Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers

Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

The Future of Children, Volume 27, Number 1, Spring 2017, pp. 137-155 (Article)

Published by Princeton University

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2017.0007

For additional information about this article

https://muse.jhu.edu/article/720677

Access provided at 8 Apr 2020 18:57 GMT from Harvard Library

 Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers

Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers

Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

Summary
Teachers are the engine that drives social and emotional learning (SEL) programs and
practices in schools and classrooms, and their own social-emotional competence and wellbeing
strongly influence their students. Classrooms with warm teacher-child relationships support
deep learning and positive social and emotional development among students, writes Kimberly
Schonert-Reichl. But when teachers poorly manage the social and emotional demands of
teaching, students’ academic achievement and behavior both suffer. If we don’t accurately
understand teachers’ own social-emotional wellbeing and how teachers influence students’
SEL, says Schonert-Reichl, we can never fully know how to promote SEL in the classroom.
How can we boost teachers’ social-emotional competence, and how can we help them create
the kind of classroom environment that promotes students’ SEL? Teachers are certainly at risk
for poor social-emotional wellbeing. Research shows that teaching is one of the most stressful
occupations; moreover, stress in the classroom is contagious—simply put, stressed-out teachers
tend to have stressed-out students. In the past few years, several interventions have specifically
sought to improve teachers’ social-emotional competence and stress management in school,
and Schonert-Reichly reviews the results, many of which are promising.
She also shows how teachers’ beliefs—about their own teaching efficacy, or about whether they
receive adequate support, for example—influence the fidelity with which they implement SEL
programs in the classroom. When fidelity is low, SEL programs are less successful. Finally, she
examines the extent to which US teacher education programs prepare teacher candidates to
promote their own and their students’ social-emotional competence, and she argues that we
can and should do much more.

www.futureofchildren.org

Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl is an applied developmental psychologist and a professor who leads the Social and Emotional Learning Lab
in the Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education in the Faculty of Education at the University of
British Columbia (UBC). She is also the director of the Human Early Learning Partnership in UBC’s School of Population and Public Health
in the Faculty of Medicine.
Joshua Brown of Fordham University reviewed and critiqued a draft of this article

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Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

A
s the articles in this issue individuals, ready to responsibly navigate
attest, research in the field of their personal and professional paths to
social and emotional learning adulthood.
(SEL) has grown dramatically
in recent years. We’ve learned SEL and Teachers: A Framework
that we can promote students’ social and
Extensive research evidence now confirms
emotional competence, and that doing so
that SEL skills can be taught and measured,
increases not only their SEL skills but also
that they promote positive development and
their academic achievement.1 In other words,
reduce problem behaviors, and that they
for our children and youth to achieve their
improve students’ academic performance,
full potential as productive adult citizens,
citizenship, and health-related behaviors.2
parents, and volunteers in a pluralistic
Moreover, these skills predict such important
society, educators must focus explicitly on
life outcomes as completing high school
promoting social and emotional competence.
on time, obtaining a college degree, and
Teachers are the engine that drives SEL securing stable employment.3 Recent
programs and practices in schools and empirical evidence showing that SEL
classrooms. Yet until recently, their role in promotes students’ academic, life, and
promoting SEL and their own social and career success has led to federal, state, and
emotional competence and wellbeing have local policies that support social, emotional,
received scant attention. What do we know and academic growth in our nation’s young
about teachers and SEL? Do they buy in people.
to integrating SEL in their classrooms?
Several organizing frameworks for SEL
What about their own social and emotional
have been proposed, each outlining various
competence and wellbeing? How does
components that influence SEL, such as
teachers’ social-emotional competence
school culture and climate, or teachers’
influence students’ SEL, and how can we pedagogical skills. Each framework identifies
promote it? How do teachers’ beliefs about similar student outcomes, such as greater
SEL influence their implementation of SEL academic achievement and improved
programs? And do prospective teachers social-emotional competence. Many of
receive any information about SEL and their these frameworks share three distinct and
own social and emotional competence in interrelated dimensions—the learning
their teacher preparation programs? context, students’ SEL, and teachers’ SEL—
The importance of these questions should and any discussion of SEL should include
all three. In figure 1, these three dimensions
not be underestimated. If we don’t accurately
are portrayed in a circle to illustrate their
understand teachers’ own wellbeing and
interconnectedness: each dimension
how teachers influence students’ SEL, we
influences and is influenced by the others.
can never fully know whether and how
to promote SEL in the classroom. Such The Learning Context
knowledge could not only guide theory, it
could also give us practical information about To be effective, SEL skill development and
how teachers can steer students toward interventions should occur in a safe, caring,
becoming socially skilled and well-rounded supportive, participatory, and well-managed

1 38   T HE F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers

environment—that is, an environment that learning context and the infusion of SEL
supports students’ development and lets into classrooms and schools.5 Teachers’
them practice the skills they learn. The own competencies shape the nature of
learning context encompasses such factors their relationships with students; according
as communication styles, performance to researchers Patricia Jennings of the
expectations, classroom structures and rules, University of Virginia and Mark Greenberg
school organizational climate, commitment of Pennsylvania State University, “the quality
to academic success for all students, district of teacher-student relationships, student
policies, and parental and community and classroom management, and effective
involvement. social and emotional learning program
implementation all mediate classroom and
student outcomes.”6 Classrooms with warm
teacher-child relationships promote deep
Children who feel learning among students: children who feel
comfortable with their comfortable with their teachers and peers
teachers and peers are more are more willing to grapple with challenging
material and persist at difficult learning
willing to grapple with tasks.7 Conversely, when teachers poorly
challenging material and manage the social and emotional demands
of teaching, students demonstrate lower
persist at difficult learning performance and on-task behavior.8 Clearly,
tasks. we need to optimize teachers’ classroom
performance and their ability to promote
SEL in their students by helping them build
Students’ SEL their own social-emotional competence.9 I
discuss this topic in more depth below.
SEL involves the processes by which
people acquire and effectively apply the

knowledge, attitudes, and skills to understand
Figure 1. Three-Component Framework
and manage their emotions, to feel and for SEL
Figure 1. Three-Component Framework for SEL
show empathy for others, to establish and
achieve positive goals, to develop and
maintain positive relationships, and to make
responsible decisions. Based on extensive
research, the Collaborative for Academic,
Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL)
has identified five interrelated competencies
that are central to SEL: self-awareness, self-
management, social awareness, relationship
skills, and responsible decision-making.4

Teachers’ SEL

Teachers’ social-emotional competence

and wellbeing strongly influence the

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Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

Do Teachers Buy In to SEL? lowest in believing that they have a say

in what happens in the workplace.13 The
Any discussion of teachers and SEL should percentage of teachers who report low job
begin by asking whether they accept the autonomy increased from 18 percent in 2004
notion that education should explicitly to 26 percent in 2012.14
promote students’ SEL. Simply put, do
teachers agree that SEL should be a part of The proportion of teachers who report
education? Recent research indicates that the significant levels of on-the-job stress is
answer is a resounding yes. Indeed, teachers also rising. In a recent Gallup Poll on
are strong advocates for students’ SEL. A occupational stress, 46 percent of teachers
nationally representative survey of more than reported high daily stress—on par with
600 teachers found that large majorities of nurses and just above doctors (45 percent).
preschool to high school teachers believe Teachers and nurses had the highest levels
that SEL skills are teachable, that promoting of reported stress among all occupational
SEL will benefit students from both rich groups.15
and poor backgrounds, and that SEL has
Why does teacher stress matter for our
many positive effects—on school attendance
understanding of SEL? High levels of
and graduation, standardized test scores
chronic stress can lead to occupational
and overall academic performance, college burnout—characterized by emotional
preparation, workforce readiness, and exhaustion, depersonalization, and a low
citizenship. However, the teachers also said sense of accomplishment in one’s work.16
that to effectively implement and promote What’s more, teacher stress has been
SEL skills in classrooms and schools, they linked to decreased job satisfaction, poor
need strong support from district and school instructional practices, and poor student
leaders.10 outcomes.17
Teachers’ Stressful Lives High stress levels also harm teachers’
physical health and wellbeing. For example,
If teachers support SEL, what might prevent
when people are highly stressed, the
them from implementing SEL strategies
quantity and quality of their sleep is severely
and programs in their classrooms? Decades’
compromised. A study of high school
worth of research shows that teaching is
teachers found that 46 percent suffered
one of the most stressful professions in the
excessive daytime sleepiness and 51 percent
human service industry.11 Work-related
had poor sleep quality.18 Sleep disturbances,
stress encompasses the detrimental physical
in turn, produce a cascade of negative effects,
and emotional responses that arise from
including increased risk for infectious disease
a mismatch between a job’s requirements
and depression, and susceptibility to illnesses
and a worker’s capabilities, resources, or
such as heart disease and cancer.19
needs.12 In the context of education, teachers
can experience stress when they appraise Chronic work stress and exhaustion among
a situation as threatening but have limited teachers is also associated with negative
ability to change or improve it. Take the changes in biological indicators of stress.
case of teacher autonomy: among people Recent research has found that teachers who
in professional occupations, teachers rank report chronic stress demonstrate atypical

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 Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers

patterns of physiological stress reactivity, could significantly predict higher morning

as assessed via daytime levels of the stress cortisol levels in students. Although our
hormone cortisol.20 findings were correlational, our study was
the first to show that teachers’ occupational
Stress Contagion in the Classroom stress is linked to students’ physiological
stress regulation. But we don’t yet know
How does teacher stress affect students’
the direction of the stress contagion. That
SEL? Research shows that stress is
is, does teacher burnout boost stress levels
contagious—when teachers are stressed,
in students? Or do students who enter the
students suffer collateral damage. A recent
classroom with higher levels of stress lead to
study of more than 10,000 first-grade
increased teacher burnout?
students and their teachers examined
the relationship between classroom
environments and the students’ mental
health. The researchers found that teachers Warm classroom
who reported higher levels of stress had more environments and positive
students in their classrooms with mental
health problems.21 Specifically, when teachers
teacher-student relationships
lacked key ingredients for teaching—ranging promote both academic
from basic resources such as paper and learning and SEL.
pencils and heat to child-friendly furnishings
and computers—students exhibited higher
levels of externalizing problems (arguing, Teacher Attrition
fighting, impulsive behavior, and the like),
interpersonal problems (for example, trouble In addition to burnout, attrition is a major
expressing emotions and resolving conflicts), obstacle to improving teacher quality.
and internalizing problems (such as anxiety, According to a 2007 report from the National
sadness, and low self-esteem). Students also Commission on Teaching and America’s
suffered when teachers weren’t supported by Future, teacher turnover costs the United
their colleagues. States up to $7 billion a year, and the highest
turnover occurs in low-performing, high-
My own recent research corroborates the poverty schools with a high percentage of
idea that classroom stress is contagious. My minority students.24 Stress and poor emotion
colleague Eva Oberle and I examined the management are the primary reasons that
link between teacher burnout and student teachers become dissatisfied and leave
stress in a sample of Canadian fourth- and their positions.25 Another contributing
seventh-graders.22 The teachers completed a factor is student behavior. For instance, one
survey called the Maslach Burnout Inventory, study found that among the 50 percent of
modified for teachers.23 To measure students’ teachers who eventually leave the profession
stress, we collected their salivary cortisol. permanently, almost 35 percent report
After adjusting for differences in cortisol that their decision was related to problems
levels due to age, gender, and time of with student discipline.26 Problems with
awakening, we found that higher levels of student discipline, classroom management,
self-reported burnout in classroom teachers and student mental health emerge at the

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 Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

beginning of teachers’ careers—first-year social and emotional skills; they also need
teachers tend to feel unprepared to manage the knowledge, dispositions, and skills for
their classrooms effectively, and they can’t creating a safe, caring, supportive, and
recognize common mental health problems responsive school and classroom community.
in their students, such as anxiety.27 On a more
positive note, data also suggest that when Thus to successfully promote SEL, it’s not
teachers are trained in the behavioral and enough to enhance teachers’ knowledge
emotional factors that influence teaching of SEL alone. Teachers’ own social and
and learning in the classroom, they feel emotional competence and wellbeing appear
better equipped to propose and implement to play a crucial role. To illustrate this,
classroom management strategies that deter Stephanie Jones and Suzanne Bouffard of
students’ aggressive behaviors and promote a Harvard University created a conceptual
positive learning climate.28 model that highlights how teachers’
background characteristics, social-emotional
Teachers’ Social and Emotional competence, and pedagogical skills influence
Competence and Students’ SEL school and classroom context as well as both
short- and long-term child outcomes.30 At the
As I said above, a safe, caring, participatory, center of their model, Jones and Bouffard
and well-managed learning environment is place core SEL skills in three conceptual
a necessary but not sufficient condition for domains: emotional processes, social/
promoting social and emotional competence. interpersonal skills, and cognitive regulation.
Research shows that warm classroom
environments and positive teacher-student Similarly, Jennings and Greenberg’s Prosocial
relationships promote both academic Classroom Model (see figure 2) suggests that
learning and SEL.29 Hence, teachers don’t teachers’ social-emotional competence and
just need to know how to explicitly teach wellbeing affect the classroom management

Figure 2. The Prosocial Classroom Model

Figure 2. The Prosocial Classroom Model

Healthy Teacher/
Student
Relationships

Teachers’
Student
Social/ Effective Healthy Social, Emotional
Emotional Classroom Classroom & Academic
Competence & Management Climate Outcomes
Well-being

Effective SEL
implementation

School/Community Context Factors

Source:
1 42   T HEPatricia
F UT UR E OFA.
C HIJennings
LDRE N and Mark T. Greenberg, “The Prosocial Classroom: Teacher
Social and Emotional Competence in Relation to Student and Classroom Outcomes,”
Review of Educational Research 79 (2009): 491–525, doi: 10.3102/0034654308325693
 Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers

strategies they use, the relationships they ability to provide emotional and instructional
form with students, and their ability to support to their students. Teachers’ social
implement SEL programs and practices.31 and emotional competence and wellbeing
These factors, in turn, can contribute to a are reflected in their classroom behavior
healthy classroom climate that then leads to and interactions with students—a primary
students’ own academic and SEL success. mechanism for socialization. Teachers
with higher social-emotional competence
According to Jennings and Greenberg, organize their classrooms and provide
teachers with high social and emotional emotional and instructional support in
competence are self-aware. They recognize ways that are associated with a high-quality
their own emotions, they’re able to use classroom climate.34 Jennings and Greenberg
their emotions positively to motivate others recommend that SEL interventions take
to learn, and they understand their own into account teachers’ own SEL competence
capacities and emotional strengths and and wellbeing to help them implement SEL
weaknesses particularly well.32 They’re effectively.
also socially aware—they recognize and
understand others’ emotions, including Interventions to Promote Teachers’
those of their students and colleagues, SEL Competence
and they work to build strong, supportive
relationships. And they’re culturally aware— In the past few years, several interventions
their understanding that others’ perspectives have specifically sought to improve teachers’
may differ from their own helps them social-emotional competence and stress
negotiate positive solutions to conflicts. management in school. Two of these
programs are based on mindfulness: CARE
Teachers with high social and emotional (Cultivating Awareness and Resilience
competence also demonstrate prosocial in Education) and SMART-in-Education
values—they have deep respect for their (Stress Management and Resiliency
colleagues, students, and students’ families, Training). Mindfulness means an attentive,
and they care about how their own decisions nonjudgmental, and receptive awareness
affect the wellbeing of others. Finally, such of present-moment experiences in terms
teachers possess strong self-management of feelings, images, thoughts, sensations,
skills. Even in emotionally charged situations, and perceptions.35 In boosting teachers’
they can regulate their emotions and their mindfulness, both programs aim to
behaviors in healthy ways that promote a increase their job satisfaction, compassion
positive classroom environment for their and empathy for students, and efficacy in
students. regulating emotions, while reducing stress
and burnout. Initial research has shown
As figure 2 shows, teachers’ social and both programs to be effective in promoting
emotional competence is associated with teachers’ SEL competence and wellbeing.36
their psychological wellbeing. Teachers who
master social and emotional challenges feel Recently, Patricia Jennings and Joshua
more efficacious, and teaching becomes more Brown, a professor in the Department
enjoyable and rewarding to them.33 When of Psychology at Fordham University,
teachers experience distress, it impairs their along with several colleagues, conducted

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Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

a large randomized trial involving During initial implementation of the SEL

224 teachers in 36 urban elementary program RULER, which was developed at
schools.37 The researchers found that Yale University, one group of researchers
compared to a control group, teachers examined whether students’ SEL
who received CARE training showed outcomes were affected by the amount
greater improvements in adaptive emotion of training teachers received, the quality
regulation and mindfulness, and greater of delivery of the SEL program, and the
reductions in psychological distress and number of lessons students received
time urgency (a feeling of time pressure and (known as dosage).41 The study, a large
needing to hurry through daily tasks). In randomized controlled trial, involved 812
classrooms of teachers who received CARE sixth-grade students and their teachers
training, levels of emotional support were from 28 elementary schools in a large
urban school district in the northeastern
sustained across the school year; in control-
United States. Teachers were clustered
group classrooms, emotional support fell as
into one of three groups: low-quality
the year went on.
implementers (teachers who were initially
How Teachers’ Beliefs Influence resistant to the program and delivered it
SEL Programs poorly, though they became more open
to the program by the end of the school
Recent evidence suggests that year), moderate-quality implementers
teacher-related factors can affect the (teachers who were middle-of-the-road
implementation of SEL programs in ways in their attitudes toward and delivery of
that may influence a program’s quality and the program from beginning to end), and
success.38 For instance, teachers implement high-quality implementers (teachers who
SEL programs more successfully when were open to the program and consistently
they have a positive attitude toward the delivered it well).
program, are motivated to deliver it with
Analyses revealed that when teachers
fidelity, and are confident that they possess
received more training and carried out
the skills and knowledge to do so well.39
more lessons, their students had more
The fidelity with which teachers implement
positive outcomes. Moreover, low-quality
SEL programs has been associated with a
implementers were less confident than
number of teacher beliefs, attitudes, and high-quality implementers about their
perceptions: beliefs about whether the SEL ability to modify their teaching practices
program’s activities are aligned with their to influence students’ engagement
teaching approach; beliefs about their own and learning (that is, their teaching
teaching efficacy; level of comfort with efficacy), especially among difficult and
delivering an SEL curriculum; beliefs about unmotivated students. These findings
behavior management practices; dedication show that alongside training and program
to developing students’ SEL skills; beliefs fidelity, SEL interventions should take
about whether they receive adequate into account teachers’ beliefs about their
support from school principals; and teaching efficacy when assessing how
perceptions of the school culture’s support implementation affects students’ SEL
for SEL instruction.40 outcomes.

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 Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers

To date, only one study has examined length of practicums; and requirements
whether implementing an SEL program for certification. To obtain a degree in
for students can increase a teacher’s own teacher education, prospective teachers
SEL competence. Celene Domitrovich, generally must have a minimum GPA; a
a senior research scientist at CASEL, bachelor’s degree; knowledge of how social,
along with several colleagues, looked at institutional, and state policy affect the
data from two school-based randomized educational process; an understanding of how
controlled trials that tested the impact of learning occurs and how to teach effectively;
two prevention programs in a sample of 350 and successful supervised field experiences.45
K–5 teachers across 27 schools. They found A certificate obtained in one country or state
that implementing a prevention program may not be recognized by another. Within
for students can yield positive benefits to the United States, state-to-state reciprocity is
teachers, particularly when the program limited.
includes a social-emotional component.42

Teacher Preparation in the United

States
We’re now at a critical
juncture in the field of teacher
Preservice teacher preparation refers to the
education and training received by teacher
preparation.
candidates before they enter the profession.
It typically occurs at a college or university,
Researchers are only beginning to study the
and includes a set program of coursework
extent to which preservice teacher education
and experiences that are delineated by state-
includes information about and/or direct
level requirements for teacher certification.
training in SEL. A few recent studies offer
About 30 percent of teachers follow
us a glimpse. In the next section, I examine
alternative routes to certification, though the
the extent to which SEL is incorporated
percentage is rising.43
into coursework in US preservice teacher
Most of the nation’s teachers prepare at one education programs.
of more than 1,400 institutions of higher SEL and Teacher Preparation
education; according to the National Council
on Teacher Quality, about 200,000 people How can we best prepare teachers to
graduate from teacher preparation programs effectively teach students from diverse
each year.44 Preservice teacher education backgrounds and create the conditions
programs vary considerably in duration for optimal teaching and learning? That’s
(they include four-year bachelor’s degree an important question for policy makers,
programs and one- or two-year graduate educational leaders, and researchers who
programs). They also vary in other ways: want to ensure that students are fully
their emphasis on pedagogy across particular prepared for engaged citizenship and
school levels (elementary, middle, or high productive and meaningful careers. Studies
school) and content area (teachers of older on what constitutes high-quality teacher
students typically identify a subject area, preparation and professional development
such as science, math, or social studies); have sought to determine which courses and

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Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

experiences will give teachers the skills, Knowledge about Child Development
dispositions, and knowledge they need
to foster the success of all their students. One dimension that’s central to effective,
More recently, researchers have also been high-quality teaching and learning is
asking what social and emotional skills teachers’ knowledge and understanding
and competencies teachers need to best of their students’ social, emotional, and
promote students’ SEL. cognitive development.50 Research tells us
that teachers who understand child and
Recent reports suggest that we’re now at adolescent development are better able to
a critical juncture in the field of teacher design and carry out learning experiences
preparation.46 Indeed, never before has in ways that support social, emotional, and
teacher preparation and teacher quality academic competence and enhance student
been under such intense scrutiny. The past outcomes.51 Research has also shown how
two decades have witnessed intense work to successful social relationships in schools
develop successful programs to improve the (both between teachers and students and
quality of teacher preparation and teacher among students) are connected to positive
professional development.47 New policies social and academic outcomes.52
have delineated professional standards,
improved teacher preparation and The National Council for Accreditation
certification requirements, and increased of Teacher Education and several federal
investments in programs that provide agencies collaborated with a group of
mentoring to new teachers and support internationally renowned experts on two
teachers’ professional development.48 roundtable discussions about incorporating
child and adolescent development research
Despite this work, student achievement in into preservice teacher preparation.53 The
the United States still lags far behind that of reports that followed emphasized that
other countries. Linda Darling-Hammond, preservice teachers should learn about many
an education expert and professor emeritus issues related to SEL, including children’s
at Stanford University, states that “we have social and emotional development,
advanced little in achievement, especially teacher-student relationships, and the
in international comparisons, with no real learning environment. But do preservice
reduction in the achievement gap after teachers learn about child development?
the large gains made in the 1960s and The NCATE explored this question in
1970s; we have lost ground on graduation 2005, sending a 33-item online survey
rates and college-going, and we have to unit heads at 595 NCATE-accredited
expanded inequality in access to school institutions, both public and private. Forty-
resources. Meanwhile, many other nations eight percent of the institutions responded,
like Finland, the Netherlands, Singapore, about two-thirds of them public and one-
Korea, China (in particular, Hong Kong third private. Of the 283 responses, 90
and Macao), New Zealand, and Australia percent indicated that their institution
have been pulling ahead, making intensive required teacher candidates to take at
and sustained investments in teaching—the least one course in child or adolescent
major policy strategy our nation has been development (although several programs
unwilling to try.”49 reported forgoing such courses altogether

1 46   T HE F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers

because of state limitations on credit hours mental health problems.56 Similarly, in a

for teacher preparation programs). national study of 2,335 educators conducted
by the Coalition for Psychology in Schools
Whether knowledge of development is and Education, teachers indicated that they
applied to classroom practice is an open hadn’t received adequate preservice training
question, however. For one thing, in the for handling student behavior.57 The majority,
NCATE survey, 20 percent of programs and especially first-year teachers, ranked
reported that they didn’t teach their own classroom management as one of their top
development courses, relying instead on two professional development needs.
psychology departments, where connections
to the classroom are less likely. Furthermore, Another study examined the extent to which
many of the textbooks used by institutions university graduate-level teacher education
in their courses contained virtually no programs included content that covered four
application of child and adolescent topics related to SEL—social development,
development to actual classroom practice, emotional development, behavior
leaving instructors to create their own management, and abuse and neglect.58 The
examples. These survey responses underscore researchers analyzed course descriptions
the potential benefits of course materials that for all required classes in the top 50
make more explicit connections between graduate-level teacher education programs
developmental research and its application. (according to US News and World Report’s
2012 rankings), documenting whether the
Knowledge about Students’ SEL and inclusion of these topics varied as a function
Classroom Management of program level (elementary vs. secondary
training), type of university (public vs.
Research has shown that teachers can foster
private), or geographic location (Northeast,
positive student-teacher relationships and
South, West, Midwest). The final sample
create supportive and caring classroom
of 78 elementary and secondary education
environments, and that when they effectively
programs from 43 universities across the
integrate SEL programs into their practice,
United States included only those programs
their students have better outcomes.54 We
that made online course descriptions publicly
know less about the teacher’s role when it
available.
comes to mental illness and social, emotional,
and behavioral problems among students. More than two-thirds of the 78 programs
Teachers are uniquely situated to recognize required at least one course on the topics of
significant adjustment problems or identify social development, emotional development,
common disruptive behaviors. But most behavior management, or abuse and neglect
teachers feel poorly prepared to tackle such (although only one course mentioned
problems because they lack knowledge and abuse and neglect). Behavior management
skills in the areas of mental health and/ was cited most frequently—a little more
or classroom management.55 Indeed, one than half the graduate teacher education
study found that neither experienced nor programs reviewed (52.6 percent) included a
first-year teachers felt that their teacher- course whose title or description specifically
education programs had adequately trained mentioned behavior, behavior management,
them to identify and manage students’ or classroom management. About one-fourth

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Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

of the programs (26.9 percent) required translate knowledge of effective classroom

a course on social development, one-fifth management into practice. Only about one-
(20.5 percent) required two courses, and one third of the programs required prospective
program (1.3 percent) even required three teachers to practice classroom management
courses. Few programs required a course skills as they learned them. Given the lack
on emotional development (16.7 percent), of attention to training and experience
although three programs (3.8 percent) in classroom management for preservice
required two classes on the topic. teachers, it isn’t surprising that a high
proportion of teachers say that student
Whether these topics were included didn’t behavior significantly impedes their success
vary across elementary vs. secondary
in the classroom.61
programs or public vs. private institutions.
There were, however, significant regional In summary, though only a few studies have
differences. Fewer programs in the South examined the extent to which preservice
included social development, and behavior teacher education programs cover subjects
management was more frequently covered relevant to SEL and its practical application,
in the West. The researchers speculated that those studies have consistently found that
these differences might result from variations programs pay little attention to giving
in state legislation and policies related to teachers the knowledge and skills they
school mental health services and teacher need to promote their students’ social and
licensure requirements, as well as the value emotional competence and to create positive
systems of schools, teachers, and school classroom environments that enhance
mental health service providers.59 student success.62 How can we influence
preservice teacher education programs to
A recent report from the National Council
expand their focus on SEL? In the next
on Teacher Quality also found relatively
section, I present findings from a recent
little attention being paid to classroom
state-level scan (review and examination)
management in preservice education.60
for SEL content in courses in US colleges of
Using course materials such as syllabi,
education—a critical first step in ensuring
textbooks, and student teaching observation
that teachers are adequately prepared
and evaluation forms, the NCTQ study
to integrate SEL into their educational
examined classroom management–related
practice.
professional coursework in 119 teacher
preparation programs in 79 institutions of A Review of SEL Content in US
higher education in 33 states. Almost all Teacher Preparation Courses
of these programs (97 percent) included
some mention of classroom management, As I’ve shown, much recent research
but instruction and practice in classroom supports taking action to promote both
management strategies were often scattered teachers’ and students’ social and emotional
around the curriculum and didn’t draw from competence.63 But no research had
the latest scientific research identifying the examined the extent to which teacher
most effective strategies. Moreover, during preparation programs equip teacher
their student-teaching experience, preservice candidates with the SEL knowledge and
teachers had relatively few opportunities to skills they need. To answer this question,

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 Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers

my colleagues and I conducted the first teacher preparation program. Preservice

ever comprehensive scan of SEL content in courses, such as math and science methods
preservice US teacher education programs.64 or classroom management, have been revised
to include SEL content. The faculty has also
We analyzed 3,916 required courses in developed an observation protocol with an
teacher preparation programs offered by 304 SEL orientation for mentor teachers and
US colleges of education (representing 30 university supervisors to use when they
percent of all US colleges that offer teacher observe student teaching.
preparation coursework). We found that few
teacher education programs covered the At the University of British Columbia,
five SEL competencies outlined by CASEL. where I work, the Faculty of Education
Specifically, only 13 percent had at least has explicitly integrated SEL into a post-
one course that included information on baccalaureate 12-month teacher preparation
relationship skills. For responsible decision- program. One of the nine options available to
making, self-management, social awareness, our approximately 400 elementary preservice
and self-awareness, the numbers were 7 teacher education students is an SEL cohort
percent, 6 percent, 2 percent, and 1 percent, that comprises about 36 students each year.
respectively. In this program, teacher candidates follow
the general outline of the regular education
A strength of our scan is that we obtained
program but with an added emphasis on
a wide body of data that represented every
SEL. They don’t just learn about SEL
US state and the District of Columbia. But
research and theory in their coursework;
while our data had breadth, it lacked depth
during their student-teaching practicum,
of information about how SEL content is
they also learn how to implement evidence-
incorporated. For example, although the
based SEL programs and SEL practices in
scan revealed the presence of SEL content
the classroom. Teacher candidates can review
in course descriptions on the colleges’
a wide variety of SEL programs in our SEL
websites, we don’t know the specific content
program library and integrate the strategies
covered or the quality of that content. We
they learn into their coursework and student
need more research, using both quantitative
teaching. All teacher candidates in the cohort
and qualitative data, to get a more detailed
are taught active learning approaches that
picture of how SEL is incorporated in
help to create safe, caring, and participatory
teacher preparation.
classroom and school environments.65
Embedding SEL in Teacher
Explicitly promoting SEL in preservice
Preparation
teacher education is an important step.
A few teacher preparation programs have But challenges remain. For example, if we
begun to incorporate theory, research, and add a course on creating safe, caring, and
practical application of SEL into teachers’ supportive learning contexts to an already
preservice education. For example, San Jose demanding and intensive one-year program,
State University’s Center for Reaching and we have to cut required coursework in
Teaching the Whole Child is committed to another area. Still, we must recognize and
embedding the social-emotional dimension promote SEL as a necessary part of teacher
of teaching and learning into the university’s training. Indeed, given the importance of

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Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

teachers’ own social-emotional wellbeing competence. Such an approach would

for implementing SEL programs and help integrate SEL into the fabric of K–12
practices, preservice teacher education education and create a generation of
shouldn’t just give teacher candidates students who have acquired the social and
knowledge about students’ SEL; it should emotional competencies they need for their
also give them tools and strategies to adult roles as citizens, employees, parents,
build their own social and emotional and volunteers.

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ENDNOTES
1. Joseph A. Durlak et al., “The Impact of Enhancing Students’ Social and Emotional Learning: A
Meta-Analysis of School-Based Universal Interventions,” Child Development 82 (2011): 405–32, doi:
10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x.
2. Joseph A. Durlak et al. (eds.), Handbook of Social and Emotional Learning (New York: Guilford,
2015); Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl and Roger P. Weissberg, “Social and Emotional Learning during
Childhood,” in Encyclopedia of Primary Prevention and Health Promotion, ed. Thomas P. Gullotta and
Martin Bloom, 2nd ed. (New York: Springer Press, 2014), 936–49.
3. J. David Hawkins et al., “Effects of Social Development Intervention in Childhood Fifteen Years Later,”
Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 162 (2008): 1133–41, doi: 10.1001/archpedi.162.12.1133;
Damon E. Jones, Mark Greenberg, and Max Crowley, “Early Social-Emotional Functioning and Public
Health: The Relationship between Kindergarten Social Competence and Future Wellness,” American
Journal of Public Health 105 (2015): 2283–90.
4. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), 2013 Guide: Effective Social
and Emotional Learning Programs: Preschool and Elementary School Edition (Chicago: CASEL, 2013);
CASEL, 2015 Guide: Effective Social and Emotional Learning Programs: Middle and High School Edition
(Chicago: CASEL, 2015). See also Roger P. Weissberg et al., “Social and Emotional Learning: Past,
Present, and Future,” in Durlak et al., Handbook, 3–19.
5. Stephanie M. Jones, Suzanne M. Bouffard, and Richard Weissbourd, “Educators’ Social and Emotional
Skills Vital to Learning,” Phi Delta Kappan 94, no. 8 (2013): 62–5, doi: 10.1177/003172171309400815.
6. Patricia A. Jennings and Mark T. Greenberg, “The Prosocial Classroom: Teacher Social and Emotional
Competence in Relation to Student and Classroom Outcomes,” Review of Educational Research 79
(2009): 491–525, doi: 10.3102/0034654308325693 (quote p. 492).
7. Eileen G. Merritt et al., “The Contribution of Teachers’ Emotional Support to Children’s Social Behaviors
and Self-Regulatory Skills in First Grade,” School Psychology Review 41 (2012): 141–59.
8. Robert J. Marzano, Jana S. Marzano, and Debra J. Pickering, Classroom Management that Works
(Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2003).
9. Patricia A. Jennings and Jennifer L. Frank, “In-Service Preparation for Educators,” in Durlak et al.,
Handbook, 422–37.
10. John Bridgeland, Mary Bruce, and Arya Hariharan, The Missing Piece: A National Survey on How
Social and Emotional Learning Can Empower Children and Transform Schools (Washington, DC: Civic
Enterprises, 2013).
11. Cameron Montgomery and André A. Rupp, “A Meta-Analysis for Exploring the Diverse Causes and
Effects of Stress in Teachers,” Canadian Journal of Education 28 (2005): 458–86.
12. Chris Kyriacou, “Teacher Stress: Directions for Future Research,” Educational Review 53 (2010): 27–35,
doi: 10.1080/00131910120033628.
13. Gallup, State of America’s Schools: A Path to Winning again in Education (Washington, DC: Gallup,
2014), retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/services/178709/state-america-schools-report.aspx.
14. Dinah Sparks and Nat Malkus, Public School Teacher Autonomy in the Classroom across School Years
2003–2004, 2007–2008, 2011–2012, NCES 2015-089 (Washington, DC: National Center for Education
Statistics, 2015).
15. Gallup, State of America’s Schools.
16. Christina Maslach et al., “Job Burnout,” Annual Review of Psychology 52 (2001): 397–422, doi: 10.1146/
annurev.psych.52.1.397.

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Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

17. See, for example, Ralf Schwarzer and Suhair Hallum, “Perceived Teacher Self-Efficacy as a Predictor
of Job Stress And Burnout: Mediation Analyses,” Applied Psychology 57 (2008): S152–171, doi:
10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00359.x.
18. Jane Carla de Souza et al., “Sleep Habits, Daytime Sleepiness and Sleep Quality of High School
Teachers,” Psychology & Neuroscience 2 (2012): 257–63, doi: 10.3922/j.psns.2012.2.17.
19. Michael R. Irwin, Richard Olmstead, and Judith E. Carroll, “Sleep Disturbance, Sleep Duration, and
Inflammation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies and Experimental Sleep
Deprivation,” Biological Psychiatry 80 (2016): 40–52, doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.05.014.
20. Deirdre A. Katz et al., “Associations between the Awakening Responses of Salivary -amylase and, Cortisol
with Self-Report Indicators of Health and Wellbeing among Educators,” Teaching and Teacher Education
54 (2016): 98–106, doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2015.11.012; Maren Wolfram et al., “Emotional Exhaustion and
Overcommitment to Work Are Differentially Associated with Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis
Responses to a Low-Dose ACTH1–24 (Synacthen) and Dexamethasone–CRH Test in Healthy School
Teachers,” Stress 16 (2013): 54–64, doi: 10.3109/10253890.2012.683465.
21. Melissa A. Milkie and Catharine H. Warner, “Classroom Learning Environments and the Mental
Health of First Grade Children,” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 52 (2011): 4–22, doi:
10.1177/0022146510394952.
22. Eva Oberle and Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl, “Stress Contagion in the Classroom? The Link between
Classroom Teachers’ Burnout and Morning Cortisol in Elementary School Students,” Social Science and
Medicine 159 (2016): 30–7, doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.04.031.
23. Christina Maslach, Susan E Jackson, and Michael P Leiter, Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual, 3rd ed.
(Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1996).
24. Gary Barnes, Edward Crowe, and Benjamin Schaefer, The Cost of Teacher Turnover in Five School
Districts: A Pilot Study (Washington, DC: National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future,
2007).
25. Linda Darling-Hammond, “The Challenge of Staffing Our Schools,” Educational Leadership 58 (2001):
12–17.
26. Reid M. Ingersoll and Thomas M. Smith, “The Wrong Solution to the Teacher Shortage,” Educational
Leadership 60 (2003): 30–33.
27. James R. Koller and Julie M. Bertel, “Responding to Today’s Mental Health Needs of Children, Families
and Schools: Revisiting the Preservice Training and Preparation of School-Based Personnel,” Education
and Treatment of Children 29 (2006): 197–217; Cathy J. Siebert, “Promoting Preservice Teachers’ Success
in Classroom Management by Leveraging a Local Union’s Resources: A Professional Development School
Initiative,” Education 125 (2005): 385–92.
28. Heather K. Alvarez, “The Impact of Teacher Preparation on Responses to Student Aggression in the
Classroom,” Teaching and Teacher Education 23 (2007): 1113–26, doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2006.10.001.
29. Milkie and Warner, “Classroom Learning Environments”; Sondra H. Birch and Gary W. Ladd, “Children’s
Interpersonal Behaviors and the Teacher-Child Relationship,” Developmental Psychology 34 (1998)
934–946. doi: 10.1037//0012-1649.34.5.934; Marc A. Brackett et al., “Assessing Teachers’ Beliefs about
Social and Emotional Learning,” Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment 30 (2012): 219–36, doi:
10.1177/0734282911424879; Scott D. Gest, Janet A. Welsh, and Celene E. Domitrovich, “Behavioral
Predictors of Changes in Social Relatedness and Liking School in Elementary School,” Journal of School
Psychology 43 (2005): 281–301, doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2005.06.002; Bridget K. Hamre and Robert C. Pianta,
“Early Teacher-Child Relationships and the Trajectory of Children’s School Outcomes through Eighth
Grade,” Child Development 72 (2001): 625–38, doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00301; Andy Hargreaves, “Mixed
Emotions: Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Interactions with Students,” Teaching and Teacher Education

1 52   T HE F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers

16 (2000): 811–26, doi: 10.1016/S0742-051X(00)00028-7; Adena M. Klem and James P. Connell,

“Relationships Matter: Linking Teacher Support to Student Engagement and Achievement,” Journal of
School Health 74 (2004): 262–73, doi: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2004.tb08283.x.
30. Stephanie M. Jones and Suzanne M. Bouffard, “Social and Emotional Learning in Schools: From
Programs to Strategies,” Social Policy Report 25, no. 4 (2012): 1–22.
31. Jennings and Greenberg, “Prosocial Classroom.”
32. Ibid.; Patricia A. Jennings, Mindfulness for Teachers: Simple Skills for Peace and Productivity in the
Classroom (New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., 2015).
33. Roger D. Goddard, Wayne K. Hoy, and Anita Woolfolk Hoy, “Collective Efficacy Beliefs: Theoretical
Developments, Empirical Evidence, and Future Directions,” Educational Researcher 33 (2004): 3–13, doi:
10.3102/0013189X033003003.
34. Hamre and, “Early Teacher-Child Relationships.”
35. For example, see Jon Kabat-Zinn, Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to
Face Stress, Pain, and Illness, (New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell, 1990).
36. Patricia A. Jennings et al., “Improving Classroom Learning Environments by Cultivating Awareness and
Resilience in Education (CARE): Results of Two Pilot Studies,” Journal of Classroom Interactions 46
(2011): 37–48; Patricia A. Jennings et al., “Improving Classroom Learning Environments by Cultivating
Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE): Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial,” School
Psychology Quarterly 28 (2013): 374–390; Rita Benn et al., “Mindfulness Training Effects for Parents and
Educators of Children with Special Needs,” Developmental Psychology 48 (2012): 1476–87, doi: 10.1037/
a0027537; Robert W. Roeser et al., “Mindfulness Training and Reductions in Teacher Stress and Burnout:
Results from Two Randomized, Waitlist-Control Field Trials,” Journal of Educational Psychology 105
(2013): 787–804, doi: 10.1037/a0032093.
37. Patricia A. Jennings et al., “Impacts of the CARE for Teachers Program on Teachers’ Social and
Emotional Competence and Classroom Interactions,” Journal of Educational Psychology 109 (2017), doi:
10.1037/edu0000187.
38. Joseph A. Durlak and Emily P. DuPre, “Implementation Matters: A Review of Research on the Influence
of Implementation on Program Outcomes and the Factors Affecting Implementation,” American Journal
of Community Psychology 41 (2008): 327–50, doi: 10.1007/s10464-008-9165-0; Torill Larsen and Oddrun
Samdal, “The Importance of Teachers’ Feelings of Self Efficacy in Developing Their Pupils’ Social and
Emotional Learning: A Norwegian Study of Teachers’ Reactions to the Second Step Program,” School
Psychology International 33 (2012): 631–45, doi: 10.1177/0143034311412848; Shannon B. Wanless and
Celene E. Domitrovich, “Readiness to Implement School-Based Social-Emotional Learning Interventions:
Using Research on Factors Related to Implementation to Maximize Quality,” Prevention Science 16
(2015): 1037–43, doi: 10.1007/s11121-015-0612-5.
39. Durlak and DuPre, “Implementation Matters.”
40. Celene E. Domitrovich et al., “How Do School-Based Prevention Programs Impact Teachers? Findings
from a Randomized Trial of an Integrated Classroom Management and Social-Emotional Program,”
Prevention Science 17 (2016): 325–37, doi: 10.1007/s11121-015-0618-z; Carolyn R. Ransford et al.,
“The Role of Teachers’ Psychological Experiences and Perceptions of Curriculum Supports on the
Implementation of a Social and Emotional Learning Curriculum,” School Psychology Review 38
(2009): 510–32; Maria Regina Reyes et al., “The Interaction Effects of Program Training, Dosage,
and Implementation Quality on Targeted Student Outcomes for the RULER Approach to Social
and Emotional Learning,” School Psychology Review 41 (2012): 82–99; Sara E. Rimm-Kaufman and
Brook E. Sawyer, “Primary-Grade Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Attitudes toward Teaching, and
Discipline and Teaching Practice Priorities in Relation to the Responsive Classroom Approach,”

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Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl

Elementary School Journal, 104, (2004): 321–41; Brackett et al., “Assessing Teachers’ Beliefs”; Chi-
Ming Kam, Mark T. Greenberg, and Carla T. Walls, “Examining the Role of Implementation Quality
in School-Based Prevention Using the PATHS Curriculum,” Prevention Science 4 (2003): 55–63, doi:
10.1023/A:1021786811186.
41. Reyes et al., “Interaction Effects.”
42. Domitrovich et al., “Findings from a Randomized Trial.”
43. A full history and critical analysis of preservice teacher preparation is beyond the scope of this article, but
readers interested in learning more about the current state of teacher education can find more information
in Linda Darling-Hammond, “Teacher Education and the American Future,” Journal of Teacher
Education 61 (2010): 35–47, doi: 10.1177/0022487109348024 and Linda Darling-Hammond, Powerful
Teacher Education: Lessons from Exemplary Programs (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2013).
44. Julie Greenberg, Arthur McKee, and Kate Walsh, Teacher Prep Review: A Review of the Nation’s Teacher
Preparation Programs (Washington, DC: National Council on Teacher Quality, 2014); Julie Greenberg,
Hannah Putman, and Kate Walsh, Training Our Future Teachers: Classroom Management, rev. ed.
(Washington, DC: National Council on Teacher Quality, 2014).
45. Kenneth Zeichner and Laura Paige, “The Current Status and Possible Future for ‘Traditional’ College
and University-Based Teacher Education Programs in the United States,” in 21st Century Education:
A Reference Handbook, ed. Thomas L. Good, vol. 2 (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), 503–12, doi:
10.4135/9781412964012.n54.
46. Frank C. Worrell et al., Assessing and Evaluating Teacher Preparation Programs (Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association, 2014).
47. US Department of Education, Our Future, Our Teachers: The Obama Administration’s Plan for Teacher
Education Reform and Improvement (Washington, DC: US Department of Education, 2011).
48. Greenberg, McKee, and Walsh, Teacher Prep Review.
49. Darling-Hammond, “American Future,” 35.
50. James Comer and Valerie Maholmes, “Creating Schools of Child Development and Education in the
USA: Teacher Preparation for Urban Schools,” Journal of Education for Teaching 25 (1999): 3–5; Denise
H. Daniels and Lee Shumow, “Child Development and Classroom Teaching: A Review of the Literature
and Implications for Educating Teachers,” Applied Developmental Psychology 23 (2003): 495–526, doi:
10.1016/S0193-3973(02)00139-9; Linda Darling-Hammond and John Bransford, Preparing Teachers for
a Changing World: What Teachers Should Learn and Be Able to Do (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005);
Seymour B. Sarason, American Psychology and the Schools: A Critique (Washington, DC: Teachers
College Press, 2001).
51. Bridget K. Hamre and Robert C. Pianta, “Student-Teacher Relationships,” in Children’s Needs III:
Development, Prevention, and Intervention, ed. George G. Bear and Kathleen Minke (Bethesda, MD:
National Association of School Psychologists, 2006), 59–71; Sara E. Rimm-Kaufman and Bridget K.
Hamre, “The Role of Psychological and Developmental Science in Efforts to Improve Teacher Quality,”
Teachers College Record 112 (2010): 2988–3023.
52. Hamre and Pianta, “Early Teacher-Child Relationships”; Kathryn R. Wentzel, “Are Effective Teachers
Like Good Parents? Teaching Styles and Student Adjustment in Early Adolescence,” Child Development
73 (2003): 287–301, doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00406.
53. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and National Association for the
Accreditation of Teacher Education, Child and Adolescent Development Research and Teacher Education:
Evidence-Based Pedagogy, Policy, and Practice (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 2007);
Jane A. Leibbrand and Bernardine H. Watson, The Road Less Travelled: How the Developmental Sciences

1 54   T HE F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Social and Emotional Learning and Teachers

Can Prepare Educators to Improve Student Achievement: Policy Recommendations (Washington, DC:
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2010).
54. Bridget K. Hamre and Robert C. Pianta, “Can Instructional And Emotional Support in the First-Grade
Classroom Make a Difference for Children at Risk of School Failure?” Child Development 76 (2005):
949–67, doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00889.x; Hamre and Pianta, “Student-Teacher Relationships”;
Durlak et al., “Meta-Analysis.”
55. Heather J. Walter, Karen Gouze, and Karen G. Lim, “Teachers’ Beliefs about Mental Health Needs in
Inner City Elementary Schools,” Journal of the American Academy for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
45 (2006): 61–8, doi: 10.1097/01.chi.0000187243.17824.6c.
56. James R. Koller et al., “Differences between Novice and Expert Teachers’ Undergraduate Preparation and
Ratings of Importance in the Area of Children’s Mental Health,” International Journal of Mental Health
Promotion 6 (2004): 40–5, doi: 10.1080/14623730.2004.9721930.
57. Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education (CPSE), Report on the Teacher Needs Survey
(Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, Center for Psychology in Schools and Education,
2006).
58. Suzanne Vinnes et al., “Pre-Service Training in Social-Emotional Development and Behavior
Management: A Review of Graduate Teacher Education Programs,” poster presented at the Northeastern
Educational Research Association 45th Annual Conference, Trumbull, CT, October 2014.
59. (Vinnes et al., in press)
60. Greenberg, Putman, and Walsh, Classroom Management; Greenberg, McKee, and Kate, Teacher Prep
Review.
61. Ingersoll and Smith, “Wrong Solution.”
62. Jones and Bouffard, “From Programs to Strategies.”
63. Jones, Bouffard, and Weissbourd, “Vital to Learning”; Durlak et al., “Meta-Analysis.”
64. Kimberly A. Schonert-Reichl, Jennifer Kitil, and Jennifer Hanson-Peterson, To Reach the Students, Teach
the Teachers: A National Scan of Teacher Preparation and Social and Emotional Learning (Vancouver,
BC: University of British Columbia, 2017).
65. See http://teach.educ.ubc.ca/bachelor-of-education-program/elementary.

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