Introduction:

A high-rise building is any tall building with a designated height fixed by the
local codes, with multiple uses.
High-rise buildings have been around for a long time, but the use of the
modern structure using reinforced concrete and steel frames has only
started from the 1880s onwards. Since their first appearance toward the
end of the 19th century, the design and construction of high-rise buildings
have changed considerably.

Definition:
 A high-rise building is defined as any tall, multi-storey building over
75 feet (23m), with seven or more storeys. Over 150m (492 feet), it is
considered a skyscraper.
 It is considered a structure extending higher than the maximum reach
of available fire-fighting resources.
 The height of the structure usually has a serious impact on
evacuation in case of emergencies.

Scope:
 High-rise buildings are designed to hold more people over a
constrained piece of land.
 In line with rising population density and land values contributing to
shrinking land sizes, height limits are being revised to make
maximum use of vertical space for commercial and residential
growth.
 They are mostly used for commercial purposes such as housing
shopping malls and offices. When combined with other types such as
residential, transportation, or assembly, creates a high-rise building
with mixed uses.
 High-rise buildings have the potential for innovations in design,
technologies, amenities, structure, disaster response (earthquakes,
fires, etc.), space and material efficiency, maintenance efficiency,
eco-friendly/sustainability, climate responsiveness, etc.
Objectives:
 Verticality + reduced footprint: One is to house a maximum number of
people in constrained land by making use of increasing vertical
space.
 Structural strength to resist heavy loads (dead, live, wind, etc.) and
disasters.
 Space, material, and energy-efficiency
 Sustainable: eco-friendly, climate-responsive
 Comfort, Safety and Security
 Views, aesthetics, and acoustics
 Ease of maintenance
 Should stand the test of time

Citations:

Robustness (advantages):
 Verticality + reduced footprint
 More Natural Light
 Ventilation and Fresh Air
 Less Noise
 Less Congestion
 Safety & Security
 Feel of exclusive living
 Structural strength to resist heavy loads (dead, live, wind, etc.) and
disasters, with proper design.
 Potential for several people and families, businesses, and amenities
to be nearby.
 Can be single-function or mixed-use
 Design flexibility to accommodate for future changes in use.
 Potential for energy efficiency & sustainability
 Aesthetics

Criteria for HRB:

 A high-rise building is defined as any tall, multi-storey building over
75 feet (23m), with seven or more storeys. Over 150m (492 feet), it is
considered a skyscraper.
  Site assessment & alignment with local/national codes &
regulations: local compliance & design priorities
 Efficiency w.r.t. environment, energy, materials, cost, time, and
space (80-85% net-to-gross floor area ratio is appropriate).
 Sustainability & green friendliness
 Integration of services and structures: elevators, lighting,
telecoms, HVAC, fire protection & prevention, water supply &
management, waste & sewage disposal systems
 Circulation: vertical transportation (stairs, elevators, escalators)
 architectural & structural integrity for utmost safety to prevent
disasters (collapse due to structural failures, excess load, wind, land
& soil conditions, earthquakes, fires, inappropriate materials, etc.)
 Design for safety and accessibility

Design considerations:
Architectural:
 Being neighbourly – Tall buildings should have a positive
relationship with surrounding features and other neighbouring tall
buildings.
 Stand out from the crowd – The architectural quality of the
building, including its scale, form, massing, proportion, silhouette
and cladding materials, is more important the higher up it is.
 Do you like my hat? – The top of a tall building will be of
particular importance because of its impact on the skyline, the
local streetscape and views from a significant distance away.
 Lead by example – Tall buildings should set exemplary standards
in design because of their high profile and local impact. Ideally,
proposals should exceed the standards set by regulations and
planning policies.
 This is going to cost – Tall buildings are expensive to build, but it
is extremely important not to dilute the design quality throughout
the process of procurement, detailed design and construction.
 

 Big friendly giant – The development should interact with and

contribute positively to its street-level surroundings. It should aid
safety, diversity, vitality, social engagement and a strong sense of
place.
 7 – Be Community Positive
 Step softly – The effect of a tall building on the local microclimate
should not be underestimated, nor should its overshadowing effect
or its night-time appearance.
 6 – Consider Shade
 9 – Factor in the Elements
 Easy to spot – Tall buildings create opportunities to offer
improved accessibility while opening up views to improve the
legibility of the wider cityscape.
 Responsibility – Creating a well-designed environment both
inside and out, contributes to the quality of life of those who use
and view the building.
 8 – Be Lawful
 Respect one’s elders – Tall building proposals must address their
effect on historic buildings, sites and landscapes near and far.

Floor slab size and shape: An office building’s floor slab size and shape,
are influenced by the functional requirements, the client’s specific needs
and various constraints, which have a great impact on the space efficiency
and the building’s external character. Although there are no universal
formulas for responding to the client’s needs or local influences and
constraints such as climate, codes or constructional conditions, the
fundamental design considerations are identical almost in office buildings.
The first aim is to achieve maximum space efficiency and to accomplish
this task, initially, the floor slab shape and total floor area of the building
need to be designed.

Leasing depth: Leasing depth or lease span is the distance of the usable
area between the exterior wall and the fixed interior element, such as the
core or the multi-tenant corridor. Although it depends on the functional
requirements and is closely related to the structural frame and the material,
there are considerable varieties in different markets. The maximum leasing
depth is usually determined by the local building codes. Smaller core-to-
exterior window dimensions allow the users to maintain a relationship with
the outside, thus benefiting from the natural light.

Floor-to-floor/floor-to-ceiling height (2.7m, 3.4m, 3.7m, 4.0m, 4.2m,

4.5m, 4.8m): The floor-to-floor height of an office building is typically the
same for all occupied floors except for the lobby and floors for special
functions. In high-rise office buildings, additional floor-to-floor height
significantly entails greater cost on structural elements, cladding,
mechanical risers, and vertical transportation. The floor-to-floor height of a
building is a function of the required ceiling height, the depth of the raised
floor (if used), the depth of the structural floor system and material (which is
dependent on the exterior-to-core distance), and the depth of the space
required for the distribution of services.

Core integrity (elevators and lobbies, fire stairs, service shafts, toilets,
etc.): The core of the building comprises all of the vertical circulation
elements, such as elevators, fire stairs, mechanical shafts, toilets, and
elevator lobbies. In early office buildings, these elements tended to be
dispersed on the floor rather than concentrated, while today’s
contemporary buildings include all these elements in a specific zone, which
is mainly the core. Many of the key structural elements, such as the shear
walls that provide lateral stability, are integrated into the core to simplify the
architectural design. The layout of the core is critical to the development
efficiency and operational effectiveness of a high-rise office building, while
also playing a significant role in the way the structure copes with lateral
loads (Watts et al, 2007). Building cores can be arranged in several ways.
Central cores integrating with the outer structure resist lateral loads more
effectively and open up the perimeter for light and view, enabling efficient
workplaces. Buildings with side cores have the advantage of homogeneous
workplaces, which are usually organized into one space. 

Structural:
Limit state design of the structure: This approach aims to ensure that all
structures and their constituent components are designed to resist with
reasonable safety the worst loads and deformations that are liable to occur
during construction and service, and to have adequate durability during
their lifetime. The entire structure, or any part of it, is considered as having
“failed” when it reaches any one of various “limit states”.
https://constructionexec.com/article/five-types-of-structural-systems-in-
high-rise-buildings

Erection process and speed: The speed of elections is a vital factor in

obtaining a return on investment by minimizing the cost of interest
payments on the large capital costs involved in such large-scale projects.
Most tall buildings are constructed in congested city sites with difficult
access, and with no storage areas. Careful planning and organization of
the construction sequence become essential.

Loading forces: The structure must be designed to resist the gravitational

and lateral forces, both permanent and transient that will be sustained
during construction and the expected useful life of the structure (from 60 to
100 years). These forces will depend on the size and shape of the building,
and its location.

(https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/high-rise-structures/5/)

Sequential loading: For dead loads, the construction sequence should be

considered to be the worst case. It is usual to shore the freshly placed floor
upon several previously cast floors. The construction loads on the
supporting floors due to the weight of wet concrete and its formwork will
greatly exceed loads of normal service conditions. These loads must be
calculated considering the sequence of construction and the rate of
erection.

Strength and stability: The primary requirement of the ultimate limit state
design procedure is that the structure has adequate strength to resist and
remain stable under the worst probable loads during its lifetime.
Drift limitations: The parameter that measures the lateral stiffness is the
drift index. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum deflection at the top of
the building to the total height of the building. In addition, each floor has an
index called the inter-story drift index which checks for localized excessive
deformation. There is no national code requirement for the drift index, but
1/400 is a traditionally accepted limit.
Deflections must be limited, in order to:1)Prevent second-order P-delta
effects due to gravity loading, and precipitating collapse; 2) Allow the
functioning of non-structural components, such as elevators and doors; 3)
Avoid distress in the structure; 4) Prevent excessive cracking and
consequent loss of stiffness; 5) Avoid any redistribution of load to non-load-
bearing partitions, in-fills, cladding, or glazing; 6) Prevent dynamic motions
from causing discomfort to occupants, or affecting sensitive equipment.

Stiffness: The lateral stiffness is a major consideration in the design of a

tall building. Under the ultimate limit state, the lateral deflections must be
limited to prevent 2nd-order P-delta effects from gravity loading to be large
enough to precipitate collapse. In addition, serviceability requires these
deflections not to affect elevator rails, doors, or glass partitions, and
prevent dynamic motions to cause discomfort to the occupants and
sensitive equipment. This is one of the major differences between tall
buildings and low-rise buildings.

Creep, shrinkage, and temperature effects: In very tall buildings, the

cumulative vertical movements due to creep and shrinkage may cause
distress in the structure and induce forces into horizontal elements,
especially in the upper regions of the building. Buildings subjected to large
temperature variations between their external faces and the internal core,
and that are restrained, will experience induced stresses in the members
connecting both.

Fire: The characteristic feature of a fire such as temperature and duration,

can be estimated from a knowledge of the important parameters involved,
particularly the quality and nature of the combustible material present, the
possibility and extent of ventilation and the geometric and thermal
properties of the fire compartment involved. Knowledge of the temperature
gradient across the member, and the degree of restraint afforded by the
supports and surrounding structure, enables the stress in the member to be
evaluated.

Effect of foundation settlement: The gravity and lateral forces on the

structure will be transmitted to the earth through the foundation system.
Because of its height, a tall building’s columns may be very heavy. In areas
with bedrock, appropriate foundations can be shallow foundations, drilled
shafts, or deep basements. In areas with poor soil conditions, differential
settlements must be avoided. A typical solution is the use of a mat (or raft)
foundation, where the weight of soil equals a significant portion of the gross
building weight.

Soil-structure interaction: Soil-structure interaction involves both static

and dynamic behaviour. The former is generally treated by simplified
models of subgrade behaviour, and finite element methods of analysis are
customary. When considering dynamic effects, both interactions between
soil and structure, and any amplification caused by a coincidence of the
natural frequencies of building and foundation must be included. Seismic
forces may develop excessive hydrostatic pressures, causing liquefaction
of the soil. These types of conditions must be considered and avoided.
(https://www.slideshare.net/ce_arafat/basic-design-criteria-for-high-rise-
buildings-62473145)
https://www.slideshare.net/san17/high-rise-structural-systems-and-services

Services:
(https://issuu.com/nidhilathi/docs/final_dissertation_nidhi_lathi)
MEP:
Transportation (stairs, elevators, escalators)
Electricity generation & distribution
Lighting
Water supply, distribution, and management
Sewage & greywater management
HVAC (natural & mechanical)
Fire protection & prevention (mechanical emergency systems,
architectural features, refuge spaces, egress & assembly points)
Waste disposal systems
Telecommunications (ICT)
Acoustics

Codes, guidelines, and norms to look at:

CTBUH
NBC 2016
IBC
LEED
GRIHA/IGBC
Local building regulations/guidelines
Tamil Nadu Combined Development and Building Rules, 2019/CMADCR

Technologies favouring HRBs

Earthquake-proof construction
Large-span floor systems
Modern flooring systems
Innovative load-frame systems
4D/5D BIM
Massing, innovative structural frames/construction
Use of innovative, advanced materials
Modular building
Prefabricated construction (BSB prefab process)

Good Construction practices in HRB

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349532810_High-
rise_building_construction_technology

Following are the good construction practices and techniques that shall

be followed for good quality and durable construction of structure:

1. Masonry work:
 Masonry work in a structure should be carried out in uniform levels
at all parts of the structure to prevent differential settlement of
foundation due to differential loading. This will prevent the cracking
of masonry walls and also other structural elements. Difference in
the height of masonry in different parts of a building should
normally not exceed 1m any time during construction.
  Masonry work should be properly cured for a minimum period of 7
to 10 days.
 Masonry works on any RCC elements such as RCC Slab and
beams should not be started till minimum of 2 weeks after striking
off the shuttering.

2. Concrete work:
 In reinforced concrete members such as cantilever beams and
slabs which are liable to deflect appreciably under load, removal of
centering and imposition of load should be deferred at least one
month so that concrete gains sufficient strengths before it bears
the load.
 Curing of any concrete member should be done for a minimum
period of 7 to 10 days and terminated gradually so as to avoid
quick drying.
 Concrete work in very hot and windy climate should be avoided,
and in case it is not avoidable then precautions shall be taken to
keep the temperature of fresh concrete down and to prevent quick
drying of concrete. Following steps should be taken to keep the
temperature of freshly prepared concrete down:
 Aggregate and mixing water should be shaded from direct sun. -
Part of mixing water may be replaced by pounded ice. - As far as
possible concreting should be done in early hours of the day.
 Re-trowelling the concrete surface slightly, before its initial setting
to mitigate plastic shrinkage cracks

3. RCC frame work:

 As far as possible frame work should be completed before starting
work of panel walls for cladding and partitioning.
 Work of construction of panel walls and partition should be
deferred as much as possible and should proceed from top to
down ward.
 When partition walls are to be supported on floor beam or slab
upward camber should be provided in floor slab/beam to counter
act deflection.
 Horizontal movement joint should be provided between top of
panel wall and soffit of beam and when structurally required little
 support to the wall should be provided at the top by using
telescopic anchorage or similar arrangement. Horizontal
movement joint between top of wall and soffit of beam/slab shall
be filled which some compressible jointing material.
 If door opening is to be provided in partition wall a center opening
is more preferable than off center opening.
 Light re-vibration of concrete shall be done, before it has set, for
the member and section prone for plastic settlement cracks i.e.
narrow column and walls, at change of depth in section.

4. Plastering:
When plastering is to be done on masonry, mortar joints in masonry
should be raked out to 10 mm depth while the mortar is green. Plastering
should be done after masonry has been properly cured and allowed to
dry so as to undergo initial shrinkage before plaster.
 For plastering on concrete background, it should be done as soon
as feasible after removal of shuttering by roughing of concrete
surface where necessary by hacking, and applying neat cement
slurry on the concrete surface to improve the bond.
 When RCC and brick work occurs in combination and to be
plastered, then sufficient time (at least 1 month) shall be allowed
for RCC and brickwork to undergo initial shrinkage and creep
before taking up plaster work. In such case either groove shall be
provided in the plaster at the junction or 10cm wide strip of metal
mesh or lathing shall also be provided over the junction to act as
reinforcement.

5. Concrete and terrazzo floor:

 Control joint should be provided in the concrete and terrazzo floor
either by laying floors in alternate panels or by introducing strips of
glass, aluminium or some plastic material at close interval in grid
pattern.
 When flooring is to be laid on RCC slab, either a base course of
lime concrete should be provided between the RCC slab and the
flooring or surface of slab should be well roughened, cleaned and
primed with cement slurry before laying of floor.
5. RCC Lintels:
Bearing for RCC lintels should be on the liberal side when spans are
large so as to avoid concentration of stress at the jambs.

6. RCC roof slab:

 The top of the slab should be provided with adequate insulation or
protective cover together with some high reflectivity finish cover to
check the thermal movement of the slab and consequent cracking
in supporting wall and panel/partition wall.
 In load bearing structure, slip joint should be introduced between
the slab and supporting/cross walls. Further either the slab should
project for some length from the supporting wall or the slab should
rest only on part width of the wall as shown in figure below:

Fig.1: Constructional detail of bearing of RCC roof slab over a

masonry wall

On the inside, wall plaster and ceiling plaster should be made

discontinuous by a groove of about 10 mm. For introducing the slip joint,
the bearing portion of supporting wall is rendered smooth with plaster
(preferably with neat cement finish), which is then allowed to set and
partly dry. Thereafter either it is given thick coat of whitewash, or 2 to 3
layers of tarred paper is placed over the plaster surface, before casting
of slab.
7. Provision of glazed, terrazzo or marble tile on vertical surface:
Before fixing of these tiles on vertical surface background component
should be allowed to undergo movement due to elastic deformation,
shrinkage & creep otherwise tiles are likely to crack and dislodged.

8. RCC work in exposed condition:

For RCC work in exposed condition i.e. sunshades, balconies, canopies,
open verandah etc., to prevent shrinkage cum contraction cracks,
adequate quantity of temperature reinforcement shall be provided. In
such condition quantity shall be increase by 50 to 100 % of the minimum
amount prescribed.

9. Finish on wall:
Finishing items i.e. distemper and painting etc. should be carried out
after the plaster has dried and has under gone drying shrinkage.

10. Pace of construction:

The construction schedule and the pace of construction should be
regulated to ensure :
 All items of masonry are properly cured and allowed to dry before
plastering work is done, thus concealing the cracks in masonry in
plaster work. Similarly plaster work should be cured and allowed to
dry before applying finishing coat. So as to conceals the cracks in
plaster under finish coat.
 In case of concrete work before taking masonry work either over it
or by its side, the most of the drying shrinkage, creep and elastic
deformation of concrete should be allowed to take place, so as to
avoid cracks in masonry or a the junction of masonry and
concrete.

11. Provision of reinforcement for thermal stresses:

To control the cracks in concrete due to shrinkage as well as
temperature effect, adequate temperature reinforcement shall be
provided. This temperature reinforcement is more effective if smaller
diameter bars and the deformed steel is used than plain reinforcement.
https://sheltercluster.s3.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/public/docs/gsc-
construction-good-practices-jan2018-dp.pdf
Preventive Maintenance Schedules

What is preventive maintenance and how to use it effectively?

Preventive maintenance (or preventative maintenance) is maintenance that
is regularly and routinely performed on physical assets to reduce the
chances of equipment failure and unplanned machine downtime which can
be very costly for maintenance teams and facility managers.
A preventive maintenance task is performed while the equipment is still
working to prevent unexpected breakdowns. A preventive maintenance
strategy is a commonly used approach that falls between reactive
maintenance (or run-to-failure) and predictive maintenance.

Why is preventive maintenance important?

Preventive maintenance is important because it lays the foundation for
successful facility management. Preventive maintenance keeps equipment
and assets running efficiently, maintains a high safety level for your
employees, and helps you avoid large and costly repairs down the road.
Overall, a properly functioning preventive maintenance program ensures
operational disruptions are kept to a minimum.

Why do you need a preventive maintenance schedule?

A preventive maintenance schedule helps you organize and prioritize your
maintenance tasks so that a maintenance technician can create the best
working condition and life span for the equipment. By conducting regular
preventive maintenance, you can ensure your equipment continues to
operate efficiently and safely.

Types of preventive maintenance

There are three main types of preventive maintenance: Time, usage, and
condition-based triggers. They should be scheduled and performed on all
items of equipment to prevent unplanned failure.
• Time-based preventive maintenance: A time-based approach
schedules a preventive maintenance task using a set time interval,
such as every 10 days, every month, or every 3 months.
• Usage-based preventive maintenance: Usage-based preventive
maintenance triggers a maintenance action when asset usage hits a
 certain benchmark. This can include after a certain number of
kilometres, hours, or production cycles.
• Condition-based preventive maintenance: Condition-based
maintenance is a form of proactive maintenance. It's a maintenance
strategy that monitors the actual condition of an asset to determine
what maintenance task needs to be done.

Preventive maintenance examples

Common examples of preventive maintenance tasks are regular cleaning,
lubrication, replacing parts, and equipment repairs. Preventive
maintenance scheduling requirements differ depending on the equipment
being maintained.
Other examples include checking that your HVAC systems are inspected,
cleaned, and repaired if necessary, and your water, sanitation, and
electrical systems as well as any safety systems such as fire alarms,
sprinklers, etc., are functioning properly within safety and compliance
levels.

What is a preventive maintenance checklist?

A preventive maintenance checklist is a set of tasks that the technician
needs to complete in order to close a preventive maintenance work order.
The purpose of a preventive maintenance checklist is to ensure preventive
maintenance tasks are done correctly and in the same sequence of steps,
regardless of which maintenance team member completes them.

https://www.fsresidential.com/nevada/news-events/articles/preventative-
maintenance-tips-for-high-rise-buildi/
https://www.grainger.com/know-how/industry/manufacturing/kh-preventive-
maintenance-checklist
https://www.getkisi.com/guides/facility-maintenance-checklist
https://www.devicemagic.com/blog/what-to-include-on-your-facilities-
preventive-maintenance-checklist/
https://www.buildings.com/feature/article/10192473/preventative-
maintenance-checklist
Facility Management Guidelines
https://silagroup.co.in/blog/how-to-manage-facility-services-in-residential-
buildings

 When creating a schedule of facilities maintenance obligations,

agencies should include a list of all the facilities maintenance
obligations required, who is responsible for undertaking such
obligations and when the obligations need to be met.
 Facilities managers should ensure they are familiar with their
agency’s business strategies and property plans and incorporate
their business intentions into facilities planning and maintenance.
 Facilities managers need to ensure that they are familiar with the
legislation and regulations which govern the operation of their
property portfolio. The health and safety of staff and visitors
(including contractors and subcontractors working on site whether
completing tenant or landlord works) are of paramount importance.
Awareness of and compliance with relevant legislation and
regulations is essential.
 In addition to statutory obligations, all contractors undertaking work
on an agency-occupied site should take reasonable care to ensure
that both their own employees and any persons affected by their
acts or omissions at work are safe and not exposed to risks to their
health and safety.
 It is also important for facilities managers to be aware of the health
and safety, employment and training standards of all contractors,
ensuring that responsibilities are passed on so that subcontractors
are also compliant with relevant legislation and procedures.
 Agencies should not take on a contractor who has a poor health
and safety record. If an agency does and there is a serious issue
on-site, the agency may be held responsible for its poor
performance.
 Agencies should ensure that all contractors identify possible risks
prior to commencing work and identify and implement measures
that will mitigate the identified risks.
 The performance of contractors should be monitored by agencies,
particularly quality control, methods of working and standards of
 supervision. It is recommended that contractors are performance
managed against key performance indicators.
 Agencies should ensure that contractors are adequately insured to
the level of indemnity required by the contract. This will cover
liability arising from injury and third-party liability.
 Agencies should ensure that contractors understand the need to
report any accident or dangerous incident to enable the
appropriate preventative actions to be undertaken.
 Agencies should investigate all accidents that occur on their
premises and expect full cooperation from contractors and their
employees to establish the cause of such accidents and the
remedial actions necessary to prevent a recurrence.
 Any accidents should be recorded in a register. The register
should document details of the accident, how the accident was
dealt with and the steps taken to prevent such accidents from
occurring in the future.
 Note that criminal checks/security clearances may be required
before contractors and sub-contractors can undertake work on
particular sites. The facilities staff are responsible for ensuring
such clearances are in place before providing access to such sites.
 All assets (eg security systems) should be monitored and reviewed
on a regular basis to minimise having to act reactively when an
asset fails to operate as it should.
 The approach taken to maintain assets should be appropriate to
the criticality of the assets.

Statutory Clearances

Relaxation of norms

Futuristic Contributions
Zero energy/carbon-negative construction and processes
Bioclimatic skyscrapers
Biophilic/green skyscrapers
Intelligent building, systems automation
SMART Building Management systems
New technologies in facades (ventilated/double-skin façade, active façade,
green facades, etc.) https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/9/9/193/htm
Mixed-use typologies – Vertical cities (a city in a building)

Case Studies

New Ideas