CBSE Class 12 Solution Study Notes
CBSE Class 12 Solution Study Notes
CBSE Class 12 Solution Study Notes
Solution
Homogeneous mixture
i.e., a single phase
containing more than one
component dispersed on
a molecular scale.
Homogeneous Mixture
Solutions around us
Saline solution
Soda can
Components of a Solution
+ =
Solute Solvent Solution
Components of a Solution
By convention
Constituent present in
Solvent
the largest amount.
Constituents present in
Solute
relatively small amounts.
Solution
Binary solution
2
Number of
3
constituents Ternary solution
4
Quaternary solution
Types of Liquid Solutions
Liquid solutions
1) Gas in liquid :
2) Liquid in liquid :
3) Solid in liquid :
Concentrated Concentration
and dilute terms
Recall
Amount of solute in
grams dissolved per
100 g of solution.
Amount of solute in
grams dissolved per
100 mL of solution.
Volume of a solute
(in mL) dissolved per 100
mL of solution.
Strength (S)
Molarity (M)
Molality (m)
Normality (N)
ppm
Mole fraction ( 𝞆 )
Strength of Solution
Weight of solute
(in gram) per litre
(1000 mL) of
solution.
If we have 6% w/w urea solution with density 1.060 g/mL,
then its strength in g/L is:
Solution
Given:
% w/w = 6%
Density of solution = 1.060 g mL-1
Strength of solution = ?
6% w/w urea solution means 6 g urea present in 100 g solution
Therefore, mass of the solution= 100 g
Density is defined as the ratio of mass and volume. Thus,
Density of Mass of solution Volume of 100 g
solution = solution
= 1.060 g mL-1
Volume of solution
Volume of solution = 94.34 mL
or volume of solution = 0.09434 L
Strength of the solution is given as follow:
Number of moles
of solute per litre
of solution.
Solution
N 6.02 × 1020
Number of moles of urea = =
NA 6.02 × 1023
n 0.001 0.01 M
Molarity = = =
V 0.1
Number of moles
of the solute per
1000 g or 1 kg
of solvent.
Number of gram
equivalents of
solute dissolved
per litre of
solution.
Normality (N)
For
oxidising For acid/ For
/reducing base salt
agents
For Oxidising/Reducing Agents
n-factor = 5
For Acid/Base
Number of H+ ions
displaced/OH− ions
displaced per mole
of acid/base.
Example: Al2(SO4)3
(iii) SO2 2–
SO4 (n-factor for S)
The number
of parts of
solute present
in 1 million parts
of solution.
Parts per Million (ppm)
Ratio of the
number of moles
of a particular
component to the
total number of
moles of all the
components.
Mole Fraction (𝓧)
Moles of solute n
𝓧solute = Total moles in solutions = n+N
Moles of solvent N
𝓧solvent = Total moles in solutions = n+N
𝓧solute + 𝓧solvent = 1
What is the mole fraction of the solute in a 1.00 m aqueous solution?
Solution
Uuh
a 1.770
b 0.0354
c 0.0177
d 0.177
All volume dependent
concentration terms are
dependent on temperature.
Which of the following is dependent on temperature?
Uu
a Molarity
b Mole fraction
c Weight percentage
d Molality
Solution
Volume dependent concentration terms are temperature dependent, here, molarity is volume dependent and it
also dependent on temperature.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
2.5 litre of 1 M NaOH solution is mixed with another 3 litre of 0.5 M NaOH solution. Then
find out molarity of resultant solution.
Uuh
a 0.80 M
b 1.0 M
c 0.73 M
d 0.50 M
Solution
2.5 litre of 1 M NaOH + 3 litre of 0.5 M NaOH = 5.5 litre of ‘x’ M NaOH
x - 0.5 v1 2.5
= =
1-x v2 3
Solution
Given:
Mass of glycerine = 46 g
Molar mass of glycerine = 92 g mol-1
Mass of water = 36 g
Molar mass of water = 18 g mol-1
46 36
Moles of glycerine = Moles of water =
92 18
Given:
Density of the solution = 1.02 g mL-1
Let the volume of the solution = 1 L = 1000 mL
Mass (g)
Density = Volume (mL)
Moles of solute
Molality = Mass of solvent (in kg)
2.05
Molality = = 2.28 m
0.897
Solution
Moles of 70 0.454
CCl4 = =
154
Solution
a 1000 mL
b 990 mL
c 1010 mL
d 10 mL
Solution
a 16.65 mL
b 22.20 mL
c 5.55 mL
d 11.10 mL
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
A solution is prepared by dissolving 24.5 g of sodium hydroxide in distilled water to
give 1 L solution. The molarity of NaOH in the solution is:
Solution
a 0.2450 M
b 0.6125 M
c 0.9800 M
d 1.6326
1.6326
11.10 mL
mL
M
It is a solution in which
more amount of solute
can be dissolved at a
particular temperature.
Saturated Solution
A solution in
which no more
solute can be
dissolved at
a particular
temperature.
Supersaturated Solution
A solution which
contains more
amount of the solute
than in the saturated
solution at a particular
temperature and
pressure.
Solubility
Solubility of a substance
is its maximum amount
that can be dissolved in a
specified amount of solvent
(generally 100 g of solvent)
at a specified temperature
to form a saturated solution.
Solubility
2 Temperature
3 Pressure
Factors-Affecting Solubility
There are three major factors that affect the solubility of a gas in a liquid:
● Polar gases : SO2, NH3 etc. ● Non polar gases : O2 , N2 and CO2
● Polar solvents : H2O and alcohol etc. etc.
● NH3 is highly soluble in water, ● Non polar solvents : CCl4, benzene
because both are polar and due to etc.
H-bonding.
Factors-Affecting Solubility
Question : O2 in water is :
When a gas undergoes
(a) Highly soluble ionisation in a solvent,
(b) Moderately soluble then it is highly soluble
(c) Poorly soluble in that solvent.
Answer : O2 in water is poorly soluble.
Because O2 is non-polar in nature E.g. HCl is highly
whereas water is a polar solvent. soluble in water.
● When HCl (g) reacts completely with H2O and gives H3O+ and Cl– and it
becomes highly soluble because equilibrium shifts forward, increasing the
solubility of HCl.
● If the solvent reacts with the gas. It can dissolve greater amounts of that gas.
Factors-Affecting Solubility
Temperature
Consider any gas is dissolved in
water.
Exothermic
Gas + aq ⇌ Gas (aq) + Heat
Generally, Temperature
Solubility of gas increases in the
Solubility forward direction if the temperature is
lowered. According to Le chatelier's
principle, if the reaction is exothermic
For exothermic reaction as temperature
in forward direction and temperature
increases solubility of gases in liquid
of reaction is increased, the reaction
decreases according to Le chatelier's
shifts to the backward direction.
principle.
Factors-Affecting Solubility
Application:
𝛘 ∝ P
Gas is in equilibrium
with the liquid solution
P = KH 𝛘
⇌
Liquid
𝓧 is the mole fraction of the
unreacted gas in the solution.
Henry’s Law
Decrease in pressure
Increase in pressure P
P decreases solubility
increases solubility
Henry’s Law
Example:
Let us take two beakers. The
first beaker has soda and the
second has water. As we add
some drops of methyl red
indicator in both the beakers,
the first beaker (that has soda)
has a red colour (pH < 4.4) and Soda Water (pH < 4.4) (pH > 6.2)
the second beaker has a
yellow colour (pH > 6.2). Addition of methyl red
indicator
Henry’s Law
Now, some coloured soda solution is taken in a syringe and its nozzle is closed. If
we pull the syringe up, then the colour of the solution changes from red to yellow.
This means that the amount of CO2 dissolved in the soda water decreases.
However, when we press the syringe again, the colour of the solution changes
back to red. This means that the amount of CO2 dissolved in the soda water
increases.
Soda Water
Red coloured Yellow coloured Decrease in dissolved Increase in dissolved
solution solution CO2(g) in the soda CO2(g) in the soda
Characteristics of Henry’s Law Constant
P
KH value of gas is different
c
in different solvents.
Since, 𝛘 = KH
Graphical Analysis (Henry’s Isotherm)
Pressure (p)
p = KH × 𝛘
By comparing it with the straight
line equation; Slope = KH
(y = mx + c), we get,
Intercept (c) = 0
Slope (m) = KH
Mole fraction (𝛘)
Plot of P vs 𝛘 is a straight line passing
through the origin with slope equal to KH.
Graphical Analysis (Henry’s Isotherm)
a) b)
log m
log m
log P log P
c) d)
log m
log m
log P log P
Solution
● At high altitudes, the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground
level because the population density of the oxygen particles is less at the higher
altitudes as compared to that of on the ground level. At heights low blood oxygen
level causes anoxia.
Applications of Henry’s Law
● Scuba diving tanks are diluted with helium.
Scuba divers must cope with high The bubble blocks the capillaries and
concentration of dissolved gases creates a medical condition known as
while, breathing air at high pressure bends that are painful and dangerous to
under water. life.
Pressure of the gas is not too The gas should not undergo
1 3 any chemical reaction with the
high.
solvent.
Solution
nA nA
3
1 = 2.5 × 10 × n + 2 ⇒ = 4 × 10–4
A nA + 2
nA
= 4 × 10–4, nA = 8 × 10–4 = 8 ×
2 –x
10
x=4
Evaporation and Condensation
● Some of the more energetic particles on the surface of the liquid move fast enough to escape from the
attractive forces holding the liquid together.
● As the gaseous particles bounce around, some of them will hit the surface of the liquid again, and be
trapped there.
● At this stage, partial pressure of vapours is called vapour pressure of the liquid.
At equilibrium
Rate of Rate of
= condensation
evaporation
Evaporation and Condensation
Rate of
evaporation
Rate
Rate of
condensation
Time
Vapour Pressure (V.P.)
H2O(l) ⇌ H O(g)
2
KP = V.P.
Partial pressure of vapours which are in equilibrium with their
pure solid or liquid is called vapour pressure of that substance.
The solubility of N2(g) in water exposed to the atmosphere, when its partial
pressure is 593 mm Hg is 5.3 × 10–4 M. Its solubility at 760 mm Hg and at the
same temperature is:
(a) 4.1 × 10–4 M (b) 6.8 × 10–4 M (c) 1500 M (d) 2400 M
Solution
p2 760
s2 = × s1 ⇒ × 5.3 × 10–4 = 6.79 × 10–4
p1 593
Solution
Hence, value of P = 4.
(a) Temperature
(b) Pressure
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
Solution
Henry’s law states that, “The solubility of a gas in a liquid at a given temperature is directly proportional to its
partial pressure, at which, it is dissolved.”
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
A gas 'X' is present with saturated water vapour over water liquid at a total pressure
of 1.5 atm. Vapour pressure of H2O at the same temperature is 0.5 atm. The
solubility of gas 'X' in terms of moles in 10 moles H2O(l) is given by P × 10–3. What is
the value of P?
Partial pressure of X
po(X) = KH × 𝛘(X)
KH = 38 × 105 torr (from graph)
760
𝛘(X) = = 2 × 10–4
38 × 105
Solution
According to Henry’s law, the solubility of gases in liquids increases with increase in pressure while
solubility decreases with increase in temperature.
b Temperature
c Pressure
d All of these
Solution
Solubility of one substance into another depends on the nature of the solvent and solute, temperature
and pressure.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
Which one of the following statements regarding Henry's law is not correct?
(a) Different gases have different KH (Henry’s law constant) values at the same
temperature.
(b) The value of KH increases with increase of temperature and KH is function of the nature
of the gas.
(c) The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of
the gas in the solution.
(d) Higher the value of KH at a given pressure, higher is the solubility of the gas in the
liquids.
Solution
(a) Different gases have different KH (Henry’s law constant) values at the same temperature. This is true
statement.
(b) The value of KH increases with increase of temperature and KH is a function of the nature of the gas. This is
also a true statement as temperature increases, solubility decreases so, KH increases.
(c) The partial pressure of the gas in the vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas in the
solution. This is also true as this is Henry’s law.
(d) Higher the value of KH at a given pressure, higher is the solubility of the gas in the liquids. This statement is
not true as at higher values of KH the solubility will be less.
a 3.6 × 108 Pa
b 5 × 108 Pa
c 5 × 105 Pa
d 2.77 × 107 Pa
Why?
As vapour pressure increases, the tendency to go in vapour state increases and hence
boiling point decreases.
Features of Vapour Pressure
Boiling point
• Temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure.
• On increasing the temperature, liquid starts boiling and there comes a point where on heating, temperature
remains constant and heat absorbed, which is called latent heat of vapourisation. After crossing that point
liquid converts into vapour. The maximum temperature of liquid is boiling point.
• Boiling point is dependent on pressure.
• On increasing the external pressure, boiling point increases.
• In a pressure cooker the pressure increases and hence boiling point of water increases. For instance, now
the boiling point of water is around 110 °C. Now rice has the opportunity to stay at that high temperature and
hence they will cook faster as compared to the open container.
• Temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure; P(liq) = Pext, T = Boiling
point
• At normal boiling point, the vapour pressure of the pure liquid = 1 atm
Features of Vapour Pressure
According
Vapour to Le Chatelier’s
Temperature
pressure principle, increasing
the temperature of a
system in a dynamic
More molecules from the equilibrium, favours
liquid the endothermic
have enough K.E. to escape change.
from the surface of the liquid.
Features of Vapour Pressure
V.P.
K.E.
Temperature
K.E. of particles
Raoult’s Law for a
Mixture of Two Volatile
Miscible Liquids
Raoult’s Law
In the solution of
volatile liquids, the
partial vapour
pressure of each
component is directly
proportional to its
mole fraction.
Raoult’s Law
PA ∝ 𝓧A PA = 0
𝓧APA
Mole fraction of
𝓧A
component ‘A’ in solution
PA ∝ 𝓧A PA = 0
𝓧APA
In the solution of
volatile liquids, the Partial vapour pressure
PA
partial vapour of component 'A'
pressure of each
component is directly Mole fraction of
𝓧A
proportional to its component ‘A’ in solution
mole fraction.
Vapour pressure of pure
0
PA component ‘A’ at a given
temperature
Raoult’s Law For Binary Solutions of A & B
PA = 0
𝓧APA PB = 0
𝓧BPB
PT = PA + PB
PT = 0
𝓧APA + 𝓧BPB
0
PT in Terms of Composition of Vapour Phase
yAPT yBPT
PA = 0
𝓧APA Raoult’s Law
0
+ 0
= 1
PA PB
Similarly,
1 yA yB
PB = yBPT = 𝓧BPB
0
⇒ = +
PT
0
PA PB0
PT in Terms of Composition of Vapour Phase
Solutions which
obey Raoult’s law
over the entire range
of concentration are
known as ideal
solutions.
Graphical Representation of Raoult's Law
𝓧A + 𝓧B = 1
0
Relation between total pressure PT = 0
( PA - PB ) 𝓧A + PB
0
0
PA
0
PB
PA
PB
𝓧A = 0 𝓧A = 1
𝓧A = 0 𝓧A = 1
Graphical Representation of Raoult's Law
0 0 A is more
If PA > PB
PT
0 volatile than B
PA
0
PB PA
PB
B.P. of A < B.P. of B
𝓧A = 0 𝓧A = 1
Graphical Representation of Raoult's Law
Solution
a 0.200
b 0.549
c 0.786
d 0.478
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
The vapour pressure of two liquids P and Q are 80 and 60 torr, respectively. The
total vapour pressure of solution obtained by mixing 3 moles of P and 2 moles of
Q would be :
Solution
a 72 torr
b 140 torr
c 68 torr
d 20 torr
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
Ideal Solution
(i)
Raoult's law is obeyed.
0
PA PT = PA + PB
0
PB
PB PA
𝓧A = 1 Mole Fraction 𝓧A = 0
𝓧B = 0 𝓧B = 1
Characteristics of Ideal Solution
(ii)
ΔmixH = 0, i.e., there should not be
an enthalpy change when components
of ideal solutions are mixed.
(iii)
ΔmixV = 0, (1L + 1L = 2L) i.e.,
there should not be a change
in volume on mixing.
Characteristics of Ideal Solution
(iv)
(ΔmixS)sys > 0 ⇒ randomness
increases on mixing.
(v)
-qsys
(ΔmixS)surr = 0 ⇒ (ΔmixS)surr = =0
T
(vi)
(ΔmixS)univ > 0 ⇒ Mixing is
a spontaneous process
Ideal Solution
Examples
Chlorobenzene and
Bromobenzene
Non-Ideal Solution
Solutions that
do not obey
Raoult's law over
the entire range
of concentration
Non-Ideal Solution
2 ΔHmix ≠ 0
3 ΔVmix ≠ 0
Non-Ideal Solution
Non-ideal Solutions
total pressure
also higher
Positive Deviation
Vapour pressure
of solution
0
PA
0
V.P. B.P.
PB
PB
PA
B.P. of both A and
B.P. of solution < B
𝛘A = 1 Mole fraction 𝛘A = 0
𝛘B = 0 𝛘B = 1
-qsys
5 (ΔmixS)surr = 0 ⇒ (ΔmixS)surr = <0
T
Examples
Vapour pressure
0
PA of solution
0
PB
PA
PB
V.P. B.P.
𝛘A = 1 Mole fraction 𝛘A = 0
𝛘B = 0 𝛘B = 1
3 ΔHmix < 0
-qsys
5 (ΔmixS)surr = 0 ⇒ (ΔmixS)surr = >0
T
Non-ideal solutions
Ideal solutions
Positive deviation Negative deviation
0 0 0 0 0 0
PT = 𝛘APA + 𝛘BPB PT > 𝛘APA + 𝛘BPB PT < 𝛘APA + 𝛘BPB
Non-ideal solutions
Ideal solutions
Positive deviation Negative deviation
Solution
Vapor pressure of solution as per Raoult’s law should have been 104 mm Hg for it to become an ideal solution
but it is 100 mm Hg as given in the question. Thus, solution shows negative deviation
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
PA and PB are the vapour pressures of pure liquid components, A and B,
respectively of an ideal binary solution. If 𝝌A represents the mole fraction of
component A, the total pressure of the solution will be:
Solution
PT = 𝛘APA + 𝛘BPB
𝛘A + 𝛘B = 1
⇒ 𝛘B = 1 – 𝛘A
PT = 𝛘APA + (1 – 𝛘A)PB
PT = 𝛘APA + PB – 𝛘APB
⇒ PT = PB + 𝝌A(PA – PB)
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
The vapour pressure of water depends upon:
Solution
Solution
Solution
(a) Intermolecular attractive forces between A-A and B-B are stronger than those between A-B
(b) ΔmixH = 0 at constant T and P
(c) ΔmixV = 0 at constant T and P
(d) Intermolecular attractive forces between A-A and B-B are equal to those between A-B
Solution
For a solution of two components A and B exhibiting positive deviation from ideal behaviour intermolecular
attractive forces between A-A and B-B are stronger than those between A-B.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
Which condition is not satisfied by an ideal solution?
(a) ΔmixV = 0
(b) ΔmixS = 0
(c) Obey the Raoult’s law
(d) ΔmixH = 0
Solution
Minimum boiling
1 azeotropes
Types of
azeotropes
Maximum boiling
2 azeotropes
Minimum Boiling Azeotropes
Examples:
(i) Ethanol - water mixture containing ≈ 95% by volume of ethanol;
(ii) Chloroform - methanol mixture containing 87.4% chloroform and 12.6% methanol by mass
Minimum Boiling Azeotropes
Constant pressure
Temperature vs composition graph
P = 101.325 kPa
Vapour only
The composition of the point where dew point and
Temperature [K]
Vapour
bubble point curves intersect is azeotropic Co composition
composition. exis
te (Dew point
At this point the composition of the components of nt curve)
the solution is same in both liquid and vapour ph
as
phase. Liquid es
Boiling point of the solution at this composition is composition
lesser than the boiling points of either of the (Bubble
point curve)
components. Liquid only
Azeotrope
0 1
Mole fraction of chloroform
Pure Pure
methanol chloroform
Minimum Boiling Azeotropes
Pressure [kPa]
composition. point curve) s
pha
At this point the composition of the components of t
n
the solution is same in both liquid and vapour is te
e x Vapour only
phase.
Co
Vapour pressure of the solution at this composition
is greater than the vapour pressures of the either of Vapour
composition
the components.
(Dew point curve)
Both chloroform and methanol is taken at room temperature (298 K) and heated to their respective boiling points.
Chloroform (B.P. = 334 K) and methanol (B.P. = 338 K)
Minimum Boiling Azeotropes
38.5 mL
11.5 mL
Then we mix them in certain composition and then boil the mixture. We will see that this mixture boiled at 327 K that
is at a lower temperature as compared to their individual boiling point. And this is only possible in minimum boiling
azeotropes.
Maximum Boiling Azeotropes
Examples:
(i) A mixture of HNO3 and H2O containing ≈ 68% HNO3 and 32% water by mass
(ii) Formic acid - water mixture containing 77.6% formic acid (CH2O2) and 22.4%
water by mass
Maximum Boiling Azeotropes
s
Temperature [K]
se
bubble point curves intersect is azeotropic Azeotrope
ha
tp
composition.
en
ist
At this point the composition of the components of
ex
Co
the solution is same in both liquid and vapour phase. Liquid composition
Boiling point of the solution at this composition is (Bubble point curve)
higher than the boiling points of either of the
components.
0 1
Mole fraction of formic acid
Pure Pure formic
water acid
Maximum Boiling Azeotropes
Pressure [kPa]
composition.
Vapour pressure of the solution at this composition is Liquid composition
(Bubble point
es
lesser than the vapour pressures of the either of the
as
curve)
ph
components.
nt
te
is
ex
Azeotrope
Co
An ideal solution does not boil at a constant
temperature, whereas azeotrope does. Vapour composition
(Dew point curve)
0 Mole fraction of formic acid 1
Pure Pure formic
water acid
Maximum Boiling Azeotropes
Room temperature
37 mL
13 mL
Then we mix them in a certain composition and then boil the mixture. We will see that this mixture boiled at 382 K
that is at a higher temperature as compared to their individual boiling point. And this is only possible in maximum
boiling azeotropes.
An ideal solution does not boil at a constant temperature, whereas azeotrope does.
Which of the following azeotropic solutions has the boiling point more than
the boiling point of the constituents A and B?
Solution
The one which shows negative deviation will have more boiling point which is a mixture of chloroform and
acetone.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
How many facts related to H2O + HCl solution are correct?
Solution
(a) As H2O + HCl will have H-bonding so it will show negative deviation.
(b) All solutions showing negative deviation forms maximum boiling azeotropic mixture.
(a) When a mixture is more volatile than both pure components, there is positive deviation
from Raoult’s law
(b) When the mixture is more volatile than both pure components, there is negative
deviation from Raoult’s law
(c) Ethanol and water form ideal solution
(d) CHCl3 and water form ideal solution
Solution
If the mixture is more volatile than both pure components then their vapour pressure will be higher than
what we obtained from Raoult's law i.e. mixture will show positive deviation.
Ethanol and water do not form ideal solution but form positive deviation.
CHCl3 and water do not form ideal solution.
Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
Benzene and Toluene form an ideal solution at room temperature. For this
process, the false statement is:
(a) ΔH = 0
(b) ΔSsystem is positive
(c) ΔSsurroundings = 0
(d) ΔG is positive
Solution
Solution
For an ideal solution, ∆mixH = 0
In ideal solutions, all the interactions are identical and therefore option (d) A–A, B–B, and A–B interactions
are identical is the correct answer.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
The mixture that forms maximum boiling azeotrope is:
Solution
Maximum boiling azeotropes are those whose boiling point is more than their expected boiling point and show
negative deviation.
(a) Heptane + octane, are alkanes and almost form ideal solutions.
(b) Water + nitric acid, shows negative deviation. Solutions of water and acid always shows negative deviation.
(c) Ethanol + water, shows positive deviation. Solutions of water and alcohols except methanol always shows
positive deviation.
(d) Acetone + carbon disulphide, shows positive deviation because carbon disulphide is non-polar and acetone
is polar.
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
The concentration unit, independent of temperature would be:
(a) Normality
(c) Molality
(d) Molarity
Solution
The concentration unit which is independent of temperature will also be volume independent.
(a) Normality is equivalents per liters of solution, so this is volume dependent.
(b) Weight volume percent is also volume dependent.
(c) Molality is moles of solutes per kg of solvent and this is volume independent and therefore will also be
independent of temperature.
(d) Molarity is moles of solute per liters of solution, so this is volume dependent.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
Assertion: One molal aqueous solution of glucose contains 180 g of glucose in
1 kg water.
Reason: Solution containing one mole of solute in 1000 g of solvent is called
one molal solution.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and the Reason is a correct explanation of the
Assertion
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not a correct explanation of the
Assertion
Reason: Solution containing one mole of solute in 1000 g of solvent is called one molal solution and
this is also true.
Solution
a ∆Hmix = 0
b ∆Vmix = 0
d ∆Gmix = 0
(a) The vapour will contain equal amounts of benzene and toluene
(b) Not enough information is given to make a prediction
(c) The vapour will contain a higher percentage of benzene
(d) The vapour will contain a higher percentage of toluene
Solution
Solution
Solution
In ideal solutions, all the interactions are identical and therefore option (c) A–A, B–B, and A–B interactions
are identical is the correct answer.
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
All form ideal solution except:
Solution
(a) C6H6 & C6H5CH3, both are nonpolar and hence they will form ideal solution.
(b) n-Hexane & n-heptane, both are nonpolar and hence they will form ideal solution.
(c) C6H5Cl & C6H5Br are almost of similar kind and hence they will form ideal solution.
(d) Phenol & aniline will form hydrogen bonding and will not form ideal solution and will show negative
deviation.
(a) More than what would be, if the glass plate were removed
(b) Same as what would be, if the glass plate were removed
(c) Less than what would be, if the glass plate were removed
(d) Cannot be predicted
Solution
Here vapour pressure of liquid depends only on temperature so here vapour pressure will remain same.
Solution
Solution
At higher altitude the pressure is low but the human body temperature is same. As the partial pressure of
oxygen is decrease at higher altitude the solubility of oxygen in blood will decrease.
At equilibrium
Nature of
the solvent Temperature Pressure
& the solute
Nature of Solvent & Solute
If dissolution
ΔH < 0
is exothermic
By Le Chatelier's principle,
T Solubility
Temperature
If dissolution
ΔH > 0
is endothermic
By Le Chatelier's principle,
T Solubility
Pressure
Osmotic pressure
Abnormal Colligative Property
Abnormality in colligative
property can be calculated
in terms of van’t-Hoff factor.
van’t–Hoff Factor
Dissociation
>1
i =1 No dissociation/
association
<1
Association
i for Dissociation of Electrolyte
t=0 C 0 0
= C[1+(x+y-1)𝜶]
= C[1+(n-1)𝜶]
C[1+(n-1)𝜶]
i = C
i = 1+(n-1)𝜶
Examples
Solution
Answer- 1. i=4
Answer- 2. i=5
i for Association of Electrolyte
nA An
t=0 C 0
C𝜷
t = teq C(1 - 𝜷)
n
i for Association of Electrolyte
C𝜷
At equilibrium, Net concentration = C – C𝜷 +
n
1
= C 1 +
n
- 1 𝜷
i for Association of Electrolyte
1
C 1 + ‒ 1 𝜷
n
i =
C
1
i = 1 +
n
‒ 1 𝜷
n for Association of Electrolyte
Dimerise
2
n 3 Trimerise
4
Tetramerise
Examples
Dimerisation of CH3COOH
in benzene (100%)
i = 1
0.5
Dimerisation of C6H5COOH
in benzene (100%)
i = 0.5
An aqueous solution of a salt MX2 at a certain temperature has
a van’t Hoff factor of 2. The degree of dissociation for this
solution of the salt is:
a 0.67
b 0.33
c 0.80
Solution
d 0.50
Hence, option d is the
correct answer.
The van’t Hoff factor for 0.1 M Ba(NO3)2 solution is 2.74.
The degree of dissociation is:
a 91.3%
b 87%
c 100%
Solution
d 74%
Hence, option b is the
correct answer.
van’t Hoff factor :
Colligative Properties
Relative lowering
of vapour pressure
Osmotic pressure
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
V.P. of a solution
containing a non-volatile
solute (solid solute)
is always found to be
less than the V.P. of
the pure solvent.
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
P1 P2
P1 = P2
Pure Pure
solvent A solvent A
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
P1 P2
P1 < P2
Solution (non-volatile Pure
solute in solvent A) solvent A
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
Reason
Some of the solute
molecules will occupy some
surface area of the solution.
Solvent
Solution
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
Lowering in V.P. = P0 - PS = ΔP
Relative lowering ΔP
in vapour pressure = P0
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
Relative lowering
of vapour pressure is
a colligative property
whereas, lowering in
vapour pressure is not.
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
Vapour pressure
of pure solvent
Vapour pressure
PS = 𝓧solvent P0 = ( 1 - 𝓧solute) P0
P0 - PS n
RLVP = 0
P
= 𝓧solute = n+N
P0 n+N N
P0 - PS
= n = 1+
n
N P0 PS
n = 0
P - PS
‒1 = P0 ‒ PS
P0 ‒ PS n
PS
= N
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
P0 - PS wsolute Msolvent
PS
= Msolute
x w
solvent
w = Weight of species
M = Molar mass of species
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
P0 - PS Msolvent
PS
= Molality x
1000
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
P0 - PS i.n
P0
= i.n + N
P0 - PS i.n Msolvent
PS
= N = i x Molality x
1000
The weight of urea which must be dissolved in 400 g of
water. Therefore, the final solution has vapour pressure 2%
less than the vapour pressure of pure water is:
Solution
a 54.4 g
b 27.2 g
c 13.6 g
d 6.8 g
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
Which of the following salts has the same value of van’t Hoff
factor (i) as that of K3[Fe(CN)6]?
Solution
a Na2SO4
b Al(NO3)3
c Al2(SO4)3
d NaCl
Solution
a 0
b 1
c 2
d 3
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
The vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain
temperature is 0.850 bar. A non-volatile, non-electrolyte
solid weighing 0.5 g is added to 39.0 g of benzene (molar
mass 78 g mol-1). The vapour pressure of the solution then is
0.845 bar. What is the approximate value of molecular mass
of the solid substance?
Solution
Solution
Solution
a 199.34 mm Hg
b 143.99 mm Hg
c 141.43 mm Hg
d 94.39 mm Hg
So, relative lowering of the vapour pressure is equal to the ratio between the
number of solute molecules to the total molecules in the solution
Solution
Solution a P = P0 N2
b P = P0N1
c P0 = P N1
d P = P0 N1 / N2
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
Relative lowering
of vapour pressure
Osmotic pressure
Elevation in Boiling Point
External
pressure
Vapour
At normal B.P., V.P.
pressure
of the pure liquid = 1 atm
heated
to a higher temperature
Elevation in Boiling Point
Thus,
The boiling point The boiling point of
of a solution > the pure solvent
Elevation in Boiling Point
Atmospheric Atmospheric
pressure pressure
Lower vapour
pressure
Pure Solution
solvent (with solute)
Elevation in Boiling Point
Hence, we can say that because of the addition of non-volatile solute the
boiling point of solution increases
Elevation in Boiling Point
Vapour pressure
ΔTb
Tb0 Tb
Temperature (K)
Elevation in Boiling Point
ΔTb = Tb - Tb0
ΔTb = Kb m
ΔTb ∝ m
Kb = B.P. elevation constant
or, Molal elevation constant
or, Ebullioscopic constant
m Molality
Ebullioscopic Constant (Kb)
Kb
It is equal to elevation in
boiling point of 1 molal solution.
02
RTb M
Kb =
1000 x ΔHvap
0
● Tb is B.P. of pure solvent (K)
● M is the molar mass of solvent in g/mol
● ΔHvap is the molar enthalpy of
vapourisation of the solvent (J/mol)
● R = 8.314 J/mol-K
Ebullioscopic Constant (Kb)
ΔTb ∝ ΔP
At 100 °C the vapour pressure of a solution of 6.5 g of a
solute in 100 g water is 732 mm. If Kb = 0.52 K kg mol‒1,
the boiling point of this solution will be:
Solution
a 102°C
b 103°C
c 101°C
d 100°C
Solution
a 10.1
b 100
c 1.01
d 1000
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
Relative lowering
of vapour pressure
Osmotic pressure
Freezing Point (F.P.)
ΔTf
ΔTf = 0
Tf - Tf
ΔTf = Kf m
ΔTf ∝ m
Kf = F.P. depression constant
or molal depression constant
or cryoscopic constant.
m Molality
Depression in Freezing Point
Kf 02
RTf M
Kf =
It is equal to the depression in 1000 x ΔHfus
freezing point of 1 molal solution.
0
● Tf is F.P. of pure solvent (K)
● M is the molar mass of solvent in g/mol
● ΔHfus is the molar enthalpy of
K/m or °C/m
Units fusion of the solvent (J/mol)
or K kg mol–1
● R = 8.314 J/mol-K
Depression in Freezing Point
Po - Ps ΔTb = Kb × m
nu
= = m × Mv × 10-3
Ps nv RTbo 2 M
Kb =
Where, m = molality, Mv = mass of solvent 1000 × ΔHvap
● Depression in freezing point
ΔTf = Kf × m
RTfo 2 M
Kf =
1000 × ΔHfus
Applications of Depression in Freezing Point
O H
H O
H
C C Ethylene glycol is a chemical commonly used in
H many commercial and industrial applications
H including antifreeze and coolant.
H
The freezing point depression constant (Kf) of benzene is
5.12 K kg mol–1. The freezing point depression for the
solution of molality 0.078 m containing a non-electrolyte
solute in benzene is (rounded off upto two decimal places).
Solution
a 0.2 K
b 0.40 K
c 0.80 K
d 0.60 K
Hence, option (b) is the correct answer.
If molality of the dilute solution is doubled, the value of molal
depression constant (Kf) will be:
a Halved
Solution
ΔTf = Kf × m b Tripled
If molality is doubled, Kf will remain
unchanged since its a constant and it only
depends on solvent. c Unchanged
Solution
a – 0.372°C
b – 0.520°C
c + 0.372°C
Hence, option (a) is the
correct answer. d – 0.570°C
Relative lowering
of vapour pressure
Osmotic pressure
Osmosis
Solution Solvent
C1 SPM
Osmosis
The extra pressure that must be applied to the solution which is in contact with its
pure solvent through a semi-permeable membrane in order to just stop osmosis.
This is called the osmotic pressure (π) of that solution.
For dilute solutions, it has been found experimentally that osmotic pressure is
proportional to the molarity, C of the solution at a given temperature T.
Thus,
π ∝ C (molarity) and π ∝ T
Osmotic Pressure (π)
Hence,
π = CRT
Where, π = Osmotic pressure, C = Concentration (mol L−1), R = Universal gas
constant (L atm mol−1 K−1) and T = Temperature (K)
n
π = V
RT
Osmotic Pressure (π)
When a semi-permeable membrane is placed between a
solution and solvent, solvent particles can move across the
membrane but solute particles can not pass through
membrane.
Osmosis : The spontaneous flow of solvent
particles from solvent side to solution side,
or from solution of low concentration side
to solution of high concentration side
through a semipermeable membrane (SPM)
Osmotic Pressure (π) : The extra pressure
that must be applied to the solution which is
in contact with its pure solvent through a
semipermeable membrane in order to just
stop osmosis. This is called the osmotic
pressure (π) of that solution
If more than one type of
solute particles are present.
CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ……..
n1 + n2 + n3 + ……..
=
V
π = CTRT
Osmotic Pressure (π)
Pext
Pext
C1 SPM C2
Solution
During osmosis, flow is from both sides of semipermeable membrane with unequal
flow rates.
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
a 0.051 °C kg mol‒1
Solution
b 0.51 °C kg mol‒1
c 5.1 °C kg mol‒1
d 0.83 °C kg mol‒1
a 10.5 g mol-1
Solution
b 12.6 g mol-1
c 15.7 g mol-1
d 17.3 g mol-1
Hence, option (d) is the correct answer.
AIIMS 2006
Solution a 271 K
b 273.15 K
c 269.07 K
d 277.23 K
Hence, option (c) is the correct answer.
There will be no net movement Glucose will flow towards
a b
across the membrane. glucose solution.
Solution
π π
Solution
Solution a P1 > P2 > P3
b P3 > P1 > P2
c P2 > P1 > P3
d P2 > P3 > P1
°
Solution
a 0.3
b 0.2
c 0.1
d 0.4
a 7.34 atm
Solution
b 1.78 atm
c 2.34 atm
d 0.74 atm
Types of Solutions
1 Isotonic solution
2 Hypotonic solution
3 Hypertonic solution
Isotonic Solution
π1 = π2
Hypotonic & Hypertonic Solutions
If two solutions
‘1’ and ‘2’ are such
that π2 > π1 , then ‘2’
is called hypertonic
solution and ‘1’ is
called hypotonic
solution.
Hypotonic & Hypertonic Solutions
Solution 1 Solution 2
Hypotonic Hypertonic
C1 SPM C2
π1 < π2
Hypotonic & Hypertonic Solutions
Hypotonic
Solution 1 Solution 2
Hypertonic
C1 SPM C2
π1 < π2 Pext = π2 - π1
Types of Solutions
Pext > π
• In R.O. filters high pressure is applied on the impure water so only pure water
flows through SPM and collected.
• Used in desalination of sea-water.
At 27ºC, a 1.2% solution (w/V) of glucose is isotonic with
4.0 g/litre of solution of solute X. Find the molar mass of X.
(R = 0.082 L atm mol–1 K–1)
b 60 g/mol
c 180 g/mol
d 90 g/mol
Application of Osmotic Pressure
Determination of molecular
a.
mass of the solute.
wRT
Msolute = 𝚷V
● w is mass of solute
● V is volume of the solution
● 𝚷 is osmotic pressure of the solution
● T is temperature
● R is universal gas constant
Application of Osmotic Pressure
Solution
m2
a M2 = VRT
𝜋
m2 RT
b M2 =
V 𝜋
A solution contains non-volatile solute of molecular mass M2.
Which of the following can be used to calculate the molecular
mass of solute in terms of osmotic pressure?
(m2 = mass of solute, V = volume of solution, 𝜋 = osmotic
pressure)
m2
c M2 = 𝜋RT
V
m2 𝜋
d M2 =
V RT
If 10 g of an unknown substance (non-electrolytic) is dissolved
to make 500 mL of solution, then osmotic pressure at 300 K is
observed to be 1.23 atm. Find molecular weight of solute.
Solution a 400 u
3b 300 u
3.2
c 500 u
4.2
d 550 u
Pure water can be obtained from sea water by:
a Centrifugation b Plasmolysis
Solution
a Osmotic pressure
b. Dialysis