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MECHANISM OF DISEASE RESISTANCE

BY. DR. CECILIA V. BAUTISTA

• Resistance to disease is quite common in the plant kingdom

• Majority of the plants are not infected by a given pathogen because it does not carry the specific molecules called
“recognition factor” that cannot be recognized by a given pathogenic organism as its host
• Similarly, if the pathogen does not produce elicitor molecules that are recognized by the host, no host pathogen
interaction and no infection occurs
• Non-host and resistant plant cultivars are usually equipped with pre-existing as well as inducible mechanisms for
depending themselves against pathogenic attack
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
A. Defense Mechanism to Penetration
• The cuticle offers a physical as well as a chemical barrier to penetration of most pathogens
- young tissues are generally more prone to infection because their cuticle is thinner than the mature
tissues.
- the waxy layers on the cuticle also offer some degree of resistance. Waxes induce water on inclined leaf
and fruit surfaces to run off, thus limiting the formation of infection droplets.
• The outer epidermal wall offers physical resistance particularly to wound pathogens which can readily penetrate the
bruised epidermis
- thick and tough epidermis may hinder spore liberation thereby reducing the inoculum
• Stomatal opening also provides resistance to infection of pathogens that enters through stomates.
- closed or partially closed stomata prevents entry of the pathogen.
- narrow stomata with broad projecting guard cells that almost cover the opening hinders the entrance of
the pathogen.
• Presence of compounds which are found inhibitory to fungi
- The cutin of citrus lime contain acids which are toxic to the fungus Colletotrichum limetticola.
- Colored scales of red onion makes them resistant to smudge caused by Colletotrichum circinans while
unpigmented onion varieties are susceptible. This is because of the catechol and catechuic acid secreted by the
onion scales
- exudates from roots can be toxic or antagonistic to the pathogen
B. Passive defense mechanism to establishment of the pathogen
- these are induced as well as preformed defense mechanisms in the host.

The preexisting mechanisms of defense include the following:

a. lack of a nutrient that is required by the microorganisms
Unavailability of nutrients in the host and inadequate enzyme potential of the pathogen
- some microorganisms are so specialized in their food requirements and may find the plants not capable of
providing the needed growth factor
- some can synthesize enzymes in the absence necessary growth factor if they have the full complement of
enzymes required for synthesis.
-The organisms that lacks these enzymes will not be able to establish a parasitic relationship with the host.
b. presence of toxic substances
c. inability of the pathogen to form the enzymes necessary for further invasion
d. presence of tissues that block the progress of the would-be pathogen such as lignified and suberized layers,
endodermis, sclerenchyma, and
e. unfavorable factors within the tissues such as moisture stress, too high or too low pH for the pathogen,
unfavorable osmotic concentration, etc.

Example to illustrate the nutritional factor as a resistant mechanism.

- resistance of white cultivars with low reducing sugar content to bacterial soft rot caused by Pectobacterium
carotovorum subsp. atroseptivum. The pathogen apparently thrives better in potato with high reducing sugar
1. Pre-formed toxic substances inside the cells
- tannins and other phenolic compounds such as caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid and hydroquinones have fungitoxic
properties
- senescent potato roots are more susceptible to Verticillium alboatrum than younger roots probably because of the
decreasing chlorogenic acid content of the aging roots.

This compound is also believed to be involved in the ressitance of potato tubers to Streptomyces scabies.
Sterols have been implicated in resistant mechanism
- Tomatine, a steroid glycoalkaloid in tomato and other solanaceous plants was found toxic to microorganisms
which are not pathogenic to tomato but rather to other pathogens
2. Osmotic pressure and parasitism
- a high osmotic pressure and reduced permeability in plant cells would make them difficult for invading
microorganisms to obtain water and nutrients from them, thus rendering them more resistant.
C. Active defense mechanisms to the pathogen establishment
- active defense mechanisms are those resorted to by the host in response to the activities of the pathogen.
- they are not pre-formed or preexisting in the plant.
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1. Mechanical barriers to pathogenesis

- formation of corky layer around the infected area to seal off the pathogen from healthy tissues. The corky tissue
should be formed rapidly enough to be effective.
Ex. Streptomyces scabies is successfully walled off in resistant potato ciltivar “Menomonee” but not in susceptible
“Smooth-Rural where cork development is quite slow. A shot hole effect is produced when the tissues surrounding
the corky layer dies.
- formation of gums, resins and other exudates that are formed in response to pathogen invasion also offer some
resistance. These substances may be fungitoxic and provide a mechanical barrier when they dry up into hard, solid
masses.
Ex. Plum cultivars that are susceptible to silver disease caused by Stereum purpureum because they produce only
small amounts of gum.
2. Hypersensitivity
- is the rapid localized death of host cells around the pathogen.
- this will result to the confinement or even death of the pathogen as it becomes surrounded by dead cells.
-it has been reported that in hypersensitive reaction, compounds called phytoalexins are formed by the plant cells in
response to infection.
3. Plant Immunization
- an active immune system like that which is present in animals is absent in plants because the latter do not produce
antibodies.
- however, through genetic engineering, mouse genes have been incorporated in the genome of the plants.
- these antibodies are expressed in transgenic plants and produce antibodies called plantibodies. Ex. Production of
plantibodies against virus coat proteins.
4. Other post-inflectional toxic substances
- aromatic compounds such as phenolic glucosides, polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, aromatic amino acids
and coumarin derivatives are said to accumulate around infection sites are believed to inhibit the pathogen.
- polyphenol oxidases oxidizes fungistatic phenolics to quinones which are more toxic.
5. Detoxification
- some plants resist pathogenic invasion by inactivating deleterious compounds produced during pathogenesis
Ex. a. Resistant oat cultivars inactivate victorin, the toxin produced by Cochiobolus victoriae
b. The toxin pyricularin produced by Magnaporthe grisea can be detoxified by some resistant cultivars
c. certain apple varieties resistant to brown rot caused by Sclerotinia fructigena inactivate the pectinolytic enzymes
by the pathogen.
6. Induced resistance
- involves a change in response to stimulus which makes the plant more resistant to a given disease.
- induced resistance involves an elicitor that triggers the defense reaction, and to which the plant has receptor(s) for
the elicitor.

EPIDEMIOLOGY, FORECASTING AND ASSESSMENT OF DISEASE INCIDENCE AND CROP LOSS

EPIDEMIOLOGY – study of disease development in plant populations

• EPIPHYTOTICS – to refer epidemics of plant diseases

• ENDEMIC DISEASES – one that is native or indigenous to a particular place
• EPIDEMIC – widespread, explosive disease outbreak (layman’s view). On the epidemiologist point of view, it is the
increase in disease incidence within the plant population with time.
• EXOTIC DISEASES – introduced from some other areas
• PANDEMIC DISEASES – worldwide or widespread occurrence throughout a continent or region
• SPORADIC DISEASES – occur at irregular intervals
• DISEASE FORECASTING – predicting when a disease will occur and how severe it will be for farmers to be guided
properly in making decisions on disease control
• DISEASE ASSESSMENT – appraisal on the amount of disease present (disease severity or prevalence) and relate
these to yield loss
FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF EPIDEMICS
 susceptible plants at their susceptible stage are exposed to viable inoculum of a virulent pathogen during favorable
conditions for pathogen multiplication, infection and dissemination
 practice of monocropping over a wide area
 predisposition of plant to infection due to excessive use of N fertilizer and injuries
 presence of abundant inoculum and efficient vectors

ANALYSIS OF EPIDEMICS
• The increase in the amount of disease at any one time is dependent on:
a. initial amount of inoculum or disease
b. rate disease of increase
c. duration or period of time involved
• Like money deposited in the bank (van der Plank), the amount of disease is similar to the increase in money invested
at different interest rates wherein the amount of money one has depends on the initial deposit, interest rate and
duration of investment.
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• Like money, disease could be grouped into “compound interest diseases” and “simple interest diseases”
• compound interest diseases
- are those which readily spread from plant to plant during the disease cycle and with repeating cycles with several
generations of pathogens (ex: powdery mildew and rusts)
• simple interest diseases
- are those that spread from plant to plant do not occur and only consist of one generation of pathogens without
the repeating cycles (ex: nematode diseases, vascular wilts
• Van der Plank pointed out the plant epidemics followed a sigmoidal curve rather than a straight line. At the start of
the epidemics, there is a logarithmic increase in the amount of disease until the remaining uninfected plant
decreases. For sometime, after the onset of the epidemics, disease incidence become logarithmic until all remaining
infection court are eliminated
• The basic compound formula is:
X = Xoert

x = amount of disease
xo= initial amount of inoculum
e = base of natural log, 2.718
r = rate of infection
t = time

to solve for r (rate of infection):

1 X
r= loge
t Xo

RELATION OF EPIDEMIOLOGY TO CONTROL PRACTICES

 control practices that reduce Xo may cause a delay of the specific point of time at which a given disease level is
reached.
ex. Roguing, chemical eradication, hot water treatment, destroying plant debris
 control measures aimed at modifying the environment or cultural practices hinder the growth and reproduction of the
pathogen
ON DISEASE FORECASTING
The occurrence of a particular disease vary from season to season. There is a need to predict when a particular disease
will occur to guide farmers in making decisions on disease control
METHODS OF FORECASTING
1. EMPIRICAL FORECASTING
- done for several years based on field observations and experiences. Recent methods were devised based on
pathogen development and life cycle as affected by the environment
2. VAN DER PLANK ANALYSES
- using the data on Xo and r as earlier discussed
3. COMPUTING SIMULATION
- involves the system concept where every stage in the life cycle of the pathogen is modeled taking into
considerations the effects of the environment. The steps are then integrated using the computer.
(ex: EPIDEM model for predicting early blight of tomato)
When is control necessary? Is the amount of losses due to the disease worth the application of control? Would it
pay to apply costly chemicals?
The answer is accurate disease assessment.

METHODS OF DISEASE ASSESSMENT

1. Determining the percentage of diseased plant, organs or tissues.

 Percentage disease plants – systemic diseases which kill the host rapidly like vascular wilts, damping-off, root rots
 Disease that damage entire organs such as fruit rots, leafblights, may be measured by recording percentage of
infected organs
 For diseases with varying amounts of infection in different parts as leafspots, estimates maybe obtained by taking
percentage of affected leaves and percentage of infected leaf tissues (more laborious)
 Another is to measure the diameter or length of the lesion from which the area of infected tissue is calculated

2. Use of descriptive disease ratings on a numerical scale

 Scales used for rating diseases describe in detail the grades of diseases
Ex. IRRI rates leaf blast of rice using the scale of 0-9.
0-no lesions
1- small brown specks of pinhead size
2- larger brown specks
3- small roundish to slightly elongated necrotic gray spots
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4- typical blast lesions, elliptical, 1-2cm long, usually confined to the area of the main veins infecting less than 2% of
the leaf area

5- typical blast lesions infecting less than 10% of the leaf area
6- typical blast lesions infecting 10-25% of the leaf area
7- typical blast lesions infecting 26-50% of the leaf area
8- typical blast lesions infecting 51-75% of theleaf area and many dead leaves
9- all leaves dead

Trait expressions can be used to describe the reaction of the varieties to rice blast infection such as;
3 or less – sources of resistance in breeding work and for commercial purposes
4-6 - acceptable for commercial uses
7-9 – undesirable traits
 The rating scale for systemic diseases is based on percentage infected plants per hill
Methods of Measuring Crop Losses
After the amount of disease has been determined, the next thing to do is to relate this to crop loss or yield loss. Crop
loss assessment can be done by:
1. Survey Methods
2. Experimental Methods
1. Survey Methods
 Involves the gathering of a large number of reports on disease incidence as well as on crop loss and yield estimates
that have been collected through the years.
 A wide scale appraisal of disease severity and prevalence of disease in a country, region or continent
 The accuracy depends on how reliable the data from the assembled reports are.
 The objectives of plant surveys are:
a. determine the geographical distribution of a certain disease, certain pathogens or certain physiologic race.
b. detect and monitor newly introduced disease.
c. determine the alternative and alternate host.
 All these will aid in the evaluation of the relative importance of diseases and assist in the development of cooperative
control program
 A comparison of the yield data before and after the application of the control measures
 Yields during seasons or years may be also compared. This data is quite reliable if data from several seasons/years
will be used
 Interviews (using a prepared questionnaire). If the questionnaire is filled with accurate information will provide data on
disease severity and prevalence, crop loss estimates, varietal susceptibility, etc.
2. Experimental Methods
 Properly designed for sound statistical analysis
 Adequate replicates must be carried over several seasons
 Yield comparisons between diseased and healthy plants will give the amount of crop loss
 Yield differences between susceptible and resistant varieties in the presence of the disease will also give a pretty
good estimate of yield loss
 The damage caused by the pathogen can be artificially reproduced by picking some fruits to simulate fruit rots or
cutting out right sizes from portions of the leaves
 The yields of mutilated plants are then compared to those of normal plants
 Yield then is affected by:
a. time
b. amount of mutilation
c. environment
d. other factors
 After crop or yield loss estimates have been made, these are expressed in monetary terms and a decision made on
whether or not the application of control measure is in order.

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT DISEASE CONTROL

 The reason for the science of plant pathology is the control of plant diseases
 All studies conducted in the name of phytopathology are ultimately aimed at finding effective control measure
 One prime requisite of a control measure is that it must be economical or that the amount of money spent on control
should be more compensated for the increased quantity and quality of the produce

 The purposes of plant disease control are:

a. prevent disease development
b. maintain a tolerable disease incidence
c. minimize yield loss\
Four general principles of plant disease control:
a. Exclusion
b. Protection
c. Eradication
d. Immunization
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EXCLUSION
Defined as the prevention of the new pathogen from being introduced into a locality where it is currently unknown.
This involves legal methods of control. Plant materials must undergo initial inspection and issued health certificates
before they are allowed to enter into a given locality or country
 Prohibition is the complete prevention of the entry of infected plant materials by quarantine laws that regulate the
movement of plants and plant parts.
Example:
 Potato tubers infected with late blight may pass inspection undetected in the tuber unless the tuber is planted and
grown in certain conditions.
 Same is true with seedborne pathogens, materials must undergo post entry quarantine .
 Plants are grown in nurseries and greenhouses and observed for symptoms of disease before they are released
 Quarantine should be based on the knowledge of the biology of the host and the pathogen and is justified only if it is
reasonably effective in preventing the entry of the pathogen
And if:Quarantine is economically as well as administratively feasible
 Quarantine laws are “worth their weight in gold” as evidenced by reports on epidemics that occurred because of the
introduction of the pathogen.
Protection
- Defined as prevention of infection by putting a barrier between the pathogen and the suscept
 putting a chemical barrier between the pathogen and the suscept
 Protectant chemicals must be applied on the plant surface before inoculum deposition to prevent infection
 The protectant prevents spore germination or kills germinating spores
 Refrigeration of freshly harvested fruits, vegetables preventing the spread of infection
 Storage at controlled atmosphere or modified atmospheres with high carbon dioxide or reduced oxygen or both to
inhibit pathogen development and host senescence
 Wrapping of individual fruits with paper provides a barrier between infected and healthy fruits
 Drying of cereal grains to safe moisture content
 Clean storage areas to avoid infection present in dust and debris
 Crop management practices such as choice of planting site and planting date, adjustment of soil pH, fertilization and
irrigation methods
ERADICATION
Defined as the application of measures which are intended to eliminate, inhibit or kill the pathogen that have become
established within the plant or in an area
 Use of chemical formulations (systemic or contact)
 Hot water treatment
- 35-53 0C – is used to eradicate viruses, viroids, mycoplasma and rickettsia in dormant plant parts
- 35-400C for growing plants
 Soil fumigation, chemical or heat treatment kills soilborne pathogens
 Use of radiation to control postharvest pathogens
 Eradication or removal of alternate hosts, wild hosts and weeds
 Roguing or the removal and destruction of infected plants/plant parts to eliminate the source of inoculum
 Crop rotation
- To starve the pathogen
 Eradication or removal of infected plant debris
IMMUNIZATION OR IMPROVING HOST RESISTANCE
 Involves modifying certain physiological or physical features of the host so that it can repel infection as in the
breeding for disease resistance
Terms related to the explanation and understanding of resistance
Resistance – relative ability of the plant to overcome the effects of the pathogen
Susceptibility – opposite of resistance
- The plant do not have the relative ability to overcome the effects of the pathogen
Klenducity – is the lack of infection in a susceptible variety due to suscept’s effect on something other than the
pathogen such as the vector
Virulence– is a measure of the degree of pathogenecity.
Aggressiveness – is a measure of the rate at which virulence is expressed.
Two recognized types of resistance:
a. Vertical resistance (also called major gene resistance, oligogenic resistance, specific resistance)
b. Horizontal resistance (also called minor gene resistance, polygenic resistance, non-specific resistance,
generalized field resistance)
Vertical Resistance
 Controlled by one or few genes and is effective only to one or few races specific races of the pathogen
Horizontal Resistance
 Controlled by several or many genes and is theoretically effective against all races or strains of the pathogen
Methods of Plant Disease Control
Sanitation
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 Destroying plant refuse or debris

 Cleaning and disinfecting implements used for pruning or trimming
 Cleaning, disinfecting, fumigating warehouse before and during storage of produce

Cultural Practices
 Eradication of diseased plants
 Crop rotation or planting of non-host
 Practices that improve the growing conditions of the plans such as proper drainage., tillage, fertilization, irrigation
 Providing conditions which are unfavorable to the pathogen such as dry fallowing or flooding the field to reduce
pathogen population by desiccation, insufficient oxygen or starvation
 Tissue culture of meristem tips which is used for viruses and diseases due to Fusarium spp.
Physical Methods
 Heat treatment of plants, plant parts, soil, containers, etc. using hot water, moist heat, dry heat or sun
 Low temperature storage
 Controlled atmosphere storage
 irradiation
Chemical Methods
 Seed treatment with chemicals
 Fumigation of the soil, warehouses
 Chemical control of insect vectors
 Use of chemical protectants and chemotherapeutants
 Use of fungicides
 Use of antibiotics
Biological Methods
Employ the use of microorganisms that compete with, parasitize or are antagonistic to the pathogen
1. Cross protection
 Protection of a plant by a mild virus strain against infection of another strain of that same virus that causes more
severe symptom
2. Interference
 The biological agent may provide a barrier to infection. Ex. Mycorrhizae
3. Use of bacteriophage
 Control of bacterial pathogens with a phage virus.
 Bacteriophage – are viruses infecting bacteria
4. Use of parasites or antagonistic pathogens
 Fusarium root rot of corn can be controlled by dipping the seeds in solutions containing the antagonistic
microorganism
 Soil amendments that favor the growth og the antagonists
 Nematodes are parasitized by bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa and other soil organisms
5. Use of Resistant Varieties
a. Selection
 Planting seeds from resistant plants in the field that survived the onslaught of a disease
b. Gene Pyramiding
 Involves the incorporation of several resistance genes in one host variety so that it would take the pathogen a long
time to be able to overcome the resistance
 Some believed that gene pyramiding might lead to the development of a “super pathogen”
c. Multiline Varieties
 A multiline variety is a mixture of several lines with similar agronomic characteristics but each with a different gene for
resistance
 A pathogen race would tend to invade only one or two of the varieties in the multiline
d. Gene or Variety deployment
 Involves the use of different resistance genes or varieties in various geographical areas instead of the widespread
monoculture
6. Legislated or Regulatory Control methods
 Enactment of laws that regulate, restrict or prohibit the entry or movement of diseased plant materials into or within
the area
 Order certain activities that would contain a disease
 Strict implementation of the quarantine measures

THE CONTROL DECISION

The decision whether or not to control a certain disease, when to control and what method of control to apply
depends on:
 Characteristics of the causal agent
 Disease severity
 Crop loss assessment
 Use and value of the crop
 Cost of control