplementary participle expresses the propositional
content of someone s knowledge of, or emotional reaction to, an action:
verbsof intellectual knowledge - the subject learns, discovers, knowsor under-
stands that somethingis the case:
oiSa knowthat
éTrioTapal understand that
ytyvaoxa knowthat, recognizethat, realize that, find that
wavedveo learn that
weuvnod rememberthat
aic@dvouo: learn that, find that, become awareof the fact that (+ acc.,
52.20)
&KOUW learn (by being told) that (+ acc., 52.19)
dpc see that, acknowledge that
Tuv@dvouar learn that, realize that, be told that
To this category also belong verbs meaning makeit clear that, it is clear
that, be clear: the subject in this case conveys knowledge that somethingis
the case:
a&yyéAro report that (for dyyéAAw + inf., 52.25)
Selkvuul makeit clear that
SAds eit be clearly,it is clear that I am (doing something)
paivopan be clearly, be obviously, prove/turn out to be (doing
something)
pavepds cit: be clearly,it is clear that I am (doing something)
- Verbs expressing an emotional state - the subject has a certain emotional
attitude to the fact that somethingis the case:
aioyuvouat be ashamedthat
&yGoya be displeased that, be annoyed that
7Sopar enjoy, be pleased that
yeTapeAopar regret that
peTapeAet por regret that (impers.)
yaipoo rejoice, enjoy, be pleased that
(35) XapyiSnv Sé tdvBe oi5a TOAAOUs EV EpaoTas KTHOcpEVov. (Xen. Symp. 8.2)
I know that Charmides here has won many lovers. Verb of intellectual
knowledge.
(36) cos7 Te Hepa éyéveto Kal Eyvwoav Tous APnvaious dtreAnAubdtas, ... (Thuc.
7.81.1)
Whenday broke and they found that the Athenians had gone, ... Verb of
intellectual knowledge.
(37) ds &v pavepwtepov 7 OUTS WeuSouevous G&trodeiFaips Tous KaTHySOpous; (Lys.

25.14)
How might I prove moreclearly than this that the claimantsare lying? Verb of
intellectual knowledge ( make clear that ).
(38) d&piotoxpateioban SiAos ei CyTaHv. (Ar. Av. 125)
Youre obviously/ it s clear that you're lookingto live in an aristocracy. Verb
of intellectual knowledge ( beclear ).
(39) ote viv por peTapeAe: OUTWs dtroAOynoapEveo. (Pl. Ap. 38e)
And I do not nowregret having defended myself this way. Verb expressing an
emotionalstate.
(40) XO. kai 8g8paxas TotTto Totlpyov; :: ETT. kai Se5paxas y Souan. (Ar. Av. 325)
(Chorus:) And have you donethis? :: (Hoopoo:) Yes, and I m pleased I have.
Verb expressing an emotionalstate.
Note 1: Of the verbs that can take a supplementary participle, only this group can take
a participle with &v (&v + ppl. in such cases represents a potential or counterfactual
construction, 52.7):
(41) mdvt dv poBnbeio ioft. (Eur. Hipp. 519)
Knowthat you would be afraid of anything. dv poBnéeio(a) is supplementary with io61,
and represents potential poBnéeins av, you would be afraid .
For a similar distinction between verbs which can and cannottake aninfinitive with
&v, 51.4. &v occurs more often with circumstantial than with supplementary
participles.
Note 2: Manyof these verbs may also be followed by different constructions, e.g. a 6t1/ds-
clause or an infinitive. For the differences between these constructions, 52.22-8.
Note 3: With verbs expressing an emotionalstate,it is sometimesdifficult to assess whether
oneis dealing with a supplementary participle or a circumstantial participle; thus, in (40), for
instance, we could also translate having done it, I am happy (with SeSpoxes taken as
a circumstantial participle).
Verbs Taking a Supplementary Participle which Expresses a Way of Being
52.11 The following three verbs express a certain way of being or acting and are
complementedby participle:
tuyxavw happen to (do something), (do) as it happens
Aav@dveo go unnoticed (by someone(acc.) in doing something), be hidden
ofdve be earlier (than someone(acc.) in doing something), anticipate
(42) dte 8 att fh Udxn éyéveto, Tiooagéepyns év TdpSeow Etuxev dv. (Xen. Hell.
3.4.25)
And whenthis battle occurred, Tissaphernes happenedto bein Sardis.
52.11-12 The Supplementary Participle 615
(43) ot poBi SikaldyEevos TH Tratpi Strws pT] aU ou dvdo1ov TP&yya TUYXavNS

Tpa&ttov; (Pl. Euthphr. 4e)
Are you notafraid that you are the one who, as it happens, is behaving
impiously by prosecuting your father? For émws pur) in fear clauses,
44.7.
(44) trapeoxeudlovto evOus Stras pn Atjoouow attous ai vijes ... apopyNseioan.
(Thuc. 8.10.1)
Straight away they made preparations so that the ships would notset out
withouttheir notice.
(45) trepigtrAcov Zouviov, BouAdyEvol pbfjvaa Tous Abnvaious d&arikduevor é5 TO Gotu.
(Hdt. 6.115)
They sailed around Sunium,because they wantedto arrive at the city before
the Athenians.
Whenthese verbs are construed with a participle, they may be seen as a kind of
auxiliary verb: the participle expresses the main action, while the -dvw verb
qualifies the action in some way.
Note 1: Observe that with Aavédve, the participle is commonly translated as a main verb,
with Aavédveo + acc. translated with unnoticed by X, with X unawares, etc.(or alternatively,
the object maybe translated as subject: X does not notice that Y... ).
With 9@dve, too, the participle is commonly translated as main verb, and g@dvw + acc.
with before X: note the translation arrive before the Athenians in (45).
Note 2: For oitxouo + ppl. (a construction also commonly listed under this heading),
52.42 n.3.
The Case Form of Supplementary Participles and their Subjects
52.12 If the subjects of the matrix verb and the supplementary participle are the same
(i.e. are co-referential), the participle (and any predicative complement or modi-
fier) agrees with the subject, and therefore typically stands in the nominative
(nominative-and-participle construction):
(46) tym... &treipnKa ... cuoxeuvalduevos Kai BadiZeov Kai... (Xen. An. 5.1.2)
I, for my part, am tired of packing up and walking, and...
(47) étrei8t ... &5UvaTo1 6pdpev Svtes ... trepryeveobar ... (Thuc. 1.32.5)
Nowthat wesee that we are unableto prevail ...
(48) étuxov ... év TH &yop& StrAita1 Kabevdovtes. (Thuc. 4.113.2)
Hoplites happenedto be sleeping in the marketplace.
Note 1: This is always the case with phase verbs (except tratw whenit takes an object), with
paivopon, SfAds cin, etc., and with AavOdva, tuyxdvo, and pfdve.
52.13 If the subjects of the participle and the matrix verb are different, the subject of
the participle is generally expressed separately in the accusative, and the partici-
ple - agreeing with its subject - also appears in the accusative (accusative-and-
participle construction):
(49) BoWAouan SeiEor adtTOv wevSduevov. (Dem. 37.21)
I propose to demonstrate that he islying.
(50) GAA étrei 7]}KoUcGE Kpov év KiAikia évta, ... (Xen. An. 1.4.5)
But when he learned that Cyrus wasin Cilicia, ...
(51) tots Euuudyous ... oU Treploydueba &SikouLEvous. (Thuc. 1.86.2)
Wewill nottolerate ourallies being wronged.
Anypredicative complements or modifiers with the subject of the participle(i.e.
words which agree with the subject) naturally also occur in the accusative:
(52) mdvtes 5 0 fo8ovt ovoav EAAnves cog(Eur. Med. 539)
All the Greeks have learned that you are clever. cogrjv agrees with o(e), subject
of ovoay.
52.14 But when verbs of hearing (dxoUw, aio@dvoum) are used to express direct
auditory perception, a supplementary participle and its subject are expressed in
the genitive (genitive-and-participle construction):
(53) i\Kouoa ... adtot Kai trepi piAwv SiaAeyopévou. (Xen. Mem. 2.4.1)
I heard him have a conversation aboutfriendship as well.
(54) d0T1s ... 0 2 Bpewa, | aicBavduevds cou Tavta TpauAilovtos ... (Ar. Nub.
1380-1)
I, the one whoraised you,listening to all your baby-talk . ..
Note 1: Contrast the uses of &koUw in (53) (direct perception) and (50) (intellectual
knowledge) above. For this difference, also 52.19.
52.15 Finally, with someverbs, a supplementary participle and its subject are expressed in the dative
(dative-and-participle construction): this occurs with yaipo enjoy, and with certain imper-
sonal verbs: e.g. yetapéAe por + ppl. I regret (cf. (39) above), piAov éoti por + ppl. it is pleasing
for me thatI, etc.
(55) xaipouow e etalopévors Tois oiopevois ev Eivar cogois, olor 8 ot. (Pl. Ap. 33c)
They enjoy it when those who think they are wise, but are not, are examined.
The participle é&etaldépevois and its subject (the entire phrase tois ... ot) are in the dative;
note that the subject consists of two contrasting substantivally used participles (oioyévois
and ovo, both modified by trois); the predicative complement (eiva1) copois also agrees
with these datives. yaipw is more commonly construed with éni + dat. + ppl.
(56) Zeus, doT1s Trot éoTiv, ci T68 atl TH qiAov KexAnuéven, ... (Aesch. Ag. 160-1)
Zeus, whoeverheis, if in fact it is pleasing for him to becalled that, ...
52.16 The supplementary participle of impersonal verbs takes the form of the accusative neuter
singular (cf. the accusative absolute , 52.33):
(57) EtpuaAoyos 8 Kai of wet attot ws ofovto ... &SUvatov dv thy dABia éAciv,
avexopnoav ... és thv AioAiSa. (Thuc. 3.102.5)
WhenEurylochusandthose in his companyfoundthat it was impossible to capture the
city by force, they withdrew to Aeolis. dSuvatov év is the participle of impersonal
a&5uvatoév got; it is a complement of fjo@ovTo.
Supplementary Participles and Other Complement Constructions
52.17 A numberofverbs which can be complementedby a certain type of supplementary

participle can also take various other kinds of complementconstructions.
Verbs ofPerception Taking More Than One Type of Supplementary Participle
52.18 Verbs of visual perception, such as épdw see, are not only used to refer to the
visual perception of an action, but are also frequently used to refer to intellectual
knowledge/understanding (cf. Engl. I see your point, in which noactual visual
perception is involved):
when used as verbs of visual perception, such verbs are complemented by
a participle expressing the action perceived; the participle occurs almost exclusively
in the present stem (because the action is necessarily ongoing whenit is perceived);
when used as verbs of intellectual knowledge, they are complemented by
a participle expressing the propositional content of the knowledge; the participle
occurs in any stem (with the usual relative-tense implication; 52.4):
(58) cide KAéapyov S1eAatvovta. (Xen. An. 1.5.12)
He saw Clearchus riding through. Present participle; <i6e denotes visual
perception.
(59) 6p Sé Kai Thy TUynv iv cuAAapBdvoucav Kal Tov TrapdévtTa Kaipdv
ouvayovildousvov. ([Isoc.] 1.3)
AndI see that luck is on ourside, too, and that the present circumstancesare
in league with us. Present participles (simultaneous with dpc); 6pcs denotes
intellectual understanding.
(60) étre157 8 00S ds dveu &yHvos Epa EoduEeva TA TIPcyyata, ...(Andoc. 1.122)
But when herealized that even so matters would not be settled without
a trial, ... Future participle (posterior to éapa); apa denotes intellectual
understanding.
Note 1: With examples of visual perception, such as (58), the subject of the participle
is always an entity which can itself be visually perceived. This makes it possible to
interpret the participle as circumstantial: He saw Clearchus, while he wasriding. With
examples of intellectual knowledge, this is not necessarily the case: note that one
cannot actually visually perceive luck or the present circumstances in (59) or the
matters in (60).
Note 2: Whenusedin their intellectual knowledge sense, verbs ofvisual perception can also
be complemented by a 611/as-clause (52.28).
52.19 Similarly, verbs of auditory perception, such as &xoUw hear, can be used not only
to refer to the actual auditory perception of an action, but also to refer to the
transmission of factual information, and then means learn , be told (a fact) (cf.
Engl. I hear that Julia has performed well in her job, in which no auditory
perception of Julia working is involved):
whenused as verbs of auditory perception, such verbs are complemented by
a genitive-and-participle construction ( >52.14); the participle occurs nearly
exclusively in the present (because the perceived action is necessarily ongoing
whenit is perceived);
when usedas verbs of (acquiring) knowledge, they are complemented by an
accusative-and-participle construction expressing the propositional content of
the information;all tenses of the participle are used, with the usualrelative-tense
implication ( >52.4):
(61) Kal Tata TOAAO! fydv tTKoUoV Tot iepopdvtou Aeyovtos. (Lys. 6.1)
And manyofus heard the priest say these things. Present participle in the
genitive; tjxouvov denotes auditive perception.
(62) ABpoxouas dé ... étrel TKOUGE KUpov év KiAikia d6vta, dvaotpewas EK Doivikns
Tapa Baciga atrtAauvev (Xen. An. 1.4.5)
Whenit was made known to Abrocomasthat Cyrus wasin Cilicia, he turned
about from his journey from Phoenicia and marchedoff to the king. Present
participle (simultaneous with fjnovoe) in the accusative; ruovoe means learn
(from being told) .
(63) TEPOELSOTES KAL TIPOAKTKOOTES TAPA TOUTOYV Kal TOUS GULUGXOUS &TTOAOULEVOUS
Kai OnBaious ioyupous yevnoougvous ... (Dem. 19.219)
Having foreknowledge and having been warned bythese menthat yourallies
would be ruined and that the Thebans would gain strength, ... Future
participles (posterior to mpoaxunxodtes) in the accusative; mpoaunnodtes
meansto be reliably informed (note its coordination with a verb ofknowledge,
TTpoElSOTES).
Note 1: With examples of actual auditory perception, it is possible to interpret the

participle as circumstantial: e.g. in (61) We heard the priest (genitive of the source of
sound), while he was speaking. With examples of the acquisition of knowledge, such
as (62), this is impossible: it is not suggested that Cyrus makes any audible noise in
Cilicia.
Note 2: &koUw can also be construed as a declarative utterance verb, taking a declarative
infinitive or 611/cs-clause (for the difference between the two, 51.19 n.1), or an indirect
question ( 41.3): for the difference between the construction as a verb of knowledge (with
participle) or a declarative utterance verb, 52.25.
52.20 aicGdvopat perceive is used as a verb of auditory perception (+gen. and pres. ppl., hear), a verb
of visual perception (+acc. and pres. ppl., see) and as a verb ofintellectual knowledge (+acc.
and ppl., perceive, see).
Truv@c&vopiar perceive, enquire has all these same constructions, and is additionally con-
strued with a declarative infinitive, 6 /as>-clause or indirect question: for details, >52.25.
With aioSdvoum and truv@dvouo, there is some interference between the genitive-and-
participle and the accusative-and-participle constructions (the one sometimes being used
where one would expect the other).
52.21 Infrequently, participles complementing a verb of actual visual or auditory perception occur
in the aorist, which is in aspectual opposition to the present (the action is of necessity
simultaneous with the matrix verb; compare the aspectual difference between the present
and aorist dynamic infinitive; 51.15).
(64) tocatita pwvtoavtos cionkouoauev. (Soph. OC 1645)
That much weheard him say. The aorist participle refers to the speech as a whole: this
much , and nothing moreorless, was said.
(65) ws Sé eidev EAagov exTrndnoaoay, ... (Xen. Cyr. 1.4.8)
When he (Cyrus) saw a deer spring out from under cover, ... The aorist participle
indicates that Cyrus perceived the deer s jumping in its entirety, i.e. until the deer had
completely appeared. As above ( >52.18 n.1), it is also possible in such cases to interpret
the participle as circumstantial: a deer, after it had sprung out .
Verbs Taking a Participle or an Infinitive: Verbs ofKnowledge
52.22 The main characteristic of the participial complementis that it refers to actions
which actually occur, or expresses propositional content which is actually true
( >52.8). These values becomeparticularly clear in the case of verbs which may be
construedwitheithera participle or an infinitive: infinitives with such verbs express
actions which may or may not occur or propositional content which may or may
not be true ( 51.3).
52.23 Manyverbsof knowledge take either a participle to express intellectual knowledge

( know that something is the case ), or a dynamic infinitive to express practical
knowledge ( know how to do something , 51.8): examples are oiSa know that
(+ ppl.)/know howto (+ inf.), étriotapyou understand that(+ ppl.)/know howto(+ inf.),
yavédves learn that (+ ppl.)/learn how to (+ inf.):
(66) ta& Te KaT& THY BdAaooav ouvTUXdvTa ogi TraffaTta KaTEepyacapévous

udAiota ASnvaious étriotato. (Hdt. 8.136.2)
And he understood that the Athenians in particular had wroughtthe cala-
mities that had befallen them at sea.
(67) viv 8 &tras tis T&v Troieveov étriotatai EvAopyéei (Hdt. 3.113.2)
But now every single shepherd knowshow to do carpentry.
Note 1: When these verbs are used as verbs of intellectual knowledge, they can also be
construed with 6t1/cs-clauses (for the difference, 52.28), and especially when negated,
with indirect questions ( 42.2).
52.24 Someverbsare usedeither as a verb of intellectual knowledge (with a participle)

or as a verb of opinion (with a declarative infinitive): the difference is one of
degree in certainty. Examples are UtroAapBdve assumethat(+ inf.) / grasp that (+
ppl.); eupioxa think (upon reflection) that (+ inf.) / find that (+ ppl.), aio®dvopan
believe that (+ inf.) / perceive that (+ ppl.).
(68) iotopgav 5é eUpioxe AaxeSanipovious Te kai Afnvaious tpofgyovtas, Tous Lev TOU
Awpixot yéveos, Tous 5é Tot lwovikot. (Hdt. 1.56.2)
Whenhe inquired he found that the Spartans and Athenians were the
outstanding people, the former among the Dorian race, the latter among
the Ionian. The participle refers to knowledge regarded as certain by
Herodotus.
(69) ppovtiZav 8 eUpioxé Te TaUTa Kalpimtata civoa. (Hdt. 1.125.1)
Onreflection, he found that the following measures might be mosteffective.
The declarative infinitive expresses the subject s opinion (just howeffective the
proposed measures are remainsto be seen).
To this group also belongs paivopen seem (+ inf.) / appear, prove to (+ ppl.):
(70) Kai oi kattyopor ... oUSapt} eUvor Svtes Epaivovto TH Sho. (Lys. 20.17)
Andthe accusers provedto be in no waywell-intentioned towardsthe people.
épaivovto + ppl. refers to a fact which is now known.
(71) oi... y&por oto1 Toicon EAAnor eivai épaivovto émritydeor. (Hdt. 7.177.1)
These lands seemed to the Greeksto be suitable. épaivovro + inf. expresses the
impression/opinion which Herodotus ascribes to the Greeks.
Note 1: When these verbs are used as verbs of knowledge, they can also be construed with
ét1/as-clauses (for the difference, 52.28), and especially when negated, with indirect
questions ( 42.2).
Note 2: The verb y1yvwoxw belongs to this category, but has an additional use as
a desiderative verb (51.29):
asa verb of knowledge: yiyvooxw + ppl. or 611/as>-clause =find, notice, realize, know that;
asa verb of opinion: yryvaoxw + declarative inf. = judge;
as a desiderative verb: yryvaxow + dynamic inf. = decide, resolve to.
(72) Kal ds atpaoev ... Kaya yvous atTov BauudlovTa... pny ... (Pl. Euthd. 279d)
Hewaspuzzled ... and whenI noticed his puzzlement, I said ... Participle. For xai és,
28.29,
(73) TeAunooees vevtoi TaSe Eyvwoay, oTPATOV GAADEPOOV TIPOGSOKipOV Eivar Kpoiow étti Thy
xopny. (Hdt. 1.78.3)
However, the Telmessians interpretation was that Croesus should expect a foreign
army to invadehis land. Declarative infinitive.
(74) 6 Aynotdaos ... gyvw Siakew Tous ék Tv eUWVvULaV TPOOKEIpEevous. (Xen. Hell. 4.6.9)
Agesilaus decided to pursue those who were attacking from the left. Dynamic
infinitive.
52.25 Similarly, a few verbsare usedeither as a verb of (conveying) intellectual knowl-

edge (with a participle) or as a declarative utterance verb (with a declarative
infinitive). Again, the difference resides in the degree of certainty. The most
important of these are &yyéAAw relay (the fact) that (+ ppl.)/report (the rumour)
that (+ inf.), dxovw be informed (of the fact) that (+ ppl.)/be told (the rumour) that
(+ inf.), and tuv@édvopai (same senses as &koUw):
(75) étrei8t TaxloTta HyyeAGn AotUgiAos TeTeAEUTHKWS ... (Isae. 9.3)
As soonasit was reported that Astyphilus was dead, ... Astyphilus death is
presented as fact.
(76) peta 8& TOUTO ... TryyéAAeTo Paoiles Siavoeiobar ws ETyxEIpT}owv TaAI étri
tous EAAnvas. (Pl. Menex. 241d)
After this (the victory at Plataea) there were reports that the King was
planning another assault on the Greeks. Xerxes plans were rumoured only:
a further invasion never took place.
Note 1: &koUw and truvécvoyanare also used as verbs of direct sensory perception, 52.19.
Verbs Taking a Participle or an Infinitive: Other Verbs
52.26 aioxuvopal is used in two senses, with different types of complement:

aioytvvouoi + dynamic inf. = be ashamedto, be hesitant to, do not want to (as
a kind of desiderative verb);
- aioytvouor + ppl. (or dt1/as-clause) = be ashamedthat(as a verb expressing an
emotionalstate):
(77) aioyuvopor ovv Uuyiv eitteiv, co &vbpes, TAANOA. (Pl. Ap. 22b)
So I hesitate, gentlemen,totell you the truth.
(78) otK aioyuvy eis Tolatta &ywv, & ZaoKpates, ToUs Adyous; (Pl. Grg. 494e)
Are you not ashamed,Socrates, to be taking the discussion to such topics?
52.27. The phase verbs &pxowor and travw may be construed either with a dynamic
infinitive or with a (present) participle:
&pxouai + infinitive = undertake to do something, begin to do something (for the
first time), be the first to do something;
&pxouai + participle = begin doing something (perform thefirst stage of an action):
(79) tpEavto S$ KaT& Tous ypdvous ToUToUs Kai T& yaKpd Teixn APnvaion és
dAaooav oikoSoueiv. (Thuc. 1.107.1)
Aroundthis time, the Athenians began to construct the Long Walls towards
the sea.
(80) ei toivuv éxidvile ... TaUTHY Thy xopny ... ék Tis apyeTar Pew 6 NeiAos, ...
(Hdt. 2.22.4)
Nowif it snowedin this land from where the Nile starts flowing,...
tava + dynamic infinitive = prevent (someone from doing something) - the
action that is prevented has notactually started yet;
Tava + participle = stop (someone doing something) - the subject stops or
interrupts an action that has already begun:
(81) eUyeto ... pndepiav of ouvtuxinv TolauTny yevéo8ar ff pV Travoel
KaTaoTpEwaobai Thy Eupatrny 1rpoTEepov 1 Er TENA! ToIol Exeivns yevntat.
(Hdt. 7.54.2)
He prayed that no accident might befall him of such a kind that it would
prevent him from subduing Europebefore he reachedits borders.
(82) A yer yap Ta yeypapyeva donv A dAIs UUdv Etravogv Trote SUvapUPper
Tropevonevny Gua étti taoav Etpwony kai Aciav. (Pl. Ti. 24e)
For ourrecordsstate what a great power your city once stopped marching in
insolence against the whole of Europe and Asia.
Note 1: Middle tavouastop (doing something) only takes a (present) participle, as it always
expresses the interruption of an ongoingaction.
Verbs Taking Both Participles and 611/as-Clauses
52.28 Verbsof intellectual knowledge and verbs of emotion may be construed with a ét11/a<>-
clause as well as a supplementaryparticiple. The difference between the two constructionsis
subtle:
if a participle is used, this generally suggests that the information presented in the comple-
mentis considered to be already knownandnotinitself salient;
if a Sti/ws-clause is used, this generally suggests that the information presented in the
complementis new ( asserted , 60.20) and thereforesalient:
52.28-30 The Circumstantial Participle 623
(83) Ayer 6 KAgapxos Tade "Eyo, @ Tiooagépvn, oda pév Hiv SpKous yeyevnuevous Kal
SeEras SeSouevas wn adixnoew GAANAOus: MUAATTOUEVOV SE OE TE OPH ws TroAEUioUS THUGS
... trel SE OKOTIAV OU SUVaLal OUTE of ainbEoBal Trelp~pEVOY UGS KaKdHS Trotelv Eye TE
capes oida STi huis ye oUSE ErIVOOULEV To1loUTOV OUSEV, ES0 EE ol eis Adyous oor EAGEIV.
(Xen. An. 2.5.3-4)
Clearchus said the following: Tissaphernes, I am well aware that we have sworn under
oath and pledged that neither of us will initiate hostilities against the other, but I see that
you are taking the kinds of precautions against us that you would against enemies.
However, my investigations have produced noevidence that you are trying to injure us
and I knowfor sure that we have no such schemein mindeither. So I wanted totalk things
over with you Clearchusfirst reminds Tissaphernes ofthe oaths they have sworn (ppl.); this
is but a preliminary point, and one with which Tissaphernesis, of course, familiar. Next,
Clearchus assures Tissaphernes that the Greeks are notplotting against him (611-clause): this
is the main point Clearchus wishes to make, andit is newsworthyfor Tissaphernes.
(84) tiouv ... T1 drotis, tre151 Spas atrobavdvtos Tot dvOpwtrou Té ye GoBeveotepov E11Sv;
(Pl. Phd. 87a)
Why, then, do youstill disbelieve, when you see that after a man has died, the weaker
part (the soul) still exists?
(85) Kai Stav yé T1s aipeois 1)... Opds STi of PTTopEs iow of ouLPouAEUOVTEs Kal Of VIKDVTES TAS
yvouas. (Pl. Grg. 456a)
And whenthereis an election, you see that it is the orators who offer the advice and
whoseadvice carries the day.
In (84), thefact that the soul continuesits existence after the body dies has been established
in the preceding discussion (6pdw + ppl.). In (85), the speaker wishes, at this point in the
discussion, to establish it as a fact that orators are influential in elections (6pdm + 6t1-
clause).
The Circumstantial Participle
Introduction
52.29 The circumstantial participle is an optional constituent, added to a clause to

express time, cause, motivation, condition, purpose, etc. (which interpretation is
relevant depends on context and the use of certain adverbs, 52.34 44).
The Case Form of Circumstantial Participles and their Subjects
52.30 The subject of a circumstantial participle is:

- either identical to a constituent of the matrix clause: the participle is then
connected to that constituent (agreeing with it in case, number and gender);
or not a constituent of the matrix clause: the subject is then added separately,
and together with the participle stands in the genitive case - the so-called
genitive absolute construction.
Circumstantial participles of impersonal verbs appear in the accusative singular
neuter: the accusative absolute construction.
Connected Participles
52.31 Whenthe subject of the participle is a constituent of the matrix clause, the
participle is connected to that constituent as a predicative modifier ( 26.26),
agreeing with it in case, numberand gender:
(86) 6 5 Kipos tatita &kovoas étrnufato- ... (Xen. Cyr. 5.1.29)
Cyrus, upon hearingthese things, uttered this prayer: ... 6 Kipos is nomina-
tive as subject ofémnuéato; anovoas agrees with it in case, number and gender.
(87) d&kovoavTi Tatta TH KUpw o ev SEetripercias Adyeiv. (Xen. Cyr. 5.4.37)
Uponhearing these things, it seemed to Cyrus that he (Gadatas) was saying
things worthy of consideration. T4 KUpw is dative complement of éoé ev;
auovoavti agrees with it in case, number and gender.
(88) (Agyeton) ... &kovoovta ... Tatta Tov Kipov hobfvai te Kai eitretv ... (Xen.
Oec. 4.22)
It is said that Cyrus, upon hearing these things, was glad, and said ... tov
Kipovis accusative as subject ofjodFjvan (accusative andinfinitive); dnovoavta
agrees with it in case, number and gender.
Note 1: Participles may agree with a subject whichis not explicitly expressed ( 26.7):
(89) &xotoas S$ tot iatpot St1 oSév ET cin GvOpwtros, TWdAW EtePOUS EdpTUPAS
TrapaAdaBay Thy Te dvOpartrov étrederga ws eixev. ([Dem.] 47.67)
Upon hearing from the doctor that the woman s condition was hopeless, I again
gathered further witnesses and showed them what condition she was in. Both
auovoas and trapadaBay agree with the first-person subject of é1ré5e1&a.
(90) &kovoas 5é ot Evexa HAGopEV, AUTOS oKEwau. (Pl. Prt. 316b)
Hear whywehave come andthen decidefor yourself. dxovoas agrees with the second-
person subject of the imperative onéwaou. For the translation of the aorist participle
preceding an imperative, 52.6.
Genitive Absolute
52.32 Whenthe subject of the participle is not a constituent of the matrix clause,
it must be expressed separately. In this case, both the participle and its
subject are added in the genitive case. This is called the genitive absolute
construction:
52.32 The Circumstantial Participle 625
(91) t& & &x Tis GAANS oikias eEEMepov oKEUN, ATrAayOpEVOUOTS Tis yUVaIKds UN)
étrteo8oaattois. ([Dem.] 47.56-7)
They carried away the furniture from the rest of the house, even though my
wife forbade them to touchit. Since the wife is not a constituent of the clause
Ta & é Tis GAANs oinias é épepov onevn, the participle forbidding cannot be
connected to a form of yuv7 already present in that clause. Instead, both are
addedin the genitive case.
(92) Tpofupos ... &AeuKOUVTO of imrtreis Ta KpcvN KEAsUOVTOS éxeivou. (Xen. Hell.
7.5.20)
The horsemeneagerly painted their helmets white at his (Epaminondas ) com-
mand. Epaminondasis not a constituent of the clause éAeunovvto oi imtreis Ta
npavn: the pronounreferring to him andthe participle are added in the genitive.
(93) OUTS OUV EXOVTV TOUTWYVTT] QUEL, TIPOS TOUS TIPO EUAUTOU VUV Eya Kpivaopat
Kal Gewpadpar undauas. (Dem. 18.315)
Given, then, that these things are so by nature, am I now to be judged and
examined in comparison to my predecessors? Certainly not! The subject ofthe
initial genitive absolute ( these things ) is not a constituent of the remainder of
the sentence.
Note 1: Observe the following exceptions and special cases:

Occasionally, when the subject of a genitive absolute may beeasily supplied from the
context, it is not expressed:
(94) eltrovto 8 attois Kai té&v EAAnvoov tivés ... of 5 TroAguiol TEOGIdVTMV Téws LEV
tlouyalov. (Xen. An. 5.4.16)
Some Greeks were following them. And the enemy forces kept quiet for a while as
they (the Greeks) were drawing near. The subject oftpooidvtaswis the Greeks, but this
is not separately expressed by a genitive noun (e.g. t&v EAArvev) or pronoun (e.g.
auTév).
Infrequently, the subject of a genitive absolute is used as a constituent of the matrix clause;
this occurs primarily when the genitive absolute precedes that clause (in essence, the
construction begins one way, and is modified midway through the sentence):
(95) ota Bt SeEapevou Tot Kupou of... yepaitepoi aipotvtar attov &pyovta. (Xen. Cyr.
1.5.5)
When Cyrus had accepted (the invitation) in this way, the elders elected him
general. Since Cyrus (attév) is object of aipotvra, the genitive absolute construction
is, strictly speaking, ungrammatical (the construction 5eEduevov Tov Kipov aipotvta
a&pyovtais possible). The use of the genitive absolute suggests that it is a separate unit.
Accusative Absolute
52.33 Circumstantial participles of impersonal verbs cannot agree with a subject (since
they have no subject, 36.1). Such participles are expressed in the accusative
singular neuter form:this is called the accusative absolute construction:
(96) ti 81) Wudss 2Eov atroAgoan OUK Etri TOUTO HAGopEV; (Xen. An. 2.5.22)
Whythen,whenit was possible to kill you, did we not proceed to do so? é&6v
is accusative absolute of impersonal é&eoT1 it is possible .
(97) Kai 87 ogi TIpds Tatta ES0 e TH KpuKI THv TroAguiov xpaoba1, SdEav S ogi
étroleov To1dvde- (Hdt. 6.77.3)
In reaction to this, they decided to use the enemies herald; and when they
had reachedthis decision, they went aboutit in the following way:. . . 5d avis
(aorist) accusative absolute of impersonal é50&e it was decided ( -51.30) and
it takes its regular dative complement (og1). 5d av picks up the preceding é06 e.
Note 1: But impersonal weather terms which can take a god as subject ( 36.11 n.1)
sometimes occur in the genitive absolute, without an explicitly expressed subject: e.g.
tovtos whenit is/was raining, Bpovtnoavtos when a thunderstorm has come on.
Interpretation of Circumstantial Participles
52.34 Howa circumstantial participle should be interpreted (as expressing time, cause,
motivation, etc.) depends on the context, and on certain adverbs and/orparticles
which may appearwith the participle. It is not always possible, and certainly not
necessary, to limit the interpretation of a circumstantial participle to one of the
possibilities outlined below.
Time, Circumstance
52.35 Circumstantial participles are often naturally interpreted as expressing the time
when(or circumstances under which) the action in the matrix clause takesplace.
This is especially the case whentheparticiple precedes the matrix verb (often as
setting , 60.32):
(98) ots & év TH Trodkguw oupdxous exTnodyE8a, eiptns ovons &TrOAWAEKAOIW
outo1. (Dem.3.28)
Those whom wegainedasallies during the war, these men havelost in peace-
time. The parallelism with év 16 troAgua) encourages the temporalinterpretation.
52.36 An aorist participle precedinga finite verb is very often used to express a sequence
of actions (particularly in narrative text, >58.9; the order ppl.-verb is iconic ,
47.7 n.2):
(99) ouAAgEas oTpateupa éTroAdpxKer MiAntov. (Xen. An. 1.1.7)
Hecollected an army andlaid siege to Miletus. Note that the sequence of

events may be conveyed in translation by two co-ordinated main verbs
( collected , laid siege ).
(100) 2& Epetpins 5¢ 6punSéevtes 51a EvSexdtou EtEos &trikovto Stricw. (Hdt. 1.62.1)
After ten years they set out from Eretria and returned home.For inclusive
counting (Sic évSendtou éTeos = after ten years ), 9.10.
52.37 The temporalrelationship between the participle and the matrix verb may be made
explicit by temporal adverbs such as &ya while, at the same time, {Sn already,
autixa immediately,etc.
(101) étraidviov ... Gua... 1Agovtes. (Thuc. 2.91.2)
ca
They were singing a paean while rowing.
Note 1: Circumstantial participles of teAeut&e finish should normally be interpreted as

adverbial expressions of time, with the sense finally, eventually, in the end, at last:
(102) troAA& dv ein Adyeiv, doov tréevOos év TH Eut Oikia Ty év Exeiven TH ypdv. TeAeuTaOa Sé
UTTHp adTav tvTeBdAepe Kal ixéteve ... (Lys. 32.11)
It would take long to tell how much mourningthere was in my housein that period.
In the end, their mother beseeched and begged me...
Cause, Motivation
52.38 Circumstantial participles often express the cause or motivation for an action or
statement, especially when they follow the matrix verb:
(103) Tlaptoatis pév 51) urTNP UTripxe TH Kup, piAotoa avtov WaAAov 7 Tov
BaoiAevovta AptagepEnv. (Xen. An. 1.1.4)
Parysatis, the mother, was on the side of Cyrus, as she loved him more than
Artaxerxes, whoruled as king.
52.39 Therelationship between participle and matrix verb may be madeexplicit by:
ws to give a subjective reason or motivation, for which responsibility lies
with the subject of the matrix verb (because, thinking that, in the conviction
that, as);
- &te (sometimes oia, oiov) to give an objective reason, for which the
speaker/narrator takes responsibility (because, given the fact that, (inas-
much) as).
(104) attoi évtat@ Euevov ws TO &kpov KaTéyovtes. of 5 ov KaTeixov. (Xen. An.
4.2.5)
There they remained thinking that they held the summit. But they did not
holdit. Subjective reason. The narrator does not share the subjects reasoning,
as oi 8 ov uateiyov makesclear.
(105) Agate OU Trpds PE Ti év VO ExeTE GS... BOUAdLEVOV KoIvf] OULiv TOV OTOAOV
Toirio#a. (Xen. An. 3.3.2).
So, tell me what yourplansare, in the conviction that I wish to make the
journey together with you. The speaker (Mithradates) provides the addres-
sees (Greek commanders) with certain assumptions about him on which they
should base the answer which he wants them to give.
(106) Kai Td pEipdxiov, &te yeydAou Svtos Tot épwTHyatos, NpuCpiacev Te Kai
&troptjoas évéBAewev eis éué. (Pl. Euthd. 275d)
Andsince the question wasa big one, the young man blushed andglanced at me
in his helplessness. The speaker gives the reason for the young man s reaction.
(107) Kai oia 51) d&tridvtwv pds Seitrvov ... T&v TeATAOTAV ... EtTrEAAUVOUOT. (Xen.
Hell. 5.4.39)
And since the peltasts were going away to dinner, they (the Thebans)
charged upon them. The genitive absolute with oia explains why the
Thebanscould attack easily.
Condition
52.40 A participle may express the condition under which the action in the main clause
mayOccur:
(108) ot 8 KAUoov cioe Taya. (Ar. Av. 1390)
If you listen, you will soon find out.
If the matrix clause has a potential optative (34.13) or a counterfactual indicative
(34.16), the participle may have the force of the corresponding potential or
counterfactual conditional clause:
(109) viv 8 A®nvaious dv tis Adyov owtiipas yevéobar tijs EAAGSos ovK dv
a&uaptdavoi TaAnGéos. (Hdt. 7.139.5)
Asit is, if anyone wereto say that the Athenians werethe saviours of Greece,
he would not be wrong. Given the potential optative (ovx av duaptavor) in
the matrix clause, the participle has theforce ofa potential conditionalclause
( 49.8). For the repetition of &v, 60.12.
(110) d&xpitou pév yap Svtos tot rpdyuatos ovK dv Ariotac@... (Isoc. 19.2)
For if the case had not gone to trial, you would not have known...
The genitive absolute has counterfactual force, given the counterfactual
matrix clause (ovx &v Hrriotac8(e)).
The negative with the participle in the conditional use is ph (uy + circumstantial
participle is nearly always conditional):
(111) ... 6 viv Gueis pt) treOdpevor Hiv rékBorte &v. (Thuc. 1.40.2)
... Which might well happen to you now if you do notlisten to us.
Purpose
52.41 The future participle usually expresses purpose, often in combination with os,
which expresses the intention of the subject:
(112) trapeoxeudZovto os TroAeutjoovtes. (Thuc. 2.7.1)
They prepared in order to wage war.
(113) Se&i& Sé Aaptrdda | Titav Mpoundeds Eepev os TrpHowv rdéAiv. (Eur. Phoen.
1121-2)
The Titan Prometheuscarried a torch in his right hand to burnthecity.
But os is frequently omitted, especially after verbs of sending and going:
(114) atéis 6 BapBapos ... étri thy EAAGSa SouAwoduevos HAPev. (Thuc. 1.18.2)
The barbarian returned to Greece in order to enslaveit.
Note 1: Observe the idiomatic expression Zpyouo + fut. ppl. be about to, be going to,
especially with participles of verbs of speech:
(115) éyo Sé Trepi Wev TOUTwYV OUK ~Epyouan épéwv ws... (Hdt. 1.5.3)
I am notgoing to say aboutthese things, that ...
Manner, Means
52.42 A presentparticiple or coincident aorist participle ( >52.5) is sometimes used to

express manner or means:
(116) AnZoyevor Jor. (Xen. Cyr. 3.2.25)
Theylive by pillaging.
(117) &trmAcoév uy eitrotoa ounqopas éuds. (Eur. Hipp. 596)
She has destroyed meby revealing my misfortunes. Coincidentaoristparticiple.
Note 1: Circumstantial participles of verbs meaning have , take , use , etc. (e.g. Exoov,
Xpauevos (+ dat.), pépwv, &yav, AaPoov) often express little more than Engl. with:
(118) épyeton ... Tov vidv Zxouoa. (Xen. Cyr. 1.3.1)

She came with her son.
Note 2: The participle 2xav may be combined with a present indicative with the sense
continually, unceasingly:
(119) 2Q. tdév oKxutotdédpov jows péyiota Sei UTrodSqyata Kal mWAciota UtroSedepevov
Tepitrateiv. :: KA. toia UToStyata; pAuapeis Exoov. (Pl. Grg. 490e)
(Socrates:) Perhaps the shoemaker should walk around wearing the largest and the
most shoes.:: (Callicles:) Shoes? What shoes? You keep talking nonsense.
Note 3: The verb oiyouca depart, be gone ( 33.18) is often combined with a participle,
usually of a verb of motion, to express the mannerof departure: e.g. oiyetar gevyav he has
fled, dyeto &treAatveov he rode off, &yovto &tridvtes they left.
Comparison
52.43 A participle may be combined with aotrep (sometimesos) like, as (if) to express
comparison:
(120) av is yap 5, Sotrep Etépwv ToUTwv Svtwv KaTnydpov, AdBoyev aU Thy
TouTaV &vTwpooiayv. (Pl. Ap. 24b)
Let us then again,as if they are otherplaintiffs, take up in turn their sworn
statement.
Note that dotrep can be accompanied by dpoiws in a similar way as (if), just as
though:
(121) xeivn 8 , dpotws Sotep otK iSotoa dds, | TEAVNKE KOUSEV O1Se TOV aUTHs
Kakdév (Eur. Tro. 641-2)
But she is dead, just as though she has never seen light, and she knows
nothing of her own misfortunes.
Note 1: Comparison mayalso be expressed by wotrepavei (otrep &v ci) + participle. This
construction maybeseenasa case of a comparative conditional clause without a verb (49.24):
(122) Kxpauy? Kai Bot Tv yuvarKdy tooautn ... hv aotrepavel TeOvedTds Tivos, Hote ...
(Dem. 54.20)
There was so much wailing and shouting of the women as if someone haddied,
that...
Concession
52.44 To express concession, a participle is usually combined with xaitrep, wai (even
though, although, evenif) or wai tata (and that even though, regardless of thefact
that) preceding the participle:
(123) ASpnotov katoikTipel, kaitrep gov év KaK® ... ToooUTo. (Hdt. 1.45.2)
Hetook pity on Adrastus, although he found himself in so much agony.
(124) rds otx dv &PAI01 yeyovotes eiev . .. uNSEv TAZOV venovTes Tois MiAOIS. . . T) TOTS
éy@pois, kai Tata &pyovtes év TH ExuTdv del; (Pl. Grg. 492b-c)
Howcould theyfail to be wretched,if they did not give a larger portion to their
friends than to their enemies, and that even thoughthey ruled in their own city?
Note 1: In poetry tep (59.55) is sometimes used to give concessive force to the participle:
(125) xaper ov: ut) TEdoAEUOGE, yevvaids Trep Hv. (Soph. Phil. 1068)
Go. Don t look at him, noble though youare.
Dominant Use of Circumstantial Participles
52.45 Occasionally, a circumstantial participle is indispensable for the correct interpretation

of a sentence, providing more relevant information than the head noun it modifies
52.45-6 The Participle in Noun Phrases 631
(syntactically speaking). The participle, together with its noun, serves as obligatory
constituent (and as such,the participle is not syntactically optional ). This is called the
dominant use of the participle:
(126) 2Autrer attdv f yopa TropfoupEevn. (Xen. An. 7.7.12)
The fact that the country was being ravaged grieved him (lit. the country being ravaged
grieved him ). The entirety of) yapa tropPoupévn, not merely rj xa@pa, is subject oféAvtrei.
The interpretation as a dominant participle is facilitated by the fact that a country
cannot normally cause grief.
In essence, such constructions are nominalized clauses: yapa tropfoupévn in (126) repre-
sents xopa tropSeitai the country is being ravaged in nominalform (in the nom.as subject of
éAuTrel).
Dominantparticiple constructions are also often used to complement prepositions:
ueTa& LdAwva olyduevov after Solon s departure
étri Oeogidou &pyovTos during the archonship of Theophilus
(127) és pév yap &vbpa oxy ely SAWASTA, | TraiSav 8Eeice ut) PBovnGein pdve. (Eur. El.
29-30)
For with respect to the death of her husband she had an excuse(it. with respect to her
husband, being dead, she had an excuse ), but she feared that she would be despised for
the murder of her children.
Note 1: The construction is also sometimes called the ab urbe condita construction,
after the comparable Latin construction (ab urbe condita = from the founding of the
city ).
The Participle in Noun Phrases
Attributive Use (as Modifier) and Substantival Use (as Head)
52.46 The participle can be used with an article in noun phrases, either as a modifier
(attributive use) or as head (substantival use):
oi vouol oj KEipevol the standinglaws(attributive, modifier with vouot)
TX Tapovta tpd&yyata the present circumstances(attributive, modifier
with 1pdypata)
oi GTrdévTEs the absent ones, absentees, those who are/were
absent (substantival, used as head)
T& Gel Tapdvta the circumstancesat any given time (substantival,
used as head)
(128) év © 8 @TrAiZovto TKov ... oi TpoTreumOevTes oKoTroi. (Xen. An. 2.2.15)
While they were arming, the scouts who had been sent ahead returned.
Attributive, modifier with oxnotrot.
(129) EAeyov ws ein Ta Epya Ta yeyevneva oUK dAiywv &vbpav GAA Etri TH Tot
Styyou KataAvoe1. (Andoc. 1.36)
They claimed that the acts which had been committed were not those of
a few men, but were intended to overthrow the democracy. Attributive,
modifier with épya.
(130) KA. tivos trpdcctrov SFT év &yKdAans Zxe1s; | :: AP. Agovtos, &s y Epackov ai
O@npopevan. (Eur. Bacch. 1277-8)
(Cadmus:) Whose head, then, are you carrying in your arms? :: (Agaue:)
That of a lion, or so the hunting womensaid, at least. Substantival.
(131) ... dvaAaBoov ... Tous év TH Udy pds Tous EAANvas attouoAtjoavtas. (Xen.
An. 1.10.6)
... having picked up those whohaddefected to the Greeks duringthe battle.
Substantival. Observe that the participle is itself modified by év ti udyn pos
Tous EAAnvas.
Note 1: For the position of the participle relative to the article (and the head noun),
28.11 12,. 28.25:
Note 2: Some substantivally used participles developed into nouns: e.g. 6 &pywv chief,
magistrate (cf. dx rule).
52.47 Occasionally, attributive/substantival participles occur withoutanarticle:

(132) ... payévn tov NeiAov Aéew dard thKkopevns yidvos. (Hdt. 2.22.1)
... Claiming that the Nile flows from melting snow.Attributive, modifier with yiovos.
(133) etrAe SHSexa tpinpeis Zxoov Etri TOAAGS vatis KeKTNYEVOUS. (Xen. Hell. 5.1.19)
Hesailed with twelve triremes against men who had manyships. Substantival.
Generic Use
52.48 Whenthearticle is used with a participle (especially with present participles), it
often has generic value ( 28.6), with the sense whoever.. . . The negativein this
case is wn:
(134) 1rd&s Gv yévoivto Trovnpdétepor GvOpwtro: ... ToU Tradevovtos Ta To1atTa;
(Dem. 35.42)
How could there be men more wicked than whoeverteaches such things?
(135) 6 ut yopev &vOpetros OK Zxe1 Kaka. (Men. Sent. 437)
An unmarried manhasnotroubles.
Note 1: The participle of BoUAoua want is used generically particularly often: 6 BouAdyevos
anyone wholikes, any chance person:
52.48-50 The Participle in Noun Phrases 633
(136) XY. Katnyopei Sé Tis; | : Al. 6 BouAduevos. :: ZY. oUKouv éxetvds ely yoo; (Ar. Plut.
917-18)
(Sycophant:) And who s the accuser?:: (Just Man:) Any volunteer.:: (Sycophant:) I'mit!
Tense/Aspect of Attributive and Substantival Participles
52.49 The aspectual distinctions between different tense stems ( >52.4 5) are fully
relevantfor attributive and substantival participles.
Such distinctionstypically result in an interpretation of relative tense (33.57);

for instance, trpotreupPévtes in (128) aboveis anterior to f\Kov, @npop_evon in
(130) is simultaneous with packov, yeyevnuéva in (129) refers to a state simul-
taneous with cin;
- Not infrequently, however, other connotations of aspect are equally or more
relevant (also 33.58):
(137) Tpauvooi... kat& 5& Tov yivouEevdv ogi Kal étroyivouEvov Troieio1 TOIdSe- TOV
yév_yevouevov ... dAogUpovTal, ... Tov 8 dtroyevouEvov Trailovtés Te Kai
1SdyEevor yi) KpUTrTOUON. (Hdt. 5.4.1)
The Trausi behave as follows with respect to those who are born andthose
who die. Whena child is born they lamentit, but when someonedies they
bury him with celebration and gladness. The present participles yivouevov
and &troyiwduevov refer to repeated births and deaths ( every time someoneis
born/dies ), while the aorist participles yevouevov and &troyevopuevov single out
an individual birth or death to discuss what happens in such cases ( the one
whois born/who has died ).
Note 1: The future participle with the article can be used to refer to an identifiable
group or class of people who intend, are intended and/or are able and likely to carry
out an action:
(138) tis oUv 6 yvwodpevos ef TO TIPOOT|KOV EiS05 KEPKiSos5 Ev STTOIWOUV EUAw kKEiTaI; 6
TOINjoas, 6 TEKTOV, T) 6 XPT|OdUEVOS 6 UpavTngs; (Pl. Cra. 390b)
Whois likely to know whetherthe correct form of a shuttle resides in a certain piece
of wood? The person who madeit, the carpenter, or the one whois to useit, the
weaver?
Participles in Apposition
52.50 Attributive participles may also occur in apposition to a noun (phrase). This
occurs particularly frequently with the participle of cipi be, often in apposition to
a proper name.
(139) fyov 8& Kai GAAOI Osooardv attdv Kai ék Aapions Nixovidas TepSixxa
étrittSe1os av. (Thuc. 4.78.2)
Other Thessalians escorted him as well, among them Niconidas from
Larissa, who was a friend of Perdiccas. lepSinua émitrSei0s dv stands in
apposition to Ninovidas.
Note 1: As the participle in such cases does notstandin attributive position relative to the
head nounandthearticle, context must determine whethera participle is to be interpreted as
being in apposition or as a circumstantial participle (i.e. as standing in predicative position).
In somecases both interpretations are possible:
(140) Epiy@dvios ... tapa& Kéxpottos a&traidos évtos dppéveov TraiSwv ... Thy Paoidsiav
tapéAaBev. (Isoc. 12.126)
Erichthonius took over the kingship from Cecrops, who was without male children.
As translated, the participle is interpreted as being in apposition; it is also possible to
translate because he was without male children (circumstantial participle).
Periphrastic Uses of the Participle
ciui + Participle
52.51 In eipi + participle (usually present or perfect, less frequently aorist), the com-
bined phrase is roughly equivalent to a finite form of the same verb (andin the
same tense-aspect stem):
(141) ... dtress, &v pév Uyiv Exatov Sén Tpinpoyv, Thy... Satrdvyy éEthKovta TaAavTA
ouvteAf) ... Gv S& SiaKociwv, Tpl&KovTa ... 1) TaAavTa Thy BSaTravnv
ouvteAotvta. (Dem. 14.20)
... $o that, if you need a hundredtriremes,sixty talents will cover the cost,
but ifyou need two hundred,thirty talents will cover the cost. 9 ouvteAotvta
corresponds roughly to pres. subj. ouvteAs, which is in fact used earlier in the
sentence.
(142) of 8 AitwdAoi (BeBonPnkdtes yap Sn hoav étri To Aiyitiov) tpoceBaAAov Tos
A nvaiors. (Thuc. 3.97.3)
But the Aetolians (since by this time they had come to the rescue of
Aegition), attacked the Athenians. BeBon@nudtes foav corresponds to
éBeBonOnneoay.
Note 1: There are various reasons why authors may haveused a periphrastic construction
with ciut instead of a synthetic form, including possible slight differences of meaning,
considerations of word order, metrical constraints (in poetry), register, variation, etc.
The considerations involved were probably not consistent over time, nor across tense
stems or types of verb used for the participle.
52.52-3 Periphrastic Uses of the Participle 635
52.52 Various perfect middle-passive forms occur only in periphrastic form with
formsof civi. For details, ~19.8.
#xw + Participle
52.53 xw + participle (nearly always with an aorist participle) - a construction known

as the oyfjya Attixdév or oyfjya ZopdxAeiov is roughly equivalent to a perfect
indicative:
(143) Kai viv &5eApa Tévbe knpvEas Eyw | dotoIon TraiSev Ta&v dtr OiSitrou trép1.
(Soph. Ant. 192-3)
And now I haveproclaimed things akin to these to the citizens, concerning
the sons of Oedipus. unovéas éxw is roughly equivalent to uenrjpuya.
(144) tdv Adyov S cou TrdéAa Paupdoas Ex ... (Pl. Phdr. 257c)
For a long time I have wondered about your speech ... @aupdoas éyw
corresponds to te@avpana.
Note 1: yw + participle occurs primarily in Sophocles and,less frequently, in Euripides and

Herodotus.It occurs only rarely in later prose authors.
Note2: Thedifference between éyw + aorist participle and a perfect indicative(e.g. te@atpaxa)
is not always clear, and (as with eipi + ppl, 52.51 n.1) various considerations may have
played a role in the choice of one over the other. The connotations of the periphrastic
construction also were probably not consistent over time, nor across various types of verb
usedas theparticiple.
33
Overview of Subordinate Constructions
Complements
53.1 Complementclauses fulfil the role of an obligatory constituent of the main pre-
dicate, usually subject or object (39.3). Such complements can take the form of:
- a dynamic or declarative infinitive;
a supplementary participle;
a 6Ti/cs-clause;
an indirect question;
a fear clause with un;
or an effort clause with dtres.
The following overview lists a number of semantically determinedclassesof verbs,
together with the complements they take.
Verb Class Meaning Complement

Phase The verb expresses some Presentparticiple; 51.8,
&pxouar begin phaseof the action (beginning, Dynamicinfinitive 52.9
Tavopen stop continuation or end)
Tava stop (someone)
Modal The verb expresses the need Dynamicinfinitive 51.8
Suvauan be able or possibility of an action
Sei it is necessary taking place
Manipulative The subject forces,tells or Dynamicinfinitive 51.8
avayKdce force asks someoneelse to do
KeAeUw order something
Desiderative/Volitional The subject wishes or decides Dynamicinfinitive 51.8
BowAopar want to that something should
aipgouar choose to happen
yityvooKw resolve to, decide to
Practical knowledge The subject knows howto do Dynamicinfinitive 51.8
étriotapot know (how to) something or teaches others
51S&0Kw teach (how to) how to do something
Direct perception The subject perceives an Presentparticiple 529,
dpdw see action occurring by (oneof) 52.14
&kouw hear the senses
Fearing The subject fears the (future) ut) + subjunctive 43
poPéovonfear realization of an action (for pr) + ind., 43.5)
poPos éoti there is a fear
53.1-4 Complements 637
Verb Class Meaning Complement =
Effort The subject makes an Straws + future indicative 44

ppovtile take care effort to realize an (for other constructions,
oTreudoo strive action 44.6-7)
Opinion The subject believes the Declarative infinitive 5119
vouileo believe action expressed in the
otouen think complementto be true
ylyvaoke judge
Intellectual knowledge The subject knows, or Participle; 41.3,
and emotion emotionally responds ét1 + any tense/mood 41.15,
triotayon understand to, the action expressed (for these verbs with indirect 52.10
ylyvaoKkea know, realize in the complement questions, 42.2)
tSoua be pleased, enjoy
Declarative utterance The subjects asserts the Declarative infinitive; 41.3,
(verbs of speech) action expressed in the éT1 + any tense/mood 51.19
Aéyw say complement (pnui very rarely with ét1/c<-
oni say, claim clause)
Interrogative utterance The subject is uncertain (yes/no-questions) 42
épwtae ask about(an aspectof) el, TOTEPOV.... 7)... ,ei... elite
BouAevouadeliberate the action expressed Led
in the complement (specifying questions) tis/doT1s,
td600s/dT1d6006, etc.
+ tense/moodofdirect
questions
"Or oblique optative in historic sequence(after past-tense matrix verbs, 40.12).
Further Particulars
53.2 There are numerousverbs which - depending on their complement - maybelong

to more than one type: for example y1ryvmoxw + declarative inf. = judge (verb of
opinion), yryvaoxw + dynamic inf. = resolve to, decide to (desiderative verb),
ylyvookaw + ppl. or ét1/as-clause = realize (intellectual knowledge). For overviews
of such verbs, >51.28-33 and 52.17-28.
53.3 Some classes in the overview may be construed with more than one type of
complement, with a distinction of meaning between the use of one complement
or the other. For details, 52.27 (phase verbs), 52.28 (verbs of intellectual
knowledge and emotion), and 51.19 n.1 (declarative utterance verbs).
53.4 For the difference between the use of an oblique optative and retaining the
original moodin historic sequence, 41.13-14.
638 53.5 Overview of Subordinate Constructions
Adverbial and Adjectival Subordinate Clauses

53.5 The following overview lists the different adverbial and adjectival (i.e. relative)
subordinate clauses of Greek, together with the conjunction(s) and mood(s) used
for each type; if the use of a particular mood is dependent on (or strongly
correspondsto) the use of a particular tense/mood in the matrix clause,this is
given as well:
Mood/tense in subordinate clause Mood/tense in

matrix clause =
Purpose: iva, Stras, as, yh (neg.) 45
subjunctive (tense stem according to
aspect);
oblique optative frequent with past-tense
matrix clauses
Result: dot 46
actual result moods/tensesas in independentsentences
natural/inevitable infinitive (tense stem according to
result aspect)
Temporal: dt, cs, étrei, é1re15%, év o, Ews, Trpiv, etc. 47
referring to the past past indicative
referring to the &v + subjunctive (tense stem form with future
future accordingto aspect) reference
referring to habitual dv + subjunctive (tense stem present indicative
occurrence according to aspect)
optative without &v (tense stem imperfect
according to aspect)
Tpiv as above (with aor.-stem finite verb) negative main clause,
any tense/mood
infinitive (tense stem according to non-negative main
aspect) clause, any tense/
mood.
Causal: 5m, 81671 and étrei, dds 48
moods/tenses as in independent any tense/mood
sentences
oblique optative with past-tense matrix clauses
(with reported or alleged reason)
Conditional: <i (concessive with kai ci / ci Kai) 49
neutral indicative (present or past tense) any tense/mood
future indicative (often in threats, form with future
warnings,etc.) reference
53.5-7 Adverbial and Adjectival Subordinate Clauses 639
Mood/tense in subordinate clause Mood/tense in

matrix clause
prospective é&v + subjunctive (tense stem form with future
according to aspect) reference
potential optative without &v (tense stem &v + optative (tense
according to aspect) stem according to
aspect)
counterfactual modal (secondary) indicative &v + modal (second-
without &v ary) indicative
(aor./impf./plpf. according to aspect) (aor./impf./plpf.
habitual av + subjunctive (tense stem presentindicative
optative without &v (tense stem imperfect, pluperfect
Aprotasis (subordinate clause)andapodosis (mainclause) fromtwodifferent types are often
combined ( mixed conditionals ).
(Cor)relative: ds (etc.), Sotis (etc.), 2vOa, dds, etc. 50
digressive moods/tenses as in independent sentences
restrictive moods/tenses as in temporal and
conditionalclauses;
counterfactual é&v + sec. ind. and potential &v +
opt. are possible
The future indicative can be used in relative clauses with purposevalue; past or present indicatives are used
with causal value or result value (often after doris).
Further Particulars
53.6 For the difference between the use of an oblique optative and retaining the
subjunctive in purpose clauses, 45.3 n.1.
53.7 Forattraction of mood(i.e. subordinate clauses taking on the moodoftheir matrix

clauses), overriding the use of moodsas detailed in the table, 40.15.
54.
Overview of Moods
Indicative
54.1 Indicative in main clauses:
use negative
in statements and questions about present, past and future ou 34.5
To1iovo1 tatta they are doing that
ti toiotioww; whatare they doing?
ov + second-person fut. ind. expressing an urgent command (ov) pA 38.32
ov Troijoeis Tato; won't you do that? / do that!
(ti) od + first- or second-personpres./aor. ind. expressing a request or suggestion (ov) 38.33
ti ok étromoapev Tata; why don t we do that?
étrws + fut. ind. expressing a strong command ur}
Strws Troijoeis TaUTA (make sure you) do that!
54.2 Indicative in subordinate clauses:
use negative
in fear clauses expressing disappointment abouta presentor past fact, with un + pres. ou 43.5
or pf. ind.
SéS01ka pt TetronKao1 Tadta Ifear that they have done that
in effort clauses (depending on a verb ofeffort), with dtrws (ws) + fut. un) 44.2
ind.
dpa Strws Troijoouo1 tata see to it that they do that
in temporal clauses to refer to a single action in the past ou 47.7

dte Tata éTroinoav, nUTUXouv when they had donethat, they prospered
in neutral conditional clauses, with ¢i un) 49.4

ei TATA TroloUolw evTUXOUOWif they do that they prosper
in neutral conditional clauses, with ei + fut. ind. (esp. in threats, un 49.5

warnings, etc.)
ei TUTE Troitjoouolw &Tro8avoivtaiif they do that they will die
in restrictive relative clauses ou/un 50.19

eTraved tata & toiotiowI praise the things which they are doing
in (digressive) relative clauses with causal force ou 50.23

54.2-4 Modal (Secondary) Indicative 641
use negative
ut) GopuBhonte, of ovSév Aéyouow don t make noise, you who speak nonsense
in relative clauses with purpose force, with fut. ind. ou 50.24
oUAAeye AvSpas of Tavita Toijoouow gather men to do that (who will do that)
in relative clauses with result force ou 50.25
ovdeis obTeo pdxeTar SoTis OUK &TrOBaveiv EBEAE1 No Onefights in such a way thathe is not
willing to die
for indirect statements, indirect questions, result clauses, causal clauses, digressive
relative clauses, 54.11
Modal (Secondary) Indicative

54.3 Modalindicative in main clauses:
av use negative
+ &v in counterfactual statements and questions ou 34.16
étroinoav &v tatita they would (have) do(ne) that (but didn't)
-&v in unrealizable wishes, with ci@¢, ci yap
eiGe Etroinoav tatta would that they had donethat (but they
haven't)
imperfect of impersonal verbs expressing unfulfilled necessity 34.17
51 aUTOUS Troleiv/Troifjom Tavita they should do/have done
that (but don t/didn t)
imperfect BouAdéuny I would (have) like(d), yeAAov I would (have) be(en) ou 34.17
likely to
54.4 Modalindicative in subordinate clauses:
av use negative
+ &v in relative clauses referring to a counterfactual action ou
éTrawd tatita & dv étroinoav Ipraise the things which they would have
done (but didn t)
for indirect statements, indirect questions, result clauses, causal
- &v in counterfactual conditional clauses (main clause: un)

modal (secondary) indicative with év)
ei TAUTA ETTOINOaV NUTUXOUV av if they had done that they
would prosper (but they didn t)
in restrictive relative clauses with a counterfactual conditional un} 50.22
force (main clause: modal (secondary) indicative with &v)
émtveoev Gv tatita & étroinoav he would have praised the things they
would have done(i.e. if they had done them,but they didn t)
through attraction of mood un) 40.15
642 54.5-6 Overview of Moods
Subjunctive
54.5 Subjunctive in main clauses:
use negative
in first-person exhortations (hortatory) pr} 34.6
Tro1dpev Tatta let us do that
in second-person prohibitions, (prohibitive) with un, aor. subj. only un 34.7

un Toimons Tavta don t do that
in first-person doubtful questions (deliberative) Un} 34.8

Ti Toimyev; what should we do?
in emphatic denials with ov pH ou pny 34.9

ov Et Troijow tatta I will certainly not do that
in doubtful assertions with pH (un) ot 34.10

Lt obx obTas Exp I suspect that is not the case
54.6 Subjunctive in subordinate clauses:
&v use negative

-&v in fear clauses (depending on a verboffearing) referring ot 43.3
to the future, with uy
Se501ka wt) Toijowo1 tatita Ifear that they do that
in fear clauses (depending ona verb of fearing) referring to an ou 43.4
uncertain present or past action, with py
SéSorka ut WetroiKwor Tavita Ifear that they may have donethat
in purpose clauses, with iva, dtres, as (also sometimes un) 45.3, 44.3
in effort clauses with dtres, os)
a&trepyovtai iva toijowor tatita they are leaving in
order to do that
+ &v in prospective temporal, conditional and restrictive Un) 40.9, 47.8,

relative clauses referring to (single) actions in the 49.6, 50.20
future (main clause: fut. ind., imp., etc.)
étav/éav Tatita Toimowow evtuxnoouow when/if they
do that they will prosper
éTravéow TavTa & &v ToimowowI will praise the things
which they do(i.e. if they do them)
in indefinite temporal, conditional and restrictive un) 40.9, 47.9,
relative clauses referring to a non-past habitual/repeated 49.13, 50.21
action (main clause: pres. ind.)
étav/édv Tadta Toimowow evtuyotow whenever/if ever
they do that they prosper
ds dv tatta tort eutuyei whoever does that prospers
54.6-8 Optative 643
&v use negative

occasionally in purposeclauses(also in effort clauses) with d1ras, >; pr} 45.5, 44.4
prospective &v + subj.
&trépyovtar Stas &v troitjowor tatita they are leaving in order to do that
Optative
54.7 Optative in main clauses:
&v use negative

- &v in realizable wishes ( cupitive ), often with ci@e, ci yap, a5 uy 34.14
(ci8e) troioins tata may you do that
+&v potential optative: ou 34.13
- in statements and questions about possible actions
Trowiev &v tatita they may/might/could do that
- (with a negative) in emphatic negations
ov Troioiev &v Tata they could/would not do that
- in cautious commands, permissions,etc.
Trowins &v tata please, do that
54.8 Optative in subordinate clauses:
&v = suse negative

-&v iterative optative: in temporal, conditional and restrictive 40.9, 47.10,
relative clauses referring to a habitual/repeated action in 49.13, 50.21
the past (main clause: imperfect)
éte/ei TaUTA Toijoelav NUTUYOUV whenever/if ever they
did that they prospered
ds Tata Toioin nUTUXE: whoever did that prospered
in potential conditional clauses (main clause: potential un} 49.8
optative with év)
ei Tata Trotoiev eUTUXoiev av if they were to do that they
may/could/might prosper
in restrictive relative clauses with a potential conditional value (main uy 50.22
clause: potential optative with dv)
érrawvéoaupy &v tata & troijoeiav I would praise the things which they do
(i.e. if they should do them)
644 54.8-10 Overview of Moods
&v use negative

in historic sequence an oblique optative can be usedin: 40.12
- indirect statements (611/0s) ou 41.9
éAgyov O71 Toloiev Tavita they said that they were doing that
- indirect questions (also to replace deliberative subj.) ou 42.7
jjpovto ti toioiev they asked what they did/should do
- fear clauses (frequently) (un) oF §=43.3
EpoPouury Ut) Troitjoeiav tatita Ifeared that they would
do that
- effort clauses (rarely) with fut. opt. un) 44.2
éTreveAOvTO STIWS Trojoolev Tata they took care that
they did that
- purposeclauses (frequently) ut) 45.3
&TrAGOv iva trotoiev Tavita they left in order to do that
- causal clauses, to refer to an alleged/reported reason ou 48.2
Eypdgpovto avTov $1671 Tous véous Siapbeipere they sued
him on the grounds that he spoilt the youth
- also in subordinate clauses within subordinate clauses 40.14, 41.19
(where &v + subj. is replaced by opt. without &v),
particularly subordinate clauses within indirect speech
EAeyov St1 eUTUynoolev Ste/ei Tata Troimoeiav they said
that they would prosper when/if they did that
through attraction of mood un) 40.15
for the (rare) use of the cupitive optative in subordinate clauses, 54.11
+ & in relative clauses referring to a possible action ou 50.17, 50.26
éTrawwe tatta & &v troimoeiav I praise the things which they might do
for indirect statements, indirect questions, result clauses, causal clauses,
digressive relative clauses, 54.11
Imperative
54.9 Imperative in main clauses:
use negative
in second- and third-person commands,requests, etc. 34.19-20
toie: tata do that
toiitw tata let him do that
in second-person prohibitions with un, (pres. imp. only) LT} 34.19-20

un Tote: tabta don't do that / stop doing that
54.10 Forthe (rare) use of the imperative in subordinate clauses, 54.11.

54.11 Moods of Independent Sentences in Subordinate Clauses 645
Moodsof Independent Sentences in Subordinate Clauses

54.11 In indirect statements (611/«s-clauses; 41.7-15), indirect questions ( 42.7-8),
result clauses (not with the inf., 46.4-6), causal clauses ( 48.2-3), and in
digressive relative clauses ( >50.17) the moods of independent sentences are
used (although imperatives, hortatory/prohibitive subjunctives and cupitive opta-
tives are all rare).
The oblique optative can be used in historic sequence in someof these types
(indirect speech, indirect questions, causal clauses).
ID
Overview of the Uses of &v
In Independent Sentences
55.1 The uses of &v in independent sentences:
main clause (corresponding subordinate

clause)
with optative potential construction ( 34.13): corresponding conditional/relative
(pres./aor./pf.) in statements/questions about a clauses usually have optative without dv
possible action, cautious requests, (40.10)
etc.
TOInoeiav av TAUTA ei TAOUOIOI yévoivTo.
They would/might/could do that if they should becomerich.
with secondary counterfactual construction corresponding conditional/relative

indicative ( 34.15-17): clauses usually have secondary indicative
(impf/aor/plpf.) in statements/questions about an without av (40.10)
action that would have occurred
undercertain circumstances which
were/are not realized
éTroinoayv av TatTa ei TAoUoIOI oOav
They would have donethat if they were rich (but they werenot).
iterative dv (33.24 n.1): referring to
repeated actions in the past
étroinoayv av Tatta
They used to do that.
In Finite Subordinate Clauses
55.2 The uses of &v in subordinate clauses:
subordinate clause corresponding matrix clause

with subjunctive prospective construction verb form with future reference(fut. ind.,
(pres./aor./pf.) ( 40.9): imp., subj., +33.63-4)
in temporal, conditional andrelative
clauses referring to the future
55.2-3 With Infinitives and Participles 647
subordinate clause corresponding matrix clause

EAV TTOINOWO1 TAUTA TAUoIOl yEevt}OOVTal
If they (will) do that they will becomerich.
the prospective construction is sometimes
used in purpose clauses (45.4), and in
effort clauses (44.4)
indefinite construction ( 40.9): present indicative (or other verb form
in temporal, conditional and referring to a repeated, typical action)
relative clauses referring to a
repeated, typical action
EQAV TTOIT]OWO1 TAUTA TrAouGlo1 ylyvovTal
Wheneverthey do that they becomerich.
with optative potential construction: in subordinate
(pres./aor./pf.) clauses that use the moodsof main clauses
( 40.5), and sometimesin restrictive
relative clauses (50.26)
with secondary counterfactual construction: in subordi-
indicative nate clauses that use the moodsof main
(impf./aor./plpf.) clauses ( 40.5), and sometimesin restric-
tive relative clauses ( 50.26)
With Infinitives and Participles

55.3 The uses of &v with infinitives and participles:
with infinitive with declarative infinitives (in indirect speech/thought, 51.27),

(pres./aor./pf.) representing either:
a potential construction:
oiel AUTOUS TOUTO Gv Trolfjoal, ei TAOUCIOI yEevolVTO;
Do you think that they could/might/would do that, if they should become
rich?
or a counterfactual construction:
oil AUTOUS TOUTO av Trolijoal, Ei TAOUGIO1 Toa;
Do you think that they would have donethat, if they had been rich?
with participle with the participle in any use (but not with all types of supplementary
(pres./aor./pf.) participle, and only sometimes with circumstantial participles), repre-
senting either a potential optative or a counterfactual indicative ( 52.7,
52.10 n.1)
56
Overview of Negatives
General Points
ou versus yn
56.1 The distinction between two different negatives in Greek, ov and un, extends
throughouttheir use in various compound forms:
ou un not
oUTe ... oUTE UNTE ... UTVTE neither ... nor; not... and not
ousé unde and not; but not; not even
oudels undeis no one/ nothing
ovusapou undapou nowhere
outote/ou... Tote wntote/ un... Twote never
oltre / ov... TH unre / ut... Tre not yet (in poetry also: in no way)
ouKét1 / ou... @T1 unKketi / un)... éT1 no longer
Before vowels, ot takes the form otx; before vowels with rough breathing, ovy
( 1.42). The form ot/otx/oty (with accent) is used primarily in answers
( >38.21). There is also an intensive, emphatic form, otyi.
56.2 The distinction between the two negatives is, broadly speaking, as follows:
ov is the neutral negative, expressing that somethingis factually not the case
(or, in questions, asking whetherit is not). It contradicts or denies: otx gom1
tautta that is not true.
pn is the subjective negative, expressing something about whatis desired or
hoped.It rejects and deprecates: pt gotw tatta let that not betrue.
There are, however, several specific uses of un which do noteasily fall underthis
definition ( 56.6-17).
Multiple Negatives
56.3 Ifthere are two or more negatives in one clause, they cancel each otherif (and onlyif):
the second negative is simple, i.e. not a compound form;
both negatives belong to the samepredicate:
56.3-8 In Independent Sentences 649
(1) o8Seis dvpatrov &dikdv tiow ovK d&trotiogs. (Hdt. 5.56.1)

No manwill not get punishment for being unjust. (= Everyone whois unjust
will be punished. ; the second negative is simple and both negatives belong to the
samepredicate, so they cancel each other.)
56.4 If the second negative is a compound,it intensifies the first (only one should be
translated as negative):
(2) otxK Zotiv dvbpi d&yabS Kaxdv ovdév. (Pl. Ap. 41d)
Nothingevil (at all) happens to a good man. The second negative is a compound
form, so it strengthens the first.
56.5 Negatives belonging to different predicates or phrases keep their force:

(3) ob 81& TO Ut &kovTilev obK EBaAov autov. (Antiph. 3.4.6)
It was not because they did not throw (lit. not because of the not-throwing )
that they did not hit him. Thefirst ov modifies the prepositional phrase 51a...
anovtilew, ur modifies dnovticew, the second ovxu modifies éBadov: the suggestion
is it was notfor a lack of trying that they missed him .
In Independent Sentences
56.6 In statements, ov and its compoundsare used with:
the indicative;
the potential optative with &v ( 34.13);
- the modal (secondary) indicative with év (counterfactual, 34.16); also the
modal use of imperfects like 25e1/(2)ypfv (34.17).
Note 1: The combination ot ut + (aor.) subj. expresses an emphatic denial, a strong belief
that something will not be the case (34.9).
Note 2: The combination py (ot) + subj. expresses a doubtful assertion (34.10).
56.7 In negative wishes, negative adhortations, prohibitions, etc., wn and its com-
poundsare used with:
the imperative or aorist subjunctive (in prohibitions) (34.19, 34.7);
the first-person (or third-person) subjunctive (in negative adhortations) (34.6);
the cupitive optative without dv (in negative wishes) ( 34.14).
56.8 In questions:
when introducing a yes/no-question, o/otxotv signals that the answeryesis
expected: isn't it the case that ... @ , it is the case that ..., isn t it? , surely... ?
( 38.7);
650 56.8-11 Overview of Negatives
un/ayv is used in yes/no-questions to indicate that the speaker is reluctant to

accept a positive answerastrue: is it really the case that ... @ , it isn t the case
that ..., is it? , surely not... ? (38.8);
in specifying questions ( 38.11-14), ot is used.
In Subordinate Clauses
56.9 In the following types of subordinate clause, ov is used:

declarative «s>/ét1-clauses (indirect speech) ( 41) and indirect questions/
exclamations ( 42);
fear clauses (note that the subordinator in these clauses is uh that) (43);
result clauses (cote) with the moods of independent sentences(actual result)
( -46.4-6);
temporal clauses referring to the past (étrei, Ste, etc.) (47.7);
causal clauses (611, 51671; étrei, etc.) (48);
digressive relative clauses (és, etc.), some restrictive relative clauses, relative
clauses with causal or result force, relative clauses with potential opt. + &v or
counterfactual modal ind. + &v ( 50.17, 50.19, 50.23, 50.25-6).
56.10 In the following types of subordinate clause, wn is used:

effort clauses (611ws) ( 44);
purposeclauses(iva, étras, as; ut is also used on its own) ( 45);
result clauses (ote) with the infinitive (likely/natural result) ( 46.7-11);
temporal clauses referring to the future or to repeated/habitual occurrences
( 47.8-11);
conditional clauses (ci) and concessive clauses (i Kai/Kai ci) (49);
most restrictive relative clauses (és, etc.), relative clauses with the force of
purpose-clauses ( 50.18-22, 50.24).
Note 1: Restrictive relative clauses with the indicative have uh when the clause has
conditional or generic force: 50.19.
With Infinitives
56.11 The negative with the dynamicinfinitive (to complementverbs) is yn ( 51.13).
Note 1: When a verb that takes a dynamicinfinitive is itself negated, the negative with the
infinitive is often uh ot, 51.37.
56.12-17 With Participles 651
56.12 The negative with the declarative infinitive (used in indirect speech) is nearly
always ov ( 51.22; for exceptions, 51.23).
56.13 un is always used with verbs of denying (+ decl. inf.) and verbs of preventing,
forbidding, etc. (+ dyn. inf.). When a verb of denying or preventing, etc. is itself
negated, it is followed by pt ot ( 51.34-6).
56.14 Thearticular infinitive (with the article) has negative pn (51.42).
With Participles
56.15 With the supplementary participle (used to complementverbs, e.g. tuyydvo,
oiSa, yaipw), the negative is ov.
56.16 The participle in noun phraseshas:

ov whenit refers to a specific entity: 6 ot Baivev the (specific) man who is not
walking;
pn whenit refers to an entire species orclass ( generic , 52.48): 6 uh Baivev =
whatever man is not walking.
Note 1: This same generic use of uy is also common with nouns and with substantivized
adjectives: oi un tAoUo101 whoeverare notrich (i.e. the non-rich); 6 ut iatpds whoeveris not
a doctor; and with restrictive relative clauses with the indicative, ~50.19.
56.17 The circumstantial participle (connected/genitive absolute) usually has ot, but py
whenthe participle has a conditional nuance ( >52.40).
37
Overview of the Uses of cs
As a Conjunction
57.1 The word os functions as a conjunction in the following cases:
- as a relative adverb in clauses of comparison (such as, like; also étrws,
@otrep and xa@dtrep), either with or without ottw(s) in the matrix clause,
50.37:
WS EOIKE as it appears
Ss ENoi SoKeiT as it seems to me
(1) éxéAeuoe 5é Tous EAAnvas, as vous avTois eis UdXTV, OUTW TayxOfjvar. (Xen. An.
1.2.15)
He ordered that the Greeks be stationed as was their custom in battle.
Also in answersto questions with 1rés (more frequently doTep):

(2) OE. més Tous Bavévtas PatrteT év TrdvTe vexpous; | :: ME. as &v trapovons
otioias éxaotos 7 (Eur. Hel. 1252-3)
(Theoclymenus:) How do you bury those whodie at sea? :: (Menelaus:) As well
as each man s wealth allows.
Note 1: For comparative temporal clauses (cs éte as when, like), 47.17; for comparative
conditional clauses (ao(trep) (&v) ei as if, like), >49.22-4.
in indirect statement after verbs of speech,etc. (that, how), 41.4-6:

AEYEL GS... he says that...
in indirect exclamations (what, how), 42.9-11:
Baupdacel aos... he is amazed at how ...
- to complement verbs of effort, with the future indicative (more frequently
détrws) (that), 44;
in purpose clauses with the subjunctive (or optative in historic sequence),
sometimes with &v (so as to, in order to), 45:
57.1-2 As an Adverb 653
(3) Kai Gua tadT eitraov dvéotn, ws Ut) EAAOITO ... Ta S ovta. (Xen. An. 3.1.47)
And assoonas he hadsaid these things, he stood up, so that what was required
would not be delayed.
in result clauses (more frequently éote), with the infinitive or with the moods
of independent sentences(so that, with the result that), 40:
(4) ... UwnrAdv 8 otTw ... a5 Tas KOPUMAS OUK Oia TE Eivan iSéo08a1. (Hdt. 4.184.3)
... but so high that it was impossible to see the mountaintops.
in temporal clauses (when, after, as soon as, especially in the form as (...)
TAYXIOTA), >47:
(5) as Tdx10TA Ews UTrepaivev, EBUOovTO. (Xen. An. 4.3.9)
As soon as a shimmerof daylight was breaking through, theysacrificed.
(6) ws SiaBaiverv étreipa&to 6 Kipos ..., évOatita ... (Hdt. 1.189.1)
WhenCyrustried to cross, at that moment...
introducing newsentences, with causal force, expressing a motivation for the
previous utterance (because, as), 48.5.
As an Adverb
57.2 In the following constructions, as is an adverb:

in direct exclamations (how!), modifying an adjective, adverb or verb, 38.47:
(7) as TOAAdY GAATAwYV KExwploneva épycooo. (Hdt. 7.46.1)
Howdifferent from each other the things that you have done!
with a superlative (as ... as possible):
@s KpaTIOTA as strong as possible
- with a participle, giving a subjective reason or motivation (because, on the
grounds that, thinking that), purpose (with the future participle, so as to, in
order to) or to express comparison (as(if), just like), >52.39, 52.41, 52.43:
(8) tautny Thy xopav étréTpEWe Siaptrc&oai Tois EAAnowwws TroAeuiav ovoayv. (Xen.
An. 1.2.19)
He turned this country over to the Greeks to ravage, on the groundsthatit
washostile.
(9) trapeoxeudlovto os TroAeunoovtes. (Thuc. 2.7.1)
They madepreparationsto go to war.
(10) Agyouoww as ws SAWAdTAs. (Aesch. Ag. 672)
They speak of us as dead.
in various idiomatic expressions with the infinitive, e.g. cos citreiv as it were, if
I may use this expression, 51.49;
in wishes (in poetry) (would that, if only), >38.38;
654 57.2-3 Overview of the Uses of as
- with numerals and wordsindicating degree (roughly, about):

(11) émAitas Eyoov ws Trevtaxootous (Xen. An. 1.2.3)
having aboutfive hundred hoplites
Note 1: cs (so accented) is a demonstrative adverb (so, thus, in this way):
Kal OS even so
ous ds not even in that case
Similarly:
DOAUTAS in the same way
As a Preposition
57.3 as functions as a preposition with the accusative meaning to(wards), used only
with motion to people, 31.9:
OS ZWKPAaTH to Socrates
Part III]
Textual Coherence
538
Introduction to Textual Coherence
Coherence
Sentences versus Texts
58.1 Almostall of the grammatical phenomenadiscussedin partII of this book operate

at the level of individual sentences. However, when people communicate in speech
or writing, they usually do not stop at a single sentence. Rather, their sentences
combineto form a larger whole: a speaker mayrelate a series of separate events to
tell an overarching story, or make a claim and back it up with proofs and
explanations, or describe a person or thing, commenting on various relevant
aspects, and so forth. In short, when people communicate with each other, they
usually speak or write entire texts, which may vary in length from a few sentences
to entire speeches or books.
58.2 Texts do not consist of sentences which are randomly placed together: a text is
always more than the sum ofits parts. In fact, when people hearorread a text, they
intuitively look for relationships between the individual sentences: they look for
textual coherence.
By way of example, the following two English sentences may,at first sight, be
nothing more than twoassertions randomly put together:
(1) It was raining.
(2) Mary stayed at home.
However, it is rather difficult to resist the urge to regard these two sentences
together, as a coherent and meaningful text. When we do, it is easy to find
a relationship betweenthe sentences. If we read the sentences together,
(3) It was raining. Mary stayed at home.
wewill interpret the first sentence as providing the reason for the second: It was
raining explains why Mary stayed at home.
The coherence between the two sentences may be made explicit by adding
a word which connects them:
(4) It was raining. Therefore Mary stayed at home.
658 58.2-4 Introduction to Textual Coherence
In this new text, the word therefore is an explicit signal that there is a causal
connection between the two sentences. The addition of therefore is not necessary to
establish that causal connection, but it is a way for the speaker/writer to make
interpreting the text easier for the addressee.
Relations between Text Segments; Hierarchy; Interactional Relations
58.3 In the following two examples,as in (4), the word therefore indicates a connection
between two segmentsoftext:
(5) It is raining. Therefore (=that is why) the streets are wet.
(6) The streets are wet. Therefore (that is why) it is raining.
In (5) it is possible to speak of a real-world causal connection between the two
sentences: the fact that it is raining causesthe streets to be wet. But in (6), a different
kind of causal relationship exists: the fact that the streets are wet is not the cause of
rain, but rather, the speaker of (6) uses therefore to explain whyhe cansay thatit is
raining. Note that here is might be paraphrased as mustbe.
Often, textual devices which indicate coherence relations in texts function
specifically on this latter level: they do not refer to relations or entities in the
world described by the text, but to relationships between text segments. Such
relations include explanation , justification , conclusion , elaboration , etc. Greek
connective particles ( 59.7-39) function to indicate such relations particularly
often.
58.4 It is often useful to think of the relations between text segments in terms of
hierarchy: one text segment may be more central than, or superior to,
another text segment which serves to explain, support, elaborate, etc. the
former. Many indicators of coherence relations have a rather abstract func-
tion indicating hierarchy, with different individual effects in different
contexts:
(7) Two times two equals four. So four divided by two equals two. Thefirst
sentence logically entails and thus supports the second: so indicates the transi-
tion to the conclusion, which is the hierarchically superior text segment.
(8) John left homelate. So he missed his train. The main point of this bit ofstory is
that John missed his train; thefact that he left homelate is information needed to
understand that point; so indicates the transition to the more central text
segment.
(9) That is what he said about that. So let us examine if what he said wastrue.
Thefirst sentence appears to roundoff a previous text segment, after which the
speaker turns to the now more relevant part of what he wants to do; so marks
the transition.
58.4-6 Coherence 659
Note 1: There is, of course, a causal relationship between (e.g.) leaving home late and
missing one s train in (8), but this relationship of causality, although very frequently present
with so, may be seen as only one possible instantiation of a more basic function, indicating
certain kinds of (hierarchical) textual relations.
Thus, meaningssuchas cause , explanation , justification , etc. may sometimes be seen
as side effects of more abstract, basic textual functions. An additional complication is that
devices often change their function over time: words which originally had a very specific
meaning (e.g. cause) may develop into an indicator of more abstract textual relationships
(e.g. indicating hierarchical relationships), while maintaining its original function in some
instances.
58.5 In addition to relations between text segments, some indicators of coherence

operate on thelevel of interaction between speaker, addressee andtext:
(10) It is raining. After all, the streets are wet.
Just like in (6), after all serves to explain why the speakercan saythatit is raining.
But it also appears to do somethingelse: after all appeals to the knowledge of the
addressee, orat least to the addressee s willingness to accept that the streets are wet.
Apart from appealing to addressees knowledge, speakers may also use such
interactional devices to indicate their own commitmentto a point, forestall any
doubt or objections an addressee may have,etc.
Devices Indicating Coherence
58.6 The chapters in part III are about various kinds of linguistic clues in Greek
which establish coherence between sentences. A great number of aspects of
the grammar of Greek cannot be completely understood without widening
the level of analysis from sentences to larger units of texts. These aspects
include:
- Pronouns: in 29.28 we discussed the cataphoric and anaphoric uses of the
demonstrative pronouns 645¢, oUtos and éxeivos and of non-nominative formsof
autos. Whetheror not a person can bereferred to by these pronouns, and which
one should be used, is determined in large part by the extent to which that
person is already familiar from the previous context. This is true for English
pronounsaswell:
(11) Jane celebrated her birthday. She got a lot of presents.
In (11), itis clear that she refers to Jane. But we can only ascertain this by looking
at the surrounding context (withoutthe first sentence, we would not know who
is meant by she). The context is similarly importantfor distinguishing between
the uses of contrastive and non-contrastive personal pronouns ( 29.1), as
well as several other uses of pronouns.
- Tenses: in 33.49-51 we looked at the way in which the imperfect tense in

narratives can create a framework, in which other events, expressed by the
aorist (which pushesthe story forward), occur. The imperfect raises the question
What else happened? , and the subsequent context answers that question.
Wealso saw that the historical present is used to mark decisive events in
a story (33.54). Tenses are therefore of vital importance in recognizing how
a speakeror writer organizes his text hierarchically (58.4). As we will show in
chapter 61, the use of tenses also varies significantly according to the specific
communicative purpose a speaker has in formulating his text. Tenses are thus
also important for understanding whatit is a speaker is trying to accomplish.
Particles: many Greek particles (indeclinable, small words) establish relation-
shipsofall kinds betweensentences,similar to therefore and so in English (see
examples above). These are called connective (or text-structuring ) particles.
Anotherset of particles allows speakers to provide their addressees with an
indication of how piece of information is to be considered:as a fact or not, as
important, as something that the addressee is expected to agree with, etc. These
are called attitudinal (or interactional ) particles. A third group ofparticles is
used to specify the extent to which (parts of) utterances are applicable: wecall
these particles of scope . Particles will be treated in detail in chapter 59.
Wordorder: the order of constituents in a Greek sentence is often determined
by the importance and the newness of the information each constituent con-
tributes to the text. Therefore, when describing the word orderof a sentence,it is
crucial to look at the context surrounding that sentence. Word orderis dis-
cussed in chapter 60.
As noted above, how these aspects work together to establish textual coherence cannot
be fully understood unless they are studied at the level of larger sections of text. For
that reason, four case studies are provided in chapter 61: these are analyses of longer
passages in whichall of the factors mentioned above, and many more,are at work.
Text Types
58.7 The excerpts in chapter 61 have been selected as representative of various text
types. It was mentioned in 33.13 that there is an important difference between
narrative and non-narrative text, but it is useful to draw finer distinctionsstill:
someone whorelates a story will structure his text in different ways from some-
one whois describing a landscape,andthis is different again from someone who
is defending a certain claim in a debate. The differences between these text types
lie, among others, in how they progress through time, how they refer to the
entities which they speak about, and in the ways speakers and addressees are
visible in the text.
58.8-9 Text Types 661
58.8 A first important distinction that may be made betweenvarious kindsoftexts is

that between monological texts and dialogical texts:
- In monological texts, a single speaker/writer controls the flow of the text,
stringing together sentences to construct a longerstory, argument, etc.
- In dialogical texts, two or more interlocutors together build a text, exchanging
facts, opinions andinstructions and often trying to convince or persuade each
other. Dialogical texts are often characterized (at least more so than monological
texts) by a wide variety of moods and tenses, by the frequent occurrence of
attitudinal particles ( >59.40), and by the use of the first and second person.
Although the distinction monologue vs. dialogue appears straightforward, it is
actually better to see monological and dialogical as opposite ends on scale.
In dialogues, individual speakers may expand in long speeches which seem almost
monological; conversely, even a very long speech ortreatise by a single speaker or
author can show the presenceof an addressee(e.g. a speech addressedto a specific
audience,a letter to a friend), which can influence how text is constructed and
presented.
58.9 Secondly, we can distinguish between various uses to which a text can be put: to
tell a story, to describe an object or characterize a person, to provide information,
to persuade, etc. Moreorless in line with such functions, we discuss here three
text types that occur frequently in Greek literature: narrative, description
and argument (the list is not exhaustive; various other text types may be
distinguished):
Ina narrative, a speakerrelates a series of successive events, typically in the past.
Normally (excepting flashbacks and flash-forwards), the events are related in
chronological order, which means that manyfinite verbs in main clauses push
the narrative forward in time, although through the choice of tenses and the
frequent use of subordinate clauses a speaker may also indicate background
events. Usually, a narrative features a limited number of characters, who
are referred to repeatedly, but in different ways. The speaker may or may
not be a participant in the story: narratives can betold in thefirst or the third
person.
- A description of a person or thing, by contrast, does not usually progress
through time; rather, the speaker discusses several aspects of the person/thing
in turn, resulting in an enumeration of these aspects. Although descriptions may
be set either in the present or the past, the flow of time plays no part in them,
which normally results in the consistent use of the same tense (present or
imperfect) throughout a descriptive passage. The order in which the individual
itemsare treated often depends on spatial considerations(e.g. a description may
zoom in , getting ever more detailed, or describe an object from top to bottom,
or vice versa). Because various aspects are discussed, new entities are often
introduced throughoutthetext.
- In an argumentative text, a speaker makes one or more claims which he backs
up with proofs, explanations, etc. Often, claims in arguments are meant to have
a generalvalidity, resulting in the frequent use ofthe present tense. An argument
often has a complex hierarchical structure, which involves a varied set of
connective particles. Since arguments are meant to convince or persuade some-
one, there may be frequent signs of the addressee to whom the argumentis
directed, e.g. in the form of second-personverbs andattitudinal particles.
58.10 The four passages treated in chapter 61 exemplify some of the manydifferent
possible combinations of forms (monological, dialogical) and functions(narrative,
descriptive, argumentative, etc.) that are foundin texts. It should be observed that
texts seldom correspond simply to the generalizations made above, and that they
are very often mixed. Descriptions, for example, are often part of a larger narrative;
a narrative, in turn, may support a claim by providing an example of the applic-
ability of that claim, and thus be rather argumentative; and so forth. The four
representative samples discussed in 61 are, as such, by no means examples of
pure narrative, description,etc.
Note 1: The notionsof different text types presented above should be seen as distinct from,
but not wholly unrelated to, genres (epic, tragedy, comedy, lyric, historiography,
philosophical dialogue, etc.). Any genre may feature various different text types, although
certain types tend to proliferate in certain genres: historiography primarily consists of
narrative and descriptive material, philosophical dialogues are rich in argumentative text,
etc.
58.11 In chapter 61, we attempt to elucidate the manifold factors which are at work in
making our four sample passages into organized, meaningful texts: an interplay
between not only the features mentioned above (pronouns,tenses, word order and
particles), but many other grammatical features as well. Cross-references to the
relevant sections of the grammarwill be made throughout.
39
Particles
Introduction
Meanings and Functions; Types of Particle
59.1 Particles are usually considered a class separate from adverbs, conjunctions and
interjections (oipoi, éa, é 2, etc.), even though there is a considerable overlap
between these classes. It is indeed almost impossible to draw clear boundaries
between particles and adverbs, or between particles and conjunctions.
Note 1: The connective particles kai, &AAd, te and7 are, in fact, often unambiguously used as
co-ordinating conjunctions.
The dividing line between particles and adverbsis particularly blurry since particles can
typically be described, in terms of their syntactic function, as adverbial modifiers operating
on different levels of the sentence, i.e. as disjuncts, conjuncts and occasionally as subjuncts;
for these terms, 26.15.
In sometreatments,certain lexical items are considered to belong in someof their uses to
one class, and in others to another (e.g. at, which is sometimes treated as an adverb,
sometimesas a connective particle).
The wordsclassed as particles do share some formal characteristics:

- they are short words (mostly one or twosyllables) that are never declined, and
normally not derived ( 23.1);
they are either postpositive or prepositive ( 60.5-6).
59.2 Particles often have no meaning in the same way that wordslike oixia house,
copia wisdom, Baiveww walk, or &vdpeios courageous have meaning. Such words
refer to entities, actions, relationships or properties in the world described by text
( referential meaning ). Particles, rather, have a functional meaning:they indicate
howcertain parts of the textitselfrelate to each other, or how thetextrelates to the
attitudes and expectations of the speaker and the addressee ( 58.3-5).
Note 1: Because they have a (often rather abstract) functional meaningrather thana referential
meaning, and becausethere is not always an English word with the exact same function, thereis
often no one-to-one equivalent for a particular Greek particle in English translation. The same
basic function of a particle may, in different contexts and/or text types ( >58.7-11), lead to
different interpretations, which in turn lead to different possible translations.
664 59.2-4 Particles
It is sometimes difficult to determine what the exact function of a Greek particle is,
especially because such functions may also change and become morediffuse over time.
Furthermore, there is not always scholarly consensus about the function of an individual
particle.
59.3 Particles may be subdivided amongthe following categories, each treated sepa-
rately below:
- connective (or text-structuring ) particles, which function (primarily) to indi-
cate relationships between (the content of) text segments: dAAG, at, yap, 5é, 7,
Kai, KaITO1, HEV, MEVTOL, VUV, OUSE/UNSE, OUKOUV/oUKOUYV, oUV, oUTE/mTTE, Te, TOLyaP,
Tolryapouy, Toryépto1 and toivuv ( 59.7-39);
attitudinal (also: modal or interactional ) particles, which function (primar-
ily) to indicate a speaker s attitude towards the content of his/her utterance, or
his/her anticipation of the addressee s attitude towards that content: é&pa, dpa,
Sr, Styrou, 7, wn, Tou, and toi ( 59.40-51);
- particles of scope, which determine the applicability of an utterance s content to
a particular element: ye, yotv, so-called adverbial kai, and trep ( >59.52-6).
Note1: In several cases particles (may) have both a connective and anattitudinal function,
and sometimesit is difficult to draw a clear distinction between the two: such particles are
discussed under the heading of connective particles below if their use is considered to
prevent asyndeton (for which 59.9; connective 57 and urare, however, treated together
with their attitudinal uses: 59.44, 59.49). Connective particles and attitudinal particles
togetherare often called discourse particles .
Note 2: This chapter does nottreat the particle &v, for which 55.
Particle Combinations
59.4 Particles very frequently occur in combinations:e.g. dAAG pv, pev OV, Kai Bn, 1
uty. It is not always possible to reduce the function of these particle combinations
to the sum oftheir individualparts, as certain (relatively) fixed combinations have
acquired specific uses. Such particle combinationsare treated separately below,
59.57-76.
Some particle combinations are so fixed that they were probably not felt
as separate particles in their use, and are indeed conventionally written as one
word, e.g. kaito1 (kai + Tot), wévtor (uév + Tor), Toivuv (Tor + vuv), Syrou (87 +
tou): these are treated below as single particles; all others are treated as
combinations.
Thereare also frequent combinationsofparticles with negatives, also tradition-
ally written as one word: e.g. o5é, ote, oUKotv. These are also treated as single
particles below.
59.5-10 Connective Particles 665
The Position of Particles
59.5 Manyparticles cannot occurin thefirst position of a clause but are postpositives,
i.e. they stand in secondposition of the clause or word group that they modify
(for details, -60.7-12). These postpositive particles are: &pa, at, yap, ye, your, 5,
St), STOU, UEV, UEVTOL, LTV, VUV, OUV, TEP, Trou, TE, TOI, TOIVUV.
59.6 Otherparticles are prepositives, i.e. they normally stand in front of the clause or
wordgroupthat they modify (for details, >60.13). These prepositive particlesare:
GAAG, apa, 7, T, Kal, Kaito1, and oSé/undé, otKouv/otKotv, otte/unte, Toryap,
Toryapotv, ToryapTol.
Connective Particles
Introduction
59.7 The vast majority of Greek sentences are connected in some way to their
surrounding context, in most cases by a connective particle. Different connective
particles establish different kinds of coherence relationships between the text
segment they stand in and the preceding and/or following context (segments
may have more than one connective particle to indicate complex relationships,
and there are several common combinations).
59.8 Connective particles are used to connect individual sentences, but they can also
function to link various clauses within a sentence, various elements within
a clause, or (very frequently) to indicate relationships between larger sections of
text.
59.9 Thelack of any particle to connect sentencesis relatively rare in Greektexts.It is

called asyndeton, and occurs only in certain circumstances ( 61 for several
examples).
Note 1: This characterization ( relatively rare ) holds for transitions between sentences
uttered by a single speaker: the use of particles by one speaker to connect a sentence to
that of another speaker is muchless regular, although not uncommon.
59.10 Most connective particles have a rather abstract function, indicating general (often
hierarchical, -58.4) relations between text segments. In different contexts, such
general functions mayresult in different specific interpretations (andtranslations).
For instance, the particle &AA& hasas its basic general function substitution or
correction: (an element of) the new text segment introduced by &AA& - the host
segment replaces (an elementof) the preceding text segment. This basic function
has a wide rangeof specific instantiations in different contexts:
666 59.10 Particles
(1) SOKEITE ... MOL VI|ELV. OUK ETTITPETTTEOV OUV Lyiv, GAAK Trotéov. (Pl. Symp. 213e)
You seem to me to be sober. You must not be allowed this: rather you must
drink. Substitution ofan explicit element: GAA& replaces one explicit alternative
(émitpetttéov) with another (trotéov); it is frequently so used in the formula ov
X, GANG Y(= not X, but (rather) Y ), in which case &AA& is a co-ordinating
conjunction.
(2) OI. Siatpafopai toivuv d5a TO Sixtuov. :: BA. GAA ovK Exels 656vTas. (Ar. Vesp.
164-5)
(Philocleon:) Then I'll gnaw through the net with myteeth.:: (Bdelycleon:) But
you don t have any teeth! Substitution of a presupposed element: Philocleon s
assertion that he will use his teeth presupposes that he has any to begin with;
GAAG corrects this presupposition.
(3) Eitre, oyate, Tis aUTOUS GuEivoUS Trolei; :: Oi vopol. :: AAV ou TOUTO é9WTH,
BéATioTe, GAAS Tis AvOpartros; (Pl. Ap. 24d-e)
(Socrates:) Tell me, sir, who makes them better? :: (Meletus:) The lawsdo.
:: (Socrates:) But that s not what I m asking, my dear sir: which man
makes them better? Substitution of an implicit element: GAAd& corrects
the notion (implicit in Meletus reply) that Socrates question has been
satisfactorily answered. The second &AA& replaces an explicit element, as
in (1).
(4) 2Q. treipe ctroKxpivesbar TO EpwTmpEevov T} dv dAIoTa olin. :: KP. GAAG
Teipaoopuai. (Pl. Cri. 49a)
(Socrates:) Try to answer what I ask you in the way you deem best. :: (Crito:)
Of course I'll try. In this case, dAA& replaces the implicit possibility that Crito
will not comply with Socrates request (which is still open) with the assurance
that that request will befulfilled. Thus Crito implies that he is ready to move on
to the questions, and that there was no need for Socrates to worry about his
preliminary request.
(5) otk &vtétevov GAA Eikov, uexpl Soou KdpTa éSéovToO avTdav... - ws yap 57
Siwoduevoi Tov Tlepony trepi Tis Exeivou NSN Tov aydva EtroieUvTo... areiAovTo
THNyevovinv tous Aakedaiyovious. GAAG TaUTA HEV UOTEPOV EYEVETO. TOTE SE...
(Hdt. 8.3.2-4.1)
(The Athenians) did not resist but waived (their claim to the command),
as long as (the Greeks) desperately needed them; for when they had
driven the Persians out and brought the battle to their territory, they
deprived the Spartans of the command. That, however, happenedlater;
presently, ... Substitution of a discourse topic: &AA& breaks off the story
about the Athenians later action, as Herodotus wants to return to
the storyline he left behind earlier. The first GAA& replaces an explicit
element.
Note 1: Depending on the specific context, éAA& maythusreceive very different translations
into English e.g. but, no, rather, however, on the contrary and in somecasesas well, anyway;
of course, all right, etc. As noted above ( >59.2 n. 1), there is often no single equivalent
in English for a Greek particle: translation often depends on an analysis of the specific
context (including text type, -58.7-11) of a particle s use, as well as that particle s basic
function.
Thedescriptions of connective particles below concern both their abstract general

function and certain commontypesof specific contexts in which theparticle is
found. Suggested possible translations are given in parentheses (these are not
exhaustive).
List of Connective Particles

aAAa
59.11 Basic function: substitution/correction/elimination GAA& corrects one explicit

or implicit element andreplaces it with another:
(as a co-ordinating conjunction within sentences:) correcting explicit elements:
ot A, &AA& B = not A but B (but, rather, no, on the contrary);
correcting implicit or presupposed elements from the preceding contexts (but,
on the contrary);
to break off a certain topic of discourse and replace it with a new one (well,
however, anyway, so much for that);
in dialogue frequently in commands/requests, suggesting that the precedingline
of conversation is broken off and that the addressee should turn to the new
matter at hand (but, well, now, so much for that);
in dialogue also frequent in answers, suggesting that no moreattention needsto
be paid to (an element of) the context eliciting the answer (but, all right, of
course).
For examples 59.10.
59.12 &AA& is sometimes used in a main clause correcting or substituting (an element from)
a preceding subordinate clause - so-called apodotic &AA&:
(6) viv dv étrerSt) obK Uyeis pEate TOUTOU Tot Adyou, GAA HEIs GO§ouev. (Hdt. 9.48.3)
Well then, since you did notstart this conversation, we will ratherstart it. Picking up ovx
(Wyeis), AAA dismisses you in the subordinate é1re151}-clause, and replaces it with we as the
initiator of the conversation in the main clause.
As apodotic &AA& syntactically has no connective function (it could be left out without
disrupting the syntax), it is often called adverbial ; its basic function (substitution, etc.) is
not fundamentally different, however.
aTap
6¢ 59.18.
au and aute
59.13 Postpositive. Basic function: indicates a shift to a different topic - at(te) signals that
the speaker is moving on to another, related discourse topic (for topic , 60.25; e.g.
a second, third, etc. member of a larger group; an opposing idea, etc.); the particle is
often combined with 8é:
in argumentative and descriptive texts (infrequently in narrative), moving to a different,

related topic (in turn, again, on the other hand, then, as for, furthermore);
in questions introducinga different, related topic (and what about X, then?, again, in turn,
on the other hand, as for).
(7) te pév Kad EAévny 08 éxer ot 8at ypewy, | Opéota,... Tappdoiov oiketv SdtreSov. (Eur.
Or. 1643-5)
This is how things stand with Helen. As for you, in turn, Orestes, you must live on
Parrhasiansoil.
(8) To étripeAcio@an Kai &pyew ... Kal Ta Tolatta tdvta, tof Stoo GAAwW 7 Wuy?t Sixaios av
auTa& &troSoipev ... 5 1: OUSevi GAAw. :: Ti 8 at Td Civ; ot wuyxiis proopuev Epyov eivan;
(Pl. Resp. 353d)
(Socrates:) Concerning management, andrule, and all such things, is there anything
else than the soul to which we could rightly assign these? :: (Thrasymachus:)
Nothing else. :: (Socrates:) And what about life, in turn? Shall we not say that it
is a function of the soul?
Note 1: atte is used only in (early) poetry, at elsewhere.

Note 2: at and atte also have purely adverbial uses, meaning again (i.e. for a second time),
once more.
yap
59.14 Postpositive. Basic function: introduces a subsidiary text segment - the segment
containing ydép serves as explanation, motivation, elaboration or exemplifica-
tion for the surrounding context; the information provided by the yép segment
helps to interpret the information in the preceding (or, much morerarely, the
following) segment:
in argumentative texts: to provide supporting arguments, explanations,etc. (for,
after all, for example, sometimesbestleft untranslated or translated by a colon);
in narrative texts: to provide explanatory background information aboutcertain
characters, entities or events, motivations for certain actions, etc. (for, some-
timesbest left untranslated or translated by a colon);
in dialogue, y&p can be used by onespeaker to connect his/her utterance to that

of another (especially in answers to questions: the answer yes or no is often
implicit in the use of y&p, which then provides an explanation for that answer)
(yes/no, for; (you say that) because);
in dialogue also often in certain short idiomatic questions:
Tras yap ov; / Ti yap ov; ofcourse, naturally, how could it not?
Tras yap; / Ti yap; of course not, how could that be?
ou yap; isn't that the case?
Examples:
(9) ob Trepi Tév iow&yovilopar ot yap gotioov viv éuoi Tis Tap UYdv evvolas
Siapapteiv Kal TOUT un EAciv Thy ypagry. (Dem. 18.3)
I am not contesting this suit on equal footing. For at presentit is not the same
for me to lose your goodwill asit is for him not to win the verdict. The yap-
clause explains the preceding claim.
(10) TOV HEV Gui TOV xEIUdva ypovov Bityyev v BaBuAdvi Errta ptivas: aUTH yap
&Agewn t) xopa. (Xen. Cyr. 8.6.22)
In the winter season he spent seven monthsin Babylon,for that country has
a warm climate. Explanatory background information in a narrative.
(11) GAN 6 LEV, Gs Kal TIPdTEpdv LOI ElpnTa, 656 ypempEevos Gua TA GAAW OTPATA
atrevootnos s Thy Aoinv. ueya d5 kal TOSe papTUPIOV: MaiveTar yap =EpEns ev
TH OTricw KopIdf) dtriKdpEvos és "ABSnpa. (Hdt. 8.119-20)
No,as I have said before, he travelled back to Asia via the road, together
with the rest of his army. And the following is convincing prooffor this: it
turns out that Xerxes visited Abdera during his retreat. yap introduces
information (Xerxes visit to Abdera, which is on the land route, not the
sea route, to Persia) which functions as the supporting evidence which
Herodotus has announced (165e yaptupiov). Note that ydp is translated
with a colon here.
(12) XO. aAA& KTaveiv odv oTrepua ToAUnoels, yUvar;| :: MH. otto yap &v udAiota
SnyGein moors. (Eur. Med. 816-17)
(Chorus:) But will you dareto kill your offspring, woman?:: (Medea:) Yes, as
that way my husband maybe injured most severely. Medea gives an affirma-
tive answer and provides an explanationforit.
59.15 Although y&p typically introduces a segment which supportsor explains (only) the preceding
text (as in each of the examples above), ydp is also sometimes used in anticipation of
informationstill to come. The speaker breaksoff a line of reasoning or narrative in orderto
provide information which will be required to understand whatfollows. In this use, the yép-
segment in fact sometimes interrupts a sentence (parenthesis, 26.27):
670 59.15 Particles
(13) ét1 Toivuy dkovoate kal T&de. étri Aciav yap Uudv éxtropevoovtai tives. oloyal ovv
BéATiotov eivar... (Xen. An. 5.1.8)
Now,listen as well to this further advice. Some of you will go out to plunder.
I think, then, that this is our best course of action: ... Before proceeding to give
the advice he has announced, the speaker provides background information in the
light of which the advice is to be seen as relevant. Note that when he resumes his
main line of reasoning, i.e. the advice itself, he marks the transition with ovv (for
which 59.34).
(14) 6 KavdavAns ... évduilé of eivar yuvaika ToAAdv Tracéwv KaAAioTHv. ote SE TatTa
vonifav hv yap oi Ta&v aixuopopwv Tuyns ... apeokduEevos UGAIOTA TOUTW TH TUyn
Kal TA OTTOUSAIEOTEPA THY TENYUaTOV UTrepeTiBeto 6 KavbavAns Kai 1) Kai TO EiS0¢5 THis
yuvaikds Utrepetraivéov. (Hdt. 1.8.1)
Candaules believed that his wife was the most beautiful of all by far. So as he believed
this - and here I should add that there was amonghis bodyguard a certain Gyges, who
washis favourite to this Gyges, Candaules entrusted his most intimate secrets, includ-
ing praising his wife s beauty. The ydp-segment introduces Gyges, who will be one of the
main figures in the following narrative. The yép-segment is used parenthetically, inter-
vening between dote 5é Tata vopilwy and toute 74 [uyn, which picks up the interrupted
sentence and the narrative whereitleft off (observe the resumptive use of rout@, and the
repeated subject 6 Kav&auAns).
In somecasesin narrative texts yép introduces an entire embeddednarrative which serves as
backgroundinformation:
(15) TO ev ATTIKOV KATEXOHEVOY .. . ETTUVEGVETO O Kpoioos UTr6 Tleto1otpatou Tot ItrTroKpaTEos

ToUTOV TOV xpovov TUupavvEevoVTOS Abnvatov. ltrtroKpatel yap govt idiamTT Kal PewpéovTi
T& OdAUTrIa Tépas éyéveto péya. (Hdt. 1.59.1)
Croesus learned that the Attic people were held subjugated by Pisistratus, son of
Hippocrates, who at that time ruled the Athenians. A great marvel had befallen
Hippocrates when hewasa private citizen visiting the Olympic games. ydp introduces
an embedded narrative which provides the necessary background information about
Hippocrates and Pisistratus; it will go on for five chapters, after which the main story
about Croesusis picked up again.
Parenthetical yap is also regularly used after forms of address (vocatives), intervening
between the addressee and the remainder of an utterance to explain why that utterance
is directed at that particular addressee, or why that particular form of address has been
chosen:
(16) & SéoTroT - Abn yap TO8 dvo"dleo o Etros | SAwAa. (Eur. Hel. 1193-4)
Lord, for by this name I address you now, I am destroyed! Note that ydp is not really
anticipatory in this case (it explains the form of address, not dAwAa); the degree to which
yap following a form of address is anticipatory varies.
59.16 Connective Particles 671
5é
59.16 Postpositive. Basic function: 5¢ indicates a shift to a new,distinct, text segment,

often with a change of topic (for topic , 60.25); 5 is one of the commonest
particles in Greek texts to connect clauses and/or sentences:
in moving to a new point, a new argument, a new topic for discussion,
or another aspect of a certain larger topic (and, now, next; with a new
topic: as for ..., as regards ...; in contrasts: but; often best left
untranslated);
in narrative: in moving to a new step in the story, shifting to a different
character, etc. (and, now, next; and as for ..., and as regards ...; in contrasts:
but; often best left untranslated);
frequently in combination with a preceding pév (59.24; for 6 pev ... 6 8, TO
ugv ... TO 8é, etc., 728.27);
in dialogue, idiomatic ti 5&; what now?, how so?; also ti 5 X; and whatofX?°;
for 6 S¢ resuming a topic, 28.28.
(17) tdv Biov ovK ék Tév iSieov TpOTdSeov TropileTan, GAN Ex Tv UETEPwV KIVBUVOD.
pds 8 evyvapoouvny Kali Adyou Suvauiv rds TrépuKe; Seivds Adyeiv, KaKds
Bidsven. (Aeschin. 3.173-4)
Heprovides for himself not from his private means but from yourrisk. Now
as for his good judgementand his powerof speech, what kind of manis he?
Impressive in words, infamousin life! Aeschines moves on to a new topic for
discussion: 5é marks theshift.
(18) xat& 8 Tov attov ypdvov ... Etpupedav Kai LopoKAfis ... d&qpikdpevor és
Keépxupav toTpatevoav ... étri Tous v TH Oper Tis lotwvns KepKupaiwv
KabiSpupevous ... TrpOGBaAdvTes SE TO EV Telxioua ElAoV, Of SE Gvdpe_s
Katatregeuyotes ... EuvéBnoav. (Thuc. 4.46.1-2)
In the same period Eurymedon and Sophocles, having arrived at
Corcyra, attacked the Corcyraeans established on mount Istone. They
attacked the fortification and captured it; the men, having escaped,
accepted terms. The first 5¢ marks a shift in the narrative to another
episode in Thucydides narrative about the year 425 BCE; the next stage
in that episode, the capture of the fortification, is again indicated by 6é;
the topic of the narrative then shifts (with 5) to the Corcyraeans whoflee
and surrender.
(19) &5 8& TIpoitidas | T1UAas éxoper ... | 6 udvTis Augicipaos ... Qytyia 8 és
TUAMPAe Itrtropgdcov ava| Zotery .. . QuoAmow Sé Tai elye pds TrUAaus|
Tudeus. (Eur. Phoen. 1109-20)
Towards the Proetean gates came the prophet Amphiaraus. To the
Ogygian gates marched lord Hippomedon ... At the Homoloean gates
Tydeus had his post. A messenger relates which attacker attacked

which Theban gate: each new section about a gate/attacker is marked
by é.
(20) AN. véa trépuKas Kai Agyeis aloypdv trépt.| :: EP. ot 8 ot Aéyels ye, Spas Sé p eis
Scov Suva. | :: AN. oUK at cietrf) Kumpiios dAytoeis trépy; | :: EP. Ti8 ; ot
yuvani Tatta Tpéta travtayov; (Eur. Andr. 238-41)
(Andromache:) You are young and speak of shameful things. :: (Hermione:)
Andyou do not speak of them, but you do them to me as muchas youcan.::
(Andromache:) Will you not suffer over your marriage in silence? ::
(Hermione:) What? Are these things not of principal importance to women
everywhere? The first 5 marks a shift from Hermione to Andromache;
the second from speaking to doing. ti 5 is a surprised question, normally
immediately followed by another question. For Suva (an alternative form for
d5uvacai), 312.46 n.1.
Note 1: For the difference between 8¢ and xai, 59.21.
59.17 Similarly to dAA& (59.12), 5é is sometimes usedto set off a main clause from a subordinate
clause which precedesit - so-called apodotic8:
(21) ei 8& cuyyivaoxeai eival foowyv, oU SE... SeoTrdTH TH O ... &ADE &5 Adyous. (Hdt.
4.126)
But if you admit that you are weaker, then come to terms with your master.
The second 5 marks the main clause as distinct from the subordinate conditional
clause, emphasizing its importance. Note that unlike the first 5é (following «i),
the second 5é does not connect sentences, and could easily be left out without
disrupting the syntax.
As with apodotic &AAd,the particle syntactically has no connective function in this use, andis
therefore often called adverbial ; its basic function (introducing a distinct segment of text) is
not fundamentally different, however.
59.18 The particle &t&p is very similar in function to 5¢, although the break suggested by dtdpis
often a bit stronger than by8¢.It is usually found in contexts where 5¢ cannotbe used, e.g.
together with vocatives (often at the beginning of a new speaking turn). It may have been
colloquial in tone:
(22) atdp, & pire DatSpe, S0xa T1 oi... Peiov 1a&Bos TretrovOévan; (Pl. Phdr. 238c)
Well, my dear Phaedrus, do I seem to you to be divinely inspired? Socrates has just
finished a speech meant to surpass the eloquence ofLysias. dtdp is used (together with the
vocative) to signal the break from the speechitself to its evaluation.
Pa
59.19 Basic function: indicates disjunction 7, connects two alternatives:

as a co-ordinating conjunction within sentences: connecting twoalternative
clauses or phrases(or, or else); often with 7 also preceding thefirst alternative
(7... 1 either ... or); so also in alternative questions ( 38.10): the first
alternative is often preceded by trdétepov (in indirect alternative questions also
by ei, 42.4);
at the beginning of questions providing a self-correction and/or alternative
suggestion (or rather ... ?);
after comparatives, p&AAov and formsof &AAos to introduce the second element
of a comparison (than) ( 32.6-7).
(23) dpabdys Tis i Beds 7 Sikaios OUK pus. (Eur. Her. 347)
You are an unwise god,or else you are not just.
(24) trpds Exaota Sé Sei 7 ExOpdv 7} giAov WET Kapot yiyveo@an. (Thuc. 6.85.1)
One must in every case becomeeither an enemy or a friend according to
circumstances.
(25) aétepov ouvnydpe_u_s ToIs KeAEUOUOIV TroKTEivat7) avTEeAeyes; (Lys. 12.25)
Did you agree with those whoweregiving the orderto kill, or did you oppose
them?
(26) tis atTOV Tév EmoTHUdv Trorei EUSaipove; 7) &tracat dpoiws; (Pl. Chrm. 174a)
Whichofthe sciences makes him happy? Ordoall in equal measure?
(27) tous ye env SiaBdAous paAAOv 7) TOUS KAETITAS euioel, LEilao Cnulav tyoupEvos
pidwv 7) xeNUaTOV oTepioxeobar. (Xen. Ages. 11.5)
Hehated slanderers more than thieves, thinking it a graver loss to be robbed
of friends than of money.
Note 1: For trpiv 4, 47.14, 47.16 n.1. For 4, 459.48.
KGI
59.20 Basic function: indicates addition kai connects two elements, adding the second
to thefirst:
as a co-ordinating conjunction within sentences: to connect two words or
word groups, or two clauses (and); the first of two connected elements is
sometimes preceded by xai, signalling that another xai will follow (the first
Kat is adverbial, 359.56): kai A kai B = both A and B (both ... and, as well as,
and also);
connecting sentences (i.e. beginning a sentence), indicating that the new sen-
tence is closely linked to the previous one; for instance in narratives to indicate
that one action closely follows upon,or is the direct consequenceof, another
(and, also, and so, and then); in this use xai is often combined with other
particles (e.g. kai yap, kai 51, Kai ty; for these combinations, +59.66-7 1);
for combinations of kai and te, 59.37.
(28) TaUO UpEis, & avbp_es Sikaotail, dpGds Kal KaAds Treo EAANo1 Kai BapBd&pors
Soxeite Eyngiobai kat dvdpav trpodotéyv Kai Peois éxBpav. (Dem. 19.268)
It seemsto all the Greeks and foreigners, gentlemen ofthe jury, that you have
acted righteously and properly in passing this vote against traitors and
enemies of the gods. xai connects 6p0ds and uadds, EAAno: and BapBdpors,
and dvipdv trpodotév and Geois éxOpdv, respectively.
(29) TrOAAaKIS T} yuVvT) carne: KaTW KabeUvSNOOUTG ws TO Traldiov, iva Tov TITBOV
AUT 8156 Kai un Bos. Kal Tata TroAuv ypovov oUTws eyiyveTo, Kal Eyw
oudétrote UTT@TrTeUoa. (Lys. 1.10)
Often my wife would go down to sleep, to the baby, so that she could
breastfeed it and it wouldn't cry. And things went on like this for a long
time, and I never even got suspicious of anything. xai connects clauses (6156
and Bo&) and sentences. The quick succession of instances of nai in the
narrative portion of this speech may suggest a simple style of narration.
(30) Kai uty ope Kai KAeivapétny Kal Zwotpatny | mpociotcav HSn The Kat
Mircavétnv. (Ar. Eccl. 41-2)
Look, I see Clinarete coming, as well as Sostrate here, and also Philaenete.
Adverbial naiprecedesthefirst of the listed names, the next two instancesofnai
connect the other names. For xai ujv marking entrances in drama, 59.71.
Note 1: For adverbial xai also, even, 359.56.
59.21 Although both 8 and kat (and te, 59.37) maybe translated with and, these particles operate
on different levels: whereas 5¢ serves to indicate shifts from one text segment/topic to another
( +59.16), cat connects several things said about a topic, linking several elements within a larger
text segment. For the difference between xai/te and 5, comparealso the following example:
(31) ouTos wv 6 OTavrs ... BuCavtious Te eiAe kai KaAyndovious, side 5& Avtavipov thy év TH
Tpwddi yi}, cide 5¢ Aautraviov, AaBav Sé Tapa AeoBiwv véas cide Afjuvov Kai IuBpov.
(Hdt. 5.26)
This Otanes, then, captured Byzantium and Calchedon; next he captured Antandrusin
the Troad, and next Lamponius; and having taken some ships from the Lesbians he
captured Lemnusand Imbrus. Someof the captured cities are connected by (te) ai, others
by 5é: this suggests several distinct campaigns ofconquest, with Byzantium and Calchedon
being captured in the one campaign, and Lemnus and Imbrus in another.
59.22 The particle 7 (and) connects only elements within sentences; in the classical period it is
found onlyin tragic andlyric poetry.
KQiTOI
59.23 Basic function: indicates a transition to a text segment which adds information
(kai) which is worthy of note (to1) in light of the preceding context - xaito1 invites
a reconsideration of what the speakerhasjust said:
introducing objections (often in the form of a rhetorical question); the xaitoi-
segment showsthat (an element in) the preceding contextis to be rejected (but,
andyet, (al)though);
introducing background information in narrative or argumentative texts:
the information in the xaitoi-segment gives rise to expectations which are
contradicted by the preceding information (cf. Engl. he is unhappy, even
though heis rich ; this is the inverse of denial of expectation , for which cf.
wevtol, 59.27) (and yet, even though, (al)though, and that despite the fact
that):
(32) eis TOUT &vaioyuvtias éANAUBaoly, doTe... Tis... TOV GAAwv SouAeias adTOUSs
Kuplous KabioTGolv. KaiTol Tis OUK AV WLOT/CELE TV TOUTV TrAEovEtiav, of TAV
uév doPeveotépwv &pyeiv Cntotior(Isoc. 14.19-20)
They (the Thebans) have reached such a point of shamelessnessthat they give
themselves the right to impose slavery upon everybody else. And yet who
would not detest the greed of these people, who seek to rule the weaker?
The rhetorical question (implying everyone detests the Thebans greed ) for-
mulates an objection to the Thebans behaviour.
(33) Kai por xép , avaé, SeEiav dpefov, ws | watouw ... | Kaitor Ti pave; és 0
dv &BAlos yeyas | Oryetv BeAtoaavbpds Tis otK év1 | KnAis; (Soph. OC
1130-4)
Give me yourright hand,lord, so I may touch it. Yet what am I saying? How
could I, wretch that ve become, want you to touch a man in whom every
defilement is found? Oedipus raises an objection to his own request: given his
state, that request seems misguided. For the accentuation of én (=éveot),
24.37; for tis otx év1 nndis;, 438.19 n.1.
(34) o Aapsios Te NoyaAAe Kal TN oTpaTiIn Tr&oa ou SuvaTn EotUoa EAEIv TOUS
BaBuAwvious. KaiTol TAaVTAa COMioVaTa Kal Traoas ENXavas ETrETTOINKEE ES
autous Aapsios: &AA 008 Hs 2SUvato éAiv ogeas. (Hdt. 3.152)
Darius and the entire army were upset because they were incapable of
conquering the Babylonians. This despite the fact that Darius had tried
every trick and every device against them; but even so, he could not conquer
them. xaito: introduces background information which stands in contrast to
the preceding point: Darius intensive efforts to capture Babylon would nor-
mally give rise to the expectation that he would succeed, but in fact he has
failed. Darius failure is restated (AN oS cs) after the nairoi-segment.
bev
59.24 Postpositive. Basic function: indicates incompleteness or open-endedness pév

signals that its host segmentin itself does not provideall the necessary informa-
tion; it raises the expectation that another text segment will follow to provide an
addition or contrast:
the expectation raised by yév is nearly always resolved by 8é: pév ... 8¢ is
a very common way in Greek to mark contrasts (e.g. A did X, but B did
Y ), or more neutral enumerations ( A did X, B did Y, C did Z ) (uév is
usually best left untranslated, the corresponding 5¢ translated with but or
and; in contrasts, yév or 5¢ mayalso betranslated with while, whereas, with
the other particle left untranslated); uév ... 8 may balance phrases, clauses
or larger segments of text; often the words immediately preceding the
particles are the contrastive topics (60.28) forming the basis for the
contrast or enumeration;
for 6 pév... 6 8, TO uev... TO 8, etc., 728.27;
particles other than 8¢ that may be co-ordinated with pév are dAAdG, pévTo,
a&tap (each of these suggests a stronger contrast than pév ... 5 ), and Kai
and te;
in somecasesyév is not followed by anotherparticle (so-called pév solitarium):
usually this means that the segmentor element contrasting with/adding to the
yev-segmentis left implicit (at least, for one, as for... ).
(35) as 5é SfjAov éyéveto ST1 OUK eiorev of TroAgpio1 ... 6 uev KuaSdpns KaAgoas Tov
Ktpov ... eAege Toidde- Aoxet pon, Epn, ... SNAovv OT1 GEAOEV UcyxeoGal. OUT
yap, pn, eav un avTetreginol exeivol, ol Lev TUETEPOI UGAAOV BapphoavTes
aTriaol, oi S TOAEUION ... UXAAOV PoBNOOVTAl. TOUTM HEV OUTWS ESOKEI. O OE
Ktipos, Mndaudss, gon, ... (Xen. Cyr. 3.3.29-31)
Whenit becameclear that the enemy would not comeout, Cyaxarescalled
Cyrusandspokeasfollows: I propose , he said, to show them that we are
eager to fight. That way, he went on, if they don t come out to meet us,
our men will come back to camp with more courage, whereas the enemy
will be more frightened. Such was his proposal, but Cyrussaid: In no
way ... The first uév suggests that Cyaxares speech will not be the whole
story, but will receive a reaction; when his speech is complete, yév is repeated
in the summarizing phrase toutw ... édxe, and then picked up by 6 5¢é
Kijpos. Within the speech, there is a pév/5é-pair balancing oi tyuéTepoi and oi
TroAéuiol.
(36) eyo 5é AdEw See pév, Sikara dé. (Ar. Ach. 501)
I will say things whichareterrifying, but right. uév ... 5¢ balances individual
words, both object of Aé&w.
(37) troAAous pév ... | Egvous poAdvtas 018 és ASurtou Sdyous, |... GAAG TOTS
otitre Eévou | kaxiov ... 25eEdunv. (Eur. Alc. 747-50)
I know of many guests who have come to Admetus palace; but I have not yet
received a guest moreevil than this one. pév is completed by a&AAd, whose
corrective force ( >59.11) suggests that the uév-clause is as good as irrelevant:
the servant s previous experience with guests good and bad could not prepare
him for this one.
(38) tpa&ta pév oxotrous | méuwoo ... udvteis T &Bpoioas PUcouan. (Eur. Heracl.
337-40)
First, I will send scouts, and then I will gather seers and sacrifice. yév is
completed by te.
(39) pai Sé of adTO! OUTOI, Nol Hév OU TIOTE A yovTeEs, TOV Bedv AUTOV MOITGV ... és
tov vndv. (Hdt. 1.182.1)
Andthese same mensay - though I for one do notbelieve them - that the god
himself frequents the shrine. yév solitarium: there is no particle in the follow-
ing context which is paired with yév, but a contrastis still implied: Herodotus
suggests that, while others may believe the story about the god, he at least
doesn t.
59.25 In certain particle combinations, especially in Ionic, yév has the force of unv (59.49): so, in
Herodotus, in the particle combinations ov pév o8é, ye pév (51), kai pév (57); for most of these
combinations, >59.71-6 below.In Attic writers, the same holds for &AA& pév (81), some cases
of pév otv (59.72), for uévtoi ( 59.26-8), and occasionally for pév alone.
MévTol
59.26 Postpositive. Two different uses of this particle may be distinguished, as an

adversative connective particle, and as an emphasizer (in answers).
59.27 Adversative pévto1. Basic function: denial of expectation or modification -

yevtor indicates a transition to a text-segment which contradicts or modifies the
expectations raised by the preceding context (cf. Engl. he is rich, but he is
unhappy):
contrasting explicit statements: statement A gives rise to a certain expectation,
which statement B (with yévto1) contradicts (nevertheless, however, still, but, be
that as it may, mind you);
- modifying textual relationships: (especially in dialogue) to indicate that
a speaker makesa different kind of contribution than might be expected given
the preceding context (however, but; often difficult to translate):
(40) Kai ev@us ... és Oividdas éotpd&tevoav kal étroAldpKouy, ot pEvTol EiAdv ye, GAA
a&trexopnoav ét oikxou. (Thuc. 1.111.3)
Andstraight away they attacked Oeniadae and besieged it; they did not,
however, capture it, but departed for home. The mention of a siege givesrise
to the expectation that the city will be captured; the pévtoi-segment explicitly
denies that expectation.
(41) &triképevor trap& tov Kpoioov ... &yyeAor EAeyov TaSe- QO Baoirei, ...
Trpocdeoueba oeu TOV Traida Kal Aoyadas venvias Kai KUVaS CUUTTEMWa
Tiiv ... Kpoioos 5 ... EAeyé o i T&de- Tla1d0s Ev Trep1 TOU EuoU UN UvnobtiTe
ETL: OU yap GV UIv ouUTrEeuWarl ... Auddv pEevTol Aoyddas Kal TO KUVTYyEOIOV
Ta&v ouutréenpwoo. (Hdt. 1.36.2-3)
Messengers came to Croesusandsaid: Sire, we beg you to send your son and
a hunting party with dogs to accompany us. But Croesus said to them:
Do not mention my son again: I will not send him with you. But as for
Lydian huntsmen,I will send you some, together with a complete hunting
outfit. Croesus first rejection may have given rise to the expectation that he
would reject the entire request: uévtoi contradicts this. Note that in this example
(1raiS0s) uv is completed by yévtoi.
(42) KP. uivov, Ti pevyels; :: TE. f TUXT oO, GAN OUK Eyoo. | =: KP. pPdoov TroAiTaIs Kai
TOAE1 owtnpiav. | :: TE. BoUAN ov pévto1 Kovyi BouAhon Taya. (Eur. Phoen.
897-9)
(Creon:) Wait, why are you fleeing? :: (Tiresias:) Fortuneis fleeing you, not
I. :: (Creon:) Tell me whatcan save thecitizens andtheircity. :: (Tiresias:) You
want this now; soon enough youwill not wantit. Creon s request to Tiresias to
explain what might save the city raises the expectation of an answer. Tiresias
circumvents that expectation (uévto1) and enigmatically states that Creon will
not want to know about owtnpia at all.
Note 1: Although dAAd, xaito: and yévtor are all three adversative , there is a difference
between them:whereas, in A &AA& B , B replaces A (A isfalsified, +59.11-12), in A xaiton B
( >59.23) as well as in A B pévtor , both A and are valid, but one counters expectations
raised by the other.
59.28 Emphasizing pévto1. Basic function: indicates that the speaker is committed to the truth or
relevance of his statement, no matter what the addressee might expect ( >59.49, unv) and
brings that commitment hometo the addressee (59.51, to1) - this use of yévtoris virtually
confined to answers, usually assenting:
(43) Aéyetor wut) f pév vouv Te éxew ..., 1) 5é Gvoiav ... Kai tata &AnBdds Agyetan; :: AANBHs
ugvto. (Pl. Phd. 93b-c)
(Socrates:) It is said that one soul possesses sense, anotherfolly ... Andis it true what
they say? :: (Simmias:) Mostcertainly it is. Simmias confirms the correctness of &AnOé5s in
Socrates question.
VvVUV
59.29 Basic function: indicates a transition to a new text segment which proceeds from
the preceding text segment(cf. otv below): in Attic vuv is used almost exclusively
in commandsandrequests in dialogue, where it indicates that the directive flows
naturally from the preceding context (then, so):
(44) ITY. és Koos Adyous| ZABcopEV, ds av MevéAews ouvSuoTuy7}. | :: OP. & giATaT ,
ei yap TOUTO KkaTOdvolp iSeov. | :: TTY. 11800 vuv, dvaueivov 8 pacydvou Topas.
| :: OP. eves, Tov éxSpovef Ti TIH@PT}oOAL.| :: TTY. ciya vuv- ws yuvarkl Tote
Bpayu. (Eur. Or. 1098-1103)
(Pylades:) Let us agree on a plan for how Menelaus maysharein suffering.::
(Orestes:) Dearest friend, would that I might die having seen that. ::
(Pylades:) Listen to me then, and delay the strokes of your sword.::
(Orestes:) I will wait to see if I can take revenge on my enemy in some
way. :: (Pylades:) Hush then! I do not have much confidence in women.
In both instances, vuv indicates that Pylades instructionsfollowfrom Orestes
preceding utterances.
Note 1: The postpositive (60.5) particle viv (with short t) is to be distinguished from the
adverb viv now (with long &). In some cases in poetry, enclitic vuv has a long t for metrical
reasons(it is then accented viv in someeditions). The enclitic particle is found as vu in epic
and in dialect inscriptions.
59.30 In Herodotus, vuv is often used in contexts where Attic would use otv, especially in the
combination yév vuv ... S¢ (for uév otv ... 5, 59.73):
(45) tattoo vuv

yév Tépoan te kai Doivixes A youol. Eye Sé Trepi UEV TOUTV OUK EpxouatEpewv os
ottws 7) dAAws Kws Tatita éyéveto. (Hdt. 1.5.3)
This, then, is what the Persians and Phoenicians say. As for me, I will not venture
to say about these things that they happened this way or that. For Zoxoua + fut.
ppl., 252.41 nl.
oudé/undé and oUte/pnte
59.31 ovde/undéis the negative of kai ( 59.20); it is used only after a preceding negative:
ou X oSé Y = not X; and not Y (and not, but not, nor), but also -59.32 n.1.
59.32 olte/unte is the negative of te (59.37): oUte X otte Y = neither X nor Y

(neither ... nor, and not).
(46) ... uwupious axe SapeiKous: ots ye AaBaov ov«Eis TO Si0ov KaTEPEuNv EUol OUSE
2 A
KabnSutrdaénoa, GAA cis UUds 2Satrdvev. (Xen. An. 1.3.3)

He gave me ten thousand darics. Having received them,I did not set them
aside for private use, nor did I squander them, but I spent them on you.
(47) ... oTE CISNPOV OUTE EVAOV otiTe GAAO OUSEV EywV, G& TOUS eiceABdvTas dv
twuvato. (Lys. 1.27)
... having neither a sword,nora stick, nor anythingelse, with which he could
have defended himself against those who camein.
Note 1: For o0&5é/pndé not even (as the negative of adverbial xai ), 59.56 below;in this use,
ot5é/undé need not be preceded by anothernegative.
Note2: For the contexts in which ot and un are used, 56.
ouKouv and ouKouv
59.33 Both these particles combine the negative ot with the connective particle ovv
(59.34): the difference between the two is that in oUKouv the negative has its
normal negative force, whereas in oWxotv it functions as a question word, the
emphasis being on ovv:
otxotv introduces yes/no questions; the negative hasits usual force of indicating
that a positive answeris expected ( >38.7), and ovv servesits regular function of
getting to the point (isn't it the case, then?; not, therefore?);
ovxoiv is also occasionally used in statements and directives (this use probably
derives from its use in questions); the negative here has no force, and the particle
is very similar to simple owv (then, so, well, therefore);
otxKouv is used in questions, with emphasis on the negative, expressing doubt
that the addresseewill really answer no to the question(is it really the case that
not ..., then?; so... not?);
otxouv is also, but infrequently, used in statements (particularly in negative
answers), again with emphasis on the negative (not ..., then); typically com-
bined with ye (not ... at any rate).
(48) Touvavtiov apa eotiv TO Appovas TIPATTEIV TH THWMPOVAS; :: EMT. :: OUKOUV Ta

MEV APPOVWS TIPATTOLEVA AQPOGUVT TIPATTETAI, TA SE DOWPPOVWS OWMPOOUNVN)::
apordye. (PI. Prt. 332b)
Acting immoderately, then,is the opposite of acting wisely? :: Hesaid thatit
was.:: Isn't it the case, then, that immoderateacts are performed dueto a lack
of moderation, and moderate acts due to moderation? :: He agreed. ovxotv
introducing a yes/no question.
(49) tivas oUv evyas UTroAapBdvet eUyeoBai Tois Beois TOV MiAiTTTrov ... 3 ap ov
KpaTos TOAgUOU ... 51iSdvai... ; oUKOUV TaUTA CUVNUYXETO OUTOS Kal KaTNPATO
TH Tatpid:. (Dem. 19.130)
Whatprayers do you suppose Philip madeto the gods? For them to give him
victory in war, wouldn't you think? Well, this man joined in this prayer, and
cursed his fatherland. ovxotv in a statement, indicating a transition to
Demosthenes central point: Aeschines wasill-intentioned towards Athens.
For dp ov, 38.7.
(50) >Q. dpa ouv ei EBeANoeIs .. . S1Sdvai EAeyKov ATrOKPIVOPEVOS TA EPWTHPEVA. EVO
yap 51 oipar Kal éué Kal o& Kai Tous GAAous avOpatrous TO Gdikeiv Tov
&SixeioGan Kakiov fyeiobar ... :: TQ. toAAo ye Set, GAN ott Eyo otiTE OU
otT GAAos OSes. :: ZO. oUKouv &troxpiF};:: TO. treévu pév ovv. (Pl. Grg. 474b-c)
(Socrates:) See if you want to be examined by answering my questions.
I believe that both I and you and everyoneelse thinks that it is worse to
commit an injustice than it is to suffer one. :: (Polus:) Far from it: on the
contrary, that isn t true for me, for you, or for anyoneelse. :: (Socrates:)
So you won't answer?:: (Polus:) To be sure I will. Polus answer leads Socrates
to surmise (-ouv) that he does not (otx-) want to answerhis questions: he asks if
that is really the case.
(51) XO. touTtwv &pa Zeus gotw cobeveotepos; | :: TIP. ovKouv &v éxquyor ye Thy
tetpwpevnv. (Aesch. PV. 517-18)
(Chorus:) Are you saying that Zeus is weaker than they? :: (Prometheus:)
There is no way, at any rate, in which he may escape what has been fated.
Emphatic otUnouv ... ye in a negative answer.
Note 1: Editors vary greatly in printing oUxotv or otxouv, and in punctuating sentences with
ovxotv as questions or statements. As accents are later additions ( 1.12), there is no sure
way of knowing whichvariant is authentic in each case.
ouv
59.34 Ion. cv. Postpositive. Basic function: otv indicates a transition to more to-the-
point, crucial or relevant information, and indicates that the preceding context
should be seen as preliminary/explanatory to its host segment:
- in argumentative texts: indicating a transition from arguments/premises to
a conclusion or summary (so, then, therefore; the point is that);
in narratives: indicating a transition to the main, foregroundedstoryline after
a segment with backgroundnarrative (now, so, then, well);
in dialogue (often in questions), to indicate that the point the speaker makes, the
question the speakerasks, etc., is the main thing the speaker wants to convey or
ask, given the preceding context (so, now, well then, therefore);
in dialogue: ti otv; so what?, what, then?
(52) Kal... TayTToAAous Exw A yeiv, ol AUTO! ayabol SévTEes OUSEVa Trwtrote BEATI
étroinoav ... éyw ouv, w Mpwtaydpa, eis tatta dtroBAgtrv ovX TyoUpat
SiSaktov civar &petrv. (Pl. Prt. 320b)
AndI cantell you of many, who,although they were themselves good, never
made anyone anybetter. Therefore, Protagoras, considering these matters
I do not think that virtue is something that can be taught. odv marks the
transition from Socrates arguments (of which only one is printed in the
example) to the conclusion validated by those arguments.
(53) Ol TPIAKOVTA ... PATKOVTES XPTval THv Adikwv Kabapayv Trolfjoal Thy TOAIV...
ou TolaUTa Troleiv ETOAUOV ... O oyvis yap Kai Ileiowy EAeyov ... Trepl Tdv
METOIKOV, GS ElEV TIVES TT TroAITeia GyPduEVOI KAAAIoTHY OUV Eival TPOMaoIV
TINwpEIoGar Lev SoKeiv, TH 8 Epyw yonuatileoGar- ... E50fev ov avtois Sexo
ouAAoBeiv. (Lys. 12.5-7)
The Thirty, although they said that they needed to cleanse the city of
criminals, dared to behave in a very different fashion. For Theognis and
Pison said concerning the metics, that there were some who were
disgruntled with the regime; so that there was an excellent pretext to
appear to exact punishment, but in reality to acquire funds. So they
decided to arrest ten of them. The second ovv marks a transition (back)
to the main narrative line, rounding off a stretch of explanatory back-
ground material (introduced by ydp) which details the deliberations
leading up to the Thirty s decision. The first ouv connects two parts of
Theognis and Pison s argument: the preliminary assertion that they have
opposition among the resident aliens leads up to the relevant point - their
proposal to use them as an excuse for income-gathering. For this passage,
also 61.1-3.
(54) EY. Ayd@ovd yor SeUp éxxdAeoov ... | :: OE. undév ixéteu attds yap e eioww
Taya: | kal yap peAoTroeiv dpyeTtar xelu@vos ovv | Svtos KaTaKdyTTEW TAs
oTpogpas ot Pddiov, | Fv un Tpotn PUpacr... | :: EY. Tt otv éya Spd; :: OE.
Tepivev, cos E pyetan. (Ar. Thesm. 65-70)
(Euripides:) Call out Agathon for me. :: (Servant:) No need to beg: he'll
come out himself soon enough.In fact, he s beginning to compose - the
point being that since it s winter, it s not easy for him to mould his
couplets unless he comesoutside. :: (Euripides:) So what should I do?::
(Servant:) Wait here: he s coming out. The servant's point that Agathon
is beginning to compose is not very helpful in itself; the transition to the
relevant point (that this means that he will come out) is indicated by ovv.
Euripides then wants the servant to answer the point which matters for
him (what he should do in order to speak to Agathon); ovv marks the
relevant question.
59.35 otv is sometimes added to indefinite relative pronouns/adjectives to express universality;

such pronouns/adjectives usually do not introduce (cor)relative clauses, but are used as
indefinite pronouns: éot100tv anybody who(so)ever, dt10tv anything whatsoever, dtoco10tv
however many,etc.
59.36 For the use of wav (= ut otv), 338.8.

TE
59.37 Postpositive. Basic function: indicates addition (cf. kai above):

asaco-ordinating conjunction within sentences: te follows the word it connects
to the preceding context: X Y te = X and Y (and, as well as);
te is also very commonly used to signal that something is the first in an
enumeration, in which case xai or another te follows it: X te kai Y = X and
Y ; X te Y te = X and Y (thefirst te is typically not translated; and, both ... and,
as well as).
(55) év éxeivy TH vuKTi ydoel fh peTAUAOS BUpa..., 5 oUSETIOTE éyéveTo, E50 E TE NOI
fH yuvty éwiputidobar(Lys. 1.17)
That night the inner doors made a sound, which had never happened, and
my wife seemed to me to have put on make-up.
(56) ic peAabpa Baoirgov, pido otéyan, | cepvoi Te B&Ko1, Saivoves T dvTAio1 ...
(Aesch. Ag. 518-19)
Hail, halls of kings - dear roofs, and blessed thrones, and gods whoface the
sun...
(57) &§10v étraivéonn Try Te Tatpida Kali TO yévos atTov. (Xen. Ages. 1.4)
It is worth praising his fatherland and descent.
Note 1: In tragic and lyric poetry only (in the classical period), te is sometimes used to
introduce a general truth. In this use the particle is called epic te; it is especially found in
digressive relative clauses ( >50.6):
(58) toi Péas, & te tputaveia A Aoyyas, Eotia, ... (Pind. Nem. 11.1)
Daughter of Rhea, to whom city halls have been allotted, Hestia, ...
Note 2: Observe the idiom oids té (eit) (be) able to, (be) capableof.
Tolyap, Toryapouv, and totydaprot
59.38 Basic function: indicates consequence - these (infrequent) particles combine

a demonstrative element toi- (cf. toidoSe, torottos) with yép (whose meaninghere is
unclear); their function is to indicate a transition to a text segment whose content follows
from the preceding context.
toryép typically occurs in answers, toryapotv and toryéptor usually in continuous argu-
mentative or narrative texts (therefore, hence, thus, that is why).
(59) XI. Beopiou 8 1p Zxouo1w, a&utréAou pods;| :: OA. fK1ioTa- To1ryap Gxopov oikotoi xGdva.
(Eur. Cyc. 124-5)
(Silenus:) Do they possess Dionysus drink, that flows from the vine? :: (Odysseus:) Not at
all! Hence the land they dwell in knowsno dancing.
(60) é dv avtoi ouvioacl Kai éntdkaoi, Ti wiipov pépouol. Torydptor SiateAei Toto To
ouvedpiov eUSoxipouv év TH WdAet. (Aeschin. 1.92)
Theycast their verdict based upon whatthey themselves know and have examined. That
is why this court continues to be reputable in the city.
Note 1: torydép is mainly found in epic and tragedy, never in Attic prose, which rather uses
(more forceful) toryapotv and to1yépto1.
Toivuv
59.39 Postpositive. Basic function: indicates a transition to a newly relevant, to-the-

point text segment (vuv, cf. oWv, 59.29-30, 59.34), and stresses the importance
or relevance for the addressee of that new point (to1, 59.51):
in argumentativetexts, in transitions to an important new pointor an important
conclusion (well, then, so, now; I'll have you know, then);
- in dialogue, indicating that the statement, question or commanduttered by the
speakeris to the point and should beof particular note to the addressee(then,so,
well); the reasons why the addressee should take note vary: e.g. because he/she
has askedforit (very well, then), becauseit implies a criticism of him/her (might
I point out, then), etc.;
toivuv is rare in narrative.
(61) viv &otvey EAévn udpyos fv ... | ToUTav Exati Trois uty SicAeoev. | eri
ToioSe Toivuv Kaitrep HSiKnyEvn | ovK Hypiopny ous dv Extavov tréow. (Eur.El.
1027-31)
Asit was, because Helen waslewd,for that reason he killed my child. Now,in
response to this, although I had been wronged, I was not spiteful, nor would
Thave killed my husband. Clytaemestra moves on to a newpointin her argument:
she wasinitiallyforgiving towards Agamemnon;this is something she particularly
wants to point out to her addressee, her vindictive daughter Electra.
(62) XO. thy cautod puvoweitreé. | :: KP. A Eo Toivuv. (Ar. Nub. 960-1)
(Chorus:) Tell us about your nature. :: (Better Argument:) Very well then,
I will speak. Since the Chorus has asked for the exposition, Better Argument
implies that his speech is ofparticular interest to them.
Note 1: The difference between toivuv and the more neutral otv is the former s attitudinal
nuance: toivuv, in addition to indicating that its host segment presents to-the-point
information, also conveys the notion that this information is of particular interest or
importance for the addressee.
59.40-42 Attitudinal Particles 685
Attitudinal Particles
Introduction
59.40 The particles &pa, dpa, 54, Siytrou, 7, wAv, To and trou (also pévto, Kaito: and
toivuv described above) play a role in managing the attitudes andbeliefs that
speaker and addressee have towards what is said. By using these particles,
speakers can signal that their utterance should be interpreted in a specific way,
or they can anticipate what the addressee might or should think aboutit. These
particles are by far the hardestto translate, and the definitions below are by no
meanscertain.
Note 1: Similar devices in English are perhaps, surely, really, apparently, you know, obviously,
etc.
59.41 These particles normally have no connective function, but there are some excep-
tions (notably dépa and 7).
List of Attitudinal Particles
apa
59.42 Postpositive. Basic function: indicates that the speaker, in view of the preceding
context, cannot but make the contribution he/she is making (often to his/her
surprise or displeasure):
in statements (apparently, it seems, then, so, in thatcase, if this is granted); often
in conclusions, signalling that the conclusion follows necessarily (often surpris-
ingly) from the preceding context;
commonly with the imperfect or aorist when a speaker retrospectively realizes
that something was the case (apparently, it seems, then, so, as it turns out);
in questions, to indicate that the question is necessarily brought on by the
context (so, then, in that case);
in later usage, the particle occasionally appears to develop a connective function,
linking sentences.
(63) Bapéws Sé pépoov TH atipia ... eitrev: (Q AynoidAae, perotv pév dpa ovye Tous
piAous jriote. (Xen. Hell. 3.4.9)
And not bearing his disgrace well, he said: It seems that you, at any rate,
Agesilaus, knew how to humiliate your friends. dpa + imperfect to mark
a surprising realization in hindsight.
(64) TO. ti... dvein... ta tap hudv Sapa Tots Peois; :: EY. ti... KANO 4 TWH Te Kal
yépa kai... ye&pis; :: ZO. Kexapioyévov dpa éotiv, @ Ev@Ugpav, TO Sotov, GAA
OU] @MEAILOV OUSE IAOV Tois BEois; :: EY. cipal Eywye TravT@Vv ye EGAIOTO
pidov. :: ZO. toto dp éotiv av, ws ~oiKe, TO Sotov, TO Tois BEois piAov. (Pl.
Euthphr. 15a-b)
(Socrates:) What would ourgifts to the gods be? (Euthyphro:) Whatelse than
honourandpraise and gratitude? :: (Socrates:) So holiness is gratifying, but
not beneficial or precious to the gods? :: (Euthyphro:) I do think that it is,
above all, precious. :: (Socrates:) In that case, again, it would seem that
holiness is what is precious to the gods. Thefirst dpa introduces a question
which suggests the inevitable conclusion of the preceding discussion.
The second similarly introduces a hypothesis which is inescapable given the
preceding line of thought (note as go1ne).
(65) SfjAov ... Tis &pETis évepyeiav Tis wuytis Apiotov eivan. Ty Sé Kal t eVSaipovia
TO &plotov. EoTw dpa th evSaipovia wuyfis &yabiis évepyeia. (Arist. Eth. Eud.
1219a28-35)
It is clear that the activity of excellence is the greatest good of the spirit. And
happiness was also the greatest good: so happinessis the activity of a good
spirit. dea here also appears to have developed a connective function, as no
other connective is present.
apa
59.43 (259.48) + &pa (59.42), used specifically in yes/no-questions. For its use,
38.6.
dai
51 59.46.
én
Note1: 57 has a particularly wide rangeofuses. Its basic functionis difficult to ascertain, and
the subject of considerable scholarly debate.
59.44 Postpositive. Basic function: 57 indicates that the speaker considers (and invites
the addressee to consider) the text segment or word (group) which it modifies as
evident, clear or precise:
following individual words or word groups: 81 in such casesindicates that the word
or word group in questionis entirely or evidently applicable (in fact, actually, very,
precisely, indeed, or translated by emphasis); the particle is so used particularly with
adjectives/adverbs expressing quantity, size, frequency, intensity, etc.; with super-
latives; with 5fjAos; and with certain types of pronouns(in this use 57, might more
properly be considered a particle of scope, for which >59.52);
59.44 Attitudinal Particles 687
- modifying entire clauses, to present the content of the clause as clearly true or
relevant (certainly, indeed; often with a nuance of obviousness: obviously, of
course, clearly);
in many such cases, 57 appears to have developed a connective function,
indicating a transition to a new, obviously relevant segment (then, well,
now, So);
- in causal clauses ( >48), purpose clauses ( 45), comparative clauses
( 50.37), and with as + participle (52.39), the sense evidently is often
used with an ironic or sarcastic nuance (I m sure, obviously, apparently, no
doubt).
(66) Kivnols yap aUTH UEyioTN B17 Tois EAAnoww eyéeveTo kai LEpel TIvi TOV BapBRapov.
(Thuc. 1.1.2)
For this was indeed the greatest movementto occur, for the Greeksas well as
a part of the barbarian world. 57) modifies the superlative ueyiotn, underlining
that the expedition was undeniably the largest ever.
(67) ot St, of Thy vevouoay eis EéS0v Kapa, | gr\s 7 KaTapvei pt) SeSpakeévar TaSe;
(Soph. Ant. 441-2)
You, you with your head bowing towards the ground: do you afhrm or
deny that you have donethis? 6% highlights the personal pronoun o , with
a note of contempt; it is also possible to read 57 as indicating that Creon s
questioning of Antigone is expected given the preceding context ( you
then ).
(68) Eot1 5& oUTOs A idyou pév Uds ... Svoua & atte KAsivias. Eot1 SE véos-
poPouvpeba 81) Trepi AUTH, oiov Eikds Trepi veo. (Pl. Euthd. 275a-b)
This is the son of Axiochus; his nameis Clinias; he s young, and so of course
were concerned for him,as is to be expected with a young man. Concernis
predictable given Clinias youth; the particle here also appears to have
a connective function, connecting the poBoupeba-sentence to the preceding
one (note that no other connective is present).
(69) éya 8 otK d&yvod ... 6T1 TOAAAKIS ... TOUS UoTdToUS Trepi THv Tpayyatoov
eittévtas év Opyt) TroiioSe, Gv Tl UN) KATA yvounv eKBf ob UNV oipan Beiv
Tii8iav dogdAciav oKoTroUvé UtrooteiAacbal ... pnyi St) Six7 PonSntéov
cival ... - ei SE Batépou ToUTwV dAlywproete, OKVG pT UaTaIos hyiv f
oTpateia yevntrar. eite yap ... elite ... Sef St) TOoAATW kai Six Thy
BotPeiav civor. (Dem. 1.16-18)
And I am well aware that you often get angry at the most recent speakers
concerninganaffair, if something goes against plan. Yet I believe that I must
not, looking at my personalsafety, keep quiet. I argue, then, that there must
be tworelief expeditions. And if you neglect either of them, I worry that our
campaign will provefruitless. For if... or if... So our expedition must be on

a large scale and twofold. 57 is used twice with a connectivefunction (note that
no other connectives are present in the relevant clauses). In both cases, it marks
a transition to an obviously relevant next step in the argument (in thefirst,
Demosthenes proceeds, after having explained why he should not withhold his
opinion, actually to give it; in the second, he restates that opinion as
a conclusion to the preceding argumentation). In this use, 54 somewhat
resembles ouv (for which, 59.34). For @atépou, 1.45 n.3.
(70) TloAuveixngs tritver. | 5 8 , cos Kpatdév S1) Kai veviknkos yaxn, | Eipos Sikdov és
yoiav éoxuAevé viv. (Eur. Phoen. 1415-17)
Polynices fell. And he (Eteocles), believing, no doubt, that he had defeated
him and wonthebattle, put his sword down on the ground andproceeded to
strip his body. With an ironic nuance: the subjective motivation given by as
npatév (52.39) will prove to be tragically misguided: Polynicesis still alive,
and will kill Eteocles.
Note 1: 57 is sometimes written as one word with a following indefinite pronoun or adverb
which it modifies: e.g. 5itrote; for S4trou, 59.47.
59.45 The particle Sita (postpositive) is a stronger form of 51, used primarily in answers and
questions:
(71) HT. o08é yap eivor tavu pnul Sikny... Tod oti; :: KP. tapd Toio1 Geois. :: HT. 1s Sita
Sikns oUlons 6 ZeUs OUK ATrdAWAEV, Tov TATED atTOU Shoas; (Ar. Nub. 902-6)
(Weaker Argument:) I say that there is no justice at all; where is it? :: (Stronger
Argument:) With the gods. :: (Weaker Argument:) How is it possible, then, if there is
justice, that Zeus didn t perish when he boundhis ownfather?
59.46 The particle Sai (postpositive) is a - probably colloquial - variant of 54, used specifically in
questions.
The particle 5%@«(v) appears to be synonymouswith 7, although it is found primarily in
the ironic contexts described above.
dnTrou
59.47 Postpositive. Basic function: combines the evidential force of 84 (59.44) with the
uncertainty of tou (59.50) - Shou tentatively suggests that something ought to be as
clear or obvious to the addressee as it is to the speaker (for possible translations trou,
59.50):
(72) d&voyuvhobyte Sti Kal Eyngioaobe Sitrou Tous puyddas &ywyipous eivar ék Tracdv Tv
oupyaxiSev. (Xen. Hell. 7.3.11)

Remember: you voted, if 'm not mistaken, that exiles can be extradited from all of our
allies.
d7nTa
65n, 59.45.
x
n
59.48 Basic function: objective emphasizer- 7 indicates a high level of commitment on

the part of the speaker to the truth of the content of an utterance, which is
considered to be objectively true:
in statements, to underline that the speaker considershis/her statementora part
of it objectively true (really, truly, certainly);
in questions (for &pa (= 7} + &pa) 59.43), to ask whether the addresseereally
considers something the case (really, truly); often to introduce a suggested
answerto a previous question (I suppose,is it the case that).
(73) 7 ToAU TIAgioTov éxeivol KATE Thy apeTHy atrdvtwv &vOpwrtrav SitveyKav. (Lys.
2.40)
These mentruly surpassedall men in valour by a great deal.
(74) 7 xdv Geoion tabTOv éATriers TH5e; (Eur. Hipp. 97)
Doyoureally expect that this same principle is true among the godsas well?
(75) tives & Exouo1 yaiav; 7) Onpdv yevos; (Eur. Cyc. 117)
Wholives here? Wild beasts, I suppose?
Note 1: 7 maybeseen as a positive counterpart to the negation ov: whereas ot expresses that
somethingis not the case, 7) expresses emphatically thatit is.
env
59.49 Postpositive. Basic function: subjective emphasizer - uv indicates that the
speaker is committedto the truth or relevanceof his/her utterance, and anticipates
or assumesa possible lack of commitmenton the part of the addressee.
in statements,pv signals that the speaker vouchesfor the truth or relevance of
his/her statement, no matter what the addressee may believe (it anticipates
disbelief or scepticism) (I assure you, really, truly, certainly, in fact, know that,
let me tell you that);
in questions, typically after a previous answerhas beenrejected, to indicate that
the speaker wants the addressee to give an answer which is true or relevant
(translation other thanbystressis difficult); so frequently with question words,
e.g. Tot uty... ; where is... °, ti unv; then what Is ... ?% ti uty is also used
elliptically , with the sense whatof it? yes, but what is your point?;
uralso appears to have developed a connectiveforce, indicating a transition to
a point which is somehow unexpected (however, be that as it may,yet; in this use
uty is very similar to adversative pévtoi, 59.27; it is often anticipated by pév);
yris frequently combined with negatives: ot uty (truly not, not however;
well, ... not) (this use is normally combinedwithye).
(76) TO. eioi pév ... Evin THv dtroxpiocewv avayKaia Sid paKpdv Tous Adyous
TroiioBal: ou UNV GAAG Treipaoopai ye ws Sia PpayuTatov... :: ZO. Toutou
uty Sei, @ Popyia- Kai yor éridei iv . . . Toinoai tis BpayuAoyias ... :: FO. GAAG
troitjow. (Pl. Grg. 449b-c)
(Gorgias:) Some answers, Socrates, need to be made with long expositions;
neverthelessI will try, at least, to make mine as shortas possible. :: (Socrates:)
That is in fact what is needed, Gorgias; give me a display of yourbrevity.::
(Gorgias:) I will. Socrates affirms that he really does want a short explanation
(possibly to avoid the impression that he would like Gorgias to make oneofhis
famedlonger speeches.) For ot nv GAAG, 59.75.
(77) TE. é8aupalov St1 ovX olds T 7) EUpeEtv. :: EY. ob yap 7 KaT& TdAW. :: TE. rot
pry; (Pl. Tht. 142a)
(Terpsion:) I was surprised that I couldn t find you. :: (Euclides:) You
couldn't because I wasn t in the city. :: (Terpsion:) Then where were you?
(78) KaAOv Lev 1 GANGela, o E ve, Kal Udvipov: Zoike pV OU PGSiov eivon treiGerv. (PI.
Leg. 663e)
The truth is a noble thing, stranger, and an enduring one. Yet to convince
men ofit appears to be no easy matter. The unv-clause is unexpected given the
preceding yuév clause.
(79) SimAois Kevtpoici pou Kabixeto. | ov pty ionv y éteioev ... KTelven SE Tous
EUptravtas. (Soph. OT 809-13)
He struck me with his double whip. Well, he did not pay an equal price ...
I killed them all. urjv underlines the (unexpected) disparity between the attack
on Oedipus and his violent reactiontoit.
Note 1: uty most frequently occurs in combinations, e.g. &AAG Av (59.60), F un(59.65),
Kai un(59.71), ot ut &AAd (59.75-6).
TTOU
59.50 Ion. kou. Postpositive. Basic function: indicates uncertainty - by using trou
a speaker signals that he/she is not entirely sure about what he/sheis saying (the
uncertainty may befeigned to conveyirony orpoliteness).
trou is used almost always in statements, as a hedging device (perhaps, possibly,
somehow,I suppose, I think, I believe, if 'm not mistaken):
(80) eitrov 5 Trou, Trpiv dvayltyvwoKeo#ai ToUTOUS, ws... (Isoc. 15.75)
I said, I believe, before these words wereread, that...
(81) GAA Tatita Saipovi Kou pidov tv oUt yevéo@ar. (Hdt. 1.87.4)
No,it was perhapsthe desire of a god that it happened in that way.
Note 1: This use of trou probably derives from its meaning as an indefinite adverb
somewhere.
Note 2: trou is sometimes used in questions, particularly in certain combinations: ot trou;
(don ttell me that ...; questions about things which the speaker hopesare nottrue), ot ti
trou; (surely ... not... ?; questions about things which the speaker cannotbelieve aretrue),
and 7 trou (I suppose that ... ?; questions about things which the speaker believes are true,
but does not wantto state too firmly).
TOl
59.51 Postpositive. Basic function: serves to bring an utterance to the specific attention
of the addressee (101 wasoriginally a dative of the second-person pronoun):
most often in statements, especially in dialogue (mark you, note, I'll have you
know, you know, know that; sometimesbest translated only by emphasis); the
reasons whya point is broughtto the specific attention of the addressee vary
greatly: e.g. to boast, to threaten, correct or criticize, to compliment, to
persuade, to point out that a generalization is specifically applicable to the
addressee,etc.);
often with the negative, otto1;
sometimes in a command, wish or question, to point out that it has specific
relevance for the addressee.
(82) KA. xteveiv Zoikas, © Tékvov, Thy untépa. | :: OP. ot Tor ceauTiy, OUK eyo,
Katakteveis. (Aesch. Cho. 922-3)
(Clytaemestra:) It appears, child, that you are about to kill your mother.::
(Orestes:) It is you who will kill yourself, not I. Orestes uses to: to drive home
the point that Clytaemestra is responsible for her own demise (correcting her
preceding utterance).
(83) OA. ut xaip , Atpetdn, KépSeor Tos pt) KaAo's.| :: AT. Tév To1 TUPavVoV evoeBeIv
ot Pa&Siov. | :: OA. dAN et Agyouot Tois piAols Tiuds véperv. | :: AP. KAUElv Tov
ZoAdv &vbpa xpr) Tav év TEAet.| :: OA. tradoar Kpatets Tol TV MIAwV VIK@PEVOS.
(Soph. Aj. 1349-53)
(Odysseus:) Do not, son of Atreus, take pleasure in unjust profits. ::
(Agamemnon:) It is not easy, I'll have you know, for a ruler to behave
piously. :: (Odysseus:) But easy enoughto treat friends who give good advice
with respect. :: (Agamemnon:) A good manshouldlisten to those in power.::
(Odysseus:) Give up: youstill have power, you know, when you surrender to
friends. Agamemnon s to: points out that the generalization about kings and
good behaviouris relevant here, and that Odysseus request is thus unreason-
able. Odysseus roris designed to help persuade Agamemnonthathe can accede
to it anyway.
Particles of Scope
Introduction
59.52 The particles ye, yotv, xai (negative ovSé) and tep are particles that delimit the
scope or applicability of a certain statement. A speaker can use these particles to
signal that what he/shesays is applicable at least in the case of X , even in the case
of X or precisely in the case of X .
List of Scope Particles

yé
59.53 Postpositive. Basic function: expresses concentration/limitation - ye focuses

attention on the wordor phrase it follows (or sometimes the clause as a whole),
and limits the applicability of the content of the utterance to at least or (more)
precisely that specific element:
emphasizing words, phrasesor clauses (at least, when it comes to, to be precise,
often best translated by meansofstress);
in dialogue, at the beginning of a speaking turn, ye is used to pick up the
previous speaker s syntax but focus it on a specific element (to be precise); in
answersto yes/no questions, the answeryes or no is often implied.
(84) otk épn éauTtot ye Spxovtos obSev Gv EAAjvoaov eis TO éxeivou Suvatov
évbpatrosioSvar. (Xen. Hell. 1.6.14)
Hesaid that, at least while he was commander, no Greek would be reduced to
slavery, as far as was in his power.
(85) Kai pév 84 TOUTS ye Etriotaobe Trdvtes, ST1 EoHONY Kal ya Kai 6 ENds TraTTp.
(Andoc. 1.20)
Andifthere is one thing which youall know,it is that I and myfather survived.
(86) KP. Soxet traperka@eiv; :: XO. dc0v y , dva , tTayiota. (Soph. Ant. 1102-3)
(Creon:) Do you think that I should give way?:: (Chorus:) Yes, my lord, with
all speed.
Note 1: Certain combinations with ye are sometimes written as one word (e.g. ovye,
Kaitotye); this is regularly the case with éywye I (at least), (tym + ye; note the shift of
accent; dat. guorys, also with accentshift).
youv
59.54 Ion. yév. Postpositive. A combination of ye and otv, yotv modifies an utterance which
elaborates (otv, 59.34) upon(part of) the preceding utterance byrestricting its applicability
(ye, 259.53) (at least, at any rate). It is often used in sentences which provide the minimal
evidence or the minimal applicability for a preceding statement:
59.54-6 Particles of Scope 693
(87) trapé pév yap éxetvors yetZev éotiv 6 Tot uéAAovTOs Pdfos Tis TapOUOTs yapItos, Tape 8
Univ &Seds &v AGBH Tis Exetv UTTfipxXe TOV youv GAAov xpdovov. (Dem.20.16)
For in those communities the fear of tomorrow outweighs the favour of today, but in
yourcity it was possible for a man to keep what he wins withoutfearofloss, at any rate in
time past. tov yotv &AAov xpdvov limits the applicability of the positive description of the
city at least to time past .
Note 1: The negative counterpart of yotv is oJKouv ... ye, for which 59.33.
TTEp
59.55 Postpositive. Basic function: expresses exclusive limitation - trep limits the applicability of an
utterance s content to exactly and only the word (group)it follows.
in classical Greek trep is commononly in combination with relatives (Sotrep precisely who),
with ei (if and only if, precisely if), and in the combination xaitep (used with
participles 52.44);
in earlier Greek poetry (e.g. Homer, Hesiod, Aeschylus), ep is used on its own, with
concessive force (especially with predicative modifiers (26.26), particularly participles)
(even though, evenif).
(88) Tldvt , pn, A yets oiatrep &v yevoito. (Pl. Resp. 538c)
Hesaid: You describe everything exactly as it may occur.
(89) yéver TO Oeiov SouAig trep év qpevi. (Aesch. Ag. 1084)
The divine power remains in the mind, even thoughit (the mind) is enslaved. 5ouAia
(adj.) is a predicative modifier with ppevi.
Adverbial kai
59.56 Basic function: expresses addition/extension - kai signals that the applicability of
an utterance also extends to the wordorphrase followingit:
marking additions which exceed a certain comparable or expected level (also,
too, even, as well);
- marking the highest point on a scale (even, also, indeed, too); for this use with
participles (even though), 52.44; or marking the lowest point on scale(atall,
even, so much as).
(90) BouAdpevos 5é Kai aUTOs AauTTPdv TI Trolfjoa... KaTadet. (Xen. Cyr. 5.4.15)
And wanting also himself to do somethingillustrious, he ran off.
(91) éppt8n yap trou oUtws Hhudv eivan wuxt Kai Trpiv cis cpa dqikéoba...
(Pl. Phd. 92d)
Forit wassaid, I think, that our soul, even before it enters the body,is of the
following nature ...
(92) tis 5& Kai poo BAdweTan| TratSav o°, tv abté&v TpocguEvos KTaVNs Tivd; (Eur.
IA 1192-3)
Whichof yourchildren will so muchas look at you, when youve conceded to
killing one of them?
The negative is od5¢/undé (also not, not even, not so much as, not at all):
(93) toUTw@ pév ovde SieAgyeto, GAA euioe. Trdvtmv avOpaTrOVv pdAIoTA.
(Lys. 3.31)
Hedid not even exchange words with that man, but hated him aboveall.
Particle Combinations
List of Particle Combinations

GANG yap and GANG ... yap
?
59.57 A speakerbreaksoff (&AA&, 59.11) a line of reasoning or narrative, often in mid-

speech, and explains why (yap, 59.14) (but enough aboutthis, for ...; but why go
on?for ...; but as a matter offact ... ):
(94) TIP. S0xotoi ye ot pauAwsA yelv. 3: TO. Hs yap dy, ut pavAol ye Svtes; GAAK
yap UTreKoTivai Tov Adyov ETripepduEvov ToUTOVv BovAouan. (Pl. Phib. 43a)
(Protarchus:) They appear to speak with some weight. :: (Socrates:)
Of course, they are weighty persons. But as a matter of fact I would prefer
to dodge this line of reasoning that is advancing upon us. For 1é&s> ydp,
38.19 n.2; 59.14.
(95) GAN sicopd yap ... | TuAdSnv Spo" oteixovta, Daoxéov &tro,| HSeiav dy.
(Eur. Or. 725)
But I muststop, for I see Pylades ... coming at a run from Phocis, a welcome
sight. For the appositive Seiav dyrv, 27.14.
59.58 Observe that in the examples above, &AA& ydp and aAAd ... y&p are combinations used in
a single clause (i.e. with a single predicate). Next to this simple use, the particles also occur,
with the samegeneral sense, in complex form,i.e. separately in two clauses, each with their
own predicate. In such cases the y&p-clause is parenthetical:
(96) DoiPos Sé, DoiBos GAN , ava ydp got euds, | oryd. (Eur. El. 1245-6)
And Phoebus, Phoebus ... No, I hold my tongue, for he is my lord. &AA introduces the
oryé)-clause, yap introduces the clause with éot .
Occasionally, in poetry, the particles are not separated when éAA& yapis so used(i.e. each with
their own clause):
59.58-62 Particle Combinations 695
(97) GAAK yap Kpgovta AeUoow ... | TPds Sdu0Us OTEixovTa, TaUow ... ydous. (Eur. Phoen.
1307-8)
But I see Creon comingto the palace, so I will cease from my laments.Strictly speaking,
GAA introduces the tavow-clause and yap the Aevoow-clause; this use may be seen as
a contamination of the simple and the complex uses.
GANG (...) 67
59.59 Introduces a text-segment that corrects or replaces an element of the preceding dis-
course (dAAG, >59.11), while indicating that the new utterance is plainly relevant or
obvious (89, 59.44):
(98) ox évvod, & LaKpates: GAAK Bt} Tiva ypagty of yeypatrtay; (Pl. Euthphr. 2b-c)
I don t rememberhim,Socrates; but which indictmenthas he broughtagainst you then?
The identity of the accuser having turned out to be a dead end, Euthyphrobreaks off that
line of discussion and naturally passes on to the indictment.
AAA pv
59.60 Introduces a text-segment that corrects (implicationsof) earlier information (éAA&, 59.11),
while the speaker vouchesfor the correctness and relevance ofhis/her utterance (unv, 59.49)
(but, I can assure you; yet it is clear that; well, don t worry; etc.):
(99) XQ. ovKotv Td peta TOTTO yer Cyteiv, eitrep ErriBUUEIs EiS ven, tis ToT at gotavTos Hh
dpbdtns. :: EP. GAA un éTriuUd ye eiSeven. :: LO. TKdtrer toivuv. (Pl. Cra. 391b)
(Socrates:) Then our next task is to try to find out, if you care to know, what kind of
correctness, in turn, that is. :: (Hermogenes:) To be sure I care to know.:: (Socrates:)
Then investigate. dAAd reacts to the citrep-clause, and corrects the implication that
Hermogenes might be unwilling; urv underlines his commitment.
GANouv
59.61 Corrects or dismisses the preceding information (dAAdc, 59.11) in favour of

information which is considered more relevant (ov, 59.34) (be that as it may,
anyhow, at any rate); frequently apodotic ( >59.12, &AA&) after a conditional
clause:
(100) étrert ci Kai TuUyydvouEev GuMdtepor WEeUsT A yovtes, GAN ovV Eyo HEV TOUTOIS
Kexpnuat Tois Adyols, oiotrep ypT TOUS étraivoGvtTas. (Isoc. 11.33)
Further, even if both of us happen to be wrong,I, at any rate, have used only
such argumentsas authors of eulogies must use.
yap 61
59.62 St) (59.44) may lend a nuanceof certainty or obviousness to the explanation/motivation
given by y&p (59.14):
(101) Ma&yous ... &tpexéws oiSa Tatta Troovtas: gupavéws yap 51) Troteton. (Hdt. 1.140.2)
I know with certainty that this is the practice of the Magi, since they do this whereall
can see it. 57) expresses the idea that the explanation of the statement I know with
certainty is uncontroversial.
yap ouv
59.63 Offers an explanation/motivation of the preceding text segment (y&p, 59.14) in more
relevant terms (otv, >59.34) (actually, as a matter offact, that is to say, what I mean by
that is):
(102) oiyoi, 168 oiovEitras: aioBnors yap ouv | kai TH Bupaicov THEdTwv Saver BpoTtous. (Eur.
El. 290-1)
Ah, what a thing you have said! I mean, knowing about afflictions, even those of
outsiders, is hurtful for mortals.
Note 1: Sometimes, otv in this combination seems merelyto indicate that the information in
the explanationis inferable from the preceding context; with this use of otv, the combination
occurs frequently as a formula in answers:
(103) =E. kai tod mrnvot pév yevous Tr&oa hiv fh Apa Agyetai Trou Tis dpviGeuTIKT. :: OE.
Aéyetar yap ovv. (Pl. Soph. 220b)
(Stranger:) And as for the hunting of winged creatures, as a whole wecallit fowling,
I suppose.:: (Theaetetus) Yes, as a matter of fact, we do.
5 ouv
59.64 The preceding information is abandoned (8¢, indicating a shift, 59.16) in favour
of a point which is considered more relevant (otv, 59.34) at the particular
juncture (be that as it may, however that may be, anyhow) (cf. &AN ov, 59.61):
(104) tdéte ov TrapeABoov Tois APnvaiors traptiver Toidde. (Thuc. 6.15.5)
Howeverthat may be, he now came forward and gave the following advice
to the Athenians. This follows on a digression about Alcibiades and the
Athenians prior views of him.
(105) otk A iwoe Tot Feo trpoAauBave| pavTevpad : Ev ovv citrev- ... (Eur. Jon
407-8)
Hedid notthinkit right to anticipate the god s prophecies. Be thatas it may,
one thing hedid say: ...
nN ehy
59.65 Very strong emphasizer, used by the speaker to affirm both the objective (4, 59.48) and
subjective (uv, 59.49) truth of the utterance; it is used especially in oaths, strong predic-
tions, etc. (truly, most certainly, I affirm that):
(106) AaPdpEevos Tot Bayot dyooev uy

T pn Eival of Uidv GAAov unde yevéoar TaTote, éi Ut
ltrtrévikov &x Tis TAauKevos @uyatpds. (Andoc. 1.126)
Taking hold of the altar he swore that he mostcertainly had noson, norhad he ever had
one, other than Hipponicus, by the daughter of Glaucon.
Kal yap
59.66 Thevalues of kai (59.20, 59.56) and y&p (59.14) may be combinedin various
ways:
- most often, in continuous discourse, introducing additional information (xai)
which has explanatory force (ydp) (and as matter of fact, in point of fact,
indeed):
(107) 1d Sé SF peta TOUTO ETr1BULS Uyiv ypnouwSijoa1, © kaTaynplodpeEvol pou: kal
yap eipr Hn evtaida év © udAiota avepatro: ypnou@sdoton, ... (Pl. Ap. 39c)
And as for the next point, I wish to prophesy to you, you who have
condemned me; and as a matter of fact I am now at the time in which
men most prophesy,...
in continuousdiscourse, with ydp introducing an explanation/motivation, and
adverbial xai (for also, for even):
(108) @dpce1, Trapéotar Kai yap ci yépwv éyo, | TO TijoSe xapas ov yeytpaxe
ofévos. (Soph. OC 726-7)
Donotbeafraid, it shall be there! For even if I am old, the strength of this
land has not grown aged. For xaiei, 49.19-20.
in answersin dialogues, with yap expressing assent, and adverbial xai (yes, ...
too):
(109) T1Q. otk &pt1 apoAdyeis Troieiv & SoKel aUTOIs PéEATIOTA eival... 3 2: ZO. Kai
yap viv duodoy. (Pl. Grg. 467b)
(Polus:) Did you not admit just now that they do what they think best? ::
(Socrates:) Yes, and I admit it now too.
Kal... d
59.67 Introduces new,closely related information (kai, 59.20), which nevertheless is somehow
distinct from the preceding context (8¢, 59.16) (and on the other hand, and furthermore,
and... as well):
(110) ... Zevopdvti, 6pdvti ... WeATAGTaS TOAAOUs Kai TOo déTas Kal ogevSovntas Kal irTréas
be... , KaAOV... 25dxe1 eivor... (Xen. An. 5.6.15)
. as Xenophon s eyes rested upon a great body of peltasts, bowmen,slingers,
and horsemen as well ... , it seemed to him that it was a fine thing ... The last
item (xai intréas 5é) is set offfrom the rest: it is the only group of soldiers which is
mounted.
Kai 51)
59.68 Typical uses:

- in dialogue in drama, xai 5/ drawsattention to the fact that an action is actually
taking place before the eyes of speaker and addressee; so used, it frequently
signals that an orderis carried out (there you are, see), or marks the occurrence
of an event or the entrance of a character on the stage (see here, and look):
(111) HP. téAua trpoteivan yeipa Kai Oryciv Eévns. :: AA. Kai trpoteives. (Eur. Alc.
1117-18)
(Heracles:) Have the courage to hold out your hand andtouchthestranger.::
(Admetus:) There, I m holdingit out. xai 57) signals that an orderis carried out.
(112) pido, é&Aa1... | Kapadoxd TéxeiBev of rpoBhoeTau. | Kai 5 50pKa Tdvde
Tov lacovos | otelxovT éTraSHv. (Eur. Med. 1116-19)
Friends, for a long time I have been waiting to see how matters in that
quarter will turn out. And look, here I see one of Jason s servants coming.
nai 57) marks the arrival of a character.
ina narrative, adding new information (kai, 59.20) and asking the addressee
to visualize the action reported (8h, 59.44) (andsee!, lo!, and there he... ):
(113) GAAnv aKa KUAIKa, yryvookov 61 | TpdceElviv Oivos Kal Siknv Saoe1 Taxa.|
81) pds OdSas eiptr . (Eur. Cyc. 421-3)
I gave him another cup, knowing that wine would be his undoing and he
would soon pay the penalty. Andlo! hefell to singing.
Kai 51) Kai
59.69 Very commonin Herodotusand Plato. Addsan extra piece of information (kai...
Kal and also, 59.20), and singles out the addition (8n, 59.44) (andspecifically,
andin particular, and aboveall):
(114) GAW ot ev, & Nixia, yaAetrov Agyelv Trepi STOUOTY pabhwaTos as ov xpr)
pavOdveiv- Tavta yap éticotacba &yabov Soxei iva. Kai 61) Kal TO OTTAITIKOV
ToUTo, ei uev goTiv UdOnua, ... (Pl. La. 182d-e)
Butit is difficult, Nicias, to say of anything that can be learnt that it ought
not to be learnt; for it seems good to knowall things. And take specifically
this skill at arms, if it is something that can be learnt...
59.70 (kai 57) kai frequently follows on a form of &AAos, singling out one specific entity
from a larger group (other(s) ... and in particular; aboveall):
(115) és Te St) av Tas GAAas EtreutTrE OULMAayias Kal Bt) Kal és AakedSaipova. (Hdt.
1.82.1)
He sent messengersto his otherallies, and in particular to Sparta.
Kal nv
59.71 The speaker adds information (kai, 59.20), and indicates that he/she vouchesfor
the correctness or relevance of the addition, even if the addressee may not expectit
(uv, 259.49).
in dialogue, often in favourable reactionsto e.g. a request or order(certainly, all
right, well then):
(116) OP. &kou : Utrép cot ToidS Zor S68Upyata, | adtds 5 c~ln Tdvde Tiyhoas
Adyov. | :: XO. kai pty dueyot T6v8 éteivatov Adyov. (Aesch. Cho. 508-10)
(Orestes:) Hear us; they are for your sake, such laments as these, and
by respecting our words you gain security for yourself. (Chorus:)
Well, the two of you certainly cannot be blamed for addressing him
at length.
in drama, to signal the (unexpected or unannounced) entrance on the stage
of a new character (look here, see, here is; contrast kai 84, which can mark
the entrance of a character without the connotation of unexpectedness,
59.68):
(117) KP. k&too vuv 2ABotio , ci piAntéov, giAei | Kelvous: uot 8 C&vtos ovK &pEe1
yuvn. | :: XO. Kad uty mpd TuAdy 48 "lopjvn. (Soph. Ant. 524-6)
(Creon:) Then go below and love them, if you must! But as long as
I live a woman will not rule. :: (Chorus:) See, here before the gates is
Ismene.
- moving to a new step in argumentative or narrative texts (but, and, now, well,
andin fact):
(118) oi pév 84 OnBoio ... trapeoxeudlovto as d&uUvoUUEvo!, of & A nvaior cs
BonSroovtes. Kai uv of Aakedaipovio: oUKEeT1 EueAAov, GAAG Tlauoavias ...
étropeveto eis Thv Bowotiav. (Xen. Hell. 3.5.17)
So the Thebans made preparations for defending themselves, and the
Athenians for aiding them. And in fact the Spartans did not longer delay,
but Pausanias marched into Boeotia. priv confirms that the Boeotians and
Athenians werejustified in makingpreparations: the Spartans definitely were
a threat.
pev ouv (attitudinal nv + ovv)
59.72 The speaker vouchesfor the correctness or relevance ofhis/her utterance (unv, 59.49; for pév
in this use, 59.25), and indicates that it is presented in morerelevant terms (otv, 59.34);
the combinationis used specifically in dialogue, in corrective answers/reactions, improving or
enlarging on what precedes (you'll mean, you should say, I'd rather say, rather); in Plato,
sometimes simply in assenting answers (indeed):
(119) AP.. .S0Kxdv yuvorkdy gpya vuxteptoia | KAgTTe... : KH. i80U ye KAgtTetv: vt) Ala,
BivetoGon pév ovv. (Ar. Thesm. 204-6)
(Agathon:) ... because I'll seem to be stealing the women s nocturnal business. ::
(Inlaw:) Stealing my ass: you mean being fucked , by Zeus!
bev ouv (... dé) and pév toivuv (... dé)
59.73 These combinations indicate a transition to a more to-the-point, relevant text

segment (otv/toivuv, 59.34, 59.39); the transition occurs in twostages (uév ...
5é, 59.24), with the relevant new step presented in the 5¢-segment; the pév-
clause typically presents a summary or rounding-off of the preceding stretch of
text:
(120) trepi pév oWv ToUTwY TooatTé Lol Eipt}oBe- UTrép cov Sé Yol TrPOOT}KEl Agyelv, as
&v oidv Te 81a BopayuTatov épe. (Lys. 24.4)
Concerning these things, then, let as much as I havesaid suffice; as for the
things about which it is fitting for me to speak, I will speak as briefly as
possible. The pév-clause rounds off the preface of this speech, 5é starts the
narrative section; ovv indicates that the speakeris transitioning to the cur-
rently most relevant point (the narrative). Note that ov has scope over the
entire uév-6é structure, not merely the uév-clause.
59.74 Similarly, wév 5 ( ... 82): indicates a transition to an obviously relevant text
segment (8, 59.44), occurring in two stages (uév/Sé, 59.24); the pév-clause
sometimes contains a summary or rounding-off of the precedingstretch oftext:
(121) Kai TaAAa 51)
pév adios Zoo veds 2éueOa Kougilovta: Taupetos Sé Trovs| ovK
Her dp0ds cavida trpocoBivai Kata. (Eur. Hel. 1554-6)
Now,the other victims weeasily put on the ship, as they werelight; but the
bull s hoofs did not want to go forwardalong the plank. 57) again appears to
have scope overthe entire uév-65é structure, introducing the crucial phase in the
narrative about the bull.
ou pny aAAd and ov pévto1 AAG
59.75 The speakerasserts strongly, and against expectations raised by the preceding context (uny,
59.49/uévtor, 59.27) that nothing other is the case than that (ot ... &AA&, 59.11) (and
yet... nothing but ...; still, ... absolutely ...).
(122) euoyépave pév Tr oUSevi THY yeypauneveoy, éTrTvece & ws SuvaTov UaAIoTA, ... + UNV
OU
GAA PavEepdsTv OUY TSEws Exoov tri Tois rept AaKkedaipovieov eipnyevors. (Isoc. 12.201)
Hedid not complain aboutanypart ofwhat I had written, but praised it in the strongest
possible terms: and yet he wasplainly nothing but displeased about what had beensaid
about the Spartans. Note that ov unv aAA& here completes uév.
59.76 Particle Combinations 701
ou pny ovdé and ovdé nv
59.76 The speaker asserts strongly, and against the expectations raised by the preceding context
(unv, 59.49) that somethingis also not the case ((ot) .. . o8Sé, 459.56)(nor, yet; nor, indeed;
not ... either, indeed, ... )
(123) Kai kpauyt) yév oUSenta Trapt, ot Ut obSE oryt, wv) S Tis HW ToL1aUTH Olav dpyt) TE Kal
ayn Trapdoyort &v. (Xen. Ages. 2.12)
There was no shouting, noryet wasthere silence, but there was the strange sort of sound
which rage and battle may produce.
60
Word Order
Introduction
60.1 A consideration of some randomly chosen sentences containing the verb 25axe(v)
raises many questions about the order in which the words appear:
(1) pet& 8 tatta étrei ouveyévovto GAAAoIs, DuEvveois UEV ESaKe KUPw yoraTa
TTOAAG eis THY OTPaTIAV, KUpos 5é ExEeiven SHpa & vouileTar Tapa PaorAei Tipia.
(Xen. An. 1.2.27)
Whenthey met afterwards, Syennesis gave Cyrus much moneyfor the expedi-
tion, and Cyrus gave him gifts which are considered tokens of honourat the
royal court.
(2) &k 8 TOUTOU TTOAAK Kal KOAG ESxe SHpa TH Yotdotra, Stres TH Trad! Téwwele.
(Xen. Cyr. 8.4.26)
Then he gave many beautiful gifts to Hystaspes to send to the young woman.
(3) Kai Zaoxev 6 TrapeABaov ypdvos TrOAAdS actroSeiEeis AvBpi KAAD keryabd&. (Dem.
18.310)
Andthe past period offered many opportunities to an upstanding man.
(4) Exdoto 5é &pyty TOAASY avOpartreov Kai Tétrov TTOAAT|s YOPas EScoxev. (Pl. Criti.
114a)
Andto each he gave leadership over many men andlargetracts of land.
60.2 Word order in these sentences can be considered on severallevels:
The position of certain types of individual wordsisrelatively fixed. All articles

appear in front of their nouns: (1) thy otpatidy, (2) TH Yotdotra, (3) 6
TrapeAfwv ypdovos. Prepositions appearin front of the noun phrase they modify:
(1) wet& tatta, cis Thy oTpatidy, Trapd Bact; (2) éx TouTou. In (1), (2) and (4)
the connective particle 5¢ is the second word of the sentence, but kai in (3) is the
first word of the sentence.
Within noun phrases,it is more difficult to spot regularities. In some cases, we
find the order modifier-head (noun): (3) 6 trapeABaov ypdvos, TOAAGs arrSei els,
(4) TroAAdv avOpatrav, TroAAT\s yopas. In other cases, however, we find the
order head-modifier: (1) yptata TroAAd, (3) &vbpi KaAD Te Keryadd, (4) dpytv
TOAASY &vOpw@trwv, TOTTOV TTOAATs xopas. In onecase,finally, the modifier and
the head nounareseparated by an intervening word: (2) TroAAg Kai KaAK ESaoxKe
SHpa.
60.2-6 Wordswith a Fixed Position: Postpositives and Prepositives 703
Atthe level of the sentence or clause, with regard to the order of constituents,
such as Subject (S), Object (O), Indirect Object (IO) and Verb (V), many
different orderings are possible: (1): S-V-IO-O (Zuévveois gaKxe Kupo
xphwata); (2): V-O-IO (axe Spa 1H Yotéotra); (3): V-S-O-IO (axev 6
xpdvos a&trodeiéeis AvSpi); (4): IO-O-V (éxdotw apyKai Tétrov ESaxev) - in
short, syntactic function does not seem to be the main factor determining
constituent order.
60.3 The principles which govern word orderonall these levels, except the first one, are
not fully understood. However,the assertion, often made in grammars, that Greek
word order is more orless free is not true; even if much remains uncertain,
a numberof tendencies can be observed.
Words with a Fixed Position: Postpositives and Prepositives
Mobile, Postpositive and Prepositive Words
60.4 Most Greek words may occur at the beginning, at the end or in the middle of
a clause; such wordsare referred to as mobile. Others, however, have a morefixed
position. These are knownas postpositives and prepositives.
60.5 Postpositive words attach themselves to the preceding word. From this it follows
that postpositive words may not normally occur as the first word of a clause.
The most important postpositive wordsare:
many connective particles: at, yap, 5é, uév, pévTor, vuv (not viv, a mobile word),
oUuV, TE, TOIVUV;
manyattitudinal particles: dpa, 51, pty, Trou, To1;
the scopeparticles ye, trep;
the modal particle a;
non-contrastive personal pronouns: yo, oo1, ye, o¢, etc.; also ov, oi, é (uv in
Herodotus), ogoov,etc.;
non-nominative forms of attds (when they function as third-person personal
pronouns);
indefinites like tis (not tis), tote (not tréTe), Trou (not trod), etc.
60.6 Prepositive words attach themselves to the following word. From this it follows
that prepositive words maybethe first word of a clause, but usually notthelast.
The most important prepositive wordsare:
articles (6, 4, Td, etc.);
prepositions (dugi, dvd, avi, etc.);
704 60.6-9 Word Order
some connective particles, like &AAd, &td&p, 7}, Kai (also in its adverbial use
(59.56), ov8é, ote, Tolyap;
the attitudinal particles &épa (= 7 &pa) and 4; ;
subordinators (étrei, 6te, STi, ws, etc.);
- relative pronouns(és, #j, 5);
negatives (ot, un).
The Placement of Postpositives
60.7 Postpositive words tend to occur after the first word of the sentence, clause or
word group they belong to, that is, in second position; this rule is known as
Wackernagel s Law. Depending on several factors second position may mean
slightly different things in different contexts:
60.8 Depending on the size of the unit over which they have scope, connective and
scope-particles occur in the secondposition of a sentence, clause or word group:
(5) éABav Sé és AaxeSaivova TaHv Lev iia pds Tiva GbiknucTav nUdUvOn, Ta Sé
ueylota a&troAveTtan wn &dikeiv. (Thuc. 1.95.5)
Whenhearrived in Sparta, he was censured for the wrongs hehadprivately
committed against certain people, but was pronounced innocentof the gravest
charges. The first 5 connects the entire sentence to the preceding context; but
this sentence is itself divided up into two contrasting clauses, each featuring
a text-structuring particle (uév ... 5é) in second position.
(6) eixds yap év dvbpdo1 ye &yaBois Kai dveu Tis aithoEews Thy dkpdaow UTrd&pyelv
Tois pevyouoiv. (Antiph.5.4)
For amidst good men,atleast, it is likely that the defendants receive a hearing even
without asking for it. yap connects the entire sentence to the preceding context; the
scope-particle ye appears in the second position of the noun phrase to whichit lends
emphasis (with év a&v8pdor being treated as a single, indissoluble unit), >60.10.
60.9 The first word of a clause may be followed by more than one postpostive. The
standard order of postpositives in such cases is as follows: forward-linking con-
nective particles (especially pév, and often te) > backward-linking connective par-
ticles (5, yap, otv,etc.) > other particles > indefinite pronouns > personal pronouns:
(7) GAoyia pév yap 81) Tis paivetar 81a ToUTev. (Theophr. Caus. pl. 1.13.4)
For becauseof these reasons, then, there appears to be a certain incongruity.
(8) ci otv Ti o¢ TOUTwV d&pgoxe: ... (Thuc. 1.128.7)
If one of these things pleases you ...
Note that the author's preference for the standard order in (7) causes tis to be
separated from dAoyia, the noun it modifies; for the same reason, in (8)
60.9-11 Wordswith a Fixed Position: Postpositives and Prepositives 705
indefinite 11 is separated from its modifier toutwv by oe. For the accent on T,
24.38 nl.
60.10 Postpositives frequently do not follow the first word (as in (9)), but the first
constituent of a clause, which often consists of a prepositive and a mobile word
(as in (10)). The first constituent is then treated as a single, indissoluble unit,
effectively as a single word:
(9) of at BdpBapoi otK é¢yovto. (Xen. An. 1.10.11)
But the barbarians once more did not wait for them. The constituent oi
PBapBapor is broken up by the two postpositives 5au.
(10) té&v SouvAav at Kai THv pEToiKwv TAiotTn gotiv ASnvnow d&Kodacia. ([Xen.]
Ath. pol. 1.10)
Then again, among slaves and immigrants the lack of restraint is greatest in
Athens. Here, the constituent T&v SovAwv is treated as one, indissoluble unit,
and the postpositives 5 avfollowit.
While postpositive particles (especially connective ones) often intervene between
two membersof the first constituent, indefinites and personal pronouns seldom do
(&v also only very rarely):
(11) 4 yap dveyxn pe TriéZer. (Ar. Nub. 437)
For necessity presses me down. The connective particle yap breaks up the
constituent 1) dvayxn (also cf. 8 at in (9) above), but the personal pronounpe
followsit.
60.11 The placementof other postpositives (especially personal pronouns) is complicated by several
conflicting tendencies:
First, such postpositives tend to cluster together after the first word or constituent of
a sentence. As a result, words which syntactically go closely together may be widely
separated (12).
Secondly, however, there is a tendency to distribute postpositives over the sentence,
dividing up the sentence into moreorless syntactically recognizable clauses and word
groups (13):
(12) TroAA& Te yap pw Kai peydAa Te étraeipovta Kai éTroTpUvovTa jv. (Hdt. 1.204.2)
For the reasons that impelled and encouraged him were manyandgreat.
(13) Kai ot povov TatiT goTi Ta TolotvTé pe &ywvileobai TOV d&ydva ToUTov. (Isae. 2.43)
Andthese are not the only things which impel meto engagein this lawsuit.
In (12), postpositive pav, the object ofthe participles éraeipovta nai étroTpuvovTa, appears in
the first available position of the entire sentence (after other postpositives); in (13), by
contrast, the participle phrase ta troiotvta ... To#rov functions as a separate clause , as
can be seenfrom thefact thatpostpositive ue appears after thefirst constituent ofthat clause.
Thirdly,it is possible for postpositive obligatory constituents with verbs to be placed after
their verb:
706 60.11-13 Word Order
(14) toutou uev d&qinui oe. (Pl. Euthphr. 9c)

From this point I absolve you. o¢ appears straight after the verb of which it is the object
(instead of after pév, which would also have been possible).
Fourthly, postpositives may be placed after the most salient word or constituent of
a sentence:
(15) SoKotion 8 A@nvaion kai totTd Yo otK dpBds BouAeveoGan, 6t1... ([Xen.] Ath. pol. 3.10)
The Athenians seem to me to be wrongin this respect, too, that ...
60.12 The placementof &v:

With optatives (potential construction) and secondary indicatives (counterfactual), &v is
occasionally repeated, foundfirst in second position of the sentence or clause, and then
again moreclosely with the verb:
(16) dot dy, ei oévos | ABon, SNA®oaIp &v of attoIs ppovd. (Soph. El. 333-4)
The result is that, if 1 could find the strength, I would make clear what are myfeelings
toward them.
- In subordinate clauses with &v and the subjunctive, é&v usually directly follows the
subordinator: ds &v, doTis dv (also 6 1 &v), Straws &v, but connective particles may
intervene (ds yap &v, 6 m1 8 &v, 60.9). However, several temporal conjunctions and
the conditional conjunction «i occur in obligatory crasis with &v (étredv/étrdy, étreiSdv,
étav, dodétav, édv/Hv/av), and in these cases connective particles do not intervene
(é1re1dav Sé, Stav yap).
The Placement of Prepositives
60.13 Prepositive words usually occupythefirst position in the sentence, clause or word
group (for example a noun phrase) over which they have scope.
(17) Kai otSeis Et: &veu EAAtvoov eis TdAguov Kabiotatal, ote Stay GAANAOIS
TroAeudoiv outTe OTav ol EAAnves auToIs avTIOTPATEVWVTAI: GAAG Kal POS
TouTous éyvaKaol pel EAAnvaov tous troAguous Trovio®o. (Xen. Cyr.
8.8.26)
And no one goes to war anymore without the help of Greeks, neither when
they are at war with each other nor when the Greeks launch an expedition
against them. But even against them theyrealize that they can conduct
their wars only with the help of Greeks. The connective particles uai and
GAA& occurin thefirst position of the sentences which they connect, oUte ...
oute ... precede the temporal clauses which they negate, and both examples
of dtav (= 6te dv) occupy the first position in the subordinate temporal
clauses they introduce. All articles precede their nouns, and all prepositions
precede the nouns which they modify. Adverbial uai has scope over the word
group Tpos TouTous.
60.14-15 The Ordering of Words in Noun Phrases 707
60.14 Sometimes, especially in poetry, prepositions are placed after the noun phrase
they modify (anastrophe). When this happens, their accent recedes to the first
syllable if possible (24.37):
(18) Agyoiy &v of HKouca Tot Fe0t dpa. (Soph. OT 95)
I mayas well tell you what I have heard from the god.
In Attic prose, this construction is limited to epi + genitive (e.g. ToUTav trép1
aboutthese things, tivos trép1; about what?)
The Ordering of Words in Noun Phrases
Head-Modifier versus Modifier -Head
60.15 Modifiers in a noun phrase may either follow or precede their head (for these
terms, 26.16): 6 dvijp otitos or otTos 6 dvip that man; (A) Sixkaia yuvt or (4) yuh
(*)) Sixaia the/a just woman; 6 Tdv A nvaiov Sijyos or 6 Sijpos (6) tHv ASnvaiov the
people of the Athenians,etc.
The differences between the orders modifier-head and head-modifier are
by no meansalways clear. On the whole, however, head-modifier is the most
common and neutral order, while the order modifier-head is used to convey
that the modifier contains particularly salient information (i.e. the modifier is
emphasized). Modifiers can besalient if they are contrastive, unexpected or
particularly informative.
(19) tagpai Sé Toion evdSaipoo: atTdév eioi aide. TpEis pév TEpas TrpoTIGeio1 Tov
vekpov. (Hdt. 5.8)
The burial rites of the more prosperous among them (the Thracians) are as
follows: they lay out the corpse for three days. That funeral rites should
include laying out the corpse for a certain numberof days is not surprising;
whatis peculiar to the rites of the described Thraciansis that they lay out the
corpse for three (tpeis) days. The position of the modifier in front of the head
noun suggests that this is the most important information within the noun
phrase.
(20) éi 54 TavTHV Thy wdpyov otéAAovtTar és Thy ~pnuov oi IvSoi, CevEdpEvos
EKAOTOS KaLTAOUS TpEIS ... al yap ogi Ka&uNAOl imTwHV OUK Toooves és
TOXUTTTE ior, yapis SE &yPea Suvatatepar ToAAdv gépeiv. (Hdt. 3.102.3)
It is for this sand that the Indians set forth into the desert, each first
yoking three camels. For their camels are as fast as horses, and much
better able to carry loads besides. Since Herodotus goes on to explain why
the Indians use camels instead of horses, it appears that naurAous provides
708 60.15-17 Word Order
the most important and surprising information (a reader might wonder

camels?! ); the fact that they yoke three (tpéis) camels is not treated as the
more relevant piece of information.
(21) AptéBave, éyo TO TrapauTixa pév oUK éowppdveov eitras és of UdTala eTrex
XpNOTIIs eivexa oupBouaijs. (Hdt. 7.15.1)
Artabanus, I wasinitially out of my mind whenI said foolish wordsin reply
to useful advice. udtaia and ypnotijs are contrastive, and both precede their
noun.
60.16 Modifiers of considerable length (also called heavy modifiers ) have a tendency to follow
their head, even if they provide salient information:
(22) émyivetai ogi tépen Et1 peCova Tow Trpiv yevouevou Tépeos. (Hdt. 8.37.2)
Then there happened a miracle still greater than the miracle that had happened
before.
Multiple Modifiers
60.17. Ifahead has multiple modifiers, they can either precede or follow the head,butit
is also possible that some precede and others follow. The ordering is determined by
the same pragmatic principle of saliency described above. Furthermore, multiple
modifiers may be either co-ordinated or juxtaposed:
- If co-ordinated, each modifier separately qualifies the head, and co-ordinating
particles like kai, te kai, etc. may (but do not have to) intervene between the
modifiers; cf. Engl. great and old books or great, old books, i.e. books which are
great and old:
(23) 6 ZwKxpdtns dpdv ... Bepatraivas TroAAds Kal evedeis ... (Xen. Mem. 3.11.4)
Socrates, seeing many and good-looking maids, ... Co-ordination: Socrates
sees many maids, all ofwhom are good-looking. The possibility that there were
also less good-looking maids is not implied..
If juxtaposed, the first modifier qualifies both the head and the other modifiers,
and co-ordinating conjunctions are alwaysabsent; cf. Engl. great old books,i.e.
old books which are great :
(24) Kai &ua étritSe1a ToOAAd eixov, GAeupa, oivov, Kpibds imtrois cuuPeBANuEvas
ToAAds. (Xen. An. 3.4.31)
Theyalso had manyprovisions,flour, wine, and muchbarley stored as fodder
for horses. Juxtaposition: the barley that had been stored as fodderfor horses
was a large amount (there may have been otherkindsofbarley, for example the
kind usually sown to provide barley for the next harvest). For the attributive
participle oupBeBAnuévas without article, 52.47.
60.18-20 The Ordering of Constituents Within the Clause 709
Hyperbaton
60.18 In the examples given so far, the noun phrases are continuous, in that no words
other than postpositives intervene between the modifier and the head. However,
many noun phrasesare discontinuous, in that mobile words intervene between
the modifier and the head. This phenomenonis called hyperbaton. Twotypes can
be distinguished:
- Hyperbaton with the modifier preceding the head; this type involves strong
emphasis on the modifier:
(25) GAA obSév Eyoov Sixaiov eitteiv ETEDWV TrapEUPBOAT TPGyUcTOoV Eis ANON ULas
BouAetan Tis KaTNyopias éuBaAciv. (Aeschin. 3.205)
But since he has nothingjust to say, he wishes, by the insertion of extraneous
matters, to shock you into forgetting the charge.
(26) un Toivuv A yete ... 5 UD Evds To1latTa TréTrovOev fh EAAGS &vOpartrou. (Dem.
18.158)
Donotsay, then, that Greece has suffered such things because of one man.
- Hyperbaton with the head preceding the modifier; this type does not involve
emphasis: some additional information about the headis given, whichis either
predictable or not particularly relevant:
(27) ciofAGev dvtip Op&é imtrov yaoAeuKodv. (Xen. An. 7.3.26)
There arrived a Thracian man with a white horse.
Alternatively, the head may be topical ( 60.22), while the modifier adds new
information.
(28) éo87\Ta Sé popgouniof ipées Aivenv youvny. (Hdt. 2.37.3)
The priests wear only linen clothes (or: As for their clothes, the priests only
wearlinen ones ).
60.19 The most important syntactic restriction on hyperbaton is that at least one of the
constituents interrupting a discontinuous noun phrase must be the constituent on
which that noun phrase depends. For instance, in (25) étépwv ... tpayydtev is
a modifier of trapepBoAf; in (27) imtrov ... AeuKdv is object of Zxwv; in (28) éo@fita ...
Awénv pouvny is object of popéouc.
The Ordering of Constituents Within the Clause
Asserted and Presupposed Information
60.20 In English, constituent order is a syntactic phenomenon:whethera constituentis

Subject (S), Object (O), Verb (V), etc. determines its position in the clause:
710 60.20-21 Word Order
(29) Johnslikesy Julieo.

(30) Julies hatesy Johno.
In both sentences, the constituents could only be placed in the order given
(assuming that John is doing the liking and Julie the hating), because the rules
of English constituent order usually require the subject of a main clause to
stand in front of the verb, and the object afterit.
Greek constituent order, on the other hand,is not primarily a syntactic phenom-
enon.Instead, the ordering of constituents depends on their information status:
a constituent s position in the clause is determined largely by how new and
important the information whichit addsto the contextis (in English, information
status is mostly expressed by intonation).
60.21 Not every part of a clause uttered in spoken or written communication is

equally informative. In fact, successful communication depends on a speaker's
ability to estimate the amount of relevant knowledge the addressee already
possesses andto increase that knowledge by addingor linking new information
to already-known information. Already-known information is called presup-
posed, added information asserted. The difference can be made clear by
considering the following question/answerpairs:
(31) A: Whom did Claire kiss?
B: Claire kissed JAcos.
The presupposed information in B s answeris Claire kissed X ; as A asked
whom Claire kissed, B can regard the information that Claire kissed someone
as already knownto the addressee. The asserted information is Jacob, as this
part of the answer increases A s knowledge. Schematically:
|Claire kissed X|presupposep|X= Jacoblasserrep-
In English, Jacob receives a stress accent. Indeed, Jacob , uttered by itself, would
be a sufficient answer to the question (and is in fact more commoninreal-life
situations). Alternatively, a cleft construction may be used in English,i.e. It was
Jacob whom Claire kissed.
(32) A: Whokissed Jacob?
B: CLAIRE kissed Jacob.
This is the mirror image of (31). Here, the presupposed informationis X kissed
Jacob , and the asserted informationis Claire . Schematically:
kissedJacob|prrsupposep|X= Claire|assertep-
In English, Claire receives a stress accent, and would again be a sufficient (and
common) answerutteredby itself(cf. also the cleft construction It was Claire who
kissed Jacob. ).
(33) A: What did Claire do?

B: Claire KissED JACOB.
Here, the presupposed information is Claire did X , while the asserted infor-
mation is that she kissed Jacob . Schematically:
Claire did X|pRESUPPOSED|X= kissed Jacob) asserTeD-
In contrast to (31) and (32), in the present clause the verb is included in the
asserted information.
(34) A: What happened?
B: Claire kissed Jacob.
In this clause, all constituents belong to the asserted information, since A s
question does not presuppose any knowledge about Claire and Jacob being
involved in what happened nor about the nature of their involvement.
Note that in runningtexts, it may be moredifficult to separate the presupposed and
asserted information, and speakers have more freedom in deciding whether to
present information as already knownornot.
Consequences for Greek Constituent Order: Focus and Topic
60.22 In Greek, certain elements with a particular information status are given special
treatment in the ordering of constituents:
the asserted information of a clause, called the focus - this focus may lie on
a specific single constituent ( narrow focus ), or on a group of constituents
including the verb ( broad focus );
certain parts of the presupposed information,called topics.
The following formulas summarize the strongest tendencies in the ordering of
constituents in Greek (declarative) clauses. These formulas are explained in detail
in the following sections. They should be regarded as tools which are useful in
analysing a large numberof Greek clauses, but do not represent absolute rules .
Narrow-focus clause
(Contrastive/New Topic) Narrow Focus Verb (Given Topic) (Rest)

The narrow focus immediately precedes the verb. Any contrastive or new topic precedes the
focus; a given topic follows immediately after the verb, in turn followed by any other
predictable information(rest).
Broad-focus clause
(Contrastive/ Broad Focus (Rest)

New Topic)
Broad FocusI (Given Topic) Broad FocusII
(= Verb) (= Other Focal
Constituents)
The broadfocus begins with the verb, followed by any otherfocal constituents; any contrastive
or new topic precedes the focus construction; any given topic interrupts the broad focus
construction (between verb and other constituents), any other predictable information(rest)
comeslast.
Focus Constructions: Broad and Narrow Focus
60.23 The constituents of a clause which express asserted information are called the
focus of that clause. The focus mayeither be:
a single constituent (narrow focus; cf. (31) and (32) above), or
include the verb and one or more other constituents (broad focus; cf. (33) and
(34) above).
In the narrow-focus construction in Greek, the focal constituent directly precedes
the verb (35). In the broad-focus construction, the verb opensthe focal part of the
clause, the other focal constituents follow it (36):
(35) KO. trot tTottov EAKELS; TP. A. eis EUQUTTS NARROW FOCUS leioc vers. (Ar.
Eccl. 1037)
(Young girl:) Where are you dragging him off to? :: (First old woman:) 'm
taking him to myplace. The presupposed information in the answeris Iam
taking him to X : since the girl asked trot toUrov gAueis, the woman can regard
the information that she is dragging the man in question somewhereas already
known to the girl (to the extent that him can be left unexpressed in the
answer). The asserted information is limited to the single constituent eis
éuautijs; compare (31) and (32). Thefocus is a single constituent, and precedes
the verb.
(36) 2Q. ottos, Ti Trois étedv, OUT: TOU Téyous; | :: ZT. d&epoPaTa Kai[Trepippoved
foul proap rocus (Ar. Nub. 1502-3)
(Socrates:) Hey there, what are you doing, you on the roof? :: (Strepsiades:)
I walk the air and contemplate the Sun. The presupposed informationis I do
X : Socrates question ti trois shows that Strepsiades can presuppose that
Socrates knows he is doing something. The asserted information comes in
two clauses, thefirst ofwhich consists ofa verb (depoBaté) only, and questions
of word order therefore do not arise. In the second, as in (33), the asserted
information includes the verb and a noun;in this broad-focus construction, Tov
fjAov follows trepippove.
(37) |Etropevopny pév & Axodnpeias evOu Auxeiou thy Efe Telxous UT auTO TO
TEIXOS] BROAD Focus -++ Kal ue TrPOGIOVTA 6 ItrTroBdANs iSav, "Q ToaoxKpates,
EMT, Toit St) TropeuUn Kai TroG_Ev; ES Axadnueias| NARROW FOCUS» Tv 8 eyo,
[Topevouai] vers, ev6U Auxeiou. (Pl. Ly. 203a-b)
I was making my way from the Academystraight to the Lyceum,by the
road outside the wall, just under the wall... And when he saw me
approaching, Hippothales said, Socrates, where are you going to, and
from where? I'm making my way from the Academy, I said, straight
to the Lyceum. The first sentence is the opening of the text; none of the
information can be taken for granted, and a broad-focus construction is
used, with the verb in initial position and all the other focal constituents
following the verb. In the final sentence, the verb tropevoyai belongs to the
presupposed information (compare tropevn in Hippothales question), and
therefore a narrow-focus construction is used, with @ AuaSnueias preced-
ing the verb (ev@u Auueiou is best interpreted as a new clause or tail
( 60.35), with a pause in front of it).
60.24 Some types of expression which commonly serve as narrow focus mayfollow rather than
precede their verb. This occurs particularly with:
cataphoric demonstrative pronouns ( >29.28), which tend to appear at the end of their
clause;
expressions markedby adverbial kai (59.56; this is sometimes called additive focus):
(38) OS dé 6 Cuyns &trixeto,|EAeye| VERB if] yuvi| rade NARROW FOCUS «=> (Hadt. 1.11.2)
When Gyges came, the womansaid the following:.. . 1) yuv7) is a given topic , 60.26.
(39) @ &v Td Etepov TapayévntoiléaKxoAousel|yERB oe [koi Etepou]ARROW Focus: (PL. Phd.
60c)
Whenoneof them comes to someone, the other one follows as well.
Topics
60.25 Mostclauses are construed arounda single constituent, whichis called the topic.
It is the entity about which a statement is made, that is the entity with respect to
which the addressee s knowledge is most increased. The topic belongs to the
presupposed information. Depending on the kind of topic involved, it either
occupies the first position of the clause, preceding the focus, or immediately
follows the verb. All other presupposed information tends to occupy the, pragma-
tically unmarked, final position of the clause, called the Rest position in the
examples below.
Given Topics (Postverbal)
60.26 Topics are in manycases given (i.e. already known) from the preceding context.
They often refer to the entity that is the most important participant in a longer
stretch of the discourse - the so-called discourse topic - when that topic has
already been active for muchorall of such a stretch. A given topic does not have
to be overtly expressed, especially if it is the subject ( 26.6-7); cf. (35)-(37),
wherethefirst-person subject is topic and left unexpressed.
If expressed, however, given topics tend to follow the verb immediately; in the
broad-focus construction it therefore intervenes between the verb and the other
focal constituents:
(40) see étre8UUNoE| BROAD FOCUS Aapeios| topic ITeicacba1 =KUGas| BROAD FOCUS
continuep: (Hdt.4.1.1)
Darius desired to punish the Scythians. In the passage before this sentence,
Herodotus has narrated how Darius captured Babylon; he now turns to
Darius next exploit. Darius is the given topic, andfollows the verb, while the
verb and its complementform a broad-focus construction.
(41) |touT@v pév eivexaleocus érepwel vers =ép&NStopic ToUs aitthoovtas| Rest.
(Hdt. 7.133.2)
So that is why Xerxes did not send the men to make the request. Herodotus
has said that Xerxes sent no heralds to Athens and Sparta, and then explains
why he did not do so. The present sentence rounds off the explanation:
Herodotus asserts that it was because of these reasons that Xerxes did not
send heralds. =épénsis the given topic and appears after the verb; the rest of the
sentence is construed according to a narrow-focus construction, with one
focused constituent appearing in front of the verb. Note that tous aitnjoovtas
(referring to the heralds) occupies the rest position, as it expresses entirely
predictable, presupposed information.
Contrastive and New Topics (Clause-initial)
60.27 In manyothercases, a topic is placed in thefirst position of the clause, preceding

the focus. Such topics are typically not given , ie. not predictable topics already
active in the preceding context. Clause-initial topics may generally be classed as
either contrastive or new.
60.28 Mostoften, clause-initial topics are contrastive topics, which single out as topic
one entity in a discourse which prominently features more than one - each would
60.28 The Ordering of Constituents Within the Clause 715
be a feasible topic and the contrastive topic makes it clear who/what the clauseis
actually about:
(42) lotpou8dv| topic St[oUSeis| narROw rocus|ZAaBev| vers. (Xen. An. 1.5.3)
An ostrich, however, nobody managed to catch. This sentence is part of
a passage in which Xenophonlists several animals encountered in a plain
through which the army is marching, and then recounts how the soldiers
hunted each of them. In this sentence, he discusses the ostrich, which is the
contrastive topic. Thefact that nobody could catch oneis the asserted informa-
tion, in a narrow-focus construction.
(43) JTOv UeV hyeuoval-ropic |Trapadsidaci Xe1p10690| BROAD FOCUS lTOUs O oikéTas|
TOPIC |KaToAcitrel TO K@OUEPX| BROAD Focus) TAnv tou uvioU Tot dapTl
NPaoKovtos: |TOUTOV| Topic 8E TlAcioGévet AUQiTOAITh| NARROW FOCUS
[SiScoo1] vers pUAGTTEW| REST- (Xen. An. 4.6.1)
The guide he handedoverto Chirisophus, but the other membersofthe family

he left for the village-chief, except for his son, who wasjust reaching puberty.
Him he gaveto Plisthenes of Amphipolis to guard. Xenophonis describing how
he dealt with thefamily ofone ofthe army's guides. Xenophon(he ) is himselfthe
given topic and left unexpressed. The various members of the family head their
clauses as contrastive topics. In the first two clauses, we have broad-focus
constructions: both thefact that Xenophongave up his prisoners and the identity
of the recipients are asserted. By the time we reach thefinal clause, a narrow-
focus construction is used: the identity of the recipient, Plisthenes, is new and
asserted, but every reader can expect a verb of giving by now. Also, given the
context and the verb SiSwor, the information contributed by puAdrrtatyis largely
predictable, and it hence appears in the rest-position.
The slot of contrastive topics may also be occupied by verbs; in such cases, the
(narrow) focus follows the verb:
(44) ottos 6 Kpoicos BapBdpav patos ... Tous uév KaTEoTPEWaToO EAATVOv...,
Tous d& piAous TIPOGETION|OATO. |KATEOTPEYATO] roPIC uev| "loves te Kal AioAgas
Kal Awpigas tous év Ti Aoin| rocus> |pidous O TPOGETION|GATO| TOPIC
| AaxeSaipovious| rocus- (Hdt. 1.6.2)
This Croesus was the first of the foreigners to have subjugated some of the
Greeks, and madeallies of others. He subjugated the Ionians, Aeolians and
Dorians wholive in Asia, and he made the Spartanshisallies. After naming
Croesus as thefirst to subjugate Greek peoplesorally himself to them, Herodotus
elaborates on both these methods: each of the clauses is about one of the methods
mentioned in the previous sentence, and as such the relevant verb is topic in each
case. The asserted information in both cases consists of the peoples to which the
approach was applied, so the objects of the verb are focus. Note that the whole
716 60.28-30 Word Order
phrase pidous trpogetromjoatohere takes theposition ofthe verb (= topic): the two
words express a single idea and thus go closely togetherfilling up a single slot .
60.29 In othercases, a clause-initial topic placed in the first position of the clause is not
explicitly contrasted with one or moreothertopics in the surrounding discourse,
andis thus not contrastive in a strict sense. However, such topicsstill identify one
entity (to the exclusion of others) as the one which theclause is about. Since such
topics have typically not been active in the immediately preceding context
(contrast given topics), they may be called new topics; they are nevertheless
treated as part of the presupposed information. Often, they activate an entity as
discourse topic for a longer stretch of discourse:
(45) lapikvovTai gis XdAuBRas| pRoap Focus: |OUTOI Tropic |OAlyol]NarROw FOCUS TE
hoov|verg Kal |UTI}KOo! TOV Mocouvoikwv|rocus, Kal [6 Bios roric [AY TOIS
TAgioTols aUTOV GIT) o15npsias| groap rocus. (Xen. An. 5.5.1)
They came to the Chalybes. These people were few in numberand subject to
the Mossynoecians, and most of them gained their livelihood from iron-
working. Xenophondescribes a people which his army came across. Whenthe
Chalybes are namedinitially, they arefocal material. With outro, they are then
taken up as new topic (a single mention asfocusis typically not enough to allow
a participant given topic status) - this is a very frequent use of the anaphoric
( 29.30) pronoun. When Xenophonnext zoomsin to their way oflife, 6 Bios
is suitable for use as a new topic.
(46) Kai TO Gépos éTeAcUTa. |To 8 érrytyvopevou XEIUOVOS| seTTING vdc0s] topic
SeUTEPOV] Focus létrétreoe| vers |Tois Adnvaiois| rest: (Thuc. 3.86.4-87.1)
And the summer cameto an end. In the following winter, the plague struck
the Athenians a second time. The clause (preceded by a setting, for which
60.32) begins with 4 vooos as topic. The plague has not been mentionedfor
some time (not since the first time it struck), but is reactivated as discourse
topic in this clause. The fact that it strikes for the second timeis the asserted
information (to Sevtepov is focus), whereas the fact that it strikes the
Atheniansis predictable and unmarked.
60.30 Whennewparticipants are introduced into a text for the very first time ( all-new ), they are
often not suitable to be the topic of the clause in which they are introduced, as they do not
easily allow themselves to be presented as presupposed information. Normally, presenta-
tional sentences have a broad-focus construction: they start with the verb and then introduce
the new participant as focal information:
(47) Aynoidde pév 51) ... ovSév Eyéveto BapUtEpov év TH oTpaTeia. Hv Sé Tis ATroAAopdvns
KuZixnvds, ds Kai DapvaBdla étUyyavev éx TraAmot Eévos dv Kai Aynoiddw Kat éxeivov
TOV xpdvov eevaOn. oUTOS ovvEitte IPOS TOV AynoiAaov ws olo1To ouvayayEiv auTa aveis
Adyous Trepi pirias Dapv&Balov. (Xen. Hell. 4.1.28-9)
And nothing happened during the campaign which was more distressing to
Agesilaus. Now there was a certain Apollophanes of Cyzicus, who,as it happened,
was an old friend of Pharnabazus and at some point during that time had become
a friend of Agesilaus as well. This man, then, said to Agesilaus that he thought he
could get Pharnabazus to meet with him concerning friendly relations. Xenophon
uses a presentational clause with a broad-focus construction to introduce
Apollophanes, a new participant, into the narrative. Immediately after this introduc-
tion, Apollophanes is made the newtopic of the next clause, with outos; for this use of
outos, cf. (45) above.
Occasionally, however, the new participant is immediately promoted to the function of

topic - i.e. presented as presupposed information - and then appearsin the first position of
the clause:
(48) tdv 8é cia atTds TrPATOV UTdpEavta S&bixwv Epywv és Tous EAAnvas, ToUTov onutvas
TpoPNooua & TO Trpdow Tot Adyou ... Kpotoos tw Audds pev yévos, ... (Hdt.
1.5.3-6.1)
And the man I know to have started with unjust acts against the Greeks, that
man I will single out and continue my story. Croesus was a Lydian bybirth ...
Herodotus here introduces Croesus into the narrative, but he is nonetheless given
the function of topic on his first appearance. The choice of this construction, rather
than fv Kpoioos may indicate that Herodotus supposes that his audience already
knows Croesus.
The Periphery of the Clause: Settings, Themes and Tails
60.31 Often, a clause is preceded or followed by material whichis, strictly speaking,

outside the clause proper. Such material may be divided between:
inthe so-called left-periphery of the clause (preceding the clauseitself): settings
(very common) and themes;
- in the right-periphery of the clause (following the clause): tails.
Settings
60.32 Many Greeksentences start with one or more items of background information,
which appearbefore the clauseitself and which providea setting for that clause or
the entire following stretch of a text. Such settings detail the circumstances, place
or time in which the followingactionstake place. Settings typically take the form of
a circumstantial participle/genitive absolute, a temporal clause, or another kind of
adverbial modifier:
(49) lév S TO ETIOVTI XEWAVI sETTING T& Ev Abqvaiav kal Aakedaipoviav Nouyale
Sid thy éxexeipiav. (Thuc. 4.134.1)
The following winter, the affairs between the Athenians and the Spartans
were calm, on accountof the armistice. The adverbial modifierév 5é 16 émiovti
xepdvi is setting, preceding the topic Ta pév ... NaneScpoviv.
(50) etrel SE Kal of GAAOL OTPATIOTAL oUVTAGOV| serTING: QVEOTN TIPA@TOS MEV
Xeipicogos 6 AaxeSanpdvios. (Xen. An. 3.2.1)
Whenthe other soldiers had come togetheras well, Chirisophus the Spartan
stood up first. The subordinate temporal clause is the settingfor the ensuing
debate scene. Note that the word order within the setting-clause follows the
sameprinciples as those outlined above: (xai) oi &AAo1 oTpatidtai is a narrow
focus preceding its verb.
(51) |t1pdttovtos 8 Tod KUpou Tatital serring Seles Tras dgiKkvotvTal dr YpKavioov
&yyeaor. (Xen. Cyr. 4.2.1)
While Cyrus was doing these things, messengers came from the Hyrcanians
as if by divine intent. A setting in the form of a genitive absolute. Note again
that the setting has its own internalprinciples ofconstituent ordering, with tot
Kupoufollowing the verb form (as a given topic), and the predictable tata in
rest position.
Themes
60.33 Manysentences establish a topic for a stretch of discourse by placing it in the

left-periphery of a sentence. This happens especially when an entity has not
been mentioned for a while. While such themes are not always easy to
distinguish from contrastive/new topics, they are nonetheless different.
In particular, themes form their own intonation unit (ie. there is a pause
between them and the clause proper), and they precede the setting (while
topics follow it; cf. (46) and (49)):
(52) |Tlpdgevos 52 kai Mévoov| rHEeme, étrettrep cioiv Uuetepor pev evepyéTan, HyeTEpor SE
oTpaTnyoj SETTING: TEMWaTEe aUTOUS SeUpo. (Xen. An. 2.5.41)
As for Proxenus and Meno:since they are your benefactors and ourgenerals,
you should send them here. Note that Iipd&evos uai Mévav precedethesetting.
Thefact that they are notpartofthe clause proper can also be seenfrom thefact
that there they are referred to again, by means of the anaphoric pronoun
QUTOUS.
(53) loupéouol) THEME lai HEV yuvariKes | CONTRASTIVE TOPIC [opal] rocuss loi
&v8pes|conTRASTIVE TOPIC HEVvoI] FOCUS: (Hdt. 2.35.3)
Asfor the way that they (the Egyptians) urinate, the women dosostanding,
the mensitting down. In this case the verb oUpéouonis theme, as is clearfrom
the position ofuév (indicating that ai starts the clause proper).
A commonwayto articulate a theme is with the preposition trepi + genitive:

(54) l7repi uev OT DAiacioov| THEMES WS Kai TIOTOI TOIS MiAOIs EyEVOVTO Kal GAKILO! EV
TO TrOAEUD SieTEAEOaV, Kal ws TavTwV oTravilovTes Si uevov Ev TT OULWAXIa,
eiontai. (Xen. Hell. 7.3.1)
About the Phliasians, it has been told how they both remained faithful to
their friends and bravely carried on in the war, and how they weresteadfast in
their alliance, although they were in short supply of everything.
60.34 The concept of themes is also helpful in explaining a frequent type of ungrammatical
sentence in Greek, the so-called nominative absolute. Such nominatives establish
a theme, but are themselves outside the syntactic structure of the sentence. Often, the
theme is expressed again later in the sentence in the form of a personal pronoun in the
appropriate case:
(55) oi 8 pido, dv Tis EloTHTAI AUTOIS ypT}OBaHote OqEAIoBal dtr AUTAY,Ti PTOOLEV AUTOS
eivoi; (Xen. Oec. 1.14)
As forfriends, if one knows howto makeuse ofthem in such a waythat onederivesprofit
from them, what shall we say they are? Cf. also (52) above.
Tails
60.35 Sometimes, a clause is followed by a separate intonation-unit (after a pause)

which serves to clarify or elaborate (an element of) the clause, almost as an
afterthought. Such expressionsin the right-periphery of the clause are known
as tails.
- Tails are often similar to given topics, in that they identify a predictable entity as
the one whichthe clause is about. Tails occur when a speakerrealizes that non-
expression ofthe topic(i.e. leaving it out altogether) may beinsufficient for the
addressee to identify it:
(56) yodetrov | Gedsv trapatpéwan vdov | &vSpeconétriyPoviors. (Bacch. 5.94-6)
It is difficult to turn aside the purpose of the gods, for mortal men. Mortals
are the entity with respect to whom the statement is valid; it is overtly expressed
only at the end of the sentence (after a metrical break), almost as an
afterthought.
(57) atta ai t&oal... oTpaTNAacial pli\s THOSE OUK GE1a1. Ti yap ovx Tyaye ek This
Aoins e@vos éri thy EAAGSa =epEns; (Hdt. 7.21.1)
All these expeditions cannot compareto this single one. For what nation did
he not lead out of Asia against Greece, Xerxes? Xerxes, whose expedition to
Greece is front and center in this part of Herodotus work, is a predictable
subject for tryaye, and not expressed in the sentence until the very end,
presumably after a pause (though this cannotbe proven in prose texts).
In othercases, tails are added to further clarify or elaborate an element whichis

already overtly expressed in theclauseitself (this is syntactically speaking a form
of apposition, 26.24):
(58) & o& St BAEgtra, | Strws Tov avTSXEIpA TraTpaoU Mdvou | Ev THS &SeAQF Uh
KaTokviyels KTaverv | AtyioGov. (Soph. El. 954-7)
I look to you not to shrink from killing our father s murderer, Aegisthus,
together with me your sister. Aiyio@ov clarifies the phrase tov avtdéyeipa
Tratpq@ou povou; the name is added only at the very end of the sentence, after
a metrical break. The explicit mention of the name (which is predictable, and
therefore not necessary in itself) may have variouseffects, in this case probably
a tone of scorn.
Overview of Clauses with a Periphery
60.36 We mayagain summarize the above discussion in a formula:
Clauses with a periphery

(Theme) (Setting) Clause (with focus, topic,etc.) (Tail)
Any setting precedes the clause; any themeprecedes the clause and(ifpresent) the setting; any
tail follows the clause.
Prolepsis
60.37 Topics of subordinate clauses which follow the matrix clause are sometimes
syntactically integrated into that matrix clause. This is called prolepsis. The con-
struction allows the speaker to treat the dislocated constituent as the (given) topic
of the subordinate clause, which otherwise contains strongly focal material.
(59) as 8 AKouoa Tous valTas ST1 | col Tavtes ciev cUVvevauoTOANKeTes ... (Soph.
Phil. 549-50)
But when I heard that the sailors all belonged to your crew ... Lit. I heard
about the sailors, that they all ... . vavtas is the topic of the subordinate 611-
clause. Note that trdvtes is not displaced along with tous vautas and therefore
emphasized.
(60) TAB SE Kai Tois APnvaiois evOUs &yyeAia TOV TéAEwV STI ageotaor. (Thuc.
1.61.1)
The Athenians too, immediately received the newsaboutthecities, that they
had revolted (= the news thatthe cities had revolted ). Here, the subjectof the
subordinate clause appears as a genitive dependent on ayyedia.
In many ways, prolepsis is similar to the theme construction ( 60.33-4), in that
topic-like material is presented to the left of the clause in which it belongs (so-
called left-dislocation ).
60.38 The Ordering of Constituents Within the Clause 721
60.38 In somecasesofprolepsis, the topic of the subordinate clause precedes the subordinateclause,
but is not syntactically integrated with the matrix clause. This happensespecially when the
topic is the subject of the subordinate clause (and thus appears in the nominative):
(61) ciodyyedre Teipeotas Sti | Crntei viv. (Eur. Bacch. 173-4)
Announcethat Tiresias is looking for him. Teipeoias is subject of (nré, but precedes the
subordinate 6t1-clause.
61
Four Sample Passages
Narrative: Lysias 12.5 12
Introduction and Text
61.1 Immediately after the Peloponnesian War, Athenswasbriefly ruled by an oppressive

oligarchic regime known as the Thirty (404-403 BCE). One of the new regime's
measures was to arrest and execute a number of metics (resident aliens) and to
confiscate their assets, officially in order to suppress sedition, but presumably as
a quick wayfor the cash-strapped governmentto gain access to funds. Among those
arrested were the speechwriter Lysias and his brother Polemarchus, whose family
wasoriginally from Syracuse. Lysias escaped, but Polemarchuswasexecuted on the
orders of Eratosthenes, one of the Thirty. Later, under the restored democracy,
Eratosthenes submitted to a public examination ofhis conductin court (a procedure
known as eU@uva1) and Lysias took this opportunity to prosecute Eratosthenes in
person butalso effectively to indict the regime of the Thirty as a whole with the
speech Against Eratosthenes. Hence, in the passage below, members of the Thirty
other than Eratosthenesplay a leading role. The speech is transmitted as the only
speech delivered by Lysias himself in court (whetherhe actually did so is uncertain).
The passage belowis the beginning of the narratio of the speech; in it Lysias relates
the events leading up to his own escape and Polemarchus death.
TOIAUTE AEyOVTES OU TOLAUTE TrolEiv ETOAUOOV, WS Ey Trepl THV EUaUTOU TIPATov 1

elTTOV Kal TTEpl TV ULETEPWV AVvaUVTjoal Tre|paooual. O oyvis yap Kai Tleiowy 2
EAEYov EV TOIS TPIGKOVTO TrEpi TOV UETOIKOdV, Ss ElEV TIVES TH TOAITEIA GXBduEVO! 3
KOAAioTHY ovV eival trpdgaciv Tipwpeiobar pév Soxeiv, TO & Epyw 4
xpnuatilecboar- tr&vtws SE Thy pév WdAw tréveoGar Thy & apyxty SeioGar 5
XPTMATwV. Kal Tous akoUOVTas oU yaAETTOds ETrelBov- GTroKTivvuval EV yap 6
av@peatrous epi oudevos NyoUvto, AapPaverv SE ypTYNaTa repli TroAAoU 7
ETrolouvTo. E50 ev ov auTois SéKa oUAAGPEiv, TOUTwWY 5 SUO Trévyntas, iva 8
auTOoIs tT) TPOS TOUS GAAoUs atroAoyia, ws ov yoenUadTav Evexa TatTa 9
TTETTPAKTAL, GAAK GUUMEepOVTa TH] TroAITEia yeyevnTal, @otrep Tl Tv GAAwv 10
evAoyws TreTroinKoTes. SiaAaBovtes 5é Tas oikias EBadiCov- kai eue yEv E vous 11
EOTIMVTA KaTEAABOV, OUs EEeAaoavtes ITeiowvi ye Tapadidoao1v- oi SE GAAol eis 12
61.1 Narrative: Lysias 12.5-12 723
TO Epyaotnpiov EAPovtes TA AvSpatrosa atreypagovtTo. eyo dé ITeiowva yEev 13

Tpwtoyv ei BoUAoITS UE OHoa1 YOTUATA AaBav-: 6 8Epaokey, ci TOAAG Ein. Eitrov 14
ouv 611 TaAavTOV d&pyupiou EToIpos Einv Sotvan- 6 & apoAdynoe TaUTatroijoew. 15
miotdunv yév ouv Sti OTE AeoUs otT avApatrous vouilel, Sums & Ex THV 16
Trapévtwv é56Ker yor avayKaidtatov civTiotiv Tap avToU AoPeiv. erred 17
St dyuooev, EEWAe1av EauTo Kai Tois Traiciv ETrapwpEVOS, AaBav TO TaAGVTOV HE 18
once, ciceAoov eis TO SPATIOV Thy KiPwTdv &voiyvupr TTeiowv & aioGdyevos 19
EiIOEPYXETAL, KAl ISaov TA EVOVTA KAAET THV UTrNpETav Su0, Kal TA Ev TH KiPwTd 20
AaPeiv exeAeuoev. étrel SE OVX SoOV WYOAdyNOEV EixEV, D AVvbpEs Sikaotal, GAAG 21
Tpia TaAAVTA apyupiou Kai TeTPAKOGIOUS KUCIKNVOUS Kal EKaTOV SapElKous Kal 22
pidAas &pyupas TétTapas, éSedunv avtot £96814 yor Sotvan, 6 8 a&yarrnoew pe 23
Epaoxey, Ei TO CHYNA CWO. E1oto1 & époi Kai Meiowvi étrituyyaver MnAdBids te 2.4
Kal Mvnoiéeidns k ToU Epyaotnpiou airiovTEs. 25
They (the Thirty) had the nerve to make such claimsandyetact in a very different
fashion,as I will try to call to mind by speakingfirst about my own affairs, and then
about yours. In a meeting of the Thirty, Theognis and Pison said about the metics,
that there were some among them whoweredisgruntled with the regime; so that
there was an excellent pretext to appear to exact punishment,butin reality to acquire
funds; and, they added,the city was in any case without resources, and the govern-
ment needed money. And they wonovertheir audience withoutdifficulty: for they
thought nothing of killing men, but placed a premium on getting money. So they
decided to arrest ten men, two of them poor, so that they would have as an excuse
with regard to the others that these measures had not been taken for the sake of
money, but that they were in the public interest - as if any of their other acts had
been sensible! When they had divided up the houses, they were on their way. And
they found me while I was entertaining guests, whom they drove out and then
handed meover to Pison. The others went to the workshop and set about making
a list ofthe slaves. I asked Pison ifhe waswilling to let melive in exchange for money.
Hesaid that he was,if it was a lot. So I said that I was willing to give him talent of
silver; he agreed that he would do it. Now,I knew that he has noregard for either
gods or men,yet it seemed to me, given the circumstances, to be absolutely necessary
to extract an oath from him. After he had sworn,calling destruction on himself and
his children, to let me live in exchange for the talent, I went into the bedroom and
opened the money-chest. Pison noticed this and came in, and upon seeing the
contents he called two of his slaves, and told them to take the contents of the
chest. And, gentlemen of the jury, now that he had not the sum that we agreed,
but three talents ofsilver and four hundred cyzicenes and a hundreddarics and four
silver cups, I entreated him to give me sometravel money,but hesaid that I should
be happyif I cameoff with mylife. As Pison and I were coming out, Melobius and
Mnesithides, who were on their way from the factory, metus.
724 61.2-3 Four Sample Passages
Commentary
61.2 General Notes
The passage contains many elements which are characteristic of Greek narratives.
In a typical narrative a speaker (the narrator)relates a series of events that occurred
in the past, usually in a basic chronological order; once a narrative sequence
begins, if no indications to the contrary are given, it may be assumed that the
successive main clauses reflect the temporal sequence of events. The tenses used
are imperfects (and pluperfects), aorist indicatives and historical presents.
Stories are normally told in the third or first person; both occur here.
Subordinate clauses and participle phrases may provide settings ( 60.32) or
express less important events. As a rule, shifts of scene or perspective in a story
are indicated by the particle 8é, while closely linked events within one scene are
often connected by kat.
Forensic speeches are monological texts (the speaker holds forth for
a considerable time without interruptions), but they are addressed to a specific
group, male Athenian citizens who servedas jurors. The passage cited here shows
several signs of the presence of the jurors, who (unlike the modern reader) heard
the speech only once and whoseattention the speaker needed to retain throughout.
For example, Lysias clearly announces the beginning of the narrative (see n. on
OS... Teipdoopa, 1-2) so that the jurors do notlose sight of the overall flow of the
text; he includesa sarcastic aside intendedto raise a laugh (see n. on Sotrep T1 THV
GAAav evAdyos tretroinkdtes, 10-11), and addresses the jurors directly (@ &vpes
Sixaotai, 21) to call their attention to a complicated calculation.
61.3 Detailed Notes
1 toiaita Aéyovtes ov Torna Troiiv éTOAywv: Lysias has just briefly described
the rise of the Thirty, including their claims that they would rid Athens of unwel-
come elements and turn the rest of the citizens to justice and virtue . to1atitTa«
anaphorically refers to these claims ( 29.28); toiatta (rather than totta) is
dismissive: it suggests that Lysias does not have to bother about being precise,
because the Thirty did not act in accordance with their wordsin thefirst place.
Imperfect éréAyoov, together with the present infinitive troieiv, suggests contin-
uousaction and so conveys what Lysias sees as a defining characteristic of the rule
of the Thirty. On the textuallevel, the imperfect also suggests that there is more to
say about this point (compare the n. on éAeyov at 3-8 below); and the narrative
indeed consists of severalillustrations of the Thirty s hypocritical behaviour. This
statement can thus be understood as a setting against which the following
narrative is to be evaluated.
1-2 ws ... Treip&copor: An announcementof the following narrative and an
explicit signal that that narrative is to be taken as exemplifying the Thirty s
mendaciousactions. The aspectual value of the aorist infinitive évapvijoa: depen-

dent on treipd&oopan suggest that the following story as a whole (the product of
Lysias act of calling to mind ) will permit the jurors to conclude that the Thirty
said one thing, but did quite another .
2 yap: This particle often introduces entire narratives (59.14), especially when
preceded by a speaker s announcementofhis intent to relate a story for a certain
purpose. ydp then makesexplicit that the narrative indeed serves that purpose
(and thus serves as supporting information to the announcement): in this case
Lysias uses yép to imply that his narrative will prove that the Thirty were lying
scoundrels, precisely as he said he would.
3-8 dAeyov ... kai... o xaAeTréds Etre1Bov . . . E0 ev ov avtois: The imperfects
ZAcyov and itreiov refer to actions that reach their end-point before the next
action occurs; there is no reason to suppose that Theognis and Pison s speeches
were interrupted, and the persuasion referred to by 1re180v was obviously success-
ful (a conative interpretation ( 33.25) is ruled out by ot yaAetrés). Such
imperfects, which refer to actions that are in themselves complete and advance
narrative time, nevertheless present those actions as the background to what
follows, raising the question what happened next? The local function of the
imperfect to refer to incomplete actions is expandedinto a global, textual func-
tion: the information presented in the text segmentas a wholeis as yet incomplete
(33.51). As such, these imperfects raise suspense, suggesting that more impor-
tant consequenceswill soon follow. And indeed, the discussion among the Thirty
leads to a decision, expressed bythe aorist #5o0§ev, and marked bythe particle ovv,
which indicates a transition to the main story line (59.34). It is this decision
whichsets the rest of the action in motion. The sequence of two imperfects and an
aorist thus conveysa sense ofclimax.
2-3 Otoyvis... Kai Meiowy EAeyov Ev TOIS TPIAKOVTE TTEPI TOV METOLKWV, WS...:
Theognis and Pison are here introduced into the discourse, but since they were
known members of the Thirty, they immediately appear as the topic of the
sentence (followed by a broad-focus construction beginning with the verb), rather
than being more elaborately introduced in a presentational sentence ( 60.30).
The content of their speech is presented in the ws-clause (indirect statement), but
this clause is preceded by a theme/topic constituent (trepi T&v pEeToixev); this is
similar to prolepsis , even if syntactically more firmly integrated into the
matrix clause (gAeyov) by the preposition trepi (for trepi in left-dislocated material,
60.33).
3-5 dAeyov ... ws tiév Tives... KXAAIOTHV OUV Eival TIPOMaolV ... TaVTWs Sé THY
Mév TrOAL Tréveo@ar thy 8 apxny SeioGar ...: The indirect statement begins with
a «s-clause with oblique optative (ciev); the use of ws (rather than 611) is suggestive
of Theognis and Pison s specious argumentation ( 41.6), while the continuation
of the report with accusative-and-infinitive constructions (the preferred
726 61.3 Four Sample Passages
complementfor verbs of opinion; 51.19 n.1) squarely ascribes the responsibility

for whatis said to them. The particles (otv ... 5¢... wév... 8° ) are embedded in the
indirect statements, and articulate Theognis and Pison s line of reasoning rather
than that of Lysias.
6-8 &troktivvUval Hiv yap... HyoUvtTo, AapPaveiv 5é ...t1ro1oUvTo: yap marks
this sentence as explanatory of the preceding ot yaAetras. The infinitives (together
with their objects) are contrastive topics (60.28; note pév ... 5 ); Trepi oSévOSg
and trepi TroAAod are narrow focus constituents ( 60.23; for the idiom, 30.31
n.l). The present infinitives suggest multiple acts of killing and seizing (note
&troxtivvivar from athematic dtroxtivvuyi, which exists alongside thematic
&TOKTEIVOo).
8-10 iva... 1... &TrOAOYyia, ws ... TreTIpPaKTal, GAAG ... yeyévntar: Another
indirect statement depends on &troAoyia: again (see n. on ws 3-5 above), as may be
suggestive of the falseness of the Thirty s excuse. This may also underlie the
retention of the subjunctive 7 in the purpose clause, and the perfect indicatives
TetTpaktai/yeyevntar in the ws-clauses (rather than optatives), presenting the
purpose and content of the excuse entirely from the perspective of the Thirty
(and hence notthat of Lysias): 41.13, 45.3 n.1.
10-11 ®otrep T1 THV GAAwV EVAOyws TreTroInKoTes: A sarcastic aside on the part
of Lysias, indicated by ®otrep with a participle, meaning as if (52.43). Lysias
scoffs at the fact that the Thirty suddenly feel the need to come up with excuses,
even though they are responsible for carrying out other bad measures without
further ado. For the responsibility nuance of the perfect, >33.35.
11 S1aAaPovtes ... £B&Si1Zov: The narrative shifts gears as we leave the meeting
and start moving; Lysias will soon be involved in the action himself. From this
point on the narrative generally consists of shorter clauses, and a greater use of
preposedaorist participles (such as S81aAaBovtes here; also é&eAdoavtes 12, AGOvTES
13, sioeABwv 19, aiobopevos 19, iSav 20) to narrate events in a sequence (such
aorist participles will have an anterior interpretation, describing an action preced-
ing the action in matrix clauses).
After the sequence éAeyov .. . 0 ev (3-8), B&S1Zov starts off a new sequence of
events. The imperfect again suggests that this is a preliminary (background) action
which will lead up to more central events that take place at Lysias house.
As a corollary of this scene-shifting function, imperfects like 2B&8iZov are often
said to be immediative (33.52): the Thirty had divided the houses of the ten
selected metics among themselves and were on their way without further ado.
11-15 wai gué piv... of SE GAAOL... tym &...68... citrov...68...: When
the membersof the Thirty (as well as our narrative) arrive at Lysias house,thereis
an initial flurry of activity, with our attention moving back and forth between
Lysias and the assailants, and between the house and the weaponsfactory (owned
by Lysias family) to which everyone but Pison and Lysias moves. After that, the
narrative zoomsin on the interaction between Lysias and Pison. Thisis reflected in
the constant shift of topic in these sentences; when attention has been directed to
Lysias and Pison in 13, there is no recurrence of the emphatic pronoun éyo, and
first-person verb formssuffice. Pison is variously referred to by 6 8 (14, 15, 23,
28.28), by name (19), or with no explicit reference at all (18, 21; 26.7).
12 trapadiSoao1v: Lysiastransfer into Pison s custodyis the first event which he
highlights by meansof the historical present (33.54). Lysias uses the historical
presentin this speech to single out momentsofparticular significance for the story
(see also érituyxaver 24), but also to mark those events which are particularly
damning for Pison (and, by implication,the rest of the Thirty), such as the moment
when Pison enters Lysias bedroom to steal the contents of the money-chest
(sioépyetar 20, waAci 20). The audience is invited to feel the effects of such
moments with particular empathy, to re-live them with the participants in the
story, as it were, for whom they were present .
13 &treypaqovto: The imperfect in the context of two scenes that take place at
different locations (note the shift from the épyaotrpiov back to Lysias house
effected by éyw 5) suggests that the negotiation between Lysias and Pison took
place while the list of slaves was being drawn upby the other membersof the Thirty
in the factory. This is because the imperfect indicates that some people were drawing
up list, but not that they finished doing so before the shift of location in the
narrative; hence a translation set about makinga list is appropriate. The completion
of the list can be inferred from the final sentence of the passage, when twoof the
Thirty s members emerge from the factory (é« tot épyaotnpiou 25) and the two
scenes merge into one again.
14-15 hpwtev ... Zpackeyv ... citrov oUv ... wpoAdynoase: As with Acyov above
(3-8), there is no reason to assumethat these speaking turns were interrupted, so
the imperfects tjpatwv and gpacxe must refer to completed actions.
The imperfective aspect suggests, again, that these first steps in the negotiation
lead up to more decisive events: when the eventual offer of one talent is made and
accepted, we find aorists (eitrov, mpoAdynoe). Again, the shift to the aorist is
accompaniedbythe particle otv, indicating the transition to the morerelevant
point (see n. on otv 3-8 above).
14-15 ei BowAorto ... ei TOAAG ein)... STL... ETOMMOS Einv ... 6 8 wpoddynos
tata Troinosiv: In this quickly moving narrative, Lysias presents his conversation
with Pison in indirect speech, which creates less of a sense of pause than directly
reported speeches do. The indirect statements and questions mostly have oblique
optatives, presenting the whole from Lysias current narratorial perspective
( 41.13); @podAdynes is construed with a future infinitive; the verb virtually
always takes the infinitive, as it properly means to express the same opinion (as
someoneelse) (cf. duo10s Adyos) and so takes the regular complementof verbs of
opinion (51.19).
16-19 fHmotTa&ynv piv oUV ... Suws & ... éSoxer ... éEtre1dy S= Gpooev ...
siosAfoov ... dvoiyvumt: wév ouv... & ... is transitional (59.73): the pév otv-
clause rounds off the dialogue which led to Pison s promise by offering Lysias
commenton what a promiseof Pison is worth, the 5é¢-clause presents the new and
relevant step of extracting an oath. The imperfects hmietépnv and é6xe1 briefly
pause the narrative progression to provide background information, namely
Lysias reasoning for extracting an oath from Pison. With étre18n 8 dpooev ...
éTrapwpEvos ... cwoerv, that oath has been provided, and weare backin the quick
sequence of events. Lysias then imperceptibly changes the subject (from Pison to
himself) after the long subordinate clause, as becomesclear only from first-person
avolyvunl.
16 vopiZer: this present is presumably to be interpreted as anchored in Lysias
current narratorial perspective rather than as retained from his original speech;if
so, this can be reflected in English by translating I knew that he has no regardfor
either gods or men ratherthan by that he had no regard . Theeffect is that Pison s
moral deficiency is presented as a fixed character trait, which continues to be in
force until the present day (41.14).
18 AaPoov is a predicative modifier of omoew rather than dpooev, that is, the
sentence means he sworeto take ... and save ... , rather than after taking ... he
swore to save ....
19 The historical present &voiyvup1 again marks a momentof particular sig-
nificance: the moneyis now in play.
20 siogépxetat ... KaAei: See 12 above.
21 étrei 5& ... eixev: The imperfect in the temporal clause implies simultaneity
(contrast aorist dpooev 18).
23-24 éeounv ... Epaokev: For the value of the imperfects, cf. 3-8 and 14-15
above. They leave unresolved tension as to whetherLysias actually will escape with
his life; this tension is heightened bythe retention of the indicative owow in the
indirect question: in contrast to the oblique optative, the indicative presents the
speech from the perspective of the narrated world, whenLysias future (would he
live or die?) wasstill entirely open. In the remainderof the narratio (not included
here), this tension will be repeatedly heightened andreleased.
24-25 é&10001 8... &tiovtes: The participle phrase é&10G01 8 éuoi Kai Meiowvi
(dative complementto étituyyéve1) servesas the setting to the ensuing sentence
( 60.32). The word order in étrituyxaver MnAofids te kai Munoréeidns is sug-
gestive of presentational sentences, which introduce new participants by means of
a broad-focus construction ( >60.30). é« Tot gpyaotnpiou &triovtes appears in the
rest -position, adding circumstantial information of no particular pragmatic
importance ( >60.22).
étrituyxaver: See 12 above.
61.4 Description: Xenophon, Anabasis 1.5.1-4 729
Description: Xenophon, Anabasis 1.5.1-4
61.4 The following passage comes from the early chapters of Xenophon s Anabasis,
whichtells of the expedition of a large mercenary armyled by Cyrus (who hoped to
seize the Persian throne from his brother Artaxerxes), as well as the army sflight
from enemyterritory after Cyrus death in battle. The passage below details
one stage in Cyrus march towards the capital, and describes in somedetail the
country that he passes through.
evteuOev e eAauver Sia tis ApaBias tov Eugpatny trotayov év Sei Exov 1
OTABUOUS EPTIMOUS TTEVTE Trapaoayyas TpIAKOVTa Kal TrevTe. Ev TOUTW SETH 2
TOTTV EV 1) y7] TESiov Gtrav Guarés Ootrep OdAaTTA, dwivBiou SE WATpes: ci 5 3
T1 Kal GAAO evi Ans 7) KaAdUOU, &travTa Hoav eUMdn dotrep GpwMpata. SévSpov 4
5 oSév éevijv, Onpia St travtoia, TAgiotoi dvoi aypiol, TOAAG 5 oTPOUBOI ai 5
HEyaAal, évijoav Sé Kal MTISes Kal SopKades. Tata 5 Ta Onpia oi itrtreis Eviote 6
EdIWKOV, Kal Ol MEV GVO], ETTEl TIS SIWKOI, TIPOSPAYOVTES EOTACAV. TOAU yap THY 7
lartreov étpexov BaTTOV. Kai TdAIV, étrel TANOId&Colev Of ITrTro1, TaUTOV étroiouv, 8
Kai OUK Ty AaPeiv, ei ut) SiaotdvtTes oi imrtreis ONPGev SiaSeyouevor. Ta SE KpEa YO
TOV GAIOKOLEVOV Tv TApaTTATOIa Tois EAageEiols, ATTAA@TEPA SE. OTPOUBdYV SE 10
oudeis EAaPev: of Se SiamEavtes THv imtewv Tay Etravovto: TroAU yap aTréoTra 11
~EUyoUOG, Tois HEV Trool Spo, Tois S& TTEpuUsIV aAipouca Gotrep iotiw 12
XPOHEVTN. TAS 5& wTIOaS, AV TIS TAaXU avIOTT, EoT! AauBavelv- TreTOvTa yap 13
Bpayu dotrep TrépSikes Kal Tayu d&trayopevouol. Ta 5E KPEA AUTAV HSiota hv. 14
TrOpEeUOUEvVOl SE S1K TAUTTS Tis KapAsS apikvoUvTal ETri TOV Mackay Trotayov, TO «15
eUpos TrAEOplaiov. 16
From there, he marched through Arabia, keeping the river Euphrates on his right-hand
side, for five day-marches through desert country, traversing thirty-five parasangs.
In this region the groundwasa plain,entirelyflat like a sea, and full ofwormwood; and
if there was any other kind of shruborreed, they were all fragrant like herbs. There was
not a single tree, but there were animals ofall kinds, mostly wild asses, but also many
ostriches. There were also bustards and gazelles. The horsemen would occasionally
huntfor these animals:as for the asses, each time that someonewaschasing them,they
would run ahead and then stop deadin their tracks (for they ran muchfaster than the
horses); and again and again, whenever the horses were coming close, they would do
the same, and it was not possible to catch them, except if the horsemen took up
positions at intervals and hunted them in relays. The meat of the animals that were
caught was muchlike venison, but moretender. As for the ostriches, no one succeeded
at catching one ofthem. And the horsementhat had chased them soon gave up, because
the animal would make them go a great distance whenit ran from them,by running
with its feet and hoisting its wings, using them like sail. As for the bustards, ifyou make
a quickjump on them,it is possible to catch them.For they can only fly a short distance,
like partridges, and soon tire out. Their meat wasdelicious. Travelling through this
country, they arrived at the river Mascas, whichis a plethrum in width.
Commentary
61.5 General Notes
In descriptions, the speaker/narrator expands in detail on a geographical loca-

tion, a custom, an object, a creature, a character, etc. Unlike narratives, descrip-
tions are not organized chronologically: rather, different aspects of the thing
described are treated in turn. Descriptions may beset in the present or the past,
but the flow of time is mostly irrelevant. Wheninserted into the larger structure of
a narrative, as here, such descriptions in fact interrupt that flow - in other words,
they put the question What happened next? on hold.
All this can be seen mostclearly from the useof tenses: in past descriptions, such
as this one, the imperfect is used almost exclusively; similarly, descriptions of
something in the present normally have present indicatives (the present and the
imperfect have the same aspectual value, 33.22). The imperfect and present
indicative are prevalent in descriptions because the speaker tends to describe
permanentcharacteristics of a certain thing, or repeated habits and customs: the
aspect of the present stem (expressing ongoing or repeated actions) is suitable for
expressing such actions. The perfect aspect, referring to states, can also be suitable:
hence,in past descriptions, the pluperfect also occurs, and in descriptionsreferring
to the present, the perfect indicative is not uncommon.
Anotheraspectof the passage whichis typical of descriptionsis the way in which
particles and word orderstructure the text. Unlike arguments and most dialogues
(61.8, 61.13), descriptions are usually relatively uncomplicated in design, as
different features are described in turn. Accordingly, they normally have a small
variety of connective particles: the text moves from topic to topic by meansofthe
frequent use of the particle 8é, with an occasional elaboration introduced by yé&p.
Attitudinal particles are rare in descriptions. Word order, too, often helps to
identify points where the text moves to anotheraspect or topic.
Like other long historiographical texts, Xenophon s Anabasis is strongly mono-
logical; it is not addressed to a specific group of addressees. Typical characteristics of
dialogic texts, such as attitudinal particles (59.3) and direct addresses by meansof
the vocative, are absent from the passage cited here. The most onecansayis that the
comparisons of the desert landscape and the ostrich s wings to the sea andsails,
respectively, indicate that Xenophon had a Greek audience in mind, since most Greeks
would have been more familiar with the sea and ships than with deserts andostriches.
61.6 Detailed Notes
1-2 évtei@ev ... trévte: Thefirst sentence of the passageisstill part of the main
narrative: this is evident from the verb éeAavve1, which can only be historical
present (a use of the present indicative found predominantly in narrative).
The historical present, as often in Xenophon, punctuates the narrative by high-

lighting the main episodes of Cyrus march: in this way, the historical present
segments the narrative into units correspondingto the variousstages of the march
( 33.55).
The adverb évtei@ev servesas setting, followed immediately by a lengthy broad-
focus construction ( 60.23) which begins with the verb (&Aauve1) and covers the
location (Arabia), duration (five days) and geographical extent (thirty-five
parasangs) of this stage of the march: this word orderis typical for many marches
in the Anabasis;it is not unlike presentational sentences ( 60.30 and 61.3, n. on
24-25).
2-6 év Toutw ... SopKades: Xenophon nowbreaksoff his narrative to give an
extensive description of the country he has just mentioned in the previous sen-
tence. The description falls into two parts: first, a purely geographical description
of the plant-life and the animals that populated the area, as they were found bythe
army (2-6); second, a digression on the repeated, mostly unsuccessful attempts by
the army at hunting those animals for food (6-14). In the first section, all of the
verbs (nv, 3; évijv, 4; Hoav, 4; évijv, 5; évtjoav, 6) are imperfect formsof cipi be:
Xenophonis simplylisting all the plants and animals that could be found in the
country.
2-3 év ToUTw & TH TOTrw: The pronoun toute is used anaphorically ( 29.32)
to refer to the location just mentioned, which is taken up and repeated as the
setting ( 60.32) for the entire following description. Using the particle 5s,
Xenophon marksthis off as a new, distinct section of the text.
3-6 Hv pEV fh yt Trediov ... dwiv@iou 5... 5évSpov 8... Onpia Sé: The position of
the verb nv is a strong signal that a description beginshere:7is placedinitially in the
clause (uév makesit clear that this clause starts with nv; the preceding wordsare
a setting), which suggests that this is a presentational sentence ( 60.30): what
there was in the country is what this section will be about; but it turns out that 7is
actually a linking verb with the words h yj treSiov: the ground wasa plain .
Xenophongoes on to mention several aspects of the country: its shape, the type
of low growththat could be found, the lack of trees, and the animals that populate
it. These individual aspects are enumerated by meansofthe particles wév ... 8...
5° ... 8, and in each case the new,contrastive topicis placed initially in the clause,
except in the case of évijoav 5 Kai wTides Kai SopKades, where Xenophon optsfor
a presentational sentence.
4 &travta noav evwdn: The plural verb with a neuter plural subject emphasizes
that each individual species of plant-life was fragrant ( 27.2).
5-6 @npia 5 Travtoia ... TA¢ioto1 ... weyaAat: Because it follows a negated
clause (SévSpov 8 ovSév évijv), the particle S¢ is here best translated by but ,
althoughthis is a matter of translation into English rather than an actually different
meaning of 8 (which merely signals a shift of topic).
The whole phrase trAcioto1 . . . peycAat stands in apposition to the words @npia
tavtoia. The apposition serves to further define and specify the general animals
of all kinds (26.24).
In the configuration of otpou@oi ai wsya&Aan the adjective provides additional
information necessary to identify the particular type of otpou@és meant -
a oTpoutds is a sparrow;only with the adjective peydAn added doesit mean ostrich
(28.11 n.2).
6 évijoav S& Kai wtides: In the particle combination 8é xai, the first particle is
a connective particle (here simply to be translated and , or left untranslated), and
kai is an adverbial particle of scope (also ; 59.56).
6-14 tatta & Ta Onpia ... HSiota Hv: The second section of Xenophon s
description concerns the attempts at hunting the animals which he has just
mentioned. As this section takes up the army and their actions, it is in some
ways more integrated into the narrative than the preceding geographical descrip-
tion (this section resembles narrative more, although the organization of the textis
still not chronological: the hunt is described animal by animal, which may not
reflect the order they were actually hunted in). Again, imperfects proliferate
(&iwxKov, 7; ~otacav, 7 (see n. below); Etpexov, 8; étroiouv, 8; Av, 9; nv, 10;
étravovto, 11; &tréotra, 11; nv, 14), although there is also a single aorist (ZAaPev,
11) and an interesting series of presents (13-14). Other than in the first section,
these imperfects mostly express repeated actions, which is made clear by the
temporal adverbs éviote (6) and tré&Aiv (8) and the temporal clauses with iterative
optatives ( 47.10), étrei Tig S1eoKo1 (7), étrei TrANo1a&Zotev (8).
After a brief introductory sentence (tatta ... éiwKov, 6-7), Xenophon talks
abouteach of the various animals that were huntedin turn.In each case, the animal
in question comesfirst in its sentence (Kai oi pév dvo1, 7; oTpouGov Sé, 10; Tas 5é
wtisas, 13), marking it as a contrastive topic or theme, and the sequence is
segmented by pév... 5¢... 5é. In the case of the two species of which some animals
wereactually caught, Xenophonalso elaborates on the taste of the meat (1é 8 kpéa,
9 and 14).
6 tata S ta Gnpia: The anaphoric pronoun tata is again used to pick up an
element from the preceding context and useit as basis for the following digression
(compare toutw above, 2). The particle é serves merely to mark the break between
this section andthelast.
7 ... &ieKov, Kai oi wév 6vo1: Xenophonstarts off the series of animals with
Kai... wév, where pév anticipates the following instances of 5é, and xai is used
because the whole sequence is part of the same item as the verb éicxov.
We may comparethe force of xai here with that of and in an English paraphrase:
As for these animals, the horsemen at times chased them and the outcome was
that ...:
Thefirst time the asses were mentioned(5), there was no article with évo1. From
that first mention onwards,the assesare identifiable, and thearticle oi is therefore
used here. Compare the use of té&s (13, but see the n. there).
7 étrei tis S1oKo1: The optative, in a temporal clause referring to a repeated or
habitual action in the past, is highly suitable for descriptive passages such asthis
one. The aspect of the present optative yields a relative-tense interpretation
(simultaneity, 33.57): each time that someone was chasing them, ,
The subordinate clause follows the themeoi pév dvo1 (60.33).
7 Tpospayovtes Eotacav: The pluperfect gotacav, as the past tense of perfect
goTnka, suggests the immediate and completerealization of the action of coming to
a standstill (33.53): the asses stopped dead in their tracks. At the same time,
given the iterative optative SiwKo1 (see above), Zotacav doesrefer to a repeated
action. The orderof participle and verbis significant: when a participle in the aorist
precedes the main verb, this suggests a temporal sequence ( >52.35-6): first, the
asses run away,andthentheystandstill at a distance from the riders; compare the
order of @npdev S1adexdyevor below (9).
7-8 TroAU yap... 8&tTTOV: yép here hasits normal explanatory function, serving
to explain howit was possible that the asses kept getting away from the horsemen.
8 Kai TaALV, étrei TANO1&Zolev Oi TrTro1, TAUTOV éTroiouv: The repeatedfailure of
the horsemenin the hunt is underlined by tréAiv and tavrtév, as well as by the
imperfect étroiouv and the temporal clause with the optative. The connection with
kai shows that this sentence should be seen as part of the samecycle offailed
attempts (kai 1dAww is almost and again and again ).
9 Kai ouK nv AaPeiv: The imperfect nv cannot (by virtue of the meaningof the
verb to be ) be interpreted as expressing a repeated action:rather, the imperfect (of
an ongoing action) signals that it was consistently impossible to catch any of the
asses; tv stands for é&f\v (of eco: it is possible).
9 si py Siactavtes of itrtreis OnpdSev Siadexouevor: This negative conditional
clause ( unless ) actually details how, in the end, the horsemen were able to catch
someofthe asses. The optative @¢npaev is again used to express a repeated action in
the past - the negative in such conditional clausesis slightly unusual, but here
necessary to balance out the negative in the previous clause (oUx jv).
The ordering of participles around the main verbis again significant. Again, the
aorist participle preceding the main verb (S1acta&vtes) suggests a temporal
sequence:first they positioned themselves, then they hunted. The present parti-
ciple following the main verb (S1a5ex6yevo1), however, says something about the
mannerin whichthey executed their hunt.
9-10 Téa 5 Kpéa TOV GAloKOMEVOOV Hv TrapaTrAnola Tois éAageiots, aTTAAWTEPA
Se: With the preceding conditional clause implying that some asses were actually
caught, Xenophon goes on to talk about the meat of those that were (td&v
G&AioKopéveov, present participle referring to multiple asses). The new topicis set
apart by 8; the second 8 marks a contrast (without a preceding yév, which is not
always required).
10-11 otpou@dov 5S ovdeis ZAaBev: The next animal species that Xenophon
discusses is again introducedby putting it upfront in the sentence, connected
by the particle 8é.
The aorist gAaPev, in this passage dominated by imperfects, may seem slightly
surprising, but is suitable because of the negative ovSsis (no one completed the
action of capturing an ostrich: the completefailure is presented, almost by wayof
retrospective summation, in the aorist). oWSeis is the narrow focusof this sen-
tence, immediately preceding the verb, and following the contrastive topic
otpoufov.
11 of 8 Simgavtes ... TOAU yap a&tréotra: Even though,at troAU ydp,the subject
changeshere from the chasing horsemento theostrich (the subject of étréotra, in
the singular becauseit refers to a typical ostrich in one of the army's attempts), the
latter subject does not need to be separately expressed. This is common in Greek
whenthe subjectis still prominently on the mind (a given topic), especially when
there is no chance of confusion (as here).
13-14 tag 8 wtidas, av ... avioti, got: AapRaverv. tTrétToOvTat
a&trayopevouot: In his treatment of the last species of animal (again placedfirst
in the sentence as theme, connected by 8é, and followed by a subordinate clause)
Xenophon,whois also the authorof a short treatise on hunting, suddenly shifts to
the present tense and a conditional clause using &v (= édv) + subjunctive (habitual
use in the present, 49.13). These verbs cannotbehistorical present: rather, they
express general truths, and as a result, this section reads muchlike a textbook on
hunting.
It is likely that the article tas with atidas ought to be read as a generic article
( 28.6; the rest of the section steers our interpretation this way), although readers
who first come across it will naturally think that it is used to refer back to the
bustards mentionedbefore.
14 té& 8& Kpéa adTeSv HSioTa Hv: With the imperfect tv, we briefly return to the
description in the past. tv expresses the taste of the meatas it was perceived by the
hunters at the time.
15 tropevopevor 82 81K TAUTHS Tis XHpas &qikvotUvTal ... : The country just
described is taken up anaphorically by tavtns tijs xopas, and the army'stravel
throughit is presented as backdrop for the next phase of the narrative (the whole
phrase tropevdpevor Sé Sia TaUTNs Tis xopas is setting). The verb dqixvotvta,
historical present (and as such a definitive sign that the narrative has been
resumed) is again the beginning of a broad-focus construction (cf. 1-2 above).
61.7 Argument: Plato, Gorgias 484c-485a 735
Argument: Plato, Gorgias 484c-485a
61.7 The following passage is part of Callicles great monologue (f7jo1s) in Plato's
Gorgias, which is a philosophical discussion presented like a play, with several
speakers taking turns. In his monologue, Callicles proposesa radical alternative to
Socrates philosophical views: philosophical nit-picking only results in rules and
laws which are intended to constrain the men with real abilities; in political life, in
which every man should participate, there is no room for the philosopher's
morality. In the present section he maintains that Socrates would also be of that
opinion, if only he would give up philosophy. Philosophy, he argues, may
be a useful part of the education ofyoung men, but once a man becomespolitically
active, it will only blur his good judgement.
TO WEV OUV GANBES OUTWS EXEL, yvmon 5é, Gv Emi Ta UEIlw EABNS Edoas 75n 1
plocogiav. gidocogia ydp toi gotiv, © ZoKpates, yapiev, av Tis avToU 2
METPIOS Gwhtar év Th NAikia: éav SE Trepaitépw Tov S ovtos évdiaTpiyn, 3

Siagbopd THv avOpatrav. éav yap Kal Tdvu evouTs T) Kal TOPPw THs 4
NAikias giAoccogi, avaykn TWdavtwv areipov yeyovévar éotiv av yp 5
EUTTEIPOV Eivar TOV HEAAOVTA KaAOV Kdyabdv Kal eUSdxipov Eoeobai avbpa. 6
Kal yap Td&v vouwv atreipo1 yiyvovTal Tv KaTa Tr TOA, Kai Tdv AOywv 7
ois Sei ypaopevov SuiAciv év tois cupBoAalois Tois d&vO@patrois Kal i8ia Kai 8
ONMOGIA, Kal Tv NSovdyv Te kal éeTriBupIdv THv avOpwtreiwv, Kai ouAANBSnv 9
Tav N8dv tavtatraow dtreipoi ylyvovtai. étrerdav ovv EAGwoeis Tiva idiav 10
7) ToOAITIKT PGE, KaTayéAaoTo ylyvovtal, Mottep ye oivat ol TroAiTiKoi, 11
étrersav au eis Tas Upetépas SiatpiBds eABwoiv Kal Tots Adyous, 12
KaTayéAaoToi eioiv. oupBaiver yap TO ToU Eupitridou- Aautrpdos TE EoTIvV 13
ExaOTOS év TOUTE, Kai él ToUT étrelyeTaun, 14
VEUDV TO TTAKIOTOV TEMAS TOUT HEPOS, 15
iv attdés abtot Tuyyavel BEATIOTOS dv- 16
étrou & &v gatiAos 1, évtedev pevyer Kai AoiSopei TOUTO, TO & Etepov étraivei, 17
EUVOIA TT] EXUTOU, TYyYOUMEVOS OUTWS AUTOS EXUTOV ETraIVvETV. 18
This is the truth of the matter, and you will recognize it if you finally abandon
philosophy and move on to the more important things. Mind you, Socrates,
philosophyis a delightful thing, if one touches uponit in moderationat the right
age; but if one wastes more timeonit than one should,it destroys people. For even
if one is very gifted by nature, but engages in philosophy beyondthe appropriate
timeoflife, he will inevitably turn out to be inexperienced in everything in which
a man whointends to be admirable and good and well thought of should be
experienced. For such people do not become experiencedin the lawsofthecity; in
the arguments one mustuse in dealing with people on matters of both private and
public business; in humanpleasures anddesires; and, in short, they do not become
experienced whatsoeverin all forms of human behaviour. So, when they venture
into some private or political activity, they become ridiculous, precisely as,
I suppose, politicians are ridiculous when they venture into those pastimes of
yours and yourdiscussions. For the upshotis Euripides saying: each man shines
in this, and strives after this ,
allotting the greatest part of the dayto this,
wherehe happensto beat his best;
But, whatever a manis inferior in, that he avoids andrails against, while he praises
the other thing, out of goodwill towards himself, because he thinksthat in this way
he is praising himself.
Commentary
61.8 General Notes
In an argumentative passage like the present one, a speaker makes a claim which
he brings to the attention of his addressee and which he supports in some way.
Unlike narratives, but like descriptions, arguments are not organized temporally.
The verbs in main clauses do not refer to successive events. Rather, the individual
sentences contain a set of claims or proposals, for which other sentences offer
proofs, explanations, conclusions, etc. The structure of many arguments is
hierarchical: some proofs and explanations pertain to the main proposal, while
other proofs and explanations in turn back up morecentral proofs and explana-
tions. The internal organization of Callicles argumentis established clearly by the
use of particles, as the overview of the main structure of Callicles argument, given
below, shows.
While Callicles monologue is long, he never loses sight of the fact that he is
engaged in a dialogue with Socrates. Dialogic elements in the passage include the
interactional particle to: and the vocative @ Zaxpates (both accompanya captatio
benevolentiae; see n. on pidooogia... Toi ZoTw, @ ZwKpates,... av &é..., 2-3; also
n. on otrep ye oivar oi troAitiKol, 11-12), and the use of the second-person verb
yvwon (1, also 61.11); the use of the plural possessive pronoun tyetépas (12)
indicates that Callicles intends to addressall philosophersvia Socrates, so to speak.
61.9 The Overall Structure of Callicles Argument
Introduction: 16 pév otv GAnBés oUTOS Exel, yuoon 5é, ... PIAocogiav.
The first sentence rounds off the previous topic of Callicles monologue and intro-
duces the new one(see also below, on uév otv ... 5é..., 1)
61.9-10 Argument: Plato, Gorgias 484c-485a 737
Main claim: piAocogia yap ... SiagGopa THv dvopeatroov.

The main claim is introduced by yap. This particle often occurs after an announce-
ment ofa story or argument (see yvwon; see also the remarks on yap in 61.3, line 2);
it has its normal explanatory force to the extent that the following argument in its
entirety contains the information which Socrates needs in order to realize that
Callicles is right. Therefore, the scope of yép is much wider than the sentence in
whichit occurs: it pertains to the entire passage whichfollows.It is difficult tofind an
adequate translation for yap in such cases: often, it is sufficient simply to supply
a colon (:) - You will recognize that I am right: ... .
Proof: av yap ... EoeoPaGvBpa.
This sentence provides prooffor the main claim that over-indulging in philosophy
leads to the destruction of men ; yap has its normal explanatory force.
Clarification: kai yap ... &treipo1 yiyvovtai.
This sentenceclarifies an aspect of the proof: it makes explicit what the things are in
which a man who is to be admirable and good and well thought of should be
experienced . Again, yap has its normal explanatory force. Observe that this clar-
ification explains only something aboutthe proof: the entire argumentis hierarchi-
cally structured: the clarification presents the deepestlevel of the argument.
Conclusion of the proof: étre1S5av ovv ... KatayéAaoToil cio.
As often, the conclusion is introduced by ouv: The entire proof gives Callicles the
opportunity to maintain that the destruction of men who engage in philosophy
consists in the fact that they becomeridiculous . The particle returns the argument
back to a higherlevel of the text.
Proof: oupBaiver yap ... éxutdv étraveiv.
In his summation, Callicles is careful to indulge Socrates by granting that, just as
philosophers make badpoliticians, politicians would be bad philosophers. He backs
this statement up by quoting a couple of lines from Euripides, whom he apparently
regards as an authority in this respect. yap performs its normal function.
Each of the main parts of the argument can be further divided into even smaller
segments. Again, particles have an importantrole to play here, but demonstrative
pronounsare importantas well.
61.10 Detailed Notes
1 wév ouv...&...: This succession of particles is very commonin sentences which

form a transition between two topics. In the particle combination pév otv, otv
roundsoff the previous topic, suggesting a transition to a (currently) morerelevant
point, while pév looks forward to 8, balancing or contrasting the two topics
( 59.73). The fact that the first part of the sentence looks back at the previous
section can also be seen from ottws like this , which is used anaphorically
(compare anaphoric oUtos; 29.32).
2-3 pidocogia ... Toi goTiv, wo Lwxpates, ... av 5é ... : Callicles main claim
consists of two parts, the second ofwhich contains the contention for which he will
argue in the following. Thefirst part is a preliminary concession to Socrates point
of view intended by Callicles to mollify his interlocutor (compare the captatio
benevolentiae with which many speechesbegin). This is shown byro1,an interac-
tional particle, which in this case has a concessive value: granted, philosophyis
something delightful ; for neuter xapiev, 27.8. The 8é-clause builds a contrast
with this preliminary point and the particle can therefore be translated by but .
Both conditional clauses have (contrasting) narrow focus constituents, petpiws
and trepaitépw tot Séovtos: these carry the main point. The vocative w Zwxpates
fulfils a role similar to tou, in that it clearly marks the fact that Callicles makes the
point about philosophybeing delightful to indulge Socrates (rememberthat tonis
originally a dative of the second-person personal pronoun).
4-5 av yap kai Travu eUquns 7 Kai TrOppw Tijs HAtKias piAocog@s: For ydp, see
above. Even though the two clauses under the scopeofei are co-ordinated by kai,
they are (exceptionally) not semantically parallel. The second provides the real
condition in case of which the main clause applies: If one engages in philosophy
beyondthe appropriate age, then it is necessary etc. Thefirst is rather concessive:
this even holds for someone whoisvery gifted . The first kai is adverbial and to be
connected with trévu.
7-10 Kai yap Td&v vouwv ... Kai Tv Aoywv ... Kal Tv Nndovev te Kai
éeTr1PULIG@V ... Kai CUAANPSnv Tov 7bdSv: An enumeration consisting of four
essential spheresoflife in which philosophers turn out to be inexperienced. Each
elementis introduced by a connective kai. Thefirst kai belongs to Tév vopev,but is
separated from its noun phrase by yap, because of Wackernagel s Law ( >60.7); on
the force of yap, see above. T&S v vowwv is separated from its modifier Tév Kkat&
tTHv TroAtv in hyperbaton, as the modifier contains fairly predictable information
( 60.18). The final element of the enumeration stands apart from the others, in
that it summarizes the previous elements: ovAAnBSnv in short shows this.
The third part is itself subdivided in two by te kai: this particle combination
often suggests that the elements thus co-ordinated belong closely together.
11-12 @otrep ye oipan oi TroAitixoi, étre1Sav av: Motrep ye precisely as again
introduces a point which is intended to appease Socratesor to forestall a possible
objection on his part: Callicles grants that politicians perform badly whenthey in
their turn (av, signalling the exactly opposite scenario of the é1re1Sav otv-clause)
engage in philosophy. (Of course, in his reasoning this is a rather gratuitous
concession, because the real object of a man s life should be politics, and not
philosophy.) Placed after the connective Sottep, the scope-particle ye has scope
over the entire clause. Its force is limitative: Callicles restricts the inability of
politicians only to a scenario in which they engage in philosophy.
61.10-11 Argument: Plato, Gorgias 484c-485a 739
11 oipon: After the confident assertions he has madeso far (on whichsee below),
Callicles clearly marks his present statement as a mere opinion by means of
a paratactic oipai I suppose : he probably does this because he does not claim to
have any experience in philosophy;it is up to Socrates to judge the truth of what he
is saying. This impression is reinforced by the (as usual) emphatic use of
the second-person possessive pronoun in tas Upetépas S1atpibas ( 29.22),
your pastimes , which marks philosophy as something that does not belong to
Callicles but to Socrates and people like him.
13-14 16 tot Eupitridou- Aaptrpés Te... kai... : TO TOU Evpitridou the saying
of Euripides introduces a quotation from Antiope(a lost play), which then follows
immediately, without a connective particle: asyndeton is regular after such
announcements. The particle te, of course, looks forward to xai, forging into
a single idea the two statements that everybody performssplendidly at and (there-
fore) aims to do whathebelieves he doesbest.It is possible that the quotation is not
exact, as often in Plato.
14-16 év ToUTw ... éi TOUT ... ToUTw ... iv : As happens often, forms of the
demonstrative pronoun ovtos (rather than of 88) refer cataphorically to
a following relative clause ( 29.32 n.1).
17 6trou &... évteU@ev ... ToUTo: évteUG_ev and toUto here refer anaphorically
to the relative clause starting with dtrou: this is a normal function of évted#ev and
forms of oUtos (8.2, 29.32).
16-17 iva ... 6trou & &v ... TO § Etepov: Both times &é contrasts the previous
clause with the present one; the definite noun phrase to étepov refers back to the
iva-clause. Observe the difference in mood between the tworelative clauses: ive is
followed by an indicative, indicating that there is a fixed sphere oflife in which
each person happensto beat his best and whichis in principle identifiable in each
case. By contrast, dtrovu is followed by &v + subjunctive (indefinite) to indicate that
there may be manyother, not readily identifiable, things in which each personis
inferior ( 50.21).
61.11 Argumentative Tone
Notonly is the structure of the passage characteristic of an argument. The tone,

too, is typical of at least one kind of argument. Callicles only once weakens the
force of one of his claims by meansof oipen I suppose (see above, 11). The rest of
the time, he strikes a very confident tone. For example, Callicles uses the imperso-
nal &vay«n éortiv it is inevitable (5) to express whathe thinksis a logical necessity.
The impersonal verb Sei it is necessary (8), fulfils a similar role: it indicates
that there cannot, in Callicles view, be a discussion about what kinds of things
a good man should be experienced in. The future indicative yywon you will
realize (1) is a further sign of confidence: by presenting Socrates change of
mind as a future fact, Callicles suggests that alternative views cannot really be
maintained once hehasfinished his exposition. To feel the force of these features
of Callicles language,it is helpful to envisage possible alternatives: instead of it is
inevitable he might havesaid I thinkit is the case and instead of you will realize ,
he might have said perhaps you will realize (yvoins &v, a potential optative).
The result would be a more modestly proposed argument.
Perhaps the most important contribution to the confident tone is made by the use
of indicatives in main clauses, which express what the speaker regards as facts.
Almostall of these are in the present tense, and express timeless or habitual actions,
things which are always the case (or so Callicles believes). Accordingly, the condi-
tional and temporal clauses take the form of é&v/étre1Sav + subjunctive. In accor-
dancewiththis, Callicles talks about people in general(t15, 2; Tv &v@pwrtrev,4), or
aboutclasses of people (tov péAAovta ... &vSpa, 6; oi TroAitikoi, 11); these noun
phrases havea genericarticle.
Callicles not only reinforces his point through grammatical means, but also
through the use of expressive vocabulary. Thus, it is apparent that he has
clear ideas about what occupations are suitable for an adult man: herefers to
politics as t& psifw the bigger things (1) - note that the definite article
implies that it is recognized by everybody that politics is more important than
philosophy - while philosophy is called xapiev something delightful (2) -
note the somewhat condescending use of the neuter; later on it is referred to
as ai Upétepon Siatpipai (12). Although this word is often used for discus-
sions, there is more than a hint of its other meaning pastimes here. Finally,
engaging in philosophy is referred to by the verb évSiatpiBw waste one s
time (3). Instead, one should only touch upon it in moderation (uetpiws
&wntat, 3).
Finally, Plato often appears to make an effort to make his writing resemble
spoken language. Spoken languageis often a bit more sloppy , redundantandless
grammatical than written language, but Plato's Greek is usually clear and easy to
follow. In the present passage, the influence of spoken languageis apparent in the
repetition of &treipo1 yiyvovtai (7 and 10), whichis triggered by the long sentence
of which these words form the predicate: by the time Callicles gets to té&v nédv, he
foresees that his addressees may have forgotten by nowthat the genitive depends
on &treipo1 yiyvovtai, and for this reason he repeats it. A further sign of the
influence of spoken languageis the transition from the singular tis someone (2;
it is the subject of &ynta, évdiatpiyn, fh, prAocog?| and yeyovéva), to the plurals
&treipoi ylyvovtai, zA@wow and xatayéAaoto: yiyvovta1. The change is readily
understandable, once werealize that tis stands for anybody who pursues philoso-
phy beyondtheright periodoflife, in other words, for an entire class of people.
The co-ordination of two semantically non-equivalent si-clauses noted in the
comments above (4-5) may bea further colloquial feature.
61.12 Dialogue: Sophocles, Ajax 1120-41 741
Dialogue: Sophocles, Ajax 1120-41
61.12 In Sophocles Ajax, the eponymoushero, having lost his mind and having tried
unsuccessfully to kill the leaders of the Greek army before Troy as theylay asleep,
commits suicide. Ajax s madnessis the result ofhis losing a contest over the weapons
of the slain Achilles: the contest, in the end, was decided by vote, and Odysseus was
declared winner and given the splendid weaponry. The second part of the playis
concernedwith the burial of Ajax: in the scene below, Ajax half-brother Teucer and
his sworn enemy Menelaus engage in an angry discussion about this burial.
Menelaus, whom Teucer holds personally responsible for Ajax defeat in the decid-
ing vote, denies Ajax a properburial in light of the crimes he has committed. Teucer
disputes this fervently, leading Menelausto resort to outrightinsults.
ME. 06 TodtEo1KEV OU OLIKPOV MPoveEiv. 1120

TEY. ov yap Bavauoov Thy TExvnv EKTNHOaUND. 1121
ME. wéy&v T1 Koutr&oeias, doris i Ad&Bors. 1122
TEY. xKda&v widds d&pxéoaim ool y @TrAlopevon. 1123
ME. ft yAdood cou Tov SupoV ws deivov TpEELT. 1124
TEY. uv to Sikaio yap yey Eeotiv ppoveiv. 1125
ME. 8ixoia yap Tévd edtuxeEtv KTEivavT&é UE; 1126
TEY. xteivavto; Seivdv y eitras, ci Kal Cis Paveov. 1127
ME. ds yap éxooZei pe, THBe 8 olyopan. 1128
TEY. rn vuv ative Geous, Geois ceompuevos. 1129
ME. éetyo yap &v wegarpi Saipoveov vouious; 1130
TEY. i Tous Bavovtas oUK &&s BatTrTElv Tapav. 1131
ME. tous yattds attoU TroAguious: ob yap KaAdv. 1132
TEY. tool yap Aias troAguios TrpotoTH TOTE; 1133
ME. wiootvT éuicer Kal ob ToT ftrictaco. 1134
TEY. KA étrtns yap auto wnpotroids nupEtngs. 1135
ME. év Tois SikaoTais KoUK éuol TOS EoMaAN. 1136
TEY. ddd &v Kardds AdéBpa ov KAgwEIas KAKA. 1137
ME. tot eis &viav tottros Zpyetai T1v1. 1138
TEY. ov pa&AAov, os Eoikev, 1) AUTINOOUEV. 1139
ME. &v 01 ppdow- Tdv8 éoTtiv ob>yi GatrTéov. 1140
TEY. GAAdvtakouon Totév, ws TefdweTat. 1141
M. Thearcher, it seems, haslittle modesty.

T. Indeed not, for I did not acquire it as a lowlyart.
M. Your boast would be great indeed if you got a shield!
T Even unarmed, I would be a match for you with your weapons.
M. How brash does your mouth makeyourheart!

T. Yes, for when someonehasjustice on his side, he may be bold.
M. Are yousayingit was just for him to get away with murdering me?
T. Murdering? You make quite a claim,ifyoustill live having been killed.
M. I live because a god is my saviour: as far as this man is concerned,
J am gone.
T. Well then, stop dishonouring the gods, if you are saved by them.
M. Youdaresay that I would disparage the precepts of the gods?
T. If you are here to forbid the burying of the dead.
M. The dead whoare my own enemies: for that is not good.
T. So you state that Ajax ever stood up to you as an enemy?
M. He hated meas I hated him: you, too, knewthat.
T. Yes, because you were foundout to have robbed him in the voting.
M. That misfortune befell him on accountof the judges, not on
account of me.
T. You could put a good face on manya despicableact, as long as you
did them in secret.
M. Someoneis going to regret saying that!
T. No more, it seems, than I shall cause regret.
M. I will tell you one thing: this manis not to be buried.
T. But you will hear only this in reply, that he shall lie in his grave.
Commentary
61.13 General Notes
The text type is on the whole that of argument: both Menelaus and Teucer make a
numberof claims and seek to support them. However, this heated stichomythia (a
form of dramatic dialogue in which characters speak in alternating lines), quickly
degenerates into the kind of shouting match to which notionsof a sustained and
coherent text type are perhapsless relevant.
Rather, the text is interesting for our purposesparticularly for its many dialogic
elements: there are manyfirst- and second-person verb forms and pronouns; the
use of tenses alternates primarily between presents, futures and aorists; there is
variety in the use of moods (the imperative is rare outside dialogue); there is a
greater incidence of interactional particles than in other text types (and other
particles are sometimes employed in different fashion, see especially the notes on
yap below); andfinally, sentences generally do not have very complex syntax (that
is to say, thereis little stacking of subordinate clauses, circumstantial participles,
etc.). With regard to syntax, this dialogue also contains examples of a feature
61.13-14 Dialogue: Sophocles, Ajax 1120-41 743
commonto stichomythia, namely the borrowing of one speaker s syntax by the

other (see the nn. on 1131-2 below).
61.14 Detailed Notes
In addition to commentson the structure and coherence of the text, some atten-
tion in the notes below will be devoted to an analysis of Menelaus and Teucer s
rhetorical tactics , since the way the speakers organize their utterances cannot be
seen independently from such considerations.
1120: A line dripping with sarcasm and disdain. 6 tofotns is an insult both
because Menelaususes the third person (he maydirect this speech to the chorus,
whichis present on stage, and pretend to ignore Teucer, whois neverthelessclearly
meant to hearit), and because it emphasizes Teucer s low status (archers foughtat
a greater distance from the enemythan shield-bearing hoplites, and were consid-
ered of lower rank as a consequence). With Zo1xev od opixpov ppoveiv, Menelausis
deliberately, sarcastically circumspect in his description of Teucer, saying that he
seemsto be not modest : Teucer s speech preceding this passage in fact conveys
his attitude towards Menelausclearly enough. The double negative inherent in ot
ouikpovis called litotes , a form of euphemism, which suggests here that Teucer s
behaviour should normally be modest.
1121: In dialogue, yép often has a less obvious explanatory force than it would
in monological arguments, narratives or descriptions, because it may be used by
one speaker to connecthis utteranceto that of another.It is used to pick up an idea
of the previous speaker, on which the current speaker elaborates. Its function is
therefore really the same as in other contexts: it introduces a unit of text that
elaborates the current line of discussion (59.14). In manycases, such as here and
in 1125, 1128, and 1135, it may be translated yes, for , indeed, because , etc. (here,
Teucer uses the device to transform Menelaus insult into a badge of honour).
Note the ordering of adjective, article and noun in B&vauvoov thy Téxvnv
(predicative placementof the adjective, 28.11-12): Teuceris saying that archery,
in his case, is not oflow statusatall (refuting the implication of Menelaus to§6t75).
Theaorist éktnoa&pnyv, as often in non-narrative text, is used simply to observe
that an action is completed (Teucer looks back at the time of his becoming an
archer in retrospect, 33.28).
1122: The potential conditional sentence (ci + opt. in the protasis, opt. + &v in
the apodosis, >49.8) is used by Menelaus to somerhetorical effect: he both
underlines the extent to which Teucer is being brazen (the gist is: if you're this
arrogant whenyoure noteven ofhigh status, what would youbelike ifyou were? ),
but also subtly points out that Teucer s acquiring a shield is only a remote
possibility.
cord , the topic of the conditional clause ci AdBors is taken out of its clause and
preposed, a form of prolepsis (60.37): the implied sense is moreor less Your
boast would be great indeed with a shield, if you actually were to get one (with
A&Bors focus of the subordinate clause).
1123: Teucer again retorts by taking up Menelaus point and turningit onits
head: even (kai in x&v) if he weren't to acquire a shield, he wouldstill be able to take
on Menelaus, regardless of status. He also adds the threat of violence: whereas
shields and weaponsup to this point have primarily been expressionsofstatus,
here Teucer suggests that they mightactually use them.
The particle ye (coi y ) limits and focuses Teucer s boast on Menelausspeci-
fically: you I can take any day, even without weapons ( >59.53).
1124; A contemptuous exclamation (with ws, 38.47; ws is a prepositive,
60.13, which is here delayed until the word it goes with mostclosely, Seivdv).
Naturally, exclamationsare usually not connected to the surrounding context by a
particle (asyndeton, >59.9): a connective particle would be at odds with the
impromptu character of an exclamation.
1125: Teucer takes up Menelaus point (using the particle yép, see note on
1121), ignoring the sarcasm of his exclamation: he has good reason to be bold.
With uv 1S1xaieo, Teucer here introduces, as new topic ( 60.29), a crucial term
into the dialogue (16 Sixaiov), and pivots the discussion to the question of whether
Ajax should be buried (as justice demands).
1126: Menelaus takes up the issue of justice (Sixate is in topic position), but is
unwilling to yield the pointthatit is on the side of Teucer and Ajax. In a rhetorical
question, he presents his own,different view of whatis just.
The question is introduced by yap: in yes/no questions, this particle may be
used to interrogate the premises and/or hypotheses of the other speaker: are you
saying that because ... ? , do you mean to say that ... ? (again, the particle
elaborates on the utterance of the previous speaker, cf. 1121 above). In rhetorical
questionslike the present example,this leads to the interpretation that the speaker
subverts the premises of the other speaker (in other words, Menelaus is implying
that for Teucer to say that, his concept of justice must be wrong). The particle
functions similarly in 1130 and 1133.
Menelaus can use the pronoun tév8 because the dead bodyof Ajax is actually
lying on stage. We may imaginethe actor pointing towards the corpseat this point
(29.29).
The conventionalrelative-tense interpretation of the aorist participle kteivavta
( >52.4) collides, of course, with the fact that the dead person is speaking. Thisis
pointed out by Teucer(see note on 1127), after which Menelausis forced to qualify
itin 1128.
1127: xteivavta is a direct citation of Menelaus word in the previousline,
picked up to question its validity. y concentrates Teucer s point on the word
Seivdv, the narrow focus of this sentence: we can dolittle more in translation than
provide emphasis. The aorist eitras (an alternative form to citres; 13.32) is used
simply because Menelaus relevant utterance is completed.
kai is here a scopeparticle (59.56), extending the applicability of the word Zijs
beyond what might be expected ( you actually (still) live, having died ).
1128: For yép see the note on 1121; here it picks up Cis. The present oixopat
here,as often, is resultative (it means be gone rather than go away , 33.18); the
present éxoesZe1 here (and elsewhere) works the same way ( a god has saved me or
is my saviour). The particle 8 contrasts Ajax (again referred to by a form of 65¢)
with the god: no yév precedes.
1129: Teucer latches on to Menelaus comment about a god to again bring
the topic of conversation back to the burial. His imperative uy dtipa is
connected to the preceding context by means of the particle vuv ( >59.29),
which expresses that the command flows naturally from what came before
(the mention of a god).
The aspect of &tipa (present imperative) is significant: Teucer suggests that
Menelaushas been dishonouringthe gods by not letting him bury Ajax, and that he
should cease his opposition ( 38.30); a translation stop dishonouring the gods is
better than don t dishonourthe gods .
1130: Menelaus seems not to grasp what Teucer is accusing him of, and objects
in general to the notion that he could ever be disrespectful towards divine vdyo1.
The potential optative &v wéfaips is stronger than an indicative would be:
Menelaus denies not only that he is disparaging divine precepts, but that he ever
could (the rhetorical question implies otx &v wé§oun, a strong denial; >34.13). For
the use of yap, see the note on 1126.
1131: Teucer here comesto the crux of his argument: burying Ajaxis just. His
contribution consists only of a subordinate clause, not a syntactically complete
sentence. This is possible because he borrows syntax from Menelaus: Teucer s
conditional clause is latched onto the sentence which Menelaushasjust spoken (as
such it cannot be connected bya particle). The use of ox instead of the expected un
( 49.3) indicates that Teucer presents this line as a statement rather than as a
genuine condition.
The participle trapewv is probably addedto place responsibility squarely with
Menelaus:as a general of the army, and being presentat the site of the corpse,heis
personally responsible if the burial does not go through.
1132: Menelaus, too, borrows syntax from his opponent: the accusative tous
TroAguious is object with @étrtev from 1131, which does not need to be expressed
again. By the useofthe limitative particle y (59.53), Menelaus limits Teucer s
general tous favévtas to the specific case of his own enemies: one can forbid burial
when it concerns one s own TroAépio1, since burying them is not a morally correct
thing (ot yap KaAdv).
autos auto is a set phrase, used in every person. Although it is impos-

sible to be sure as to whether the second form should be attot rather than
reflexive avtot (for which 29.11), the phrase is well attested with a smooth
breathing in the manuscripts of Greek tragic texts, and most recent editions
indeed print attov.
1133: Teucer detects a hole in Menelaus argument, and calls him outonit. For
Menelaus argument to hold water, Ajax must have been troAguios (this word
suggests actual violent conflict, rather than just emotional dislike) to Menelaus
(note accented ooi to you , 29.4). In a strongly suggestive question, Teucer asks
whetherthis wastruly the case. The particle yap questions the underlying premise
of Menelaus statement(see 1126 and 1130 above), andthis is reinforced by n ( isit
really the case that ... ? +59.48); in this way, the two particles together mark
(indignant) surprise.
The aorist tpotetn (= Tpo-zoTn, 11.52) is regular with the indefinite troté:
Teucer asks whether a single occurrence of Ajax engaging in conflict with
Menelausever tookplace.
1134: Menelaus has to retreat from the word troAguios, but tries to deflect
Teucer s question by pointing out that he must have been all too aware that
there was an abiding mutual hatred between the two men. Thestrength ofthat
hatred is reinforced by the imperfect épioe: (expressing an ongoing action in the
past, 33.23) and by the doubling of formsof the verb pioéw (which underscores
the reciprocity). xai should probably be read adverbially ( you too ). Hrrictaco is
imperfect rather than present, as Menelausrefers to the fact that Teucer was aware
of Ajax s and Menelaus mutual hatred while Ajax wasalive.
1135: Teucer cannot now refrain from bringing up the proverbial elephant
in the room,and, with yap (see 1125 and 1128), provides the reason for Ajax
hatred of Menelaus: he is held responsible for Ajax loss in the contest over
the weapons of Achilles (decided, in the end, by a vote). Teucer here uses the
word xAétrtTns: an outright accusation that Menelaus kept Ajax from what was
rightfully his. autotd is an objective genitive ( 30.28), signifying the person
robbed (note that the verb xAgémtw governs an accusative of the person
robbed). The adjective wn@otroids (which occurs only here in Greek litera-
ture; the meaning is uncertain, either casting a vote or tampering with
votes ) is added in apposition ( 26.24) as further elaboration of how exactly
Menelaus was a KAétT1.
1136: Menelausdeflects responsibility for Ajax loss of the weaponsto the panel
ofjudges which held the vote: a more respectable version of the story than the vote-
tampering which Teucer seems to suggest took place. The pronoun 168 is used
here because the affair surrounding Achilles weapons is now prominent in
Menelaus mind ( 29.29).
1137: Teucer denies that Menelaus did not cause Ajax loss of Achilles weapons.
Heascribes to him theability to put a fair face on all kinds of criminal actions he
commits without being noticed. The focus of the sentence is A&6pa. The use of the
potential optative &v . . . kA&wetas ( 34.13) gives the sentence a widerapplicability
than just the particular case underdiscussion: Teucer suggests that Menelausisstill
ready to put this ability into action and has probably doneso onseveral occasions
in the past.
1138-9: In these lines, the conversation finally breaks down entirely: both
speakers utter threats, although both do so in an indirect way. Menelaus
formulates his threat in a general way, by saying tivi rather than oo, and he
distances himself from the responsibility for the threat by making Teucer s
previous utterance the subject of épxetar: not I will hit you , but what you just
said will hit you . Teucer weakens the strong force of the future indicative
Autrnoouev (which presents as a future fact what is actually a mere prediction;
33.43) by adding ws Zotxev, it seems . He also leaves out any mention of the
person that will be hurt. It is difficult to say why such indirect threats are more
sinister (in effect, more threatening) than direct threats, but presumably it is
because by not taking responsibility for a threat one suggests that the poten-
tially violent outcome is beyond one s control and therefore all the more
dangerous.
TOUTO ... ToUTros (= TO ETros by crasis, 1.43) refers anaphorically to Teucer s
entire previous utterance. The present gpxeto1 is best interpreted as an action
currently in progress: Menelausis already losing control.
1140: Menelaus uses, in év co1 ppa&ow, a future indicative to announce a
statement which immediately follows. Such announcements indicate that the
following statement is of great importance and should be given special heed.
Note, in this connection, the use of the pronoun go1, which appeals directly to
Teucer. The statement is appended without connective particles (asyndeton),
which is regular when a statement provides the content of an announcement
just made.
The impersonal expression éotiv ... 6atrtéov ( 37.3) is reminiscent oflegal
language: Menelausspeaks with all the authority of a king, who doesnot deign to
address individual subjects. As in previous instances (1126, 1128), tovde refers to
the body whichis present onstage.
1141: The particle &AN ( 59.11) conveys Teucer s rejection of Menelaus order
and its replacement by a diametrically opposedintention onhis part; a translation
no, on the contraryis suitable.
&vtTaKouon can be regarded as a passive of dvT1A¢yw refute, contradict; again, the
clause announces an important statement, which here takes the form of a os-
clause.
The future perfect te@&wetat ( 33.46) is an instance of one-upmanship by

Teucer over Menelaus: not only will Ajax be buried,he will rest in a grave once and
for all. The future perfect emphasizes the state which will result from burying him.
Note how Teucer echoes Menelaus orderin that he, too, uses a passive formula-
tion, excluding himself as the agent of the burying. Again, this may suggest that the
act of burying Ajax is outside any individual's control, and thusinevitable.
Bibliography
Introduction
Full-scale bibliographies of work on Greek linguistics can be found both online

and in print (see I-II below). Therefore the bibliography printed in this book can
be brief: we have not aimed at exhaustiveness, but merely to give an indication of
the intellectual and scholarly background to CGCG.
Sections I-II list some large-scale reference works and online sources with
full(er) bibliographies, which may be consulted by anyoneinterested in following
up individual topics in more detail. Also listed are a few other useful online
sources. Sections III-IV list works in the fields of general andhistorical linguistics
which have helped shape our approach to Greek grammar. Sections V-VIIlist
those booksandarticles on ancient Greek whoseinfluenceis visible, we believe, in
major parts of CGCG,or which helped form ourideas in other important ways.
Note 1: The focus in the bibliography below is, then, on linguistics and Greek grammar.
Naturally, we have also relied much on the wealth oflearning assembled in general dictionaries,
notably Liddell-Scott-Jones, and specialized lexica, as well as in commentaries written on the
works from which our examples are taken. These are not individually mentioned below.
Note 2: In the case of edited collections containing more than onerelevant article/chapter,
we havelisted the volumes as a whole rather than the individual pieces in them.
List of Books, Articles and Online Sources
I Encyclopedias, Companions (with Full Bibliographies)
Bakker, E. J. (ed.) 2010. A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language. Malden:

Blackwell.
Giannakis, G. K. (ed.) 2013. Encyclopedia of Ancient Greek Language and
Linguistics. Leiden:Brill.
Meier-Briigger, M. 1992. Griechische Sprachwissenschaft, 2 vols. Berlin: De Gruyter.
II Online Sources
(Note: no full web addresses are given below, as these may change; the resources are
in any case moreeasily found by wayof a search engine.)
Online Bibliographies:
- A Bibliography of Ancient Greek Linguistics (by M. Buijs)
- Oxford Bibliographies Online: Ancient Greek Language (by S. Colvin)
Linguistic Bibliographies Online (Brill): Ancient Greek (by M.Janse)
750 Bibliography
Text Databases and Search Tools:

- Perseus Digital Library
Perseus Under PhiloLogic
Thesaurus Linguae Graecae
Encyclopedias, Companions
Of the resources listed under section I above, Bakker 2010 and Giannakis 2013
have online versions, to which manyinstitutions provide access.
III General Works on Language and Linguistics
Brown, G., Yule, G. 1983. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
Bybee,J., Perkins, R., Pagliuca, W. 1994. The Evolution of Grammar: Tense, Aspect
and Modality in the Languages of the World. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Comrie, B. 1976. Aspect: An Introduction to the Study of Verbal Aspect and Related
Problems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Comrie, B. 1985. Tense. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cristofaro, S. 2003. Subordination. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dahl, O. 1985. Tense and Aspect Systems. Oxford: Blackwell.
Dahl, O. (ed.) 2000. Tense and Aspect in the Languages of Europe. Berlin: De
Gruyter.
Dik, S. C. 1997. The Theory of Functional Grammar, 2nd ed., 2 vols, ed.
K. Hengeveld. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Givon, T. 2001. Syntax: An Introduction. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Gussenhoven, C., Jacobs, H. 2013. Understanding Phonology, 3rd ed. London:
Routledge.
Haspelmath, M., Sims, A. D. 2010. Understanding Morphology, 2nd ed. London:
Routledge.
Horn,L. R., Ward, G. (eds) 2004. The Handbook ofPragmatics. Malden: Blackwell.
Kroon, C. H. M. 1995. Discourse Particles in Latin: A Study of nam, enim, autem,
vero, and at. Amsterdam: Gieben.
Ladefoged, P. 2001. Vowels and Consonants: An Introduction to the Sounds of
Languages. Malden: Blackwell.
Lambrecht, K. 1994. Information Structure and Sentence Form: Topic, Focus, and
the Mental Representations of Discourse Referents. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Levinson,S. C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lyons, J. 1995. Linguistic Semantics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
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Mey,J. L. 2001. Pragmatics: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.

Palmer, F. R. 1994. Grammatical Roles and Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Palmer, F. R. 2001. Mood and Modality, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. N., Svartvik, J. 1985. A Comprehensive
Grammarof the English Language. London: Longman.
Roulet, E., Filliettaz, L., Grobet, A. 2001. Un modele et un instrument d analyse de
l'organisation du discours. Bern: Lang.
Smith, C. S. 2003. Modes of Discourse: The Local Structure of Texts. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Sperber, D., Wilson, D. 1995. Relevance: Communication and Cognition, 2nd ed.
Oxford: Blackwell.
IV Historical Linguistics (Indo-European, Greek Historical Grammar,

Etymology) and Greek Dialectology
Beekes,R.S. P., Beek, L. van. 2010. Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden:Brill.
Beekes, R. S. P., Vaan, M. A. C. de. 2011. Comparative Indo-European Linguistics:
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Buck, C. D. 1955. The Greek Dialects, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Chantraine, P. 1961. Morphologie historique du grec. Paris: Klincksieck.
Chantraine, P. 1968-80. Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque. Paris:
Klincksieck.
Colvin, S. 2007. A Historical Greek Reader: Mycenaean to the Koiné. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Colvin, S. 2014. A BriefHistory ofAncient Greek. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
Fortson, B. W. I. 2004. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction.
Malden:Blackwell.
Frisk, H. 1960-72. Griechisches etymologisches Worterbuch. Heidelberg: Winter.
Gary Miller, D. 2014. Ancient Greek Dialects and Early Authors: Introduction to the
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Gruyter.
Horrocks, G. C. 2010. Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers, 2nd ed.
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Meier-Briigger, M., Fritz, M., Mayrhofer, M. 2003. Indo-European Linguistics.
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Palmer, L. 1996. The Greek Language, new ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma
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Rix, H. 1976. Historische Grammatik des Griechischen: Laut- und Formenlehre.

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Threatte, L. 1980-96. The GrammarofAttic Inscriptions. Berlin: De Gruyter.
V Greek: Full Reference Grammars
Bornemann,E., Risch, E. 1978. Griechische Grammatik. Frankfurt: Diesterweg.

Kiihner, R., Blass, F. 1890/1892. Ausfiihrliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache
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VI Greek: Phonology, Morphology, Accentuation, Word Formation
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Also see all works underV.
Index of Examples
Aeschylus (Aesch.) 3.231 40.10 (7)

Agamemnon(Ag.) 3.252 49.10 (21)
160-1 52.15 (56)
518-19 59.37 (56) Andocides (Andoc.)
672 57.2 (10) 1.3 50.28 (62)
927-8 51.42 (108) 1.20 59.53 (85)
1084 59.55 (89) 1.25 30.3 (5)
1140-2 29.19 (54) 1.36 52.46 (129)
Choephori (Cho.) 1.50 29.24 (67)
105-7 34.13 (22) 1.57 51.39 (101)
508-10 59.71 (116) 1.62 41.8 (15)
579-83 33.20 (20) 1.64 29.22 (58)
922-3 59.51 (82) 1.84 47.10 (22)
Eumenides (Eum.) 1.113 27.3 (6)
837-8 38.51 (81) 1.117 38.14 (29)
Persae (Pers.) 1.122 52.18 (60)
348 1.34 (1) 1.126 59.65 (106)
380 29.26 (70) 1.136 37.2 (3)
386-7 51.18 (45) 3.36 51.22 (55)
Prometheus Vinctus (PV) [4].25 51.9 (14)
517-18 59.33 (51)
714-15 30.33 (64) Antiphon (Antiph.)
Supplices (Supp.) 1.8 34.16 (34)
498 44.6 (10) 1.15 29.5 (7)
1.20 27.5 (13)
Aeschines (Aeschin.) 1.23 33.65 (102)
1.19 28.12 (23) 1.30 29.23 (64)
1.44 51.39 (103) 1.31 36.13 (26)
1.46 29.46 (105) 2.2.9 49.6 (12)
1.56 32.6 (5) 2.2.10 29.4 (5)
1.85 34.16 (29) 3.4.6 56.5 (3)
1.92 59.38 (60) 4.4.1 48.4 (10)
1.114-15 33.57 (87) 5.4 60.8 (6)
2.19 50.11 (18) 5.16 28.12 (27)
2.21 41.20 (45) 5.33 41.9 (17)
2.50 51.11 (24) 5.71 52.6 (24)
2.109 52.4 (11) 5.75 30.13 (20)
3.2 34.17 (37) 5.96 41.7 (9)
3.46 28.12 (20) 6.21-3 41.16 (35)
3.117 30.21 (36)
3.133 27.13 (22) Aristophanes(Ar.)
3.134 26.24 (80) Acharnenses (Ach.)
3.173-4 59.16 (17) 122 29.36 (90)
3.205 60.18 (25) 157 30.37 (67)
758 Index of Examples
169-70 51.35 (84) 818-19 51.48 (118)

404-5 30.55 (101) 902-6 59.45 (71)
501 59.24 (36) 960-1 59.39 (62)
1031 49.25 (51) 1005-6 35.11 (10)
1141 36.1 (3) 1031 38.2 (12)
Aves (Av.) 1067 51.40 (104)
50-1 49.24 (50) 1380-1 52.14 (54)
125 52.10 (38) 1448-9 29.15 (38)
298 29.36 (92) 1502-3 60.23 (36)
306 33.9 (8) Pax
325 52.10 (40) 3 38.41 (69)
352 38.26 (45) 185 38.2 (10)
700 47.14 (32) 412-13 40.15 (16)
794 26.16 (56) 449 38.41 (68)
1228 37.3 (8) 525-7 32.14 (29)
1254-5 29.9 (23) 742-3 52.3 (8)
1390 52.40 (108) 1042 38.8 (21)
1567 38.1 (2) 1240-1 30,31 (57)
1649 36.15 (30) Plutus (Plut.)
Ecclesiazusae (Eccl.) 33-4 27.14 (24)
41-2 59.20 (30) 85 35,11 (9)
236-8 33.36 (50) 246 30.26 (48)
285 51.9 (15) 332-3 29.36 (91)
300 44,2 (2) 335-6 35.19 (30)
700-1 656-7 35,11 'ULa)
705-9 35.11 (12) 748 38.48 (74)
1037 60.23 (35) 826 36.9 (17)
Equites (Eq.) 917-18 52.48 (136)
7-8 26.11 (29) Ranae (Ran.)
257 33.14 (11) 42 51.37 (98)
1108-9 40.9 (3) 66-7 29.36 (93)
1216 28.25 (37) 68-9 51.37 (99)
1390 38.49 (76) 198 29.30 (78)
Lysistrata (Lys.) 277-9 48.4 (13)
97-8 47.14 (35) 285 30.21 (33)
210 38.25 (39) 416-17 34.8 (13)
631-2 48.4 (11) 554 29.38 (98)
884 26.13 (38) 577-8 50.24 (52)
1019-20 52.9 (34) 739-40 51.10 (18)
1103-5 38.33 (54) 914 33.24 (25)
42223 36.4 (9) 927 33.24 (26)
Nubes (Nub.) 1008 26.25 (82)
58-9 48.2 (2) Thesmophoriazusae (Thesm.)
296-7 38.2 (5) 65-70 59.34 (54)
347 26.13 (39) 204-6 59.72 (119)
437 60.10 (11) 208 38.2 (4)
493 43.5 (10) 222-3 33.37 (54)
628-31 26.16 (57) 231 33.35 (49)
335-6 29.38 (96) Demosthenes (Dem.)

349-50 29.38 (96) 1.16-18 59.44 (69)
396-7 44.6 (11) 2.8 4)..7 (11)
478 30.15 (24) 3.21 51.26 (64)
579-81 44.6 (9) 3.28 52.35 (98)
635 50.8 (11) 4.43 49.5 (11)
853 26.19 (71) 5.18 33.43 (66)
1012 36.1 (1) 6.11 32.13:(22)
1012 51.12 (28) 6.12 49.27 (55)
1150-1 36.9 (18) 7.25 52.4 (9)
Vespae (Vesp.) 8.4 33.37 (53)
155 44.2 (3) 8.20 50.6 (7)
164-5 59.10 (2) 8.67 52.2 (3)
394 34.9 (14) 9.9 27.9 (19)
591 36.13 (28) 9.61 49.13 (29)
835 38.51 (80) 9.65 40.12 (9)
1046-7 51.31 (76) 13.13 5L15'(39)
1331 33.2 (3) 13.30 29.18 (48)
1358 43.3 (1) 14.20 §2;51 (141)
1366 33.43 (65) 15.11 42.4 (7)
1431 40.15 (17) 16.13 46.6 (9)
18.3 59.14 (9)
Aristotle (Arist.) 18.7 51.40 (105)
Ethica Eudemia (Eth. Eud.) 18.34 34.16 (31)
1219a28-35 59.42 (65) 18.36 30.21 (34)
De generatione animalium (Gen. an.) 18.59 49.6 (14)
788b16-17 28.6 (9) 18.79 48.2 (5)
De partibus animalium (Part. an.) 18.116 30.46 (86)
656a16-17 41.18 (39) 18.130 50.13 (26)
Poetica (Poet.) 18.158 60.18 (26)
1453a18-20 50.32 (69) 18.196 29.4 (3)
Politica (Pol.) 18.201 35.15 (24)
1288a21-2 28.24 (34) 18.224 34.16 (30)
1293a7-9 46.4 (2) 18.242 28.6 (10)
Rhetorica (Rh.) 18.243 34.4 (5)
1373a13-14 33.57 (88) 18.243 40.10 (8)
1395a21-2 28.25 (39) 18.306 28.12 (19)
1402b5 28.6 (11) 18.310 60.1 (3)
1410a35-6 33.24 (24) 18.315 52.32 (93)
19.46 33.15: (13)
Bacchylides (Bacch.) 19.96 49.4 (8)
5.94-6 60.35 (56) 19.130 33.60 (93)
19.130 59.33 (49)
Ctesias (Ctes.) 19.150 5132077)
fr. 15.56 61.3.(1) 19.219 52.19 (63)
fr. 45.561-2 26:22 (77) 19.236 52.4 (12)
Demosthenes (Dem.) (cont.) 56.37 36.15 (32)

19.239 41.14 (28) 57.59 33.35 (47)
19.268 59.20 (28) [59].8 34.17 (38)
19.320 41.21 (47) [59].72 30.29 (54)
20.16 59.54 (87) [59].75 40.9 (1)
20.74 51.3 (2) [59].82 31.1 (1)
20.87 33.65 (100) 60.25 47.9 (18)
20.102 35.19 (31) 62.25.1 49.13 (28)
21.34 33.57 (86) 62.55.1 28.13 (29)
21.74 30.45 (85) Fragments
21.95 30.38 (71) fr. 13.26 32.6 (3)
21.144 51.25 (59) fr. 13.27 50.37 (76)
22.2 29.22 (59)
23.107 52.7 (26) Dinarchus(Din.)
23.194 51.15 (40) 1.17 35.15 (21)
23.204 29.4 (2) 1.60 33.34 (45)
23.209 49.13 (30) 3.17 38.12 (28)
24.32 38.30 (49)
24.49 §2:2 6.1) Eupolis (Eup.)
25.6 52.5 (14) fr. 1.2-3 33.47 (72)
25.24-5 33.38 (55)
25.60 46.7 (13) Euripides (Eur.)
27.48 42.7 (14) Alcestis (Alc.)
29.18 52.5 (21) 5-7 28.2 (3)
29.29 42.7 (15) 181 33.46 (70)
32.6 35.11 (14) 258 38.47 (71)
34.29 50.25 (57) 619 29.23 (66)
35.42 52.48 (134) 747-50 59.24 (37)
35.47 33.17 (17) 779 45.4 (8)
36.12 51.39 (102) 788-9 30.26 (47)
37.21 52.13 (49) 848-9 47.16 (39)
38.26 29.18 (50) 872-3 30.23 (40)
39.1 29.34 (89) 1072 34.18 (40)
40.50 28.12 (21) 1109 1.34 (2)
40.60 28.4 (7) 1117-18 59.68 (111)
42.23 50.24 (53) Andromache (Andr.)
45.85 30.12 (15) 6 29.42 (103)
[47].4 51.13 (36) 238-41 59.16 (20)
[47].56-7 52.32 (91) 378-9 32.4 (2)
[47].67 52.31 (89) 648 29.17 (42)
[48].5 41.15 (29) Bacchae (Bacch.)
[48].36 29.46 (104) 1-2 33.18 (18)
[48].37 40.12 (12) 66 25.47 n.1
[49].41 30.39 (75) 127 25.47 n.1
50.30 33.40 (56) 135 25,47 n.1
54.20 52.43 (122) 173-4 60.38 (61)
239-41 49.5 (10) 347 59.19 (23)

792 33.44 (67) 509-10 50.37 (78)
1084-5 34.16 (32) 536 32.7 (9)
1099-1100 30.19 (30) Heraclidae (Heracl.)
1151-2 32.10 (14) 337-40 59.24 (38)
1277-8 52.46 (130) Hippolytus (Hipp.)
Cyclops (Cyc.) 97 59.48 (74)
117 59.48 (75) 252 30.9 (10)
124-5 59.38 (59) 297 34.17 (36)
153 38.47 (72) 297 38.2 (14)
207-8 33.9 (9) 320 38.6 (17)
419 34.2 (1) 398-9 51.46 (114)
421-3 59.68 (113) 519 52.10 (41)
556 34.2 (2) 596 33.59 (91)
570 52.6 (23) 596 52.42 (117)
Electra (El.) 658 51.35 (87)
29-30 52.45 (127) 1182 37.3 (9)
34-44 50.16 (34) 1409 30.30 (55)
224 50.26 (59) 1410 34.14 (24)
231 27.14 (26) 1449 30.22 (38)
247-8 33.32 (41) Iphigenia Aulidensis (IA)
269 50.17 (38) 98-9 52.4 (10)
278-9 388-90 50.3 (5)
278 29.5 (9) 523 50.19 (40)
282 38.39 (64) 1107-8 50.19 (39)
290-1 59.63 (102) 1192-3 59.56 (92)
362-3 49.21 (46) Ion
787 34.6 (6) 319-21 50.7 (10)
799-812 33.49 (74) 407-8 59.64 (105)
904 26.13 (37) 436-7 37.2 (4)
1027-31 59.39 (61) 605-6 50.10 (15)
1052 36.3 (7) 757 33.65 (101)
1072-3 50.2 (2) 1262 38.48 (75)
1229 29.17 (45) 1336 38.2 (9)
1245-6 59.58 (96) 1348 38.2 (7)
Hecuba (Hec.) 1352-3 48.5 (15)
788 51.30 (71) Iphigenia Taurica (IT)
1206-7 49.17 (37) 16-24 33.18 (19)
Helena (Hel.) 27-8 33.25 (29)
158 30.55 (103) 82 42.5 (10)
597-8 30.16 (27) 507 51.36 (94)
1193-4 59.15 (16) 582-3 49.8 (18)
1252-3 57.1 (2) 810-11 38.35 (58)
1554-6 59.74 (121) 1173 30.43 (80)
Heracles (Her.) Medea (Med.)
296 51.21 (52) 14-15 47.9 (17)
326 46.8 (15) 64 28.25 (36)
Medea (Med.) (cont.) Herodotus (Hdt.)

72-3 29.29 (76) 1.5.3 52.41 (115)
82 29.18 (47) 1.5.3 59.30 (45)
303-5 28.27 (42) 1.5.3-6.1 60.30 (48)
475 51.8 (13) 1.6.2 60.28 (44)
484-5 32.12 (19) 1.8.1 26.27 (89)
539 52.13 (52) 1.8.1 59.15 (14)
675 32.13 (20) 1.10.1-2 33.54 (81)
733-4 38.9 (22) 1.11.2 60.24 (38)
816-17 59.14 (12) 1.11.4 48.4 (7)
1051-2 30.30 (56) 1.11.5 32.15 (32)
1116-19 59.68 (112) 1.16.1-2 33.30 (37)
1271 34.8 (11) 1.30.3 52.5 (13)
Orestes (Or.) 1.31.4 25.31
285-7 50.23 (50) 1.31.5 35.13 (18)
638-40 34.13 (23) 1.32.4 30.3 (3)
725 59.57 (95) 1.32.9 51.8 (7)
1098-1103 59.29 (44) 1.34.1 51.49 (119)
1105 30.19 (31) 1.36.2-3 59.27 (41)
1539-40 38.16 (33) 1.45.2 52.44 (123)
1578 49.4 (7) 1.50.1 51.31 (73)
1643-5 59.13 (7) 1.51.1 30.52 (96)
Phoenissae (Phoen.) 1.53.3 30.29 (53)
696 52.9 (31) 1.56.2 52.24 (68)
897-9 59.27 (42) 1.59.1 59.15 (15)
1109-20 59.16 (19) 1.60.5 41.8 (12)
1121-2 52.41 (113) 1.62.1 52.36 (100)
1174-6 51.36 (90) 1.71.3 28.27 (44)
1307-8 59.58 (97) 1.71.3 29.6 (11)
1415-17 59.44 (70) 1.78.3 52.24 (73)
Supplices (Supp.) 1.82.1 59.70 (115)
572 37.3 (6) 1.87.3 30.44 (82)
821 38.39 (65) 1.87.4 59.50 (81)
Troades(Tro.) 1.90.3 41.8 (14)
106 36.6 (13) 1.96.2 41.14 (27)
359-60 52.5 (15) 1.114.1-2 33.49 (73)
489-90 27.14 (27) 1.120.1 29.34 (88)
641-2 52.43 (121) 1.125.1 52.24 (69)
867 33.34 (44) 1.140.2 52.8 (28)
898 30.50 (93) 1.140.2 59.62 (101)
970 33.43 (64) 1.153.2 48.1 (1)
Fragments 1.157.2 51.3 (5)
fr. 360.34-5 29.47 (106) 1.157.3 51.29 (69)
fr. 941.3 30.10 (14) 1.162.2 40.9 (5)
fr. 953.42-3 50.10 (16) 1.172.2 51.25 (58)
fr. 88a 51.35 (85) 1.182.1 59.24 (39)
Index of Examples
1.189.1 57.1 (6) 5.2.2 31.1 (3)

1.204.2 60.11 (12) 5.3.1 49.9 (20)
2.2.4 29.9 (22) 5.4.1 52.49 (137)
2.13.3 36.11 (23) 5.8 60.15 (19)
2.22.1 52.47 (132) 5.23.3 38.37 (61)
2.22.4 52.27 (80) 5.26 59.21 (31)
2.35.3 60.33 (53) 5.36.2 28.10 (17)
2.36.2 35.8 (7) 5.56.1 56.3 (1)
2.37.3 60.18 (28) 5.67.1 51.36 (95)
2.37.5 51.22 (54) 5.92n.2 28.12 (24)
2.47.3 25.44 5.92n.4 30.53 (99)
2.65.5 50.21 (45) 5.99.1 30.51 (95)
2.113.3 52.9 (32) 6.9.1 43.3 (2)
2.126.2 51.21 (51) 6.12.3 38.27 (47)
2.149.1 32.10 (15) 6.61.2 30.29 (52)
3.21.3 51.10 (22) 6.77.3 33.65 (103)
3.25.5 49.10 (23) 6.77.3 52.33 (97)
3.26.3 41.23 (49) 6.106.3 33.51 (76)
3.34.5 35.8 (5) 6.115 52.11 (45)
3.36.1 27.8 (16) 6.123.2 49.4 (9)
3.50.3 29.41 (102) 6.125.5 33.29 (35)
3.59.1-2 33.30 (38) 6.135.1 30.15 (23)
3.65.3 32.12 (18) 7.8-8a.2 33.28 (33)
3.74.3 51.15 (37) 7.15.1 60.15 (21)
3.75.1 30.9 (8) 7.21.1 60.35 (57)
3.75.1 51.15 (38) 7.46.1 57.2 (7)
3.82.2 32.6 (4) 7.47.1 38.2 (8)
3.82.3 33.31 (40) 7.94.2 52.27 (81)
3.102.3 60.15 (20) 7.104.5 38.38 (62)
3.113.2 52.23 (67) 7.119.2 35.8 (8)
3.134.5 51.47 (117) 7.130.1 30.41 (78)
3.151.2 33.14 (10) 7.133.2 60.26 (41)
3.152 33.40 (57) 7.135.2 34.13 (18)
3.152 59.23 (34) 7.139.5 52.40 (109)
4.1.1 60.26 (40) 7.168.1 30.50 (92)
4,32 40.9 (2) 7.177.1 52.24 (71)
4.76.5 52.8 (27) 7.191.2 36.11 (20)
4.126 38.37 (60) 7.217.2 36.13 (27)
4.126 59.17 (21) 7.225.2
4.128.2 33.7 (6) 8.3.2-4.1 59.10 (5)
4,134.3 47.8 (14) 8.37.2 60.16 (22)
4,135.2 35.8 (6) 8.61.2 30.13 (19)
4.151.1 36.11 (22) 8.68a.1 38.2 (11)
4,160.3 33.7 (7) 8.76.2 45.3 (6)
4,184.3 57.1 (4) 8.77.2 33.56 (84)
4,189.3 51.10 (17) 8.101.2 51.8 (12)
4,201.2 33.65 (104) 8.119-20 59.14 (11)
Index of Examples
Herodotus (Hdt.) (cont.) Isocrates (Isoc.)

8.128.3 51.30 (70) (1].3 52.18 (59)
8.136.2 52.23 (66) [1].14 29.15 (39)
9.16.5 41.10 (21) [1].29 28.13 (28)
9.27.1 36.10 (19) 2.45 15.12 (30)
9.48.3 59.12 (6) 2.45 49.17 (35)
9.67 30.39 (74) 3.57 29.22 (60)
9.71.3 51.29 (68) 4.69 49.22 (48)
9.76.1 52.5 (22) 4.142 46.5 (5)
9.101.1 29.29 (75) 4.168 28.16 (30)
9.111.2 38.30 (52) 5.11 36.8 (14)
5.53 39.3 (4)
Hippocrates/Hippocratic Corpus (Hippoc.) 6.48 50.14 (28)
De mulierum affectibus (Mul.) 6.89 39.3 (3)
37.30 33.46 (71) 6.108 34.6 (8)
7.15 44.5 (8)
Homer (Hom.) 7.64 51.44 (111)
Iliad (I1.) 8.95 51.45 (113)
1.183-4 28.26 (40) 8.122 51.44 (110)
Odyssey (Od.) 9.3 28.12 (25)
5.300 43.5 (11) 9.7 37.3 (10)
9.34 49.18 (38)
Hyperides (Hyp.) 9.53 28.12 (22)
In Athenogenem (Ath.) 11.33 59.61 (100)
15.5-11 46.4 (1) 12.126 52.50 (140)
Epitaphius (Epit.) 12.201 59.75 (122)
4.27 36.1 (2) 14.19-20 59.23 (32)
15.75 59.50 (80)
Inscriptions (Inscriptiones Graecae, IG) 15.106 50.13 (23)
IG P° 259 colIII 24-5 26.29 (95) 16.2 29.22 (61)
IG FP 1405 26.13 (40) 16.20 51.10 (20)
16.31 29.23 (65)
Isaeus(Isae.) 16.41 32.14 (25)
2.1 36.8 (16) 17.37 42.5 (9)
2.8 29.7 (14) 18.14 49.4 (6)
2.10 40.14 (14) 18.44 46.5 (4)
2.43 60.11 (13) 19.2 52.40 (110)
5.12 34.21 (46) 19.24 30.12 (17)
5.43 28.1 (2) 20.19 49.8 (19)
6.5 50.6 (6) 21.9 33.34 (43)
6.6 10.7 (2) 21.11 49.19 (42)
8.19 51.35 (88)
9.3 52.25 (75) Lycurgus (Lycurg.)
9.27 29.22 (62) 1.131 34.4 (4)
9.27 35.13 (15)
10.11 51.8 (8)
Lysias (Lys.) 20.27 32.14 (28)

ll 50.12 (20) 24.1 33.60 (92)
1.6 30.8 (6) 24.4 59.73 (120)
1.6 46.7 (12) 24.6 30:15 (25)
1.10 33.23 (22) 25.14 52.10 (37)
1.10 59.20 (29) 27.7 49.18 (39)
1.12 28.28 (46) 29.1 32.13 (24)
1.12 29.5 (8) 30.30 36.15 (31)
1.15 29.5 (6) 30.33 50.28 (61)
1.16 28.17 (31) 32.7 30.9 (11)
1.17 59.37 (55) 32.11 52.37 (102)
1.18 41.16 (36)
1.20 41.6 (6) Menander (Men.)
1.22 51.8 (10) Citharista (Cith.)
1.24-5 33.54 (82) 63 a7.2 (5)
1.27 59.32 (47) Sententiae (Sent.)
2.40 59.48 (73) 11 35.16 (15)
2.42-3 46.6 (7) 437 52.48 (135)
2.72 32.13 (21)
3.4 49.4 (4) Pindar(Pind.)
3.12 28.28 (45) Isthmian Odes (Isthm.)
3.21 40.15 (18) 1.49 29.39 (100)
3.28 41.7 (8) Nemean Odes (Nem.)
3.31 59.56 (93) 11d 59.37 (58)
6.1 52.19 (61) Olympian Odes (OL)
7.5 41.6 (7) 6.1-3 47.17 (40)
7.41 49.17 (34) 10.1-3 33.35 (48)
[8].9 49.10 (22)
9.2 49.4 (5) Plato (Pl.)
9.21 49.8 (17) Alcibiades (Alc.)
12.5-12 61.1 1.119b 34.17 (39)
12.5-7 59.34 (53) Apologia Socratis (Ap.)
12.7 30.31 (58) 17a 26.15 (51)
12.12 30.27 (50) 17a 30.2 (2)
12.19 51.26 (61) 17 c-d 40.9 (6)
12.22 41.6 (5) 18¢ 29.30 (77)
12.25 59.19 (25) 18e 29.33 (87)
12.27 50.13 (24) 19¢ 30.12 (16)
12.70 51.12 (29) 20e-21la 38.30 (50)
12.74 40.12 (13) 21a 51.23 (57)
12.88 39.3 (5) 21b 29.7 (13)
13.16 34.16 (27) 21b 51.33 (80)
13.25 51.10 (21) 22b 52.26 (77)
13.45 41.20 (44) 22d 29.31 (82)
13.71 29.9 (24) 24b 52.43:(120)
13.93 30.22 (37) 24d-e 59.10 (3)
14.32-3 51.26 (62) 25d 38.30 (51)
16.7 29.33 (86) 26d 29.28 (71)
20.17 52.24 (70) 29b 29.38 (97)
Index of Examples
Apologia Socratis (Ap.) (cont.) 2b-c 59.59 (98)

29c 49.26 (53) 4c 47.7 (5)
29d 27.14 (25) 4e 52.11 (43)
29d 47.12 (27) 9c 60.11 (14)
32d 29.18 (46) 12e 30.37 (69)
33¢ 52.15 (55) 15a b 59.42 (64)
34a 34.19 (44) Gorgias (Grg.)
37a 51.49 (120) 449b 28.27 (43)
38e 52.10 (39) 449b-c 59.49 (76)
39a 34.10 (17) 453e 29.8 (19)
39c 59.66 (107) 456a 52.28 (85)
39e 30.39 (72) 458b 51.20 (50)
39e 47.12 (24) 462b 38.6 (15)
40c 49.10 (24) 462b 38.30 (48)
41d 56.4 (2) 462e 34.10 (16)
Ale 47.8 (13) 467b 51.3 (4)
Charmides (Chrm.) 467b 59.66 (109)
153b 47.14 (36) 473d 32.9 (13)
159b 34.6 (7) 474b-c 59.33 (50)
17le 50.22 (48) 479c 46.9 (18)
174a 59.19 (26) 483b 28.9 (16)
Cratylus (Cra.) 484 c-485a 61.7
390b 42.3 (3) 490e 52.42 (119)
390b 52.49 (138) 491d 30.10 (13)
390e 50.11 (17) 492b-c 52.44 (124)
391b 59.60 (99) 494e 52.26 (78)
39le 38.13 (29) 497a 51.39 (100)
398b 41.18 (38) 498a 26.16 (55)
420c 33.25 (28) 509a 51.37 (96)
Crito (Cri.) 510c 33.45 (68)
46b 46.10 (19) 516e 34.16 (33)
49a 59.10 (4) 527b 37.2 (1)
54a 45.3 (1) 527¢ 37.3 (7)
Critias (Criti.) Hippias maior (Hp. mai.)
lllc 33.2 (2) 282b 29.30 (80)
ll4a 60.1 (4) Ion
Euthydemus(Euthd.) 533¢ 29.17 (41)
275a-b 59.44 (68) 540b 26.27 (87)
275d 52.39 (106) 540b 26.27 (88)
276b 50.19 (41) 540e 49.10 (26)
276d 50.19 (42) Laches (La.)
276e 41.19 (40) 180e 27.5 (11)
279d 52.24 (72) 182d-e 59.69 (114)
295b 50.37 (75) 184a 47.12 (26)
295d 41.14 (26) Leges (Leg.)
299d 29.37 (94) 656d 51.18 (46)
Euthyphro (Euthphr.) 663e 59.49 (78)
2b 29.31 (83) 712a 51.41 (107)
730d 52.2 (5) 258b 33.61 (97)

768a 47.9 (16) 263b 29.20 (57)
800d 40.9 (4) 276a 50.11 (19)
839b 51.12'(31) Philebus (Phib.)
888b 27.5 (12) lle 32.7 (11)
Lysis (Ly.) 36c 38.15 (31)
203a-b 60.23 (37) 37d 51.21 (53)
208c 35.14 (19) 41b 50.37 (79)
211d 33.21 (21) 43a 59.57 (94)
Meno (Men.) 52c 48.4 (9)
71d-e 26.13 (34) 53d 10.7 (4)
72b 38.15 (31) Politicus (Plt.)
82a 41.2 (1) 282b 33.36 (51)
82a 42.3 (1) 291d 30.14 (22)
93b 33.14 (12) Parmenides (Prm.)
Menexenus (Menex.) 139d 32.14 (26)
241b 30.47 (88) 15la 29.11 (28)
241d 52.25 (76) Protagoras(Prt.)
246a 51.11 (27) 309d 30.15 (26)
Phaedo (Phd.) 310a 33.33: (42)
57a 29.9 (25) 310b 35,17 (29)
59d 47.12 (29) 310e 30.8 (7)
59d-e 47.1 (2) 316b 30.26 (45)
60¢ 60.24 (39) 316b 52.31 (90)
61d-e 38.2 (6) 317d 38.33 (55)
67a 47.8 (11) 318d 50.15 (32)
68c 50.37 (74) 320b 59.34 (52)
69c 28.7 (12) 327b 29.26 (69)
76c 26.13 (33) 328d 30.31 (59)
77e 47.12 (28) 328d 33.7 (5)
87a 52.28 (84) 332b 59.33 (48)
92d 59.56 (91) 334d 30.53 (100)
93b-c 59.28 (43) 335c 48.4 (8)
102b 30.24 (42) 350c 49.10 (25)
115d 42.8 (17) 358a 30.40 (76)
117¢ 51.36 (89) Respublica (Resp.)
118a 12.50 n2 327b 29.18 (52)
Phaedrus (Phdr.) 329e 30.41 (79)
227a 38:23 (37) 338c 33.45 (69)
227¢ 38.50 (77) 353d 59.13 (8)
232a 36.13 (25) 364a 27.8 (17)
238c 59.18 (22) 394a 51.13 (35)
245c 52.9 (33) 398e 37.2 (2)
249e 28.9 (15) 417b 35.13 (17)
257¢ 4122) 420e 49.6 (15)
257¢ 52.53 (144) 421b 37.3 G1)
257d 43.3 (3) 432b 27.9 (20)
Respublica (Resp.) (cont.) 441-2 59.44 (67)

444d 34.13 (19) 442 51.35 (86)
453b 30.14 (21) 521 42.3 (2)
459a 38.7 (19) 524-6 59.71 (117)
473c 51.33 (82) 554 38.50 (79)
487e 47.14 (33) 572 38.47 (73)
523b 38.12 (27) 661-2 35.30 (35)
53l1e 50.13 (27) 710-11 49.15 (31)
538c 59.55 (88) 7955 34.16 (28)
583b 29.17 (44) 928-9 34.14 (26)
615c 42.7 (16) 1036-9 34.20 (45)
Sophista (Soph.) 1102-3 59.53 (86)
220b 59.63 (103) 1216-18 42.4 (5)
243d 10.7 (1) 1296 38.12 (26)
254e 10.7 (5) Electra (El.)
Symposium (Symp.) 80-1 38.17 (35)
178e 46.8 (17) 103-4 30.21 (32)
189d 32.15 (31) 333-4 60.12 (16)
196c 30.21 (35) 539-40 29.5 (10)
197d 30.22 (39) 893 30.17 (29)
213e 59.10 (1) 950 21.2 21
220d 33.41 (61) 954-7 60.35 (58)
[Theages] (Thg.) 1056-7 47.8 (15)
127a 49.17 (36) 1106-7 29.38 (99)
Theaetetus (Tht.) 1171-2 46.6 (8)
142a 59.49 (77) 1179 38.50 (78)
146d 35.15 (22) Oedipus Coloneus (OC)
158a 48.2 (3) 66 29.7 (15)
198e 42.5 (11) 472-3 50.17 (37)
208e 47.12 (25) 642 34.2 (3)
Timaeus(Ti.) 726-7 59.66 (108)
24e 52.27 (82) 747-9 51.30 (72)
39d-e 45.3 (7) 810 32.14 (30)
831 38.1 (1)
Sophocles (Soph.) 1130-4 59.23 (33)
Ajax (Aj.) 1143-4 51.8 (11)
550-1 34.14 (25) 1344-5 36.4 (10)
688-9 49.6 (13) 1645 52.21 (64)
1120-41 61.12 Oedipus Tyrannus (OT)
1349-53 59.51 (83) 95 60.14 (18)
Antigone (Ant.) 103-4 47.14 (37)
37-8 42.4 (6) 112 38.10 (23)
63-4 51.16 (43) 142-3 30.34 (65)
89-90 49.19 (45) 341 29.12 (29)
155-8 29.29 (73) 360 38.7 (18)
192-3 52.53 (143) 406-7 38.36 (59)
233-4 49.24 (49) 449-51 50.14 (29)
457-8 35.30 (36) Theognis (Thgn.)

557 29.8 (21) 665 33.31 (39)
747 43.4 (6)
757-8 38.6 (16) Thucydides (Thuc.)
775-7 47.15 (38) Ld 28.10 (18)
809-13 59.49 (79) 1.1.1 32.8 (12)
1064 38.1 (3) 1.1.2 59.44 (66)
1074-5 44.7 (12) 1.6.3 32.10 (16)
1157 38.40 (67) 1.6.5 35.11 (11)
1217-18 34.18 (42) 1.18.2 52.41 (114)
1266-7 30.47 (87) 1.27.2 35.2 (2)
1469-70 29.6 (12) 1.31.1 35.2 (1)
1500 38.12 (25) 1.32.5 52.12 (47)
Philoctetes (Phil.) 1.36.3 38:35 (57)
28-9 38.10 (24) 1.40.2 52.40 (111)
56 42.5 (8) 1.45.3 51.42 (109)
70-1 5.1 (1) 1.46.1 30.50 (91)
103 34.13 (21) 1.48.3 29.26 (68)
103 34.9 (15) 1.49.3 47.10 (21)
108-9 38.21 (36) 1.49.7 46.7 (14)
426-7 10.7 (3) 1.50.5 36.1 (4)
486-7 34.7 (10) 1.51.2 29.31 (81)
509 50.29 (66) 1.55.1 33.60 (95)
549-50 60.37 (59) 1.61.1 60.37 (60)
785-6 26.28 (92) 1.62.4 51.36 (93)
914 48.5 (14) 1.63.1 42.8 (18)
981-2 49.19 (41) 1.78.4 50.38 (80)
993 26.13 (35) 1.82.4 38.26 (42)
1068 52.44 (125) 1.86.2 52.13 (51)
1322-3 49.13 (27) 1.87.4 41.9 (16)
1337-8 50.8 (12) 1.89.3 30.49 (89)
1399-1400 34.19 (43) 1.91.3 33.26 (30)
Trachiniae (Trach.) 1.95.5 60.8 (5)
40-1 42.7 (13) 1.97.2 35.17 (28)
305 29.29 (74) 1.99.3 45.3 (5)
400 50.2 (1) 1.103.1 49.26 (54)
663-4 43.4 (7) 1.105.3 30.39 (73)
671 37.4 (12) 1.107.1 52.27 (79)
1070-1 30.52 (97) 1.111.3 59.27 (40)
1070-2 50.23 (51) 1,113.2 30.26 (49)
1126 46.7 (10) 1.116.1 29.12 (33)
1245 38.16 (34) 1.126.1 45.3 (4)
Fragments 1.128.6 30.37 (66)
fr. 194 5.11 (2) 1.128.7 60.9 (8)
1.138.3 51.9 (16)
Theophrastus (Theophr.) 1.139.3 29.12 (30)
De causis plantarum (Causpl.) 1.140.2 30.44 (83)
1.13.4 60.9 (7) 2.3.4 29.12 (31)
Index of Examples
Thucydides (Thuc.) (cont.) 4.20.3 51.12 (33)

2.7.1 52.41 (112) 4.24.4 51.31 (74)
2.7.1 57.2 (9) 4.38.2 27.4 (9)
2.11.4 28.25 (38) 4.38.3 29.17 (40)
2.12.1 28.8 (14) 4.46.1 27.4 (8)
2.12.3 30.49 (90) 4.46.1-2 59.16 (18)
2.14.2 51.46 (115) 4.52.1 36.11 (21)
2.15.2 33.59 (89) 4.55.1 43.3 (5)
2.21.3 48.2 (6) 4.57.1 27.6 (15)
2.32 51.46 (116) 4.78.2 52.20 (139)
2.34.6 50.3 (3) 4.103.5 27.2 (2)
2.36.1 52.5 (20) 4.113.2 52.12 (48)
2.43.3-4 50.16 (33) 4.134.1 60.32 (49)
2.56.6 30.25 (44) 5.23.2 50.3 (4)
2.71.3 29.32 (85) 5.26.1 29.8 (17)
2.83.1 51.10 (19) 5.26.1 33.35 (46)
2.87.9 35.30 (33) 5.32.4 52.5 (19)
2.89.4 48.4 (12) 5.51.2 27.2 (1)
2.91.2 52.37 (101) 5.59.5 27.3 (7)
2.93.4 28.12 (26) 6.1.1 32.6 (6)
2.97.3 30.28 (51) 6.15.5 59.64 (104)
2.100.5 46.4 (3) 6.29.3 51.11 (26)
2.101.6 29.23 (63) 6.31.1 51.33 (83)
3.4.6 44.2 (4) 6.61.2 41.19 (42)
3.16.3 35.8 (4) 6.80.1 27.11 (21)
3.17.4 30.32 (63) 6.80.4 35.30 (34)
3.18.1 47.7 (7) 6.84.1 38.26 (44)
3.20.3 32.14 (27) 6.85.1 59.19 (24)
3.23.4-5 33.50 (75) 6.88.6 29.18 (51)
3.40.7 34.7 (9) 6.92.4 29.32 (84)
3.49.3 28.27 (41) 6.96.1 45.3 (3)
3.53.2 43.5 (9) 7.1.2 36.4 (8)
3.53.4 26.11 (28) 7.1.3 33.40 (59)
3.70.5 51.17 (44) 7.3.5 29.8 (18)
3.75.2 51.32 (79) 7.23.2 50.29 (65)
3.78.2 43.3 (4) 7.25.1 33.62 (98)
3.85.3 35.8 (3) 7.31.4 41.2 (3)
3.86.4-87.1 60.29 (46) 7.34.7 48.2 (4)
3.94.2 51.27 (67) 7.42.4 52.7 (25)
3.97.3 52.51 (141) 7.97.11 27.2 (3)
3.102.5 52.16 (57) 7.70.5 49.16 (32)
3.107.4 47.7 (9) 7.75.5 30.45 (84)
3.113.2 33.41 (62) 7.79.5 49.16 (33)
3.115.1 30.32 (62) 7.81.1 52.10 (36)
3.115.5 51.33 (81) 8.2.1 36.14 (29)
4.13.1 29.30 (79) 8.10.1 52.11 (44)
4.14.1 30.51 (94) 8.23.3 33.29 (36)
8.42.1 49.25 (52) 1.4.5 52.19 (62)

8.46.5 46.8 (16) 1.4.8 26.28 (91)
1.4.11 30.26 (46)
Xenophon(Xen.) 1.4.12 26.3 (7)
Agesilaus (Ages.) 1.4.16 26.3 (5)
1.4 59.37 (57) 1.4.16 26.12 (32)
1.32 28.24 (33) 1.5.1-4 61.4
2.12 59.76 (123) 1.5.3 26.3 (4)
2.15 39.2 (1) 1.5.3 60.28 (42)
5.7 29.14 (34) 1.5.8 32.13 (23)
115 59.19 (27) 1.5.12 52.18 (58)
Anabasis (An.) 1.6.3 26.6 (17)
1.1.2 50.30 (67) 1.6.7 29.4 (4)
1.1.4 52.38 (103) 1.6.10 33.24 (23)
1.1.5 33.60 (94) 1.7.3 38.34 (56)
1.1.6 26.17 (63) 1.7.3 50.13 (22)
1.1.7 52.36 (99) 1.7.4 30.44 (81)
1.1.9 26.14 (43) 1.7.9 29.18 (49)
1.1.10 26.3 (9) 1.7.18 30.32 (60)
1.1.10 26.17 (60) 1.7.19 46.6 (6)
Ld 26.29 (96) 1.8.1 47.7 (10)
1.2.3 57.2 (11) 1.8.18 26.22 (78)
1.2.5 26.7 (20) 1.8.18 33.52 (79)
1.2.5 33.55 (83) 1.8.19 26.4 (15)
1.2.6 33.55 (83) 1.8.26 26.16 (54)
1.2.7 33.55 (83) 1.8.27 52.8 (30)
1.2.7 47.10 (19) 1.9.1 26:3 (1)
1.2.10 26.8 (23) 1.9.3 33.15 (14)
1.2.12 26.4 (11) 1.9.14 50.15 (31)
1.2.15 26.20 (75) 1.9.19 50.15 (30)
1.2.15 57.1 (1) 1.9.31 26.22 (79)
1.2.19 57.2 (8) 1.10.5 41.15 (30)
1.2.21 26.18 (65) 1.10.6 52.46 (131)
1.2.27 26.3 (8) 1.10.8 26.14 (41)
1.2.27 60.1 (1) 1.10.11 60.10 (9)
1.3.1 26.15 (52) 1.10.16 52.8 (30)
1.3.1 51.3 (6) 1.10.18 26.17 (58)
1.3.1 51.20 (48) 2.1.2 33.28 (32)
1.3.3 59.32 (46) 2.1.3 26.4 (12)
1.3.6 29.4 (1) 2.1.4 38.40 (66)
1.3.13 35.17 (27) 2.1.13 26.28 (90)
1.3.15 28.4 (6) 2.1.15-16 29.51 (109)
1.3.15 50.20 (43) 2.2.5 47.1 (3)
1.3.17 50.22 (47) 2.2.10 26.17 (59)
1.3.18 26.4 (13) 2.2.10 38.27 (46)
1.4.4 27.2 (4) 2.2.12 26.13 (36)
1.4.5 52.13 (50) 2.2.12 26.15 (50)
2.2.14-15 41.13 (24) 3.4.25 33.57 (85)

2.2.14-15 47.7 (6) 3.4.30 26.20 (73)
2.2.15 26.17 (64) 3.4.31 60.17 (24)
2.2.15 41.15 (31) 3.5.11 51.36 (91)
2.2.15 52.46 (128) 3.5.12 33.62 (99)
2.2.18 26.15 (49) 4.1.5 46.10 (20)
2.4.1 26.4 (10) 4.1.13 26.12 (30)
2.4.5 26.14 (46) 4.1.19 41.16 (37)
2.4.5 52.5 (18) 4.2.5 52.39 (104)
2.4.16 41.5 (4) 4.2.11 26.26 (86)
2.5.3 26.4 (14) 4.3.9 57.1 (5)
2.5.3-4 52.28 (83) 4.3.23 52.3 (6)
2.5.12 50.25 (56) 4.4.1 30.16 (28)
2.5.16 45.4 (9) 4.5.10 41.13 (25)
2.5.22 52.33 (96) 4.5.22 30.25 (43)
2.5.34 26.26 (85) 4.5.33 26.18 (66)
2.5.38 26.9 (25) 4.6.1 29.7 (16)
2.5.40 29.28 (72) 4.6.1 60.28 (43)
2.5.41 60.33 (52) 4.6.10 44.2 (1)
2.6.20 26.20 (72) 4.7.21 26.17 (61)
2.6.26 52.2 (2) 4.7.24 33.52 (78)
3.1.2 41.15 (32) 5.1.2 52.12 (46)
3.1.5 51.12 (34) 5.1.8 59.15 (13)
3.1.6 42.6 (12) 5.2.7 26.10 (26)
3.1.19 47.13 (30) 5.2.17 26.18 (68)
3.1.45 50.13 (25) 5.3.9 26.3 (6)
3.1.47 57.1 (3) 5.4.16 52.32 (94)
3.2.1 26.14 (45) 5.4.19 26.10 (27)
3.2.1 60.32 (50) 5.4.34 32.15 (33)
3.2.4 26.14 (44) 5.5.1 60.29 (45)
3.2.5 50.9 (13) 5.6.3 41.9 (18)
3.2.9 26.20 (74) 5.6.9 50.17 (36)
3.2.11 36.5 (11) 5.6.15 59.67 (110)
3.2.15 36.5 (12) 5.6.17 33.61 (96)
3.2.17 33.2 (1) 5.7.34 26.12 (31)
3.2.24 52.8 (29) 5.8.6 26.28 (94)
3.2.34 26.26 (84) 5.8.12 30.12 (18)
3.2.35 26.4 (16) 6.1.1 26.15 (48)
3.3.2 26.9 (24) 6.3.11 33.28 (31)
3.3.2 52.39 (105) 6.4.26 36.12 (24)
3.3.9 36.8 (15) 6.5.26 26.25 (83)
3.3.9 52.3 (7) 6.5.29 26.3 (2)
3.3.16 51.36 (92) 6.5.49 35.15 (23)
3.4.7 33.40 (58) 6.6.9 26.17 (62)
3.4.11 30.58 (104) 7.1.7 51.16 (42)
3.4.13 26.8 (21) 7.1.16 41.16 (33)
3.4.17 26.8 (22) 7.1.17 26.18 (69)
3.4.18 47.1 (4) 7.1.21 51.12 (32)
7.1.22 26.7 (19) 3.2.15 26.19 (70)

7.1.34 41.8 (13) 3.2.25 52.42 (116)
7.2.17 26.14 (42) 3.3.5 50.34 (72)
7.2.29 27.4 (10) 3,3.29-31 59.24 (35)
7.3.7 33.25 (27) 3.3.39 38.2 (13)
7.3.8 50.20 (44) 3.3.40 29:12'(32)
7.3.20 32.11 (17) 3.3.45 29.14 (35)
7.3.26 60.18 (27) 4.1.5 28.7 (13)
7.6.12 29.10 (27) 4.2.1 60.32 (51)
7.6.14 50.34 (70) 4.2.3 42.11 (20)
7.6.23 34.17 (35) 4.2.4 41.20 (46)
7.6.23 50.26 (60) 4.2.11 50.28 (63)
7.6.42 26.18 (67) 4.2.23 45.3 (2)
7.6.44 41.9 (19) 4.2.40 28.25 (35)
7.7.1 35.13 (16) 4.3.3 51.26 (60)
7.7.12 52.45 (126) 4.3.10 41.7 (10)
7.7.53 26.7 (18) 4.5.21 42.8 (19)
7.8.11 26.15 (47) 4.5.23 32.6 (8)
Apologia Socratis (Ap.) 4.5.36 50.28 (64)
34 51.37 (97) 4.5.48 40.12 (11)
[Respublica Atheniensium] (Ath.pol.) 4.5.50 50.37 (77)
( The Old Oligarch ) 4.6.4 29.47 (107)
1.10 60.10 (10) 4.6.11 50.6 (8)
3.10 60.11 (15) 5.1.21 46.7 (11)
Cynegeticus (Cyn.) 5.1.29 30.55 (102)
2.2 38.26 (43) 5.1.29 52.31 (86)
12.14 51.8 (9) 5.2.7 26.24 (81)
Cyropedia (Cyr.) 5.2.7 27.13 (23)
1.2.10 44.4 (7) 5.3.30 51.20 (49)
1.3.1 52.42 (118) 5.3.55 50.21 (46)
1.3.2 30.53 (98) 5.4.15 59.56 (90)
1.3.2 50.31 (68) 5.4.21 50.34 (71)
1.3.4 38.47 (70) 5.4.37 52.31 (87)
1.3.13 41.16 (34) 5.5.13 38.32 (53)
1.4.8 52.21 (65) 6.1.14 50.6 (9)
1.4.14 47.14 (34) 6.1.33 40.14 (15)
15.5 52.32 (95) 7.1.18 51.23 (56)
15.11 38.25 (40) 7.2.5 30.37 (68)
1.6.16 49.6 (16) 7.2.24 52.5 (17)
1.6.21 34.13 (20) 7.3.14 42.11 (21)
1.14.19 29.18 (53) 8.1.43 44,2 (5)
2.1.11 40.12 (10) 8.2.16 51.27 (66)
2.1.17 29:51 (111) 8.4.26 60.1 (2)
2.2.8 51.32 (78) 8.5.26 28.18 (32)
2.2.24 30.3 (4) 8.6.22 59.14 (10)
2.4.9 42.11 (23) 8.7.10 31.1 (2)
3.1.38 50.9 (14) 8.7.10 32.3 (1)
3.1.39 26.28 (93) 8.7.13 38.26 (41)
Cyropedia (Cyr.) (cont.) 5.1.19 52.47 (133)

8.7.24 2/9 (18) 5.2.28 29.9 (26)
8.8.26 60.13 (17) 5.3.4 33.7 (4)
De equitandiratione (Eq.) 5.3.19 47.7 (8)
6.13 51.10 (23) 5.4.22 41.11 (22)
7.7 49.19 (44) 5.4.39 52.39 (107)
7.8 28,1 (1) 6.2.7 47.10 (20)
De equitum magistro (Eq. mag.) 6.2.31 43.4 (8)
1.3 44.3 (6) 6.3.4 30.10 (12)
Hellenica (Hell.) 6.3.18 52.2 (4)
1.1.1-2 30.2 (1) 6.4.7 29.41 (101)
1.1.3 47.13 (31) 6.4.7 51.45 (112)
1.1.8 29.51 (110) 6.4.15 50.12 (21)
1.1.18-20 S351 (77) 6.5.21 29.14 (36)
1.1.28 29,.19'(55) 6.5.37 29.38 (95)
1.2.14 30.32 (61) 6.5.50 33.40 (60)
1.6.14 59.53 (84) 7.1.8 49.19 (43)
1.6.35 513 (3) 7.1.11 26.3 (3)
1.7.8 29.20 (56) 7.1.22 47.1 (1)
2.1.6 35.17 (26) 7.1.34 41.10 (20)
2.3.2 50.24 (54) 7.1.34 41.19 (41)
2.3.11 50.24 (55) 7.2.9 33.53 (80)
2.3.26 30.40 (77) 7.3.1 60.33 (54)
2.3.30 35.14 (20) 7.3.11 59.47 (72)
2.3.34 29.17 (43) 7.4.2 51.41 (106)
2.3.45 32.7 (10) 7.4.25 36.3 (6)
2.4.9 29.50 (108) 7.5.20 52.32 (92)
2.4.17 47.8 (12) 7.5.26 41.22 (48)
3.1.20 41.11 (23) 7.5.27 35.17 (25)
3.1.20 41.20 (43) Memorabilia (Mem.)
3.2.1 42.4 (4) 1.2.22 33.59 (90)
3.2.11 50.17 (35) 1.2.29-30 51.19 (47)
3.3.4 27.6 (14) 1.2.45 34.8 (12)
3.3.4 49.22 (47) 1.2.46 34.18 (41)
3.4.5 51.27'(65) 1.2.46 50.36 (73)
3.4.9 59.42 (63) 2.1.18 47.11 (23)
3.4.25 52.11 (42) 2.2.7 49.19 (40)
3.5.17 59.71 (118) 2.4.1 52.14 (53)
4.1.21 30.9 (9) 2.7.6 26.22 (76)
4.1.28-9 60.30 (47) 2.7.13 50.23 (49)
4.1.38 38.38 (63) 2.7.14 38.25 (38)
4.3.20 39.2 (2) 2.8.3 50.25 (58)
4.4.5 51.31 (75) 3.11.4 60.17 (23)
4.4.8 27,3 (5) 4.2.10 51.26 (63)
4.4.16 33.42 (63) 4.2.26 33.36 (52)
4.5.7 28.4 (5) 4.4.6 29.8 (20)
4.6.9 52.24 (74) 4.4.7 33.16 (16)
Oeconomicus (Oec.) 10.6 32.6 (7)

1.8 28.3 (4) 11.9 36.1 (5)
1.14 60.34 (55) 17.10 52.5 (16)
4.21 42.11 (22) Symposium (Symp.)
4.22 52.31 (88) 1.13 30.23 (41)
8.6 35.19 (32) 8.2 52.10 (35)
Index of Subjects
As throughout the book, standsfor see .

Within entries, general references are givenfirst, followed by morespecific references,
organized alphabetically (with Greek words following English words). However,refer-
ences to Part I (Phonology/Morphology) are listed together before those to Parts II
(Syntax) and/or Part III (Textual Coherence),if both occur: they are separated by three
vertical bars |||. The same divideris used to set off, at the end of entries, references to
further relevant entries, of the type also > .
In cases wherea full overview ofuses of a certain form, construction,etc., is given in
a chapter or section within the book, the index in somecases gives a reference to that
overview instead of individual uses.
a-declension declension,first constituent 30.8-11 | as optional

ab urbe condita construction participle, constituent (adverbial modifier) 30.14-18 |
circumstantial: dominant use of of respect 30.14 | of space 30.16 | of time
ablaut 1.51-6 | qualitative vs. quantitative 30.15
1.52 accusative absolute 52.30
absolute construction accusative accusative-and-infinitive construction
absolute; genitive absolute; nominative articular 51.41 | of decl. inf. 51.21 | of dyn.
absolute inf. 51.11 | in exclamations 38.51 | with
accent 1.6 | acute 1.6, 24.2 | circumflex 1.6, trpiv 47.14
24.2 | grave 1.6, 24.2 | history of 1.12 | accusative-and-participle construction
placement1.8 we
accentuation 24 | base accentvs. case accent active voice 11.4 ||] 35.1-2
24.14 | and contraction 24.12 | andcrasis address 30.55
24.42 | and elision 24.40-1 | ofenclitics adjectival clause 40.4 n.1 | overview of
and proclitics 24.33-9 | offinite verbs 53.5-7
24.16-19 | mobile 24.15, 24.23 | of nominal adjective 5 | accentuation 23.7, 24.30|
forms 24.21-32 | of non-finite verbs 24.20| comparison of 5.34-44, also >
persistent 24.14, 24.21-2 | recessive 24.13, comparative adjective; superlative
24.16-19 | rule of limitation 24.8-10 | adjective | du. forms 10.3-5 | in Ion. 25.27|
owthpa-rule 24.11 mixed-declension (1roAUs, péyas) 5.13-14 |
accusative 30.7-19 | adverbial 30.18 | of of one ending 5.32-3 | -as, -anva, -av (with
direction 30.17 | double 30.9-10 | double, stem in v) 5.23-4 -e1s, -eooa, -ev (with
withpass. voice 35.15 | of limitation 30.14 | stem in evt) 5.25 | -ews, -ea, -ecov (Att.
marking appositive with entire clause/ second declension) 5.12 | -ns, -es (with
sentence 27.14, 30.19 | marking stem in o) 5.28-30 | -os, -n/-&, -ov 5.1-2|
complement30.9 | marking direct object -os, -ov 5.7-11 | -ots, -7j, -oGv 5.5-6 | -OUS,
30.8 | marking internal object 30.12-13 | -ouv 5.7-11 | -us, -e10, -u (with stem in u/ep)
marking predicative complement 30.10 | 5.21-2 | -cov, -ov (with stem in v) 5.26-7 |||
marking predicative complement/ +dyn. inf. 51.8 | of position (&xpos, etc.)
modifier with inf. instead of gen./dat. 51.12 28.22 | substantivized 28.25
n.1 | marking subject accusative-and- compound 23.37-40| accentuation 24.29 |
infinitive construction; accusative-and- formed with dental-stem noun(e.g.
participle construction| as obligatory eUeATris) 5.31 | -0s, -ov 5.10 | -es, -cov (Att.
second declension) 5.12 complement 27.8 | with linking verb,

demonstrative 7.16 ||| corresponding to demonstrative pronoun with predicative
65¢/ottos/éxeivos 29.35 interrogative noun 27.9 | with linking verb, subject with
38.11-14 | in indirect questions 42.5 | predicative complement 27.7 | head with
predicative 38.13 | pronominal vs. modifier in noun phrases 27.7 of
adnominal use 38.12 possessive relative pronoun/adjective with
pronoun,possessive relative 8.1, antecedent 27.10, 50.8-16 | incorporation
50.1-4, 50.28-33 | agreement with of antecedentin relative clause 50.15 |
antecedent agreement:relative inverse relative attraction 50.14 | relative
pronoun/adjective with antecedent| in attraction 50.13 | sense construction 27.11
apposition to noun 50.29| attraction 50.31 Aktionsart aspect: lexical
| definite vs. indefinite 50.2-3 | in indirect all-new information presentational
exclamations(definite) 42.11 | in indirect sentence
questions (indefinite) 42.5 | subordinator alphabet 1.1 | history of 1.11
40.1 ||| also relative, definite; relative, alternative question question
indefinite quantifying quantifier analogy 1.49
adjunct, adverbial 26.15 anaphoric use (of demonstrative
adverb 6 | accentuation 24.31 | based oncase- pronouns) 29.28
formsof adj. 6.4 | based on case-formsof anastrophe 24.37, 60.14
noun 6.5 | comparison of 6.13-14 | derived angma(nasal y) 1.29 n.1
from preposition phrases 6.12 | fossilized answer38.21-4 | omission of cipi in 26.13
6.6 | indicating space 6.7-11 | in -as 6.3 ||| antecedent agreementwith relative
26.14 | demonstrative demonstrative pronoun/adj. agreement, of relative
adverb| relative relative adverb| pronoun/adjective with antecedent| lack
substantivized 28.25 demonstrative of relative clause, autonomous
anticipating or following correlative clause antepenult 24.4
50.34 | corresponding to 65¢/oUtos/éxeivos anteriority 33.1, 33.57 ||| also aorist:
29.35 interrogative 38.11 | in indirect implying anteriority
questions 42.5 relative 8.2 ||| 50.1-4, aorist 11.12, 13, 14, | formation aorist
50.34-40| definite vs. indefinite 50.2-3 | in active/middle; aorist passive (6n-/1-) |||
indirect exclamations (definite) 42.11 | in aspect expressed by 33.6-7 | aspectual
indirect questions (indefinite) 42.5 | interpretation in temporally fixed contexts
subordinator 40.1 ||| also relative, 33.63-65, 34.21, 38.30, 38.41, 51.15 |
definite; relative, indefinite coincident 49.7 n.1, 52.5, 52.42|
adverbial clause 40.3 | overview of 53.5-7 complexive 33.30, 33.59 | implying
adverbial modifier optional constituent anteriority 33.57, 47.7, 47.8, 47.9, 47.10,
agent expressions of (with pass.) 35.14 49.7, 49.9, 49.14, 51.26, 51.45, 52.4 |
agreement 27 offinite verb with ingressive 33.29, 33.59, 52.5 active/
subject 27.1 | with du. subject 27.3 | with middle 13 | du. forms 21.7 | stem
multiple subjects 27.3 | with neut.pl. formation aorist, root; aorist, pseudo-
subject 27.4 5 | sense construction 27.6 sigmatic; aorist, sigmatic; aorist, thematic|
of nominal forms appositive with verbs with more than one type of 13.63-4
entire clause/sentence 27.14 | appositive imperative formation imperative
with noun phrase 27.13 | appositive with ||| interpretation of aspect 34.21, 38.30
possessive expression 27.14 | with indicative formation indicative,
connected ppl. 52.31 | with linking verb, secondary||| 33.27-33 | basic uses 33.28|
abstract noun with neut. predicative basic value 33.11-12 | complexive 33.30 |
778 Index of Subjects
constative 33.28 | in fear clauses 43.5 n.1 | 13.33-8 | overview of forms 13.27-8 |
gnomic 33.31 | vs. impf./plpf. in narrative stems 13.29, 13.33-8||| mid. with change-
33.49 | ingressive 33.29 | in narrative 33.28, of-state meaning 35.37 n.2 n- 14 du.
33.49, 61.1-3 | in temporal clauses 47.7 | forms 21.8 | endings 14.4 -10 | overview of
tragic 33.32 | in (ti) ob questions (requests) forms 14.3 | stem formation 14.29-31 |||
33.33, 38.33 indicative, modal in change-of-state meaning 35.17-20|
conditional clauses 49.11 | in unrealizable mental (change-of-)state meaning 35.19 |
wishes 38.42 ||| also indicative, modal overview of meanings 35.36 | pass.
infinitive formation infinitive||| meaning 35.13 | reciprocal meaning 35.24
aspectual interpretation in dyn.inf. 51.15 | n.l @n- 14 | with additional n 14.28 |
relative-tense interpretation of 51.26, du. forms 21.8 | endings 14.4-10 |
51.45 liquid aorist, pseudo- overview of forms 14.2 | with parasitic o
sigmatic optative formation 14.27 | stem formation 14.11-28 ]]|
optative||| in conditional clauses 49.9, change-of-state meaning 35.17-20 |
49.14 | in fear clauses 43.3 | in purpose expressing types of speech 35.27 | mental
clauses 45.3 n.2 | in temporal clauses 47.10 (change-of-)state meaning 35.19 | with
| in wishes 38.41 | in wishes 38.41 mental activity meaning 35.27 n.1 | overview
participle formation participle||| of meanings 35.36 | pass. meaning 35.13 |
coincident 52.5 | expressing manneror reciprocal meaning 35.24 n.1
means(coincident) 52.42| ingressive 52.5 | aphaeresis 1.37
periphrastic construction with eipt 52.51 | apodosis 49.1
periphrastic construction with fx 52.53| apposition 26.24 5 | and agreement
precedingfinite verb to express sequence 27.13-14 | to entire clause/sentence 27.14,
of actions 52.36 | relative-tense 30.19 | of gen. to possessive pronoun 27.14
interpretation of 52.4 | with verbs of | ppl. in participle, in noun phrases: in
perception 52.21 passive (@n-/1n-) apposition | of relative clause with relative
11.12, 14| du. forms 21.8 | endings 14.4-10 adj. to anoun 50.29| of relative clause with
| stem formation aorist, n-; aorist, 81- | é to an entire clause/sentence 27.14 n.2,
meanings aorist, n-; aorist, dn- 50.12 | and the use ofthearticle 28.10
pseudo-sigmatic 13.1, 13.24-6| argument(syntactic function) 26.4 n.2
compensatory lengthening in 1.68 | stem argument (text type) 58.9 | main
formation 13.24-6 ||| also aorist, characteristics of 61.8- 9
sigmatic root 13.1, 13.39-50 | article 3 | du. 10.2 | Ion. 25.26 ||| 28 | with
endings 13.42-50 | overview of forms abstract concepts 28.7 | basic value 28.1 |
13.39 | stems 13.40-1 ||| act. with change- expressing possession 28.4 n.1, 29.24|
of-state meaning 35.17 sigmatic 13.1, generic 28.6 | with inf. infinitive,
13.4-23 | endings 13.8-14 | improper > articular | lack of, to express indefiniteness
aorist, pseudo-sigmatic | overview of 28.1 | placementrelative to modifier and
forms 13.4-5 | stem formation 13.15-23 noun(attributive vs. predicative position)
subjunctive formation 28.11-22 | with predicative complements
subjunctive||| in conditional clauses (+év) 28.9 | pronominal uses 28.26-31 | with
49.7, 49.14 | in fear clauses 43.3 | in main proper names 28.8 | with quantifiers
clauses, interpretation of aspect 34.11, 28.20-1 | reasonsfor identifiability of
38.30 | in purpose clauses 45.3 n.2 | in referent 28.3-10 | with referentidentifiable
temporal clauses (+dv) 47.8, 47.9 from context 28.4 | with referent that has
thematic 13.1, 13.27-38 | endings 13.30-2 been mentioned before 28.3 | as
| irregular forms 13.31-2 | list of verbs substantivizer 28.23-5 | usedasrelative
pronoun 28.31 | with well-knownreferent cataphoric use (of demonstrative

28.5 | with atts 28.19 | xads 28.29 | 6 8¢ pronouns) 29.28
indicating topic shift 28.28 | 6 uév ... 6 8¢ causal clause 48 | conjunctions 48.2 | with
... (etc.) 28.27 | 5 Kai ds 28.30 | pd tod moodsandtenses of independent
28.30 sentences 48.2 | with oblique
aspect 33 | basic definitions 33.4 10 | opt. 48.2
grammatical 33.4-7, also aorist; causative verb 35.4 | with change-of-state
perfect; present | lexical 33.8-9 | and meaning 35.17-20
relative tense 33.57-62 | in temporally cause/explanation/motive/reason expressed
fixed contexts 33.63-6 by yap 59.14-15 | expressions of
aspirated stop 1.26 (overview) 48.1
aspiration 1.7 | in Ion. 25.9 | loss of 1.97 change-of-state meaning middle-passive
asserted vs. presupposed information voice
information structure characterized present 12.23 n.1
assimilation 1.88-93 | in the pf. mp. 19.7, circumstance expressions of manner/
19.10 means
asyndeton 59.9 clause substantivized (with neut. article)
atelic 33.8 28.25 ||| also + matrix clause; subordinate
Attic (dialect) 25.1 4 | sound changes clause
exclusive to 1.50 cognate object object, internal/cognate
Attic declension declension, second: Att. command directive | indirect indirect
Attic-Ionic (dialect group) 25 | sound directive
changes exclusive to 1.57 communicative function 38.2
attraction of mood mood| ofrelative comparative accentuation 24.32 |||
pronoun/adj. relative attraction combined with other comparative 32.12 |
attributive position 28.11-22 | attributive idiomatic expressions with 32.13 |
gen. in 28.15-16 | general difference with meaning of 32.1, 32.3 | with partitive
predicative position 28.12 gen. 32.9 ||| also comparison,
augment 11.17, 11.35-42 | and accentuation expressions of adjective 5.34-44|
24.19 | double 11.58 | omission of 11.42| -(i)oov, -(1)ov 5.41-4 | -tepos, -TépG,
omission of in Ion. 25.43 | placement -tepov 5.36-40 adverb
relative to prepositional prefix 11.51-8| 6.13-14
placementrelative to redupl. (plpf.) 11.55| comparison, expressionsof 32 | clause of
syllabic vs. temporal 11.36 n.1 | vowel comparison comparison clause|
lengthening for 1.67-8 comparative temporal clause 47.14 |
constructions of 32.6-16 | constructions of
back-shifting (of tense in indirect speech) comparatives and superlatives 32.5-16 |
41.1 | in Gk., with verbs of perception, expressed by circumstantial ppl. 52.43
knowledge, emotion 41.15 | in subordinate comparison clause 50.37-40
clauses 41.21 compensatory lengthening 1.67-8 | in Ion.
bilabial stop labial stop after loss of ¢ 25.11
breathing mark 1.7-8 | andcrasis 1.44| complement 26.3 | acc. used as 30.9 | dat.
history of 1.12 | rough 1.7, 1.27 | smooth 1.7 used as 30.38-41 | gen. used as 30.21-7
breve 1.15 complementclause 40.2 | overview of 53.1-4
complex sentence 26.4, 39
case 2.1 | oblique 2.1 n.2 ||| 30 | functions/ compound 23.1 ||| also adjective,
uses of 30.1 ||| also accusative; dative; compound; noun, compound;verb,
genitive; nominative; vocative compound
concession expressed by circumstantial ppl. co-referentiality (of subject) decl. inf. and
52.44 | expressed by concessive clause > matrix verb 51.20 | dyn.inf. and matrix
concessive clause | expressed by trep 59.55 verb 51.10, 51.31
concessive clause (with ¢i xai/xaiei) coronis |.10, 1.43
49.19-21 correlative clause 50, 50.5 | in apposition
condition expressed by circumstantial ppl. with noun 50.29 | reduced (autonomous)
52.40 50.28, 50.34, 50.37
conditional clause 49 | comparative 52.43 counterfactual counterfactual
n.1 | in indirect discourse 49.27 | overview construction; indicative, modal
of types 49.28 | relation to main clause counterfactual construction (modalind. +
49.1, 49.3 comparative (with os «i, &v) 34.16 | always retained 41.11 |
a@otrep ei, otrep &v ei) 49.22-4 overview of uses 54.3-4 | represented by
counterfactual (ei + modal ind.) 49.10-11 decl. inf. + &v in indirect speech 51.27
habitual (éav + subj. / ci + opt.) counting, inclusive 9.10
49.12-19 | vs. habitual temporal clause crasis 1.10, 1.43-5 | and accentuation 24.42|
49.16 | &v omitted from 49.15 neutral of article and form of attos 7.11
(ei + ind.) 49.4 5 | with fut. ind. 49.5 | current-relevance perfect 33.35 n.2
sceptical nuance 49.4 potential (ei +
opt.) 49.8-9 prospective (é&v + dative 30.36-54 | of accompaniment30.51 |
subj.) 49.6-7 of advantage 30.49 | of agent 30.50 | of
conditional sentence 49.1 | mixed 49.17-18 | cause 30.45 | of circumstance 30.44|
overview of types 49.28 complementingadj. 30.40|
conjunct, adverbial 26.15 complementing expressions of
conjunction 40.1 identicalness, etc. 32.14 | complementing
connected participle 52.30-1 impersonal verbs 30.38 | complementing
consecutive clause result clause verbs 30.39 | of disadvantage 30.49| ethical
consonant1.3 | assimilation of 1.88-93| 30.53 | as indirect object 30.37 | of
double 1.3, 1.33 | historical developments instrument 30.43 | of manner/means 30.44
1.72-97 | loss of 1.94 -6 | movable 1.39-42| | of measure of difference 30.54, 32.11 | as
pronunciation of 1.24-32 ||| also > dental optional constituent (adverbial modifier)
stop; fricative; labial stop; velar stop; 30.42-54 | of perspective 30.52 | of place
resonant 30.47 | of the possessor 30.41 | oftime 30.46
consonant-declension declension, third dative-and-participle construction with
constructio ad sensum 27.6, 27.11 emotional state verbs 52.15
contract present 12.5, 12.15-21 | in Ion. declarative sentence 38.1
25.33-5 | -&/-couor 12.15-16 | -éo declension 2.4 5 first 2.4 | accentuation
(monosyllabic stem) 12.17 | -éeo/-gouen of gen.pl. 24.22 n.1 | in fem. of adj. 5.1-25|
12.15-16 | -heo/-houen 12.19 | -deo/-dopen Ion. 25.15-16 | nouns of 4.1-16
12.15-16 | -coeo 12.20 second 2.4 | adj. with masc./neut. of 5.1-13
contraction 1.58-66 | and accentuation | Att. 4.27, 5.12 | Ion. 25.17-19 | nouns of
24.12 | cancelled by analogy 1.66 | with 4.17-30 third 2.4 | accentuation of
crasis 1.45 | with diphthongs 1.61-2 | in neut. nouns 24.28 | in all gendersofadj.
Ion. 25.6 | overview of 1.63 5.26-33 | in Ion. 25.20-6 | in masc./neut.of
contrary-to-fact counterfactual adj. 5.15-25 | nounsof 4.31-92
construction; indicative, modal defective verb 11.14
co-ordination 39.2 definiteness and indefiniteness
copula/copulative verb linking verb identifiability; indefinite construction;
pronoun,indefinite; relative, definite: vs. Doric 25.1-2 | gen. 4.15 | & 25.46-7
indefinite relative dual nominal forms 2.1, 10 | verb forms 11.6,
deictic iota 7.18 ||| 29.36 21 ||| also agreement
deliberative question question dubitative subjunctive subjunctive:
demonstrative adjective, demonstrative; deliberative
adverb, demonstrative; pronoun,
demonstrative effort clause 44 | conjunctions used in 44.1 |
denominative verb 23.49-50 constructions of 44.2-5 | vs. fear clauses
dental nasal 1.29 ||| also resonant; v 44.6-7 | independentuse of 38.34, 44.8|
dental stop 1.26 | historical developments verbs introducing 44.1
1.77, 1.89-91 | nouns with a stem in > elision 1.34-8 | and accentuation 24.40-1 | in
noun: overview oftypes | verbs with a stem compounds1.35
in verb stem, ending in a dental stop||| enclitic 24.3, 24.33-9 | accentuation 24.38-9
also 8; 8; T | list of 24.34
denying, verbs of constructions with ending of nominal forms 2.3 | du. 10.1 |
51.34-7 overview of 2.6 of verb forms 11.15 |
deponent 35.6 n.1 act. vs. mp. 11.20 | imp. 11.29 | non-finite
derivation 23.1 forms 11.31-4 | overview of 11.22-30 |
description (text type) 58.9 | main personal 11.20-30 | primary vs. secondary
characteristics of 61.5 11.20
desiderative sentence 38.1 ||| epexegetical infinitive 51.16 n.3, 51.18
also wish equality expressions of 32.14-15
diaeresis 1.10 exclamation 26.28, 38.43-51 | of degree
dialect 25.1-4 ||| also Attic; Attic-Ionic; 38.44, 38.47-9 | gen. of cause in 30.30 |
Ionic; Doric indirect indirect exclamation| inf. in
dialogical text 58.8 | main characteristics of 38.51, 51.48 | nominal 38.44, 38.50|
61.13 omissionofcipi in 26.13 | sentence 38.44 | as
diathesis 35.2 n.1 sentence type 38.1 n.2 | types of 38.44
diminutive 23.18 | wh- 38.44
diphthong 1.5, 1.20 | capitalization 1.5 | and exclamative sentence also exclamation
contraction contraction | long 1.22| exhortation directive
short 1.21 spurious spurious explanatory relative clause relative
diphthong||| also o; on; au; 1; eu; 13 NU; clause, digressive
Ol; OU; G3; GU
direct speech vs. indirect speech 41.1 | factitive verb 23.45
introduced by 611 41.5 | shift to, from fear clause 43 | aspectual differences in 43.3
indirect speech 41.16 n.1 | constructions of 43.3-6| varieties/
direct-reflexive meaning middle-passive meaningsof 43.2 | verbs introducing 43.1 |
voice||| also pronoun,reflexive with verbs ofeffort 44.6
directive 38.25-37 | aspectual differences in final clause purposeclause
38.30 | basic constructions 38.25-9| final-consecutive infinitive infinitive,
indirect indirect directive | overview of dynamic: expressing purposeorresult
38.29 | question used as 38.20, 38.32-3 | finite vs. non-finite verbs 11.1
use of imp. in 34.19 first person 11.6 | du. endings 21.2 | pl.
disjunct, adverbial 26.15 endings 11.25 | sg. endings 11.22
dominantparticiple participle, focus 60.22-4 | broad vs. narrow 60.23-4 | of
circumstantial: dominant use of question repeated in answer 38.21
forms of address 26.28 future most vivid conditional clause,

fractions (of numerals) 9.11 neutral: with fut. ind.
fricative 1.27 ||| also aspiration; o future perfect 17.2, 20 ||| tense and aspect
future 11.12, 15, 16 | formation future expressed by 33.6, 33.46-7 active
active/middle; future passive (@n-/n-) ||| 20.4-5 | conjugated like act. fut. 20.2 | du.
expressing posteriority 33.57, 52.4 | forms 21.12 | periphrastic forms 20.5 |
expressing result, purpose, likelihood stem formation 20.1 indicative
33.62 | mid. forms with pass. meaning formation indicative||| 33.11-12,
35.30-1 | tense and aspect expressed by 33.46-7 middle-passive 20.6-7|
33.6 | verbs with a mid. fut. 35.7 conjugated like mid. fut. 20.2 | du. forms
active/middle 15 | based on short-vowel 21.12 | periphrastic forms 20.7 | stem
subj. 15.39 | du. forms 21.9 | types of stem formation 20.1
15.1 | verbs with only a mid. fut. 15.40 future tense 33.1-2 | constructions
Attic endings 15.6-14 | overview of forms inherently expressing 33.64
15.4-5 | stem formation 15.32-8
indicative formation indicative||| geminate 1.32
33.435 | basic uses of 33.43 | basic value gender2.1 | of first-declension nouns4.2 | of
33.11-12 | in directive ot-questions 33.44, second-declension nouns4.18, 4.22 | of
38.32 | in effort clauses (with Stres/cs) third-declension nouns4.34, 4.93
44.2 | in hypothetical scenarios, general genitive Doric 4.15 | indicating place where
truths, inferences 33.45 | in neutral 6.9 ||| 30.20-35| attributive 30.25-9|
conditional clauses 49.5 | not replaceable attributive, placementof (attributive vs.
by oblique opt. in indirect statement 41.14 predicative position) 28.15-16 |
| often retained in indirect statement 41.13 attributive, substantivized 28.25|
n.1 | in relative clauases 50.24 | with ég o attributive, used as predicative
(te) on the condition that 49.26 | with éTras> complement30.26| attributive, used as
(independentuse) 38.34 infinitive prepositional complement30.27 | of
formation infinitive ||| relative-tense belonging 30.28 | of cause 30.30, 38.50 | of
interpretation of 51.26 optative comparison 30.24, 32.6-7 | complementing
formation optative||| always oblique adj. 30.23 | complementing verbs 30.21-2|
41.13 n.2 | in effort clauses 44.2 | in relative of measure/quantity 30.28 | objective
clause with purpose value 50.24 n.1 30.28 | as obligatory constituent 30.21-7 |
participle formation participle|]| as optional constituent (adverbial
attributive/substantival 52.49 n.1 | modifier) 30.30-5 | of origin 30.28 |
expressing purpose 52.41 | relative-tense partitive (of divided whole) 30.29|
interpretation of 52.4 passive partitive, placementof 28.16 | partitive,
(6n-/n-) 11.12, 16 | overview of forms used as direct object 30.25 | partitive, with
16.3 | types of stem 16.1 | verbs without comparatives 32.9 | partitive, with
stem corresponding to 6n-/n-aor. superlatives 32.7 | of possession 30.28 | of
16.6 sigmatic with additional price/value 30.31 | of quality 30.26 | of
7 15.30| separation 30.34 | of source of emotion
endings 15.6-14 | overview of forms 30.30 | of space 30.33 | subjective 30.28 | of
15.2-3 | stem formation 15.15-31 time 30.32
future less vivid conditional clause, genitive absolute 52.32 | of weather verbs
potential 52.33 n.1 | placement 60.32
future more vivid conditional clause, genitive-and-participle construction with
prospective verbs of auditory perception 52.14
gerundive (verbal adj. in -téos, -&,-ov) imperfective aspect 33.6-7 ||| also >
37.2-3 | impersonal use 37.3 | as present
predicative complement37.2 impersonal construction/verb 36 | impers.
gnomicsentence aor. ind. used in 33.31 | pass. 36.13 | inf. of 51.10 n.1, 51.20 n.1 |
neut. adj. used in 27.8 | omission of cipi in modal ind. of 34.17 | omission of om: from
26.13 | pres. ind. used in 33.16 26.13 | proper vs. quasi- impers. 36.1 |
Grassmann s law 1.97 proper impers. verbs 36.11-15 | quasi-
impers. use of neut. adj. and neut. nouns
head (of noun phrase) 26.16, 26.19-21 | 36.8-10 | quasi-impers. verbs 36.3-7 | ppl.
placementrelative to modifier 60.15-16, of 52.16, 52.33 | time expressions 36.12 | of
also hyperbaton verbal adj. in -téov 36.14, 37.3 | weather
hiatus 1.46 verbs 36.11, 52.33 n.1 | as zero-place verb
historic sequence 40.12 26.5
historical present 33.54 5, 61.1-3 incorporation of antecedentin relative
hyperbaton 60.18-19 clause 50.15
hyphaeresis 25.6 indefinite construction (subj. + &v) 40.9 | in
hypotaxis 39.2 conditional clauses 49.13-16 | with
definite relative 50.3 | difference from
iconic ordering ofppl. and matrix verb 52.36 prospective construction 40.9 n.2 | with
| of temporal clause and matrix clause 47.7 indefinite relative 50.3 | replaced by opt.
n.2 without dv in historic sequence 41.20 | in
identicalness expressions of 32.14 -15 restrictive relative clauses 50.21 | in
identifiability 28.3-10 temporal clauses 47.9
illocution 38.2 n.1 indicative 11.7, 11.20-7 | fut., act./mid. 15.7 |
illocutionary conditional 49.3 fut., 6n-/n- 16.2-3 | fut. pf. 20 | pf. act., x-/
imperative 11.7 | (pseudo-)sigm. 13.10 | aor., aspirated/stem 18.5 | pf. act., mixed 18.28|
them. 13.30-2 | aor., root 13.46 | aor., @n-/ pf. mp. 19.5-8 | primary vs. secondary
n- 14.6 | endings (general) 11.29 | pf. act., 11.7, also indicative, secondary | pres.,
x-/aspirated/stem 18.7 | pf. act., mixed athem. 12.46| pres., them.12.7 ||| overview
18.30 | pf. mp. 19.5-8 | pres., athem. 12.48| of tense and aspect 33.11-12 | overview of
pres., them. 12.9 ||| aspectual differences uses 54.1-2 | retained optative,
between pres./aor./pf. 34.21, 38.30| oblique:vs. retained mood modal
overview of uses 54.9-10 always retained 41.11 | and attraction of
imperative sentence 38.1 ||| also directive mood40.15 | in comparative conditional
imperfect formation indicative, clauses (with os ci, Sotrep ci) 49.22 | in
secondary ||| 33.22-6 | basic uses 33.23-4| conditional clauses 49.10-11 | difference
basic value 33.11-12 | of completed between aor., impf., plpf. 34.16 n.3, 34.18
actions 33.51 | conative 33.25 | in n.1 | overview of uses 54.3-4 ||| also >
descriptions 61.4 6 | immediative 33.52| counterfactual construction
inceptive (misnomer) 33.52 n.1 | of secondary 11.7, 11.20-7 | augm. >
likelihood 33.25 n.1 | in narrative 33.49, augment| aor., (pseudo-)sigm. 13.9 | aor.,
33.51-2, 61.1-3 | rarely replaced by them. 13.30-2 | aor., root 13.43 | aor., 6n-/
obl. opt. 41.10 | resultative 33.26 | in n- 14.5 | pf. act., x-/aspirated/stem (plupf.)
temporal clauses 47.7 modal in 18.5 | pf. act., mixed (plupf.) 18.28 | pf. mp.
conditional clauses 49.11 | of impers. (plupf.) 19.5-8 | pres., athem.(impf.) 12.47
expressionsof necessity, obligation, | pres., them. (impf.) 12.8 ||] modal >
appropriateness 34.17 | in unrealizable aorist indicative, modal; imperfect, modal;
wishes 38.42 ||| also > indicative, modal indicative, modal; pluperfect, modal|
Index of Subjects
overview of tense and aspect 33.11-12 | aspect 51.27 n.2 | of impers. verbs 51.20 n.1
overview of uses 54.1-2 | negatives with 51.22-4 | shift towards
indirect directive 38.28, 41.2 from &t1/cs-clause 41.16 | used in
indirect exclamation 41.2, 42.9-11 | subordinate clauses in indirect speech
construction of 42.11 | verbs introducing 41.23 | verb classes taking 51.19 | verbs also
42.10 taking dyn. inf. 51.28-33 | after verbs of
indirect question 41.2, 42.1-8 | alternative denying 51.34-7 | with dv 51.27 | vs. t1/
42.4 | deliberative 42.8 | specifying 42.5 | os-clause 51.20 dynamic 51.2,
use of moodsin 42.7-8| verbs introducing 51.8-18 | vs. declarative 51.2-4|
42.2 | yes/no 42.3 expressing purposeorresult 51.16 |
indirect speech 41.1 | continuation of 41.16 | expression of subject 51.10 | expression of
vs. direct speech 41.1 | subordinate clauses tense and aspect 51.15 | of impers. verbs
in 41.17-22 | switch to direct speech 41.16 | 51.10 n.1 | negative (uj) 51.13 | with
types of 41.2 nouns/adj. 51.9 | with redundant ote
indirect statement 41.2 | subordinators 51.17 | specifying/limiting adj. or nouns
introducing 41.4-6 | use of moods in 51.18 | types of verb taking 51.2 | verb
historic sequence 41.8-15 | use of moods classes taking 51.9 | verbs also taking decl.
in primary sequence 41.7 | verbs inf. 51.28-33 | with verbs of giving/
introducing 41.3 | with verbs of entrusting 51.16 | after verbs of preventing
perception, knowledge, emotion 41.3 n.1, and hindering 51.34 7 imperatival
41.15 | with verbs of speech 41.7-14 38.37, 51.47
indirect-reflexive meaning middle- information status 52.28, 60.20-1 ||| also >
Passive voice focus; saliency; topic
infinitive 11.9, 11.31-2 | accentuation 24.20 | interjection 26.28 | in exclamations 38.50
aor., (pseudo-)sigm. 13.13 | aor., them. interrogative sentence 38.1 ||| also >
13.30-2 | aor., root 13.47 | aor., 6n-/n- 14.9 question
| fut., act./mid. 15.9 | fut., @n-/n- 16.2-3 | intransitive verb 35.3 n.1
fut. pf. 20 | pf. act., x-/aspirated/stem 18.8 | Tonic 25.5-45 | morphology of 25.15-45 |
pf. act., mixed 18.31 | pf. mp. 19.5-8 | pres., phonology of 25.5-14
athem. 12.51 | pres., them. 12.12 ||| 51 | iota adscript vs. subscript 1.5
absolute (independent) use 51.49 |
difference between dynamic and labial nasal 1.29 ||| also resonant; u
declarative 51.2-4 | different from ppl. 51.3 labial stop 1.26 | historical developments
n.1 | in exclamations 38.51, 51.48| 1.77, 1.89-91 | nouns with a stem in >
idiomatic expressions 51.49 | noun:overviewoftypes | verbs with a stem
substantivized 28.25 | verbal noun 51.1 | in verb stem, endingin a labial stop|||
after verbs of preventing and also B; 1;
denying 51.34~-7 | with é9 @(te) on the laryngeal 1.53 n.1
condition that 49.26 | with mpiv 47.14 lateral consonant1.30||| also > resonant; A
articular 51.5, 51.38-46 | expression of law, sound change1.47||| also >
subject 51.40 | expression of tense and Grassmann s law; Osthoff s law
aspect 51.44-5 | gen. of (tot (un) + inf.) left-dislocation prolepsis; theme
51.46 | negative un 51.42 | S14 Té + inf. limitation, rule of accentuation
51.46 declarative 51.2, 51.2, 51.19-27 linking verb 26.8-13 | linking object and
| vs. dynamic 51.2-4 | expression of subject predicative complement26.12 | linking
51.20-1, 51.25-6 | expression of tense and subject and predicative complement 26.8-9
liquid 1.30 | syllabic 1.85, 1.87 ||| also > article and head 28.11-22, 60.15-16, also
resonant; A; p hyperbaton optional (adverbial)
locative 6.7-8 26.14 predicative 26.26
monological text 58.8
macron 1.15 mood 11.7 ||| in main clauses 34 | overview of
main clause 39.4 | moodsin 34 | syntax uses 54 | overview of uses in main clauses
(introduction) 26 34.22 | in subordinate clauses 40.5-15 |||
majuscule 1.11 also imperative; indicative; optative;
manner/meansadv.of in -ws6.3 ||| subjunctive attraction of 40.15 | in
expressed by adverbial adjunct 26.15 | conditional relative clauses 50.22 n.1 | in
expressed by circumstantial ppl. 52.42| temporal clauses (opt.) 47.11
expressedbyrelative clause comparison motive cause/explanation/motive/reason
clause | use of cases to express 30.26, 30.44 movable nu v: movable
| use of prepositions to express 31.8-9|||
also os narrative 33.13, 58.9 | main characteristics of
matrix clause 39.2 61.2 | tenses used in 33.48-56
matrix predicate 39.2 nasal 1.29 | syllabic 1.85-6 ||| also >
measurementuse of cases to express 30.58 resonant; uy; v
medium tantum middle-only verb nasalinfix 12.30, 12.41
mental (change-of-)state meaning negative multiple 56.3-5 | overview of uses
middle-passive voice 56 ||| also un; ut) ov; ov; ot UA
middle-only verb 35.6, 35.21-7 | with nominal sentence 26.13
change-of-state meaning 35.25| nominative 30.2-6 | as appositive with whole
expressing types of speech 35.27 | with clause/sentence 27.14 | in lists 26.29, 30.4 |
indirect-refl. meaning 35.22-3 | with marking predicative complement 30.3 |
mental activity meaning 35.27 | with marking subject 30.2 | in nominal
reciprocal meaning 35.24 exclamations 38.50 | with prolepsis 60.38|
middle-passive voice 11.4 ||| (changeof) used as voc. 30.55 n.1
mental state meaning 35.19-20 | change- nominative absolute 60.34
of-state meaning 35.17-20 | direct-refl. nominative-and-infinitive construction
meaning 35.11-12 | expressing types of 51.20
speech 35.27 | impersonalpass. 36.13 | nominative-and-participle construction
indirect-refl. meaning 35.8-10, 35.22-3 | 92.12
mental activity meaning 35.27 | mid. fut. non-restrictive relative clause relative
forms expressing pass. meaning 35.30-1 | clause, digressive
pass. meaning 35.13-16 | pass. meaning noun | abstract vs. concrete 23.5 | action/
and expression of agent 35.14 | reciprocal agent/event 23.6 | (de)verbal 23.6 | du.
meaning 35.24 | verbs with synonymous forms 10.3-5 | effect/result/object 23.6 |
act. and mid. 35.32 event 23.6 | first declension 4.1-16 |
minuscule 1.11 heteroclitic 4.28, 4.90, 4.91 | overview of
mixed conditional conditional sentence: types 4.93 | root nounsvs. derived/
mixed compoundnouns23.3 | second declension
mobile 60.4 4.17-30 | third-declension 4.31-92 |||
modifier in noun phrases 26.16-18 | +dyn. inf. 51.8 compound23.37-40|
co-ordination or juxtaposition of multiple accentuation 24.29 | verbs derived from
60.17 | heavy 60.16 | placementrelative to 23.50
noun phrase 26.16-25 | discontinuous > 47.11 ||| also > potential
hyperbaton| relative placementofarticle, construction
modifiers, head 60.2, 60.15-19 optional constituent 26.14-15
number singular; plural; dual Osthoffs law 1.70
numeral cardinal 9.1-5 ||| adnominal oxytone 24.5
use 26.22 | pronominal use 26.22
ordinal 9.1 parataxis 39.2
numerals 9 | sign-systems for 9.13 parenthesis 26.27 | yap in 24.20
paroxytone 24.5
o-declension declension, second participle 11.9, 11.16, 11.33 | accentuation
object clause 40.2 n.1 24.20 | act. and 6n-/n-aor. (with stem in vt)
object direct 26.3, 30.8 indirect 5.17-18 | du. 10.3-5 | mp. (-yevos, -n, -ov)
26.3, 30.37 internal/cognate 5.3-4 | pf. act. (-as, -uia, -os) 5.19-20 | pf.
30.12-13 act., mixed 18.32 ||| 52 | modality of 52.6,
obligatory constituent 26.3-5 | types of 52.8 n.3 | predicative vs. attributive
expressionsfulfilling role of 26.4 position 52.3 | relative-tense interpretation
omission of constituents 26.6 | of subject of 52.4 | tense and aspect expressed by
26.7 | of eiut 26.13 52.4-5, 52.21, also aoristparticiple;
opinion,verbs of verb,classes of: opinion future participle; etc. | with &v 52.7
optative 11.7, 11.16 | accentuation 24.18 | circumstantial 52.2, 52.29-45| acc.
aor., (pseudo-)sigm. 13.12 | aor., them. absolute 52.30 | connected 52.30-1 |
13.30-2 | aor., root 13.45 | aor., 6n-/n- 14.8 connected with unexpressed subject 52.31
| fut., act./mid. 15.8 | fut., @n-/n- 16.2-3 | n.1 | dominantuse of 52.45 | expressing
fut. pf. 20 | pf. act., x-/aspirated/stem 18.6 | cause or motivation 52.38-9 | expressing
pf. act., mixed 18.29 | pf. mp. 19.9 | pres., comparison 52.43 | expressing concession
athem. 12.50 | pres., them. 12.11 ||| and 52.44 | expressing condition 52.40|
attraction of mood 40.15 | historic/ expressing manneror means 52.42|
secondary sequence optative, oblique | expressing purpose 52.41 | expressing time
overview of uses 54.7-8 | +av potential or circumstance 52.35-7 | expression of
construction iterative 40.9 | in subject 52.30-3 | gen. absolute 52.32|
conditional clauses 49.13-14 | in interpretation of 52.34-44 | placement
restrictive relative clauses 50.21 | in 52.35-6, 52.38, 60.32 in noun
temporal clauses 47.10 oblique 40.12 phrases 28.25, 52.2, 52.46-50 | in
| vs. retained mood 41.13, 43.3 n.2, 45.3 apposition 52.50 | withoutarticle 52.47|
n.1 | in causal clauses 48.2 | in effort generic 52.48 | tense and aspect expressed
clauses 44.2 | in fear clauses 43.3-4 | in by 52.49 periphrastic usesof cipi +
indirect exclamations 42.11 | in indirect ppl. 52.51-2 | yw + ppl. 52.53
questions 42.7-8 | in indirect statements supplementary 52.2, 52.8-28 | different
41.9, 41.9-15 | in purposeclauses 45.3 types of 52.8 | expression of subject
| in relative clause with purpose value 52.12-16 | factuality of 52.8 | of
50.24 n.1 | with ei in the hope that 49.25 impersonal verbs 52.16 | vs. inf. 52.8 n.1,
potential 40.10 | in comparative 52.22-7 | verbs taking 52.8-11, 52.17-28|
conditional clauses 49.22 | in verbs taking more than one
conditional clauses 49.8-9, 49.17-18 type of 52.18-21 | vs. é11/cos-clauses 52.28
| in restrictive relative clauses 50.22 particle 59 | as a wordclass 59.1 | in
| in result clauses 46.5 | in temporal arguments 61.7-10 | attitudinal/modal
clauses with general statements 59.3, 59.40-51 | combinations 59.4,
59.57-76 | connective 59.3, 59.7-39 | in and anotherpf. 18.25-6 active, «-

dialogues 61.12-14 | discourse 59.3 n.1 | 18.2 | with additional n 18.24 | overview of
functional vs. referential meaning 59.2 | as forms 18.3 | stem formation 18.10-18 |
indicator of coherence 58.6 | postpositive verbs a x-pf. and a stem pf. 18.26
60.9 | scope 59.3, 59.52-6 | and word order imperative uses of 34.21 indicative
60.5-6 formation indicative | formation,pf.
passive meaning middle-passive voice mp. 19.5-8||| 33.34-8 | act. vs. pass. 33.35 |
passive voice middle-passive voice: basic uses 33.34-5 | basic value 33.11-12 |
passive meaning; voice: morphological emphasizing responsibility 33.35 | in fear
distinctions of clauses 43.5 | intensive 33.37 | often
passive-only verb 35.6, 35.21-9 | with mental retained in indirect statement 41.13 n.1 |
(change-of-)state meaning 35.26 | with rhetorical 33.38 | secondary pluperfect|
mental activity meaning 35.27 n.1 | verbs with pres. meaning 33.36 infinitive
expressing types of speech 35.27 formation infinitive ||| referring to an
passive, impersonal 36.13 action anterior to the matrix verb
passivum tantum passive-only verb (representing plpf.) 51.26 n.1 | relative-
past in the past 33.40 n.1 tense interpretation of 51.26 middle-
past potential 34.16 n.2 passive 19 | with additional n 19.33|
past tense 33.1-2 assimilation offinal stem consonant to
penult 24.4 ending 19.7, 19.10 | du. forms 21.11 |
perception verb, classes of endings 19.5-9 | overview of forms 19.4 |
perfect 11.12, 17, 18, 19 | formation > with parasitic o 19.32 | periphrastic forms
perfect active; perfect middle-passive| 19.8-9 | redupl. 11.43-8 | stem formation
overview of types 17.1 ||| aspect expressed 19.1-3, 19.11-33 optative formation
by 33.6-7 | aspectual interpretation in optative||| in fear clauses 43.4 n.1 | in
temporally fixed contexts 33.65 n.2 | temporal clauses 47.10 n.1 | in wishes 38.41
emphasizing responsibility 33.35 | n.1 participle formation participle
implying simultaneity 33.57, 47.7, 47.8 n.1, ||| in periphrastic constructions 17.5-7 |||
51.26, 52.4 | intensive 33.37, 33.42, 33.47, periphrastic construction with cipi 52.51-2
33.61 | referring to actions anterior to the | relative-tense interpretation of 52.4
matrix clause 51.26 n.1 | with pres. subjunctive formation subjunctive|||
meaning 33.36, 33.41, 33.47, 33.61 in fear clauses 43.4 | in main clauses 34.11 |
active 18 | du. forms 21.10 | endings 18.5-9 in temporal clauses (+ &v) 47.8 n.1
| overview of forms 18.4 | periphrastic perfect aspect 33.6-7 ||| also perfect
forms 18.6 | redupl. 11.43-8 | stem perfective aspect 33.6-7 ||| also aorist
formation 18.21-3 | types of stem 18.2 | performative 33.20, 33.32
verbs with more than one type of 18.25-6 periphery (of the clause) word order: in
||| act. forms with change-of-state meaning clause-periphery
active, aspirated 18.2 | overview of periphrasis in the pf. and fut. pf. 17.5-7 |||
forms 18.4 | stem formation 18.19-20| ppl. participle, periphrastic uses of
verbs with an aspirated pf. and a stem pf. perispomenon 24.5
18.25 active, mixed 18.2 | endings person 11.5-6||| in indirect speech 41.1 |]|
18.28-32 | overview of forms 18.27 also agreement,offinite verb with
active, stem 18.2 | irregular 18.22| subject; first person; second person; third
overview of forms 18.4 | stem formation person
18.21-3 | oie 18.23 | verbs with stem pf. place expressions of space
Index of Subjects
plosive dental stop; labial stop; velar stop use of the article with 28.9 modifier
pluperfect formation indicative, cases used for, with of dyn. inf. 51.12
secondary | redupl. 11.55 ||| 33.39-42| predicative position 28.1 1-22 | attributive
basic uses 33.40 | basic value 33.11-12 | for gen. in 28.15-16 | vs. attributive position
impf. 33.41 | immediative 33.53 | intensive 28.12 | used for predicative complements
33.42 | in narrative 33.50, 33.53 | in 28:13
narrative 61.1-3 | rarely replaced by opt.in prefix, prepositional 11.17, 11.52, 23.51 | not
indirect statement in historic sequence assimilated 11.54 | placementrelative to
41.10 | in temporal clauses 47.7 augm.andredupl. 11.51-8
modal referring to the pres. 49.11 ||| also preposition with accentonfirst syllable
indicative, modal 24.37 | used as adv.6.12 |]] 31 |
plural nominal forms2.1 | verb forms11.6 ||| accentuation 60.14 | with dominant
also agreement circumstantial ppl. 52.45 | improper,
politeness expressed by trou 59.50| fearing overview of 31.9 | placement after noun
construction to express 43.5 | imp. in phrase 60.14 | proper vs. improper 31.2 |
polite requests 34.20 | in requests 38.31 proper, overview of 31.8 | used as adv. 31.6
possession (belonging, descent,etc.) | word order 60.6
pronounsused to express 29.21-5 prepositional phrase fossilized as adv. 6.12
posteriority 33.1, 33.57 | subordinate ||| 31.1 | substantivized 28.25, 31.5
constructions inherently expressing 33.64 prepositive 24.35, 60.4, 60.6, 60.14
||| also future: expressing posteriority present 11.12, 12 | formation present,
postpositive word 60.4-5, 60.7-12 | athematic; present, thematic ||| aspect
combinationsof 60.9 | placement and expressed by 33.6-7 | aspectual
ordering 60.9-12 interpretation in temporally fixed contexts
potential optative, potential; potential 33.63-5, 38.30, 38.41, 51.15 | conative
construction 33.17, 33.26, 33.60, 52.5 | implying
potential construction (opt. + &v) 34.13 | simultaneity 33.57, 47.10, 49.7, 49.9, 49.14,
always retained 41.11 | and attraction of 51.26, 51.45, 52.4 perfective / for pf. >
mood 40.15 | in cautious commandsor present: resultative | referring to actions
self-exhortations 38.35 | first-person, anterior to the matrix clause 51.26 n.1, 52.5
taking permission 34.13 | in relative | resultative 33.18, 33.25, 33.60, 52.5
clauses 50.17, 50.26 | represented by decl. athematic 12.1-2, 12.33-56 | du. forms
inf. + &v in indirect speech 51.27 | retained 21.6 | endings 12.2, 12.45-52 | overview of
in indirect statement in historic sequence forms 12.33-6 | redupl. stems 12.40-1 |
41.11 | second-person,in cautious requests root pres. 12.42 | stem formation 12.39-44
34.13 | in weak assertions 34.13 | with od, | them. forms of 12.53-6 | them. formsof,
in emphatic denials 34.13 | in &s-clause in Ion. 25.38 | variation of stem vowel
after comparative 32.13 length 12.2, 12.37-8 imperative
predicate 26.3 | matrix vs. subordinate > formation imperative||| interpretation
matrix predicate of aspect 34.21, 38.30 indicative
predicative complementacc. used for formation indicative ||| 33.14-21 | basic
30.10 | adj. or noun as 26.8 | adverbial uses 33.1416 | basic value 33.11-12 |
expression ofplace as 26.9 | agreeing with conative 33.17 | in descriptions 61.4-6 | in
subject of dyn. inf. 51.12 | cases usedfor, fear clauses 43.5 | historical 33.54-5,
with dyn.inf. 51.12 | nom.used for 30.2-3 | 61.1-3 | instantaneous 33.20 | not
placement(predicative position) 28.13 | replaceable by oblique opt. in indirect
statement in historic sequence 41.14 | pres. 7.12-18 | du. 10.7 ||| 29.26-37 | adnominal
for fut. 33.56 | resultative 33.18 | secondary use, placement 28.17 | attributive gen. of,
imperfect| in (ti) od questions expressing possession 29.23 | attributive
(requests) 33.21, 38.33 infinitive gen. of, placement 28.16 | deictic function
formation infinitive ||| aspectual inside or outside text 29.28 | differences
interpretation in dyn. inf. 51.15 | referring between 65¢, oUtos and éxeivos 29.29-33 |
to an action anterior to the matrix verb placement 60.24 | predicative use 28.17
(representing impf.) 51.26 n.1 | relative- n.2, 29.34 | pronominalvs. adnominal use
tense interpretationof 51.26, 51.45 29.27 | used as contrastive third-person
optative formation optative ||| in personal pronoun 29.5 indefinite
conditional clauses 49.9, 49.14 | in fear 7.24, 8.2 | du. 10.7 ||| 29.38-42 | basic uses
clauses 43.3-4 | in purpose clauses 45.3 n.2 29.38 | collective sense 29.39 | idiomatic
| in temporalclauses 47.10 | in wishes 38.41 uses 29.42 | neut. +: somewhat, in some
participle formation participle||| way 29.41 | pronominal vs. adnominal use
conative 52.5 | expressing manner or 29.38 | weakening adv./numerals 29.40
means52.42 | impf. 52.5 | periphrastic interrogative 7.24 5 | du. 10.7 |||
construction with eipi 52.51 | relative-tense 38.11-14 | in indirect questions 42.5 |
interpretation of 52.4 | resultative 52.5 predicative 38.13 | pronominalvs.
subjunctive formation adnominal use 29.43, 38.12 | as
subjunctive||| in conditional clauses (+ &v) subordinator 40.1 personal7.1-2 |
49.7, 49.14 in fear clauses 43.3-4 | in main du. 10.6 | in Ion. 25.28||] 29.1-13 |
clauses, interpretation of aspect 34.11, attributive gen. expressing possession
38.30 | in purpose clauses 45.3 n.2 | in 29.22 | attributive gen., placement 28.16 |
temporal clauses (+ &v) 47.8-9 contrastive vs. non-contrastive 29.1 | used
thematic 12.1 32 | contract vs. non- as direct refl. 29.17 | used as indirect refl.
contract 12.5, also contract present| 29.18 ||| also 2yoo; oU; Husiss UyEis; ob;
du. forms 21.6 | endings 12.2, 12.6-14 | ogeis possessive (pronominal
with nasal infix 12.30 | overview of forms adjective) 7.7 9 | du. 10.7 ||| 29.21-5 |
12.3-4 | with redupl. 12.32 | stem adnominaluse, placement(attributive
formation 12.22-32 | with suffix -(1)ox- position) 28.18 | used as predicative
12,31 complement 28.18 n.1 reciprocal 7.6
present tense 33.1-2 ||| 29.26 reflexive 7.3-5||| 29.14-20|
presentational sentence 60.30 attributive gen. of, placement 28.16 |
preventing, verbs of constructions with attributive gen. of, used to express
51.34-7 possession 29.22-3 | combined with
primary sequence 40.12 GAATAwY 29.20 | used as direct refl. 29.17 |
primitive verb 12.24 n.1, 12.42, 23.42 n.1 used as indirect refl. 29.18 | used as
principal parts 22 reciprocal pronoun29.20||| also > éautot
proclitic 24.3, 24.33-9 | accentuation relative 7.19-23 | du. 10.7 ||| 50.1-4 |
24.38-9 | list of 24.35 agreement with antecedent agreement:
prodelision 1.37 relative pronoun/adjective with
prohibition directive antecedent| article used as 28.31 | definite
prolepsis 60.37-8 vs. indefinite 50.2-3 | repetition avoided
pronoun7 ||| 26.14, 29 | adnominalvs. 50.9 ||| also relative, definite; relative,
pronominal use 26.22 | as indicator of indefinite
coherence 58.6 demonstrative proparoxytone 24.5
Index of Subjects
properispomenon 24.5 reflexivity 29.14-20 | definition 29.14 | direct

propositional content of decl. inf. 51.3 | of vs. indirect 29.15 | pronouns used to
ppl. 52.8, 52.10 express 29.16-20||| also direct-reflexive
prospective construction (subj. + &v) 40.9 | meaning;indirect-reflexive meaning;
in conditional clauses 49.6-7 | difference pronoun,reflexive
from indefinite construction 40.9 n.2 | relative definite 8.2 ||| 50.1-4 | vs.
replaced by opt. without &vin historic indefinite relative 50.2-3 | in indirect
sequence 41.20, 49.27| in restrictive exclamations 42.11 ||| also adjective,
relative clauses 50.20 | in temporal clauses relative; adverb, relative; pronoun, relative
47.8 | with é&v in the hope that 49.25 | with indefinite 8.2 ||| 50.1-4 | vs. definite
dtrws, after verbs of effort 44.4 relative 50.2-3 | in indirect questions
protasis 49.1 42.5 | in relative clausewith result value 50.25
psilosis 25.9 ||| also > adjective, relative; adverb,
punctuation, Greek 1.9 | history of 1.13 relative; pronoun, relative
purpose expressions of (overview) 45.1 relative attraction 50.13 | inverse 50.14 |
purposeclause 45 | conjunctions 45.2 | with with relative adj. 50.31
oblique opt. 45.3 | with subj. 45.3 | with relative clause 50 | complementing
verbsofeffort 44.3-4 | with &v + subj. 45.4 expressionsof identicalness, etc. 32.15 |
expressing purpose 50.24 | expressing
quantifier 29.45-52 | adnominalvs. result 50.25 autonomous50.7 |
pronominal use 26.22| attributivevs. genderofrelative pronoun/adj. in 50.10 |
predicative position 28.20-1, idiomatic uses of 50.12 | after prepositions
29.45-52 50.11 | with relative adj. 50.28 | with
quantitative metathesis 1.71 | after Att.-Ion. relative adv. 50.34, 50.37 digressive
& > 1.57 n.3 | in Ion. 25.7 50.6 | expressing cause 50.23 | vs.
quasi-impersonal verb impersonal restrictive relative clause 50.6 | use of
construction moodsandtenses in 50.17 restrictive
question 38.4 24| alternative 38.4, 38.10 | 50.6, 50.18-22 | with counterfactual
deliberative 38.16-17 | indirect indirect secondary ind. 50.22 | vs. digressive
question | omission of cipi in 26.13 | relative clause 50.6 | with indefinite dv +
rhetorical 38.19 | specifying 38.4, 38.11-14 subj. 50.21 | with iterative opt. 50.21 | with
| types of 38.4-5 | use of moodsin potential opt. 50.22 | with prospective av +
38.15-17 | used as directive 38.20, 38.32-3 subj. 50.20
| yes/no 38.4, 38.6-9 relative connection 50.16
question word 38.11-14 | in indirect request directive
questions 42.5 resonant 1.28-32 | historical developments
1.68-70, 1.78, 1.82, 1.84-7 | adj. with a
reason expressions of cause stem in adjective | nouns with a stem in
reciprocal meaning middle-passive voice noun: overview of types | verbs with a
||| also pronoun,reciprocal stem in verb stem, ending in a resonant
recursion 39.4 result expressions of (overview) 46.1
reduplication 11.43-50 | and accentuation result clause 46 | with inf. 46.3, 46.7-11 | inf.
24.19 | in aor. stems 11.50 | Att. 11.48| vs. moods of independent sentences 46.7
combinedwith augm.(plpf.) 11.55 | n.1 | with moods of independentsentences
placementrelative prepositional prefix and 46.4 5 | with negative matrix clause 46.8
augm. 11.51-8 | in pres. stems 11.49, 12.32, rhetorical question 38.19
12.40 rhotic consonant 1.30||| also p
root 23.2 athem. 12.49 | pres., them. 12.10 |||

root noun 23.3 aspectual difference betweenpres. and aor.
(in main clauses) 34.11, 38.30 | overview of
saliency 60.11 ||| also > information uses 54.6-7 | retained optative,
structure oblique: vs. retained mood | +é& >
scope particle particle: of scope indefinite construction; prospective
second person 11.6 | du. endings 21.2 | pl. construction
endings 11.26 | sg. endings 11.23 subordinate clause 40 | as adverbial modifier
secondary sequence40.12 (adverbial clause) 26.14, 40.3-4 | as
semivowel 1.21 n.1, 1.31 ||| also > y (yod); ¢ attributive modifier 40.4 | definition 39.5 |
sense construction 27.6, 27.11 in indirect speech 41.17-22 | as obligatory
sentence complex, syntax of (introduction) constituent (complementclause) 26.4, 40.2
39 | core 26.3 | simple vs. complex 26.4, | overview of 53 | use of moods in 40.5-15
39.1-4 | simple, syntax of (introduction) subordinate construction functionsof 39.3 |
26 overview of types 53 | types of 39.5
sentence type 38.1 subordination 39.2 | and indirect speech
sequence of moods 40.12-14 41.1
setting 60.32 subordinator 39.5, 40.1
sibilant 1.27 ||| also > o substantival clause 40.2 n.1
similarity expressions of 32.14-15 subtantivization 28.23-5
simplex compound suffix 23.1 | list of nominal suffixes 23.7-36
simultaneity 33.1, 33.57 ||| also perfect: suggestion directive
implying simultaneity; present: implying summons 30.55
simultaneity superlative accentuation 24.32 |||
simultaneous narration 33.20 comparative 32.8 n.1 | meaning of 32.1-2,
singular nominal forms 2.1 | verb forms 11.6 32.4 | with partitive gen. 32.8 | with wsor
||| also agreement ét1 (as ... as possible) 32.4 adjective
space adv. indicating 6.7-11 ||| expressed by 5.34-44 | adj. 5.42-3 | -10Tos, -iotn, -10ToVv
adverbial adjunct 26.16 | use of cases to 5.41-3 | -TATOS, -TATH, -TaTov 5.36-40 ||
express (overview) 30.56-8 | use of neut., in apposition to entire clause/
prepositions to express 31.8-9 sentence(e.g. Td peyiotov) 27.14
specifying question question adverb 6.13-14
spurious diphthong 1.23 | and contraction suppletion 11.13 | in the aor. 13.38 | in the
1.60 | and compensatory lengthening fut. 15.29 | in the @n-aor. 14.26 ||| of voice
1.67-8 (e.g. dtrokteive/atrofvijoKw) 35.16
stativity aspect, lexical syllable long vs. short 24.7, 24.10
stem of nominal forms 2.2 | of verb forms
11.11-14 tail 60.35
stop dental stop; labial stop; telicity 33.8
velar stop temporalclause 47 | aspectual differences in
subject 26.3 | omitted 26.7 | of ppl. 52.12-16 47.3, 47.7-10, 47.12 | with causal force 47.6
subjunct, adverbial 26.15 | comparative 47.17 | conjunctions used in
subjunctive 11.7, 11.16, 11.28 | accentuation 47.2 | placement 60.32 | reduced adverbial
24.18 | aor., (pseudo-)sigm. 13.11 | aor., relative clause 50.36| referring to a single
them. 13.30-2 | aor., root 13.44| aor., 6n-/ action in the past 47.7 | referring to
n- 14.7 | pf. act., x-/aspirated/stem 18.6 | pf. habitual actions, not in the past 47.9 |
act., mixed 18.29 | pf. mp. 19.9 | pres., referring to habitual actions, in the past
47.10 | referring to habitualactions,vs. desiderative 51.8, 52.24 n.2 | emotional

habitual conditional clause 49.16 state 52.10 | endure , persist , etc. 52.9 |
tense 11.3 ||| 33 | absolute vs. relative 33.1-3 | intellectual knowledge 52.10, 52.18, 52.19,
basic definitions 33.1-3 | as indicator of 52.23-5 | manipulative (verbs of
coherence 58.6 | in indirect speech 41.1 commanding,etc.) 38.28, 51.31, 51.32|
tense-aspect stem 11.2-3, 11.12 ||| 33.6 |]| modal 51.8 | opinion 51.19, 52.24|
also aorist; future;etc. perception, auditory 52.9, 52.19 |
text type 58.7-10 ||| also monological text; perception, visual 52.9, 52.18 | phase 51.8,
dialogical text; narrative; description; 52.9, 52.27 | practical knowledge 51.8,
argument(text type) 52.23 | way of being (in -&ve) 52.11
textual coherence 58 verb, compound 23.49-51 | accentuation
that-clause indirect statement 24.19 | augm. in 11.51 | and augm./redupl.
thematic vowel 11.16, 11.19 | long them. 11.51-8| elision in 1.35
vowelin subj. 11.16 verb stem | 1.11 endingin a dental stop
thematic vs. athematic conjugations 11.18 aor., sigm. 13.23 | aor., @n- 14.20 | fut. act./
theme 60.33 | with inverse relative attraction mid. 15.27 | fut. act./mid., Att. (stems in 18)
50.14 n.1 15.33 | pf. act. 18.15 | pf. mp. 19.25-6|
third person 11.6 | du. endings 21.2 | pl. pres., them. 12.27 endingin a labial
endings 11.27 | sg. endings 11.24 stop aor., sigm. 13.21-2 | aor., @n- 14.18 |
time expressions of (overview) 47.1 | fut. act./mid. 15.22-3 | pf. act. 18.19 | pf.
impersonal expressions of 36.12 | use of mp. 19.19-21 | pres., them. 12.27
cases to express (overview) 30.56-8 endingin a resonant aor., pseudo-sigm.
tmesis 25.44 13.24-6| aor., 8n- 14.21-5 | fut. act./mid.
topic 60.22, 60.25-30 | change topicshift | 15.32 | pf. act. 18.16-18 | pf. mp. 19.27-31 |
contrastive 60.28 | given 60.26 | with pres., them. 12.28 endingin a velar
inverse relative attraction 50.14 n.1 | new stop aor., sigm. 13.21-2 | aor., 6n- 14.19 |
60.29-30 fut. act./mid. 15.24-6 | pf. act. 18.20 | pf.
topic shift 28.28, 59.16 mp. 19.22-4 | pres., athem. (-vuyi1) 12.39 |
transitive verb 35.3 n.1 pres., them. 12.27 endingin a/a, n/a
aor., sigm. 13.16 | aor., @n- 14.13-15 | fut.
ultima 24.4 act./mid. 15.16 | pf. act. 18.11-12 | pf. mp.
uncial 1.11 19.13-14, 19.18 | pres., athem. 12.40-2|
unreal counterfactual construction; pres., them. contract present||| also >
indicative, modal loTnuL TipTrAnpLyetc. ending in yy
12.27 n.2 endingin n aor., sigm.
valency 26.4 n.1 13.16 | aor., 8n- 14.13-15 | fut. act./mid.
velar nasal 1.29 ||| also resonant; y 15.16 | pf. act. 18.11 | pf. mp. 19.13, 19.18
velar stop 1.26 | historical developments ending in n/¢ aor., sigm. 13.16 | aor.,
1.77, 1.89-91 | nouns with a stem in > On- 14.13-17 | fut. act./mid. 15.16 | pf. act.
noun:overview oftypes | verbs with a stem 18.11-13 | pf. mp. 19.13-14, 19.18 | pres.,
in verb stem, endingin labial stop ||| them. contract present||| also inu;
also y; «3 x tiénui endingin 1, u, diphthongaor.,
verb (formation) introduction 11 | word sigm. 13.15 | aor., @n- 14.11 | fut. act./mid.
formation 23.41-51 15.15 | pf. act. 18.10 | pf. mp. 19.11-12
verb, classes of 53.1-3 | declarative utterance endingin o aor., sigm. 13.18 | aor., 6n-
(verbs of speaking) 51.19, 52.25| 14.16 | fut. act./mid. 15.19 | pf. act. 18.13 |
pf. mp. 19.15, 19.18 | pres., athem. (-vvupn) ending in verb stem,endingin &/&, n/&;
12.39 | pres., them. 12.29 n.1 ending etc. ||| also a; 5 95 5 05 Us @
in w/o aor., sigm. 13.16 | aor., @n- 14.13-15
| fut. act./mid. 15.16 | pf. act. 18.11 | pf. mp. Wackernagel s law 60.7
19.13, 19.18 | pres., them. contract weatherverb 36.11 | 52.33 n.1
present||| also 8iScp1 endingin fF wh-exclamation exclamation
aor., sigm. 13.20 | aor., @n- 14.12 | fut. act./ wh-question question: specifying
mid. 15.20 | pf. act. 18.14 | pf. mp. 19.17, wish 38.38-42 | aspectual differences in
19.18 | pres., them. 12.29 n.1 38.41-2 | realizable 38.38, 38.41 |
verbal adjective 11.9, 11.34, 23.29, 23.34 ||| unrealizable 38.39-40, 38.42
37 | ppl. as type of 52.1 ||| also -téos, word division 1.13
-TEG, -TEOV; -TOS, -TN, -TOV word formation 23 | nominal 23.4-40|
vocative 30.55 | nom. used for 30.55 n.1 verbal 23.41-51
voice 11.2, 11.4 ||| 35 | morphological word order60 | of circumstantial ppl. 52.36 |
distinctions of 35.2, 35.5-7 | overview of at clause level 60.2, 60.20-38 | in clause-
meanings and forms 35.33-6 | verbs periphery 60.31-6| fixed vs. free 60.2-3 |
switching voice between tense stems 35.7 ||| focus vs. topic focus; topic | as indicator
also active voice; middle-passive voice of coherence 58.6 | of individual words
voiced stop 1.26 60.2 | of mobile words mobile | in noun
voiceless stop 1.26 phrases 60.2, 60.15-19 | of postpositives >
vowel1.3 | contraction of contraction| postpositive | of prepositives >
historical developments 1.57-71 | prepositive | prolepsis prolepsis|
overview of system 1.19 | pronunciation of setting setting | tail tail | theme >
1.15-19 | quality (height, backness, theme
roundedness) 1.17 | quantity (length) 1.18
| quantity, alternation of (and lengthening/ x-question question: specifying
shortening) 1.67-70, also ablaut|
nominal stems endingin 2.4 | verb stems yes/no question question
Index of Greek Words
Full Greek wordsare given in their dictionary form. Archaic and non-Greekletters
(c, 9, y, etc.) are listed at the end. Peculiarities in the formation of tense-aspect stems
of individual verbs are generally notlisted (for these, +22.8-9 and the chapters on
the relevant stem types). See also the headnote to the Index of Subjects.
a 1.1 | alternation between & and a/n -aives pres. in 12.28 | as productive suffix
( lengthening ) 1.67-9, also ablaut| 23.48
contraction of 1.63-4, 1.59-60 | as aipéw/-gopar indirect-reflexive mid. of 35.9 |
numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of 1.15 | aipgopan + 2x acc. 30.10 | aipgopon + dyn.
shortening of & to & (Osthoff s law) 1.70 | & inf. 51.8
> n (Att.-Ion.) 1.57 | & > n (Ion.) 25.5 aipw augm. 11.41
a-/&v- privative 5.10, 23.37-8 -aipw pres. in 12.28
-% Doric gen. ending 4.15, 25.46-7 aicfdvopa differences between complement
-& nominal suffix 23.8 constructions 52.20, 52.24 | + gen. 30.21 | +
a pronunciation of 1.22 | subscriptvs. gen. + ppl. 52.14 | + indirect statement 41.3
adscript 1.22, 1.5 | + ppl. 52.9-10 | voice characteristics
é&yasés comparatives and superlatives 5.43||| 39.2/
&yaba Aéyw/dkovw 30.13 aioxpdos comparative and superlative 5.43|||
&yav origin/formation 6.6 impers. aioypdv éott 36.8
a&yyéAAw + dat. (indirect object) 30.37 | + aioxuvopai differences between complement
decl. inf. 51.19 | differences between constructions 52.26 | + ppl. 52.10
complementconstructions 52.25 | + aitéw/-gopor + 2x acc. 30.9 | indirect-
indirect question 42.2 | + ppl. 52.10 reflexive mid. of 35.9
&yves adj. of one ending 5.32 aiticopar + acc. + gen. 30.22 | voice
&yopevw aor. citrov in compounds13.38 n.2 characteristics 35.27
||| also atrayopetio -éxig multiplication adv. 9.12
&yw d&ye(te) in directives 38.27 | &yav with é&Kouw + acc. 30.21 | + decl. inf. 51.19 |
52.42 n.1 differences between complement
&ywviZopat voice characteristics 35.24 constructions 52.19, 52.25 | + gen. 30.21 | +
&S1xéw pres. with resultative sense 33.18 gen. + ppl. 52.14 | + indirect statement 41.3
aS augm. 11.41 | + ppl. 52.9-10 | pres.to refer to past
-&{w as productive sufhx 23.48 hearing 33.18 n.3 | Kaxd/Kaxds/ayabd/ets
Aénva 4.14 &Kkouw 30.13
Adfjven ASvade (indicating direction) 1.91, &kpocopat + gen. 30.21 | voice characteristics
6.11 | A qvnon (locative) 6.7 S27
&@poiZeo/-opar voice characteristics 35.17-18 &xposattributive vs. predicative position
&@upéo + fear clause 43.1 20.22
at long , with adscript > a | short , aKov 5.15-16
pronunciation of 1.21 &Asigw/-opar direct-reflexive mid. of 35.11
-a1 elision of 1.38 | usually short at word end &Anéds in neutral conditional clauses 49.4
for accentuation 24.10 &A1s origin/formation 6.6
aiSéopan verb stem in o 12.29 n.1 ||| voice é&Aioxopar augm./redupl. 11.40 ||] + acc. +
characteristics 35.26 gen. 30.22 | voice characteristics 35.7,
aides 4.71 39:16; 35.28
GANG 59.10-12 | apodotic 59.12 | placement &vteitrov (no pres.) + uy + inf. 51.34-5
60.6 | GAN obv 59.61 | AAAG yap, GAAG... a&vti overview of uses 31.8
yap 59.57-8 | &AAg 81) 59.59 | QAAG py ave 6.10
59.60 | ot pévtor GAAK 59.75 | ob pv GAAK & 1o0s + dyn. inf. 51.9 | + gen. 30.23
a9.7 9 é&trayopevw + pres. ppl. 52.9 | + un + inf.
&AANAwY 7.6 | du. forms 10.7 ||| 29.26 | 51.34-5
attributive gen., placement 28.16 | &TraAAaTTw/-opar + acc. + gen. 30.22 | voice
attributive gen., used to express possession characteristics 35.17
29.26 n.1 | combined with reflexive &traf 9.12 | origin/formation 6.6
pronoun 29.20 aTrapvéomat covéeoual
&ANos 29.48 | combined with (Kai 81) Kai &qretAéw + dat. 30.39
59.70 | followed by another form of &AAos &treitrov + pres. ppl. 52.9 | + uy + inf. 51.34-5
29.51 | el T1g GAAS 29.42 étréxw + gen. 30.21 | déxoo/atréyouon + yt +
&ua with circumstantial ppl. 52.37 | inf. 51.34-5
preposition (improper) 31.9 &1ré overview of uses 31.8 &q o¥
auaptaves + gen. 30.21 introducing temporal clauses 47.2
&m1AAcopar voice characteristics 35.24 atroyltyvwoKke + acc. + gen. 30.22
&ugi overview of uses 31.8 &troSiSwp1/-SiSopar indirect-reflexive mid.
é&uiévvupt augm./reduplication 11.57 of 35.9
&uqioByntréw + ur) + inf. 51.34-5 aTroAAupt d)AAULI
&u@otepos predicative position (placement AtroAAoov alternative acc. 4.53
in noun phrases) 28.21 a&tropéw + indirect question 42.2
&u@w predicative position (placementin atrootepéw + acc. + gen. 30.22
noun phrases) 28.21 atrown@ifopar + acc. + gen. 30.22
&v 55 | general function in main clauses 34.4| atrropar + gen. 30.21
omitted in habitual conditional clauses &pa 59.42 | placement 60.5
49.15 | omitted in indefinite relative &pa placement 60.6 | in yes/no-questions
clauses 50.21 n.1 | omitted in trpiv-clauses 38.6 | &p ov in yes/no-questions 38.7 | dpa
47.16 | overview of uses 55 | placement un) in yes/no-questions 38.8
60.5, 60.12 | repetition 60.12 | dotrep &v Ei &pcopat voice characteristics 35.27
conditional clause, comparative a&pioxw + dat. 30.39
&v (=éav) > «i Apns 4.72
&va& overview of uses 31.8 &pvéopa voice characteristics 35.27 |
&vaBaAAowar + un + inf. 51.34-5 (dtr)apvéouon + put + inf. 51.34 -5
aévayKele + dyn. inf. 51.3 n.3, 51.8 &ptra g adj. of one ending 5.32
avayKaios impers. dvayKaidv éot1 36.8 &pxw/-opar &pyouar + dyn. inf. 51.3 n.3, 51.8
avayKn impers. dvayxn éoti 36.8 | &pxopen + pres. ppl. 52.9 | &pxouan,
avag 4.42 n.1 differences between complement
aveu preposition (improper) 31.9 constructions 52.27 | &épxe/&pyouon + gen.
&véxowar + pres. ppl. 52.9 30.21 | &pywv, noun, originally ppl. 52.46
avnp 4.64 | accentuation 24.24 | dvip (6 vip mz
in crasis) 1.45 n.1 ||| with appositive 26.25 -&s, -&505 collective numeral nouns9.8 |
a&v@pwrtros with appositive 26.25 nominal suffix 23.10
a&viotnpt/-iorapar voice characteristics -aS, -a1va, -av adj., with stem in v 5.23-4
35.17 n.1, also totnur: voice -ao1 locative 6.7
characteristics cotu 4.83
avolyvupl olyvuml -atat Ion. 3 pl. ending 25.39
796 Index of Greek Words
é&tép 59.18 | placement 60.6 Bi&Zopen + dyn. inf. 51.3 n.3

&te with circumstantial ppl. 52.39 BonBiw + dat. 30.39
-ato Ion. 3 pl. ending 25.39 Boppads 4.14
atta 7.24 BouAgve/BouAevopan + dyn. inf. 51.8
atta 7.20 BovAopan 2 sg. pres. ind. (BowAe1) 12.7 n.1 |
au long , pronunciation of 1.22 | short , augm. #- 11.41 ||| + dyn. inf. 51.8 | voice
pronunciation of 1.21 characteristics 35.26 | BowAei/BouAeobe
au/aute 59.13 | placement 60.5 introducing deliberative questions 34.8
autixe with circumstantial ppl. 52.37 n.2, 38.17, 40.1 n.1 | 6 BouAdpevos 28.25,
autés 7.10-11 | in crasis 1.44, 7.11 | in crasis, 52.48 n.1
Ion. 25.14 | du. forms 10.7 | gen. pl. Bois 4.86-7
combined with possessive pronoun 7.9 |||
29.7-13 | attributive gen., used to express y 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of
possession 29.23 | emphatic use (self) 1.24, 1.26, 1.29 | verb stems ending in >
29.9-13 | gen. pl. combined with verb stem, endinginvelar stop||| also >
possessive pronoun 29.21-2 | overview of nasal; velar stop
uses 29.13 | placement 28.16, 28.19, 60.5 | yoda 4.42 n.1
strengthening personal pronounin the yaA7 4.14
nom.29.10 | strengtheningreflexive yap 59.14-15 | in anticipation or parenthesis
Eaxutot 29.11, 29.19, 32.10 | with the article 59.15 | following appositive to sentence/
expressing identicalness (the same) 29.8 | clause 27.14 n.1 | after forms of address
used as direct reflexive (oblique cases) 59.15 | introducing narratives 59.15 | vs.
29.17 n.1 | used as indirect reflexive other expressions of cause, motivation,etc.
(oblique cases) 29.18 | used as non- 48.1 n.1 | placement 60.5 | &AAG yap, &AAG
contrastive third-person pronoun (oblique ... yap 59.57-8 | yap 57 59.62 | yap otv
cases) 29.5, 29.7 | 6 attés + dat./xai 30.40, 59.63 | ci®e/ei yap in wishes 34.14, 34.18,
32.14 avoid(adv.) 6.9, 8.2 38.38-9 | kai yép 59.66 | mds yép (ov); in
avtot (=éxutod) pronoun, reflexive answers, ti yép (ow); in answers 38.21
apaipéw/-éopar apaipgouai + 2x acc. 30.9 yaotnp 4.62-3 | accentuation 24.24
a&pixvéopat voice characteristics 35.25 ye 59.53 | in affirmative answers 38.21, 59.53 |
&qiotnpt/-iotrapor voice characteristics placement60.5
35.17 n.1, also iotnui: voice ycAdw verb stem in o 12.29 n.1, 13.18, 15.19,
characteristics 23.43 n.2
&Soyo + indirect statement 41.3 | + ppl. yéAws heteroclitic 4.91
52.10 | voice characteristics 35.26 ytpaids comparative and superlative
-&w/-copor derivation of verbs in 23.43 | fut. ss
in 15.38 | pres. in contractpresent||| yeve/-opar yevoua+ gen. 30.21 | voice
also verb stem,ending in &/6, n/& characteristics 35.27 n.3
ynGéw intensive pf. 33.37
B 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of ylyvopat aor. éyevouny vs. éyevnOnv 14.28
1.24, 1.26 | verb stems ending in verb n.l, | pf. ppl. yeyas, -®oa 18.32 n.1 ||| as
stem, endinginlabial stop||| also > labial linking verb 26.8-9 | pres. with resultative
stop sense 33.18 | voice characteristics 35.25,
Baives pf. BEBnKa, conjugation 18.27-32 ||| pf. 35.7
BéBnxa with pres. meaning 33.36 ylyvwoxw + decl. inf. 51.19 | differences
BaotAtus declension type 4.84-5 ||| used between complementconstructions 52.24
withoutarticle 28.8 n.2 n.2 | + dyn. inf. vs. + decl. inf. 51.29 | +
indirect question 42.2 | + indirect 87 59.44-6 | placement 60.5 | &AAG 814, 59.59 |
statement 41.3 | + ppl. 52.10 yap 57 59.62 | SAta 59.45 | kai 64 59.68|
yovu heteroclitic 4.90 Kai St) Kat 59.69-70 | pév 81 (... 5 ) 59.74
yoty 59.54 SijAos impers. SfAdv (2071) 36.8 | impers.
ypats 4.88 SiAdv (ZoT1) + indirect statement 41.3 |
ypaqw/-ovan indirect-reflexive mid. of 35.9 SfAds cipt + ppl. 52.10
yupvaZw/-ocn direct-reflexive mid. of 35.11 SnAdw + decl. inf. 51.19
yuvy with appositive 26.25 ||| 4.38 Snytrou 59.47
yv (Ion.) > yotv Sita 59.45
51a overview of uses 31.8 | + 16 + inf. 51.46
§ 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of SiaAdéyopat + dat. 30.39 | voice characteristics
1.24, 1.26 | verb stems ending in verb 35.24 n.1
stem, ending in dental stop||| also > Siavogopar + dyn. inf. 51.8 | voice
dental stop characteristics 35.26
Sai 59.46 SiateAéw + pres. ppl. 52.9
Saxpuov/Saxpu heteroclitic 4.91 Siapépw + gen. 30.21
8 59.16-17 | apodotic 59.17 | difference with Siapbeipw obciow
kai 59.21 | placement 60.5 | pronominal 6 SiScoKw + 2x acc. 30.9 | + dyn. inf. 51.8 | +
5é indicating topic shift 28.28 | 8otv 59.64 indirect statement 41.3
| koi... 8¢ 59.67 | pév 5m (... 52) 59.74 | pev SiSeopt aor. act./mid. 13.51-62 | pres.,
ot(... &¢) 59.73 | pév toivuy (... S¢) 59.73 overview 12.34-5 | 6n-aor. 14.15 ||| + acc. +
| 6pév ... 6 82... 28.27 dat. 30.37 | pres. with resultative sense
-Se suffix in direction adv. 6.11 | with o > -Ze 33.18
1.91 n.1 Sixnv preposition (improper) 31.9
Sé501xa pf. conjugation 18.27-32 ||| + fear S16T1 as answerto (814) Ti; 48.1 n.1 |
clause 43.1 | pf. with pres. meaning 33.36 introducing causal clauses 48.2 |
Sei (impers.) + acc.-and-inf. 36.3, 51.8, 51.11, introducing indirect statements 41.4 n.1
| counterfactual use of impf. 25e1 34.17 | (+ Sis 9.12
dat.) + gen. 30.21, 36.15 | in directives Supnw contraction 12.19
38.36 | meaningsimilar to verbal adj. in SieoKw + acc. + gen. 30.22
-TEOS, -a, -ov 37.3 n.1 | dAiyou BSeiv 51.49 Syads 4.89
Seixvupi + indirect question 42.2 | + indirect Soxéw + dat. (indirect object) 30.37 | + dat. +
statement 41.3 | + ppl. 52.10 decl. inf. 51.19 | differences between
Seivos + dyn. inf. 51.9 complement constructions 51.30 | impers.
SévSpov heteroclitic 4.91 Soxei + dat. + dyn.inf. 30.38, 36.4, 51.8 |
Sé0s goti + fear clause 43.1 impers. 250§¢ + dyn. acc.-and-inf. 51.11 |
Seon 4.16 éuol Soxeiv 51.49
Seopos 4.28 Sdpu heteroclitic 4.90
Ségw/-opar direct-reflexive mid. of 35.11 Spaw + 2x acc. 30.9
Séxomar voice characteristics 35.22-3 SUvapar augm.7- 11.41 ||| + dyn. inf. 51.8 |
Séw bind contraction 12.17 | primitive verb voice characteristics 35.29
23.44 n.4 Suvatos impers. Suvatov éoT1 36.8
Séw lack 2 sg. pres. ind. mp. (Sée1) 12.7 n.1 | §U(v)w/SUopar more than onetypeofaor.
contraction 12.17 | primitive verb 23.44 13.64 ||| voice characteristics 35.7,
n.4 | use in numerals (18, 19, 28, 29, etc.) JD.L/
9.7 ||| S ouen + dyn. inf. 51.8 | Sgop01 + gen. SUo 9.2 | accentuation 24.23
30.21 | S¢ouen voice characteristics 35.27 Swpedcv (adv.) origin/formation of 6.5
e 1.1 | alternation between ¢ and n or «1 of, in apposition 52.50 | civon in idiomatic

( lengthening ) 1.67-9, also ablaut| expressions 51.49 | civat tis 29.42 | Zor)
contraction of 1.59-60, 1.63-4 | as (accentuation) 26.10 | om = & eor 24.34
numeral 9.13 | shortened from n (Osthoffs n.1 | 16 viv civor 51.49 existential
law) 1.70 26.10 | Zotw doris, cioiv of, Zotiv Ste, ZoTWw
(2)@@Aw + dyn. inf. 51.8 | O¢Ae1s/BéAeTe otras, etc. 50.12, 50.35, 50.39
introducing deliberative questions 34.8 eit go pres., overview 12.36 ||| ind. with fut.
n.2, 38.17, 40.1 n.1 reference 33.19 | 16: in directives 38.27
e& < n&/n& (quantitative metathesis) 1.71 -eiveo pres. in 12.28
éxv Ei -eiov nominal sufhx 23.12
gap 4.61 eitrov as aor. of &yopevw/gnui in compounds
gautou 7.3 ||| in set phrases with attds 29.19 | 13.38 n.2 | forms with o 13.32 | cite,
used for first/second person 29.19 ||| also accentuation 24.17 | vs. {Ae§a 13.38 n.2 ||| +
pronoun,reflexive indirect statement41.3 | citreiv in idiomatic
éaw oUK édwo + ut) + inf. 51.34-5 expressions 51.49 ||| also > Agyoo
éyyus preposition (improper) 31.9 tipyoo + ut) + inf. 51.34 5
éytipw/-owai more than onetypeofaor. -eipw pres. in 12.28
13.64 | more than onetype ofpf. act. 18.26 eis + gen. of proper name30.27 | overview of
| voice characteristics 35.17 uses 31.8
éy7.1 ||| 29.1-4 | placement 60.5 | por eis, pia, #v 9.2 | accentuation 24.23
ethical dat./ please 30.53 ||| also > -£15, -eooa, -ev adj., with stem in evt 5.25 |
pronoun, personal nominal suffix 23.13
é0iZopan pf. ci@iouon with pres. meaning 33.36 siow, tow preposition (improper) 31.9
et pronunciation of 1.21 spurious 1.23 eite introducing indirect questions 42.4
| result of compensatory lengthening siwfa pf. conjugation 18.22 ||| pf. with pres.
1.67-9 | result of contraction 1.59-60 meaning 33.36
ei conditional conjunction 49.2 | introducing éx éx vs. 2 1.41 ||| + gen. ofproper name 30.27
indirect questions 42.3-4 | é&v/fv/av (ei+ | overview of uses 31.8
&v) 49.2 | ei xat/Kai ci 49.19-21 | ci tis GAAOS éx- (in compounds) noassimilation 1.89 n.1
29.42 | ei/éav in the hope that 49.25 | ei@e/ei éxaotos predicative position (placementin
yap in wishes 34.14, 34.18, 38.38-9 | ot& noun phrases) 28.21 | kaotds Tis 29.39
ei/und ei 49.19 | cos ei/otrep ci/Sotrep dvel éxatepos predicative position (placementin
in comparative conditional clause noun phrases) 28.21
conditional clause, comparative éxet 8.2 éxeifev 8.2 éxeioe 8.2
ei- augmentation of verbs beginning with éxeivogs 7.15 ||| 29.27-33 | combined with
11.41 ovtos/SS¢ the former ... (the latter) 29.33 |
-1 VS. -1 as 2 sg pres. ind. mp. ending 12.7 n.1 éxetvn/éxetvers 8.2 | éxetvooi 29.36
-eié nominal suffix 23.11 éxtroSwv 6.12
eid0v > O0dw éxTOs preposition (improper) 31.9
eife in wishes 34.14, 34.18, 38.38-9 éxeov 5.15-16 ||| Excov elvan 51.49
eixf origin/formation 6.6 éAeubepos + gen. 30.23
eixw + dat. 30.39 éAeuBepow + acc. + gen. 30.22
eipi be accentuation 24.34| Ion. forms 25.40| EAAnv with appositive 26.25
pres., overview 12.36 | used in periphrastic éAtriCw + dyn.inf. vs. + decl. inf. 51.31
pf. forms 17.5-7 ||| as linking verb 26.8-9| guautou 7.3-4 ||| also > pronoun,
omission of 26.13, 36.9 | + ppl. reflexive
(periphrastic construction) 52.51-2 | ppl. éuds 7.7-9 ||| also pronoun, possessive
éutreipos + gen. 30.23 étripeA(é)opar + effort clause 44.1 | + gen.

éMTripTrpHe TILT! 30.21 | voice characteristics 35.26
guTrpoo@ev preposition (improper) 31.9 étrittpooGev preposition (improper) 31.9
év v1 = éveoti/éveioi 24.37, 36.6 || + gen. of étriotapa augm./reduplication 11.57|||
proper name30.27| overview ofuses 31.8 | differences between complement
év tois with superlatives 32.10 iva constructions 52.23 | + dyn. inf. 51.8 | +
introducing temporal clauses 47.2 ppl. 52.10 | voice characteristics 35.26
évavtiov preposition (improper) 31.9 eTrLIOTHHwY + gen. 30.23
évavtios + dat. 30.40 émritattw + dat. (indirect object) 30.37
évSens + gen. 30.23 étritndetos + dyn. inf. 51.9
évexa preposition (improper) 31.9 étritiOnpr/-Tidepor émitibeyon + dat. 30.39
éveott (impers.) (+ dat.) + inf. 36.4 éTritpétrw + acc. + dat. 30.37
év@a 8.2 ||| introducing relative clauses 50.5, Troan + dat. 30.39 | voice characteristics
50.34 35.25
évOade 8.2 épyaCopar voice characteristics 35.22-3
évOev 8.2 évOevde 8.2 gépnwos + gen. 30.23
év@upgopan + indirect exclamation 42.10 | Epypijs 4.14
voice characteristics 35.26 Epxopar éAGé, accentuation 24.17 ||| + fut. ppl.
évtavé@a 8.2 ||| anticipating or following 52.41 n.1 | voice characteristics 35.25
correlative clause (évtatéa ... gv8a) 50.5 Epws heteroclitic 4.91
éevtau@oi 8.2 épwtdw more than onetype of aor. 13.63 ||| +
évtTeubev 8.2 2x acc. 30.9 | + indirect question 42.2
évTOs preposition (improper) 31.9 és cis ég 6 introducing temporal
é& éx é§ ot introducing temporal clauses 47.2
clauses 47.2 tote introducing temporal clauses 47.2 | as
éapveopar + un + inf. 51.34 -5 long as vs. until 47.13
EEapvds eipr + un + inf. 51.34 -5 toxatos attributive vs. predicative position
# eo71 (impers.) + dat. 30.38 | (+ dat.) + dyn. 28.22
inf. 36.4, 51.8 | om = % eot 24.34 n.1 étepos in crasis 1.45 n. 3 | du. forms 10.7 |||
é fjs origin/formation 6.6 29.48-9 | followed by another form of
#w 6.10 ||| preposition (improper) 31.9 Etepos 29.51
Zoixa pf. conjugation 18.22||| pf. with pres. eu pronunciation of 1.21
meaning 33.36 eu origin/formation 6.6 | eU Aéyw/&kovw
étrei introducing new sentence 48.5 | 30.13 n1
introducing temporal clauses 47.2 | sU8w Katevd0
introducing temporal clauses with causal euOUs/eu0U/eU8iws origin/formation 6.6
force 47.6, 48.3-4 | étrei tax1oTa 47.2 | evAaPéowar + effort clause 44.1
émrny/étrecv/étrav (with &v) 47.2 eUvous + dat. 30.40
érre151) introducing temporal clauses 47.2| eUpioxw cupé, accentuation 24.17 |||
introducing temporal clauses with causal differences between complement
force 47.6, 48.3-4 | émreiSdav (with &v) 47.2 constructions 52.24
étreite introducing temporal clauses 47.2 | -£Us, -éws NOMinal suffix 23.15
introducing temporal clauses with causal eUxouar voice characteristics 35.27
force 47.6 -eUw derivation of verbs in 23.46
érri fmt = Erreoti/Etreio1 24.37 ||| overview of ép w(t) with inf., on the condition that 49.26
uses 31.8 epiepar + gen. 30.21
éTr186upéw + gen. 30.21 épiotnpt/-iotapat voice characteristics 35.17
éTriAav@avowat + gen. 30.21 n.1
Index of Greek Words
éx8pds comparative and superlative 5.43 | + tyéopan + 2x acc. 30.10 | + dat. 30.39 | + decl.
dat. 30.40 inf. 51.19 | + gen. 30.21 | voice
#xw/-opar irregular formsin aor. 13.31 | &&o characteristics 35.27
vs. oxt}ow 15.25 ||| + adv. 26.11 | SE 59.22
counterfactual use of impers. impf. KaAds 757 with circumstantial ppl. 52.37
eixe 34.17 | + dyn. inf. 51.8 | impers. yer + HSopa1 + ppl. 52.10 | voice characteristics
adv. 36.10 | mid. with pass. meaning 35.13 35.26
n.2 | + ppl. (periphrastic construction) 15Us comparative and superlative 5.43
52.53 | Zxouor + gen. 30.21 | 2xwv + pres. ni with adscript (long diphthong) > n
ind. continually 52.42 n.2 | xwv with 52.42 Kota in negative answers 38.21
n.1 HKw pres. with resultative sense 33.18
ew < no/nw (quantitative metathesis) 1.71 Hua Kauai
-éw/-éopar derivation of verbs in 23.44 | fut. fueis 7.1 ||| 29.1-4 | Aut ethical dat. 30.53 |||
in future, Attic | pres. in contract also pronoun, personal
present| verbs in, derived from compound NwEtepos 7.7-9 ||| also pronoun,
nounsandadjectives 23.50 ||| also verb possessive
stem, endingin 1/e hous in fractions 9.11
Zws introducing temporal clauses 47.2 | as haeavtév 7.3 ||| also pronoun,reflexive
long as vs. until 47.12 hv (=éav) > ci
-nv acc. ending of third-declension namesin
¢ 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of -n5 4.68
1.24, 1.33 nHveyxov forms with a 13.32
Zeus 4.86-7 fwixa introducing temporal clauses 47.2 |
Zéw verb stem in o 13.18 introducing temporalclauses following the
Cnw contraction 12.19 matrix clause 47.7 n.2
-Cw/-Jopat pres. in 12.27 nap heteroclitic 4.90
News 4.89
7 1.1 | addedto pf. mp. stems 19.33 | addedto -ns, - s adj., with stem in o 5.28-30
sigm. fut. stems 15.30 | added to 6n-aor. -not locative 6.7
stems 14.28 | added to x-pf. stems 18.24 | nouxos comparative and superlative 5.39
contraction of 1.59-60, 1.63-4 | as tytTdopat pres. with resultative sense 33.18
numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of 1.15 | nu pronunciation of 1.22
shortenedto ¢ (Osthoff s law) 1.70 | n < & -Nw pres. in contract present
(Att.-Ion.) 1.57
7 59.19 | in alternative questions 38.10 | 6 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of
comparative with 7 xaté + acc./# dote + 1.24, 1.26 | result of elision 1.34-5 | verb
inf. too...to... 32.13 | after comparatives stems ending in verb stem, ending in
(than) 32.6-7 | placement60.6 dental stop ||| also dental stop
7 (particle) 59.48 | placement 60.6 | in yes/ Gatepos 1.45 n.3
no-questions 38.6 | 7 uv 59.65 Gaupae + indirect exclamation 42.10 | +
-f) nominal suffix 23.8 indirect question 42.2 | intensive pf. 33.37
n-aorist aorist, n- @ecopor voice characteristics 35.27
n pronunciation of 1.22 | subscriptvs. @ép1s impers. GEurs EoTi 36.8
adscript 1.5, 1.22 -Gev suffix in origin adv. 6.11
7 in comparisonclauses 50.38 | introducing 8205 voc. 4.29
relative clauses 50.34 | relative adv. 50.1 8n-aorist aorist, On-
-1) VS. - 1 as 2 sg pres. ind. mp. ending 12.7 n.1 -61 suffix in adv. of place 6.11
@vnoKw/-noKw pf. té6vnKka, conjugation stem, ending in velar stop||| also > velar
18.27-32 stop
@pi 4.39 x- Ion. pronouns(andattitudinal trou) >
Buyatnp 4.62-3 TOU; TOU; TroTE; TroTe; etc.
xa@atrep in comparison clauses 50.37
1 1.1 | alternation between ¥ andi KadeJonan Kabilo
( lengthening ) 1.67-9| alternation with y KaGevSw augm./reduplication 11.57
1.74-5 | contraction of 1.63 | lost in crasis KaOnpyar augm./reduplication 11.57
1.45 n.2 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation KadiZeo augm./reduplication 11.57
of 1.15 | subscript vs. adscript 1.22, 1.5 Kafiornpt/-iorapar + 2x acc. 30.10 | voice
-1 original locative 6.8 characteristics 35.17 n.1 | xaBiotapaas
-i deictic iota 7.18 ||| deictic iota 29.36 linking verb 26.8
-1-/-1n- opt. sufhix 11.16 Kai 59.20-22 | with circumstantial ppl.
-ig nominal suffix 23.16 (concessive) 52.44 | difference with &¢
iSia (adv.) origin/formation of 6.4 59.21 | placement60.6 | kai... 8 59.67|
idpwo contraction 12.20 Kai yap 59.66 | kat Sr 59.68 | Kai 81) Kat
igpos + gen. 30.23 59.69-70 | kai pty 59.71 | Kai d5 28.29 | Kai
-iZw/-iZopan -iZw as productive suffix 23.48| tatita with circumstantial ppl. 52.44 | after
Att. fut. of verbs ending in 15.33 6 autos, etc. 32.14 | ouTw Kai 50.37
inut aor. act./mid. 13.51-62 | pres., overview adverbial 59.56 | placement60.6, 60.24|
12.34-5 | @n-aor. 14.15 strengthening superlatives 32.10 | ci xai/
161 ciul Kai ef 49.19-21
ixavos + dyn. inf. 51.9 kaitrep with circumstantial ppl. 52.44
-1K0s, -1, -Ov nominal suffix 23.17 Kaito1 59.23
TAews 5.12 KaKds comparative and superlative 5.43 |||
ipepos + dyn.inf. 51.9 KaK& A yoo/&kove 30.13 | KaKdds Aéyoo/
iva introducing purpose clauses 45.2 &Kkouw 30.13 n.1
-iveo pres. in 12.28 KaAéw + 2x acc. 30.10
-1ov nominalsuffix 23.18 KaAds Comparative and superlative 5.43|||
-10$, -1&, -1ov nominal suffix 23.19 impers. KaAdv éoT1 36.8
-ipw pres. in 12.28 xapa heteroclitic 4.90
-ioKos, -ioxn nominal sufhix 23.20 Kkaté comparative with 7 katé& + acc. too...
-19405 nominal suffix 23.22 to ... 32.13 | overview of uses 31.8
isos + dat./Kai 30.40, 32.14 KaTaylyvwoKe + acc. + gen. 30.22
iotnyr/iotapa: more than onetypeofaor. KaTapvéopar + ur + inf. 51.34 5
13.64 | pf. £oTnKa, conjugation 18.27-32 | Katatibnpt/-tisepar indirect-reflexive mid.
pres., overview 12.34-5 | reduplication of 35.9
11.48 | @n-aor. 14.15 ||| pf. oTnKa with Katawn@ifopar + acc. + gen. 30.22
pres. meaning 33.36 | voice characteristics KaTHYyopéw + acc. + gen. 30.22
35.7, 35.17 | voice characteristics Katoikt(e)ipw + indirect exclamation 42.10
(overview) 35.35 Kate 6.10
iotopéw + 2x acc. 30.9 K&w/Kaiw no contraction 12.18 | verb stem in
-10TOS, -n, -ov superlative 5.41-3 e 12.29 n.1
-(i)wov, -(1)ov comparative 5.41-4 KeIpat 12.43
Keivos /.15 n.1
« 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of xeipw/-opar direct-reflexive mid. of 35.11
1.24, 1.26 | verb stems ending in > verb Keioge 8.2
KeAeUw + dyn. inf. 51.8 speech 33.18 n.3 | Kaxé/KaKds/eyaba/ed

Kévos comparative and superlative 5.39 Agyow 30.13 | Agyew T1 29.42||| also > citrov
Kevow + acc. + gen. 30.22 Anyw + gen. 30.21 | + pres. ppl. 52.9
xépas heteroclitic 4.90 Aiav origin/formation 6.6
Kivéuves éott + fear clause 43.1 -AAwo/-AAOMat pres. in 12.28
KA&w/KAaiw no contraction 12.18 | verb stem AoyiZopan + decl. inf. 51.19 | voice
inf 12.29 nl characteristics 35.27
KAives/-opat pres. nasal infix extended to Aovw/Aovopar contraction 12.21 | direct-
other stems 12.30 n.2 ||| voice reflexive mid. of 35.11
characteristics 35.17 Ave1 (impers.) = AuvoiteAci 36.7
Koivds + dat. 30.40 | xoivf (adv.), origin/ AvoiteAci (impers.) + dat. + inf. 30.38, 36.4 |
formation of 6.4 Avei for 36.7
Kopile/-opat voice characteristics 35.17
Kopn 4.16 pw 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of
-Koo101 numerals 9.1, 9.4 1.24, 1.29 ||| also > resonant
Koopiw/-gouar direct-reflexive mid. -"a, -watos nominal suffix 23.21
of 35.11 Haivopar intensive pf. 33.37
Kpa&{w intensive pf. 33.37 uaKpdos comparative and superlative 5.43|
Kpatéw + gen. 30.21 yakpdy (adv.), origin/formation of
Kpatus (Hom.) comparative and superlative 6.4 n.1
5.43 ucAa comparative and superlative 6.13 |
Kpive pres. nasal infix extended to other origin/formation 6.6 ||| in affirmative
stems 12.30 n.2 answers 38.21 wé&AAovinstead of
KpuTTTw + 2x acc. 30.9 comparative 32.7 | u&AAov # followed by
KTé&opat reduplication 11.48||| voice comparative 32.12
characteristics 35.22-3 pHav@dves differences between complement
KuUKAw (adv.) origin/formation of 6.5 constructions 52.23 | + dyn.inf. 51.8 | +
Kupéw + gen. 30.21 indirect question 42.2 | + indirect
KUoov 4.54 statement 41.3 | + ppl. 52.10
Kx pronunciation of 1.32 paptus 4.60
KwAvuw + inf. 51.36 n.1 watny origin/formation 6.6
ucxopar + dat. 30.39 | voice characteristics
A 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of 35.24
1.24, 1.30 | verb stems ending in verb péyas 5.13-14 | comparative and superlative
stem, ending in resonant||| also > 5.43 | utya/peydAws (adv.), origin/
resonant formation of 6.4
A&@pa origin/formation 6.6 méAas 5.23-4
A&Aos comparative and superlative 5.39 wéAet (impers.) + dat. 30.38 | + dat. + gen.
AapPaveo AaB, accentuation 24.17 ||| AaBoov 30.21, 36.15 | + effort clause 44.1
with 52.42 n.1 méAAw augm. 7- 11.41 ||| + dyn. inf. 51.33 | +
Aav@aves + ppl. 52.11 fut. inf. 51.33 | 2ueAAov in counterfactual
A&oKw intensive pf. 33.37 constructions 34.17, 49.11 | gueAAov + fut.
Aéyw more than onetypeofaor. 13.63 | AcE inf. representing fut. ind. in indirect
vs. citrov 13.38 n.2 ||| + 2x acc. 30.10 | + dat. statement (with verbs of perception,etc.)
(indirect object) 30.37 | + decl. inf. 51.19 | 41.15
+ dyn.inf. vs. + decl. inf. 51.32 | + indirect Hépvnpan + ppl. 52.10
statement 41.3 | pres. to refer to past Méuqopan voice characteristics 35.27
pév 59.24-5 | equivalent to pny 59.25 | unxaveopai + effort clause 44.1 | voice
placement60.5 | pév 57 (... 82) 59.74 | pév characteristics 35.27
otv 59.72 | uév ot(... ) 59.73 | uév Totvuv -u1 present present, athematic
(... 5) 59.73 | Opév ... 6 88... 28.27 EiKpdés Comparative and superlative 5.43 |
-wev- ppl. sufhix 11.16 pixpdv (adv.)/uiKkpot (adv.), origin/
pévtor 59.26-8 | adversative 59.27 | formation of 6.4
emphasizing 59.28 | placement60.5 | ot MipvnoKw/-onat reduplication 11.48 ||| +
uevtor GAA 59.75 gen. 30.21 | pf. wéuvnucn with pres.
véve as linking verb 26.8-9 meaning 33.36 | voice characteristics 35.19
Héoos attributive vs. predicative position wiv 7.2 ||| 29.3
28.22 ployw Usiyvuul
HMeotos + gen. 30.23 yc8dw/-dopan indirect-reflexive mid. of 35.9
peta used as adv.6.12 | uéta = péteoT1/péTEIo1 pve 4.14
24.37, 36.6 ||| overview of uses 31.8 | used Hoyts, HOAts Origin/formation 6.6
as adv. 31.6 Pol > eyo
MeTapéAe(impers.) + dat. + gen. 30.21, 36.15 wovos 29.47
| + dat. + ppl. 52.10, 52.15 -"s, -yoU nominalsuffix 23.22
MeTapéAopan + ppl. 52.10 mupio1/pupion accentuation 9.9
uetagu preposition (improper) 31.9 wav 59.36 | in yes/no-questions 38.8 | ydv ot
wérerpi + dat. + gen. 36.15 | impers. yéteot: + in yes/no-questions 38.9
dat. + gen. 30.21 | impers. péteot: + dat. +
inf. 36.4 v 1.1 | movable 1.39, 25.14 n.1 | as numeral
Metexw + gen. 30.21 9.13 | pronunciation of 1.24, 1.29 | verb
HéToXOs + gen. 30.23 stems ending in verb stem, endingin
Méxp1 preposition (improper) 31.9 péxpr resonant||| also resonant
(oW) introducing temporalclauses vaus 4.86-7
47.2 | as long as vs. until 47.13 vikéw pres. with resultative sense 33.18
un overview of uses 56 | placement 60.6 | uy viv 7.2 ||| 29.3
(ov) + subj. expressing tentative assertion vopiZw + decl. inf. 51.19 | intensive pf. 33.37 |
34.10 | ob ut + aor. subj. expressing strong + 2x acc. 30.10
belief 34.9 | vopos + dyn. inf. 51.9
un, conjunction introducing fear clauses vt adj. with stem in (éxoov, &koov, T&s)
(neg. ut ot) 43.3-6 | introducing purpose 5.15-16
clauses 45.2 -vt- ppl. suffix 11.16
undapot ovdauou -vupt pres, in 12.33, 12.39
unde ovds; un vuv (particle) 59.29-30 | placement 60.5
undseis ovdeis; ut viv 8.2 | origin/formation 6.6 ||| 1d viv civen
mnxéett k in 1.42 n.2 ||| also > odkéty un 51.49
unv 59.49 | placement 60.5 | &AAG phy vue 4.42 n.1
59.60 | 4 uty 59.65 | kai unv 59.71 | ot uv vo 10.6
GAAK 59.75 | oF pty OBE 59.76 | OSE phy
39.76 1.1 | and aspiration 1.97 n.1 | as numeral
Nntrote oUTIOTE; UN 9.13 | pronunciation of 1.24, 1.33
MNTrw oUTTH; UN) fuv ouv
ente OUTS; Ut)
untnp 4.62-3 | accentuation 24.24 o 1.1 | alternation between o and w or ou
untpws 4.89 ( lengthening ) 1.67-9, also ablaut|
contraction of 1.59-60, 1.62-4 | as dAiyou (adv.), origin/formation of6.4 |||

numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of 1.15 | dAiyou Bdeiv 51.49
shortened from w (Osthoff s law) 1.70 é6AAum1/SAAUpa More than onetypeofpf. act.
6, h, TO article 18.26 ||| voice characteristics 35.17 | voice
6 T1671 VS. 6 117.20 n.1 characteristics 35.7
68¢ 7.13 ||| combined with éxeivos (the former OAos 29.46
...) the latter 29.33 | main uses 29.29| d6Aogupopan voice characteristics 35.27
typically cataphoric when referring within S6pvupi + dyn.inf. vs. + decl. inf. 51.31
texts 29.32 Spotos + dat./kai 32.14 | + dat. 30.40 | dpotcs
6@ev introducing relative clauses (adv.), origin/formation 6.3 n.2 | dpotes
50.34 (adv.), combined with comparative
6Pouvexa introducing causal clauses (in circumstantial ppl. 52.43
poetry) 48.2 | introducingindirect OyoAoyéw in affirmative answers 38.21
statements (in poetry) 41.4 n.1 6pov 6.9 ||| preposition (improper) 31.9
o1 pronunciation of 1.21 6yNs5/S5yws origin/formation 6.3 n.2
oi introducingrelative clauses 50.34 dveipos heteroclitic 4.91
-o1 elision of 1.38 | usually short at word end étrn 8.2 ||| introducing indirect questions
for accentuation 24.10 42.5 | relative adv. 50.1
oia with circumstantial ppl. 52.39 étrio@ev preposition (improper) 31.9
oiyvupt/oiyw augm./redupl. 11.40 | pf. OTricw 6.10
-ewyal/-ewya 18.25 é7ro@ev relative adv. 50.1
oiSa overview of forms 18.4 | pf. conjugation trot 8.2 ||| introducing indirect questions
18.23 | differences between complement 42.5 | introducingrelative clauses 50.34|
constructions 52.23 | + indirect question relative adv. 50.1
42.2 | + indirect statement 41.3 | pf. with étrotos 7.23, 8.1 ||| introducing indirect
pres. meaning 33.36 | + ppl. 52.10 questions 42.5 | introducingrelative
oixot locative 6.8 clauses 50.28 | relative adj. 50.1
oipo1 in exclamations 38.50 étréad0s 7.23, 8.1 ||| anticipated by tas 50.30|
oiopat/oipa2 sg. pres. ind. (oie1) 12.7 n.1 | introducing indirect questions 42.5 |
forms without them. vowel 12.14 ||| + decl. introducingrelative clauses 50.28 | relative
inf. 51.19 | voice characteristics 35.26 adj. 50.1
oios 7.23, 8.1 ||| adverbial ofov/oia for étréte 8.2 ||| anticipated by tét¢ 50.36|
example 50.32 | in exclamations of degree introducing indirect questions 42.5 |
38.47-8 | impers. oidv té ot: 36.8 | impers. introducing temporal clauses 47.2, 47.6,
oidv Té 2o71 + acc.-and-inf. 51.11 | 48.3 4 | dos Orde in comparative temporal
introducing indirect exclamations 42.11 | clauses 47.17
introducingrelative clauses 50.28, 50.5 | OTrotepos 7.23
introducing result clauses with inf. 46.10 | trou 8.2 ||| introducing indirect questions
relative adj. 50.1 | oiov/ota with 42.5 | introducingrelative clauses 50.34|
circumstantial ppl. 52.39 | oids té (eip) + relative adv. 50.1
dyn.inf. 51.9 Strws 8.2 ||| in comparison clauses 50.37 |
ois 4.77 conjunctionin indirect statements 41.4 n.1
oixopar with ppl. expressing mannerof | in effort clause (with fut. ind.) effort
departure 52.42 n.3 | pres. with resultative clause | + fut. ind. in exhortations
sense 33.18 | voice characteristics 35.25 (independentuse) 38.34 | introducing
dAiyos comparatives and superlatives 5.43| indirect questions 42.5 | introducing
dAiyov (adv.), origin/formation of6.4 | purpose clauses 45.2 | relative adv. 50.1
épaw augm./redupl. 11.40 | i8¢, accentuation ov forms (otx, obx, otxi) 1.42 | accentuation
24.17 |||| + effort clause 44.1 | + indirect (ov vs. o&) 24.36 ||| overview of uses 56 |
question 42.2 | + indirect statement 41.3 | placement 60.6 | ot in negative answers
with indirect statement(historic sequence) 38.21 | ob pévtor GANG 59.75 | ot pt + subj.
41.15 | + ppl. 52.9-10 in emphatic denials 34.9 | ot pty &AAG
dpyiZw/-opar + dat. 30.39 | voice 59.75 | ot uty ot5 59.76
characteristics 35.19 ov (adv.) introducing relative clauses 50.34
és, h, 6 relative pronoun 7.20, 8.1 | as form of ov/ot (third-person pronoun) 7.2 | used as
article article||| relative pronoun 50.1 | reflexive pronoun7.5 ||| not used in Att. as
vs. 6oTis definite relative: vs. indefinite personal pronoun 29.2 | used asreflexive
relative ||| also > pronoun,relative; pronoun 29.18 | placement 60.5
relative clause ov- augmentation of verbs beginning with
-0g, -n/-&, -ov adj. 5.1-2 11.41
-os, -ov adj., of two endings 5.7-11 ousapou 56.1
-os, -ov nominal suffix 23.23 oudsapeis in negative answers 38.21
-ds, -o¥ nominal suffix 23.24 ode 56.1, 59.31 | ot pty o¥&E 59.76 | 008 ei
-os, -ous nominal suffix 23.25 49.19 | o&Sé uty 59.76
Sa0s5 7.23, 8.1 ||| anticipated by tr&s 50.30 | ovdeis 9.3 | ovSév as numeral 9.13 ||] 56.1 |
(dat. of measure) toooUTtw ... do the oudsEevos EATTwV/yYEipwv/etc. 32.13
more ... the more ... 32.11 | in ouKéTti 56.1
exclamations of degree 38.47-8 | ovKxotv 59.33 | in yes/no-questions 38.7
introducing indirect exclamations 42.11 | ouKouv 59.33
introducingrelative clauses 50.5, 50.28| ovv 59.34-6 | with indefinite relative
introducing result clauses with inf. 46.10 | pronouns/adj. (doticoty, etc.) 59.35 |
pronominal vs. adnominal use 38.47| placement60.5 | dN otv 59.61 | yap otv
relative adj. 50.1 59.63 | 8 ot 59.64 | pév otv 59.72 | uév obv
Sotrep 7.21 ||| after 6 atitds, etc. 32.15 (... 8) 59.73
dotis 7.20, 8.1 ||| introducing indirect oUvexa introducing causal clauses 48.2 |
questions 42.5 | introducingrelative clause introducing indirect statements 41.4 n.1, |
with result value 50.25 | introducing also Evexa
relative clauses 50.5 | relative pronoun 50.1 ouTrote 56.1
| Sots troté 50.4 out 56.1
doppaivoyat voice characteristics 35.27 n.3 -oUs, -7/-&, -odv nominal suffix 23.26 | adj.
éte anticipated by téte 50.36 | introducing 5.5-6
temporal clauses 47.2 | introducing -ous, -ouv adj., of two endings 5.7-11
temporal clauses with causal force 47.6, ote 56.1, 59.32 | placement 60.6
48.3-4 | 6tav (with dv) 47.2 | as Ste in evtos 7.14 | anticipating or following
comparative temporal clauses 47.17 correlative clause (oUtos ... d0tis) 50.5 |
6111 not elided 1.36 ||| as answer to (81c) Ti; combined with éxeivos (the former ...) the
48.1 n.1 | introducing causal clauses 48.2 | latter 29.33 | main uses 29.30 | typically
introducing indirect statements 41.4-6 | anaphoric whenreferring within texts
recitativum (introducing direct speech) 29.32
41.5 | with superlative (as ... as possible) oUtw(s) 8.2 | movable s 1.40 | origin/
32.4 | vs. cs in indirect statements 41.6 formation 6.3 n.3 | anticipating or
ou pronunciation of 1.21 spurious 1.23 following comparison clauses (ottws...
| result of compensatory lengthening os/Strws/otrep) 50.37 | anticipating or
1.67-9 | result of contraction 1.59-60 following correlative clauses (ottas ...
as) 50.5 | anticipating relative clauses with Telos treCfj (adv.), origin/formation of
result value 50.25 | anticipating result 6.4
clauses (otita(s) ... ote) 46.2 | obta Kat Trei@w/-opa1 more than onetypeof aor. 13.64
50.37 | émri8dunv vs. étreioOqv 14.20 n.2 ||| + dyn.
ouX ou inf. vs. + decl. inf. 51.32 | pf. té1roi8a with
OpetAw ageAov agelov pres. meaning 33.36 | voice characteristics
égpa introducing purpose clauses 35.19 | treifopon + dat. 30.39 | treifopon +
45.2 n.1 gen. 30.21
éwios comparative and superlative 5.39 tee (noun) 4.89
-6w/-dopat derivation ofverbs in 23.45 | pres. Treivynw contraction 12.19
in contract present||| also verb stem, TeAaZoo + dat. 30.39
ending in w/o TréAas origin/formation 6.6 ||| preposition
(improper) 31.9
qr 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of Trévns adj. of one ending 5.32 | comparative
1.24, 1.26 | verb stems ending in verb and superlative 5.39
stem, endingin labial stop ||| also labial trep 59.55 | with circumstantial ppl. 52.44 n.1
stop | placement60.5 | in relative clauses after 6
tra1Seveo/-opar voice characteristics atités, etc. 32.15 | d0Trep dotrep
(overview) 35.33 tépa(v) preposition (improper) 31.9
TaAaids comparative and superlative 5.39 trepi 1 not elided 1.36||| overview of
Tat origin/formation 6.6 uses 31.8 | in themes 60.33 | 1épi following
trav- assimilating to following consonant gen. in Att. prose 60.14
1.93 nl Teptyiyvopar + gen. 30.21
TavtTatraoct in affirmative Treplopaw + pres. ppl. 52.9
answers 38.21 TréTowa: more than onetypeof aor. 13.64|||
tavu origin/formation 6.6 | in affirmative voice characteristics 35.25
answers 38.21 try (indefinite) 8.2 ||| originally dat. of
Trapa Tapa = wa&peoTi/Trapeior 24.37 ||| manner 30.44 n.2 mF (interrogative)
overview of uses 31.8 | 1é&pa = Trd&peoTti/ 8.2 ||| originally dat. of manner
TapEtor 36.6 30.44 n.2 | introducing indirect questions
TrapayyéAAw + dat. (indirect object) 30.37 42.5
Trapadofos compoundtype 23.38 THhyvupt/tHyvupar voice characteristics
Trapaivéw + dat. (indirect object) 30.37 35,17
tTrapatrav origin/formation 6.12 TNAIKos 7.25 n.1
TrapacKeuaZw/-opar + effort clause 44.1 | TIPTTAHML + acc. + gen. 30.22
voice characteristics (overview) 35.34| tTitrtw reduplication 11.48
voice characteristics 35.2, 35.11 tmiotevw + dat. 30.39 | + decl. inf. 51.19
Tapaxpipa origin/formation 6.12 -TTAAOLOS, -a, -ov 9.12
tTrepeoti (impers.) + dat. + inf. 36.4 TlAatatéo1 locative 6.7
Trapéxw + acc. + dat. 30.37 Aéw contraction 12.17 | primitive verb
Tapoige preposition (improper) 31.9 23.44 n.4
mas 5.15-16 ||| 29.45 TAEws 5.12
tratnp 4.62-3 | accentuation 24.24 TAnv preposition (improper) 31.9
Travw/-opar + gen. 30.21 | + pres. ppl. 52.9 | + TANpHs + gen. 30.23
acc. + gen. 30.22 | differences between TANpow + acc. + gen. 30.22
complement constructions 52.27 | + dyn. TAnsiov preposition (improper) 31.9
inf. 51.8 | + inf. 51.36 n.1| + pres. ppl. 52.9 -TrA0Us, -TrAN, -TrAoUv 9.12
troéev (indefinite) 8.2 trdéev -TrTtw/-TrTOpat pres. in 12.27

(interrogative) 8.2 ||| introducing indirect TTu@0i locative 6.8
questions 42.5 tuvGdvoyar differences between
trot (indefinite) 8.2 trot (interrogative) complementconstructions 52.20|
8.2 ||| introducing indirect questions 42.5 differences between complement
Trotéw + 2x acc. 30.9-10 | + effort clause 44.1 | constructions 52.25 | + indirect question
Trept TroAAOU/dAtyou Troigopan 35.27 42.2 | + indirect statement 41.3 | + ppl.
troios 7.25 52.9, 52.10 | pres. to refer to past learning
TroAepéw + dat. 30.39 33.18 03
TroAts declension type 4.74-8 mip 4.61
rods 5.13-14 | comparative and superlative mq pronunciation of 1.32
5.43 | 1oAAd (adv.), origin/formation of 6.4 aws (indefinite) 8.2 rds
| tToAU (adv.), origin/formation of 6.4 (interrogative) 8.2 | origin/formation 6.3
Tropeuw/-owat voice characteristics 35.17 n.3 ||| introducing indirect questions 42.5 |
Tréppw 6.10 ||| preposition (improper) 31.9 Tas yap (ov); in answers 38.21
Trogos 7.25
tote (indefinite) 8.2 ||| placement 60.5 | ep 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of
doTis toté 50.4 rote (interrogative) 1.24, 1.30 | verb stems ending in verb
8.2 ||| introducing indirect questions 42.5 stem, ending in resonant| po > pp in Att.
Trotepa/trotepov in alternative questions 1.84 n.1 ||| also > resonant
38.10 | introducing indirect questions 42.4 6&5105 comparative and superlative 5.43 ||| +
Trotepos 7.25 dyn.inf. 51.9
trou (indefinite) 8.2 ||| placement 60.5 péw contraction 12.17 | primitive verb 23.44
trot (interrogative) 8.2 ||| introducing n.4
indirect questions 42.5 enyvumt/pnyvupar voice characteristics
trou (particle) 59.50 | placement 60.5 SO:LF
TIPATTW TTETIPAXG VS. TETTPAya 18.25 prywe contraction 12.20
Tpétre impers. tpt: + acc.-and-inf. pp/po po > pp in Att. 1.84 n.1 | Ion. po
construction 51.11 | impers. wpétre: + dat. 25.13 ||| po used by some Att. authors 25.4
+ inf. 30.38, 36.4 n.l
tpiv constructions used with 47.14 |
introducing temporal clauses 47.2 | mpiv 74 o 1.1 | lost between two consonants 1.94-5|
47.14, 47.2 as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of 1.24,
po overview of uses 31.8 | 1pd Tod 28.30 1.27 | verb stems ending in verb stem,
Trpotxw + gen. 30.21 ending in o| c (lunate) 1.4| ovs.s 1.4|o<
pos used as adv. 6.12 ||| overview of uses oo 1.92 disappearanceof 1.74,
31.8 | used as adv. 31.6 1.83-4 | and augmentation 11.40, 11.47|
Trpoonxei (impers.) + dat. + inf. / + acc.-and- resulting in contraction 1.58
inf. 36.4, 51.8 parasitic in the pf. mp. 19.32 | in @n-aor.
TpooGev preposition (improper) 14.27
31.9 -o(a)- aor. formation 13.6-7, also aorist,
tpooinpt/-ieyar indirect-reflexive mid. of sigmatic; aorist, pseudo-sigmatic
35.9 Latr@w 4.89
Tpoow preposition (improper) 31.9 -oe sufhix in direction adv. 6.11
TIPOTEPOV, TIPG@TOV 6.13 TrpoTEepov h o(e)autot 7.3 ||| also pronoun, reflexive
constructions used with 47.13 | o1yn o1y7| (adv.), origin/formation of 6.5
introducing temporal clauses 47.2 -o1s, -ews Nominal suffix 23.27
oitos 4.28 owlw/-opai voice characteristics 35.17

o1wtréw intensive pf. 33.37 owtfpa-rule accentuation
-ox- iterative sufhx in Hdt. 25.42
oKétrropar voice characteristics 35.27 + 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of
oKotriw oxértouai | + effort clause 1.24, 1.26 | verb stems ending in verb
44.1 | intensive-frequentative of oxétTopot stem, ending in dental stop||| also >
23.44 n.3 dental stop
oxoTos heteroclitic 4.91 taAdas 5.23-4
ods 7.7-9 ||| also pronoun,possessive ta&v indeclinable 4.92
otrevdw + effort clause 44.1 -TaTos, -TaTH, -TaTov superlative 5.36-40
otrousalw + dyn. inf. 51.8 TatTw/-opar direct-reflexive mid.
oo/ttr development1.77 | oo for tt in some of 35.11
Att. authors 25.4 n.1 | oo for (Att.) 17 in -Tatws superlative adv. 6.14
Ion. 25.10 tavty 8.2 ||| 30.44 n.1 | anticipating
otadiov 4.28 comparison clause 50.38
oTéAAw/-opar voice characteristics 35.17 Taxus comparative and superlative 5.43|
otevds Comparative and superlative 5.39 tTaxu/taxéws (adv.), origin/formation of
otTe~avow/-dopan direct-reflexive mid. of 6.4 | (thv) taxiotny (adv.) 6.13 | (thy)
ao. taxlotnv (adv.), origin/formation of 6.4
otTpé@w/-opan voice characteristics 35.17 n.1
ov 7.1 ||| 29.1-4 | placement 60.5 | coi ethical te 59.37 | placement 60.5
dat. 30.53 ||| also pronoun,personal Texpaipopar voice characteristics 35.27
ouyylyvwoKkw + dat. 30.39 teAeuTaw Circumstantial ppl. of 52.37 n.1
GUAAEyw/-opar voice characteristics 35.17 teAéw verb stem in o 12.29 n.1, 13.18, 14.16,
oupPaives impers. oupBaiver + dat. + inf. 36.4 15.19, 23.44 n.2
oupPouAevw/-opai + dat. 30.39 | voice -téos, -a, -ov (verbal adj.) formation 23.29 |||
characteristics 35.27 n.3 impers. -téov, omission of cipi with 26.13 |
oungépw impers. oupgépe + dat. 30.38 | impers. use 36.14, 37.3 | as predicative
impers. oupqéper + dat. + inf. 36.4 complement37.2
ouv overview of uses 31.8 tépnv 5.24 n.2
ouv- (in compounds) assimilating to -TEPOS, -a, -ov Comparative 5.36-40
following consonant1.93 n.1 -Tépws comparative adv. 6.14
ouveAovTt eitrety 51.49 TétTTapes 9.2
-oUvn nominal suffix 23.28 THSe 8.2
oMGAAw/-opar voice characteristics THKw/-opar voice characteristics 35.17
Poke THAIKOOSe 7.17
oeis 7.2 ||| personal pronoun in Hdt. (and TNHAIKOUTOS 7.17
Att.) 29.6 -THP, -Tipos nominal suffix 23.30
o@étepos 7.7-9 -THpiov, -ou nominal suffix 23.31
oodpa origin/formation 6.1 n.1 -Tns, -ov nominal suffix 23.32
cow 10.6 -TNS, -THTOS Nominal suffix 23.33
opwv placement 60.5 +@ pronunciation of 1.32
spay avtév 7.3, | > pronoun, reflexive ti mpr aor. act./mid. 13.51-62 | pres.,
oxiya Attixov/oxijpa LomoKAziov overview 12.34-5 | @n-aor. 14.15 ||| + 2x
52.53 acc. 30.10
oXoAatos comparative and superlative 5.39 tixtw pres. with resultative sense
oXoAn + dyn. inf. 51.9 53:18
Tipwpéw/-gowor indirect-reflexive mid. of Tpinpns 4.71

35.9 Tpis 9.12
tiveo/-opar indirect-reflexive mid. of 35.9 -Tpov, -ou nominal suffix 23.35
tis (indefinite) 7.24, 8.1 | vs. tis -tTTw/-tTTopat pres. in 12.27
(accentuation) 24.38 n.1 ||| placement 60.5 tTuyxave + gen. 30.21 | + ppl. 52.11
| ei tis GAAS 29.42| civat tis 29.42 | Aéyerv Tr
29.42 ||| also pronoun,indefinite uv 1.1 | alternation between U and u
tis (interrogative) 7.24, 8.1 | vs. tis ( lengthening ) 1.67-9| alternation with ¢
(accentuation) 24.38 n.1 ||| introducing 1.74, 1.79-80 | contraction of 1.63 | not
indirect questions 42.5 | ti y&p (ot); in elided 1.36 | as numeral 9.13 |
answers 38.21 ||| also > pronoun, pronunciation of 1.15 | shortening
interrogative of u to & (Osthoff s law) 1.70
To wn after verbs of preventing and denying USwp heteroclitic 4.90
51.36 ut pronunciation of 1.21
to1 59.51 | placement 60.5 vids heteroclitic 4.91
toryap 59.38 | placement 60.6 Upeis 7.1 ||| 29.1-4 | Guiv ethical dat. 30.53 |||
To1ryapouv 59.38 also pronoun,personal
To1ryapto1 59.38 Upétepos 7.7 9 ||| also pronoun, possessive
toivuv 59.39 | placement 60.5 | pév Toivuy Upaeyv avtév 7.3 ||| also pronoun,reflexive
(... 8 ) 59.73 -uvw pres. in 12.28 | as productive suffix
Toios 8.1 23.48
to1o0de 7.16, 8.1 Uttép Overview of uses 31.8
toiottos 7.16, 8.1 ||| anticipating or Utioxvéopar + dyn. inf. vs. + decl. inf. 51.31 |
following correlative clause (to1ottos ... voice characteristics 35.27
ojos) 50.5, 50.28 | anticipating relative Utré overview of uses 31.8
clause with result value 50.25 | anticipating UTroAapPave + decl. inf. 51.19 | differences
result clauses (to1ottos ... ote) 46.2 between complementconstructions 52.24
toAuaw + dyn. inf. 51.3 n.3 Utrotrrevw + decl. inf. 51.19 | + fear clause
-166, -TH, -TOv (verbal adj.) formation 23.34| 43.1
uses 34.4 -Upw pres. in 12.28
tooos 8.1 -uS, -e1a, -u adj., with stem in u/er 5.21-2
toooods 7.16, 8.1 Uotepov, Uotatov 6.13
tocoUtos 7.16, 8.1 ||| anticipating or
following correlative clause (tocottos ... g 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of
S005) 50.28, 50.5 | anticipating result 1.24, 1.26 | result of elision 1.34-5 | verb
clauses (tooottos ... dot) 46.2 | dat. of stems ending in verb stem, ending in
measure toootTw ... dothe more... the labial stop||| also labial stop
more... 32.11 | é5 TOOOUTO ... doTE 46.2 gaives/-opar more than onetypeofpf. act.
Tote 8.2 18.26 ||| ooivetor + indirect statement 41.3
tov pH (ov) after verbs of preventing and | paivoyan + dat. (indirect object) 30.37 |
denying 51.36 paivoyar + dat. + decl. inf. 51.19 | patvouen
tpeis accentuation 24.23 | 9.2 + ppl. 52.10 | paivopor as linking verb 26.8 |
tTpétrw/-oat more than one type paivopa, differences between complement
of aor. 13.63-4 ||| voice characteristics constructions 52.24 | voice characteristics
Soe 35.7, 35.17 | voice characteristics
tTpégw/-opar voice characteristics 35.17 (overview) 35.36
pavepds impers. pavepdv goT1 36.8 | pavepds XOw Yovvuul

eiut + ppl. 52.10 xen accentuation 24.23 | ypfiv/éxpiv
pacKw oui (augm.) 11.41 ||] + acc.-and-inf. (dyn.)
pépw aor. act./mid. > iveyxov||| pépe/pepete 36.3, 51.8, 51.11 | counterfactual use of
in directives 38.27 | p¢pwv with 52.42 n.1 impf. (2)xpfv 34.17 | in directives 38.36 |
geu in exclamations 38.50 meaningsimilar to verbal adj. in -téos, -a,
gevyw pres. with resultative sense 33.18 -ov 37.3 n.l
gyi accentuation 24.17, 24.34 | forms built xpnopar contraction 12.19 | + dat. 30.39|
on stem gaox- 12.56 | pres., overview 12.36 indirect-reflexive mid. 35.9 | xypapevos with
||| in affirmative answers 38.21 | + decl. inf. 52.42 n.1
51.19 | o& our + decl. inf. 51.34 n.2 xpws heteroclitic 4.90
piaves + ppl. 52.11 xwpis preposition (improper) 31.9
@8eipw/-opar more than one typeofpf. act.
18.26 y 1.1 | and aspiration 1.97 n.1 | as
pPoviw + dat. 30.39 numeral 9.13 | pronunciation
gidos comparative and superlative 5.39 ||| + of 1.24, 1.33
dat. 30.40 | impers. piAov éoti + dat. + ppl. weudw EvevoOny vs. Eyevoaunv
taeda 14.20 n.1
poPiw/-zowar + fear clause 43.1 | intensivepf.
33.37 | voice characteristics 35.19 w 1.1 | contraction of 1.59-60, 1.63-4 | as
@ofPos éoti + fear clause 43.1 numeral 9.13 | pronunciation
popiw intensive-frequentative of pépw 23.44 of 1.15 | shortened to 0 (Osthoff s
n.3 law) 1.70
ppalw + indirect statement 41.3 o in nominal exclamations 38.50
gpovtifw + effort clause 44.1 | + fear clause -w suffix in direction adv. 6.10
43.1 | + gen. 30.21 -w present present, thematic
guys adj. of one ending 5.32 w pronunciation of 1.22 | subscriptvs.
QuAcTtTw/-opat pUAdTTOVAI + effort clause adscript 1.22, 1.5
44.1 | puA&ttopot + wt + inf. 51.34-5 wde 8.2
guw/-ova1 more than one type ofaor. w1 long diphthong, with adscript >
13.64 ||| pf. 1épuxa with pres. meaning dpor in exclamations 38.50
33.36 | voice characteristics 35.17, av (Ion.) > ovv
357 -wv, -ov adj., with stem in v 5.26-7
-wv, -@vos nominal suffix 23.36
x 1.1 | as numeral 9.13 | pronunciation of a@véouat voice characteristics 35.22-3
1.24, 1.26 | result of elision 1.34-5 | verb apa (got) + dyn. inf. 51.9
stems ending in verb stem, endingin ws origin/formation 6.3 n.3 ||| overview of
velarstop||| also velar stop uses 57 | vs. 51: in indirect statements 41.6 |
xaipw + indirect statement 41.3 | + ppl. 52.10 as i, Goel Conditional clause,
xaAetraive + dat. 30.39 comparative| as éte/61éTe temporal
XaAeTros impers. yaAETrov EoTt 36.8 clause, comparative | dds (21ros) eitretv 51.49
xapai locative 6.8 | os eikaxoal 51.49 | GS OUVEAOVTI EITTEIV
x&piv preposition (improper) 31.9 51.49 | as ta&x1oTa 47.2
Xeip 4.59 -ws manneradv. in 6.3
xé contraction 12.17 -ws, -wv adj., Att. second declension 5.12
x8és origin/formation 6.6 aotrep with circumstantial ppl. 52.43 | in
xiA1o1 9.1, 9.4 comparison clauses 50.37 | Sotrep ei/
ottep &v ei > conditional clause, augmentation 11.40 | after change & > n
comparative | aotrepavet with 1.57 n.3 | in Ion., with compensatory
circumstantial ppl. 52.43 n.1 lengthening 25.11 | and reduplication
@ote comparative with 7 ote + inf. 11.47| resulting in contraction 1.58, 1.65
too... to... 32.13 | introducing a new y (yod) 1.2, 1.31 disappearance of
sentence 46.4 | introducing result clauses 1.74-8 | and augmentation 11.40, 11.47|
46.2 | redundant (with dyn.inf.) 51.17 | resulting in contraction 1.58 | them.pres.
with &v + modal ind. 46.5 | with &v + opt. stem formation 12.26-9
46.5 | 4 ote 46.8 | Sote ph after verbs of *-y& nominal suffix 23.9
preventing and denying 51.36 *-yoo verbal suffix 23.42-8
@@eAov in unrealizable wishes 38.40 ¢ (stigma) 1.2 | as numeral 9.13
-ww pres. in contract present %> (sampi) 1.2 | as numeral 9.13
9 (koppa) 1.2 | as numeral 9.13
¢ (digamma) 1.2, 1.31 | as numeral 9.13 | | (vocalic) 1.85, 1.87
verb stems ending in verb stem, ending m (vocalic) 1.85-6
in s disappearanceof1.79-82 | at end n (vocalic) 1.85-6
of verb stem (pres.) 12.25 | and r (vocalic) 1.85, 1.87

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THE CAMBRIDGE GRAMMAR OF

ALBERT RIJKSBARON is emeritus professor of Ancient Greek Linguistics at the

Luuk HuITINK is currently employed as a postdoctoral research fellow on the ERC

MATHIEU DE BAKKER is university lecturer at the classics department of the

LUUK HUITINK Universitat Heidelberg

University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

© Cambridge University Press 2019

PART I: PHONOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY 1

The Signs and Soundsof Classical Greek 3

2 Introduction to Nominal Forms 35

Building Blocks: Stems and Endings 35

Further Notes and Exceptions 60

5 Adjectives and Participles 63

8 Correlative Pronouns and Adverbs 99

10 The Dual: Nominal Forms 105

11 Introduction to Verb Forms 108

Personal Endings 116

12 The Present 128

Present Stems with a Long and Short Variant 142

13 The Aorist: Active and Middle 147

14 The Aorist: Passive (6n-/n-) 168

Overview of Forms 169

15 The Future: Active and Middle 180

16 The Future: Passive (6n-/n-) 194

17 The Perfect (and Future Perfect): Introduction 197

18 The Perfect: Active 199

19 The Perfect: Middle-Passive 212

Verb Stems Ending in a Velar Stop 218

20 The Future Perfect 222

21 The Dual: Verb Forms 224

22 Principal Parts 228

23 Word Formation 260

The Rule of Limitation 279

25 Ionic and Other Dialects 293

PART II: SYNTAX 305

26 Introduction to Simple Sentences 307

Optional Constituents 313

28 The Article 328

The Article as Substantivizer 335

29 Pronouns and Quantifiers 339

33 The Verb: Tense and Aspect 404

34 The Verb: Mood 438

Further Particulars 440

35 The Verb: Voice 447

36 Impersonal Constructions 465

37 Verbal Adjectives 471

38 Questions, Directives, Wishes, Exclamations 474

39 Introduction to Complex Sentences 491

40 Introduction to Finite Subordinate Clauses 494

41 Indirect Statements 502

42 Indirect Questions and Indirect Exclamations 517

43 Fear Clauses 522

Effort Clauses 526

45 Purpose Clauses 529

46 Result Clauses 531

47 Temporal Clauses 536

48 Causal Clauses 546

Construction of Causal Clauses 546