NEPAL

SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT

RESOURCE BOOK

2
AUTHORS:
Dr. Ananta Ram Bhandari, WWF Nepal
Saroj Lamichhane, WWF Nepal

REVIEWERS:
Dr. Krishna Prasad Acharya, Ministry of Industry, Tourism, Forests and Environment,
Karnali Province
Dr. Rajendra KC, Ministry of Forests and Environment
Dr. Buddi Sagar Poudel, REDD Implementation Center
Dipak Jnawali, Division Forest Office, Dang-Ghorahi
Yajnamurti Khanal, REDD Implementation Center
Shiv Raj Bhatta, WWF Nepal
Santosh Mani Nepal, Lalitpur
Shambhu Dangal, RECOFTC Nepal
Kiran Timalsina, Green Governance Nepal

COPYRIGHT:
©WWF Nepal, 2020
Use of any content within this book (all or in part) should be duly acknowledged to the publisher.

PUBLISHER:
WWF Nepal
PO Box 7660
Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal
Phone: 977-4434820
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.wwfnepal.org

DESIGN, LAYOUT AND ILLUSTRATIONS:

©WWF Nepal/Pradeep KC
PREFACE
Despite the rapid loss of forests globally, forest areas in Nepal have increased in the past two
decades covering 44.74% of the country’s total area. Given the context of Nepal’s political
instability and rapid urbanization, this achievement in forest conservation is highly appreciable
and can be attributed to effective government leadership; the active and decisive role of
local communities; coordination of stakeholders and support from conservation partners.

However, increase in human population, high demand for development and rapid urbanization
continue to present significant challenges in maintaining forest cover. It is vital to ensure that
development infrastructures are environment friendly to minimize forest and biodiversity loss
and enhance sustainability. Likewise, increasing forest productivity and ecosystem services
through sustainable forest management is important to improve local livelihood, employment
and economy in general. WWF Nepal has been working closely with the Department of Forests
and Soil Conservation and supporting its effort towards sustainable forest management.
I would like to thank the Ministry of Forests and Environment and the Department of Forests
and Soil Conservation for providing us with this opportunity. This resource book has been
prepared to minimize the resource gap on sustainable forest management, particularly for
forest users and local resource persons engaged in forest management. I believe this manual
will also serve as a useful resource to forest technicians and stakeholders.

I would like to express my thanks to Dr. Ananta Ram Bhandari, Mr. Saroj Lamichhane,
Mr. Shiv Raj Bhatta, Santosh Mani Nepal, Ms. Priti Adhikari and Ms. Shayasta Tuladhar from
WWF Nepal for their relentless work in preparing this resource book. I would also like to thank
Dr. Krishna Prasad Acharya of Ministry of Industry, Tourism, Forests and Environment of Karnali
Province, Dr. Rajendra KC of Ministry of Forests and Environment, Dr. Buddi Sagar Poudel and
Mr. Yajnamurti Khanal of REDD Implementation Center, Mr. Deepak Jnawali of Division
Forest Office, Dang-Ghorahi, Mr. Shambu Dangal of RECOFTC, and Mr. Kiran Timalsina
of Green Governance for their review and feedback. I am also thankful to the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, Finland, WWF-Finland, and all individuals, communities and
stakeholders who directly or indirectly contributed in developing this resource book.

Dr. Ghana S. Gurung

Country Representative
WWF Nepal
 14th December 2020

MESSAGE
Sustainable forest management plays an important role in improving forest productivity,
increasing forest products and ecosystem services, local livelihood, and local economy. The
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Department of Forests and
Soil Conservation has recognized sustainable forest management as one of its priority program.
The Forestry Sector Strategy 2016 (2072 BS.) has targeted to bring 50% of forests in the Terai
and Siwalik, and 25% of forests in the mid-hills under sustainable forest management by 2025
(2081 BS.). In order to achieve the government’s sustainable forest management targets, the
participation, coordination and support of forest dependent local communities, forest user
groups, stakeholders and conservation partners have been critical.

Nepal’s 15th periodic plan 2020-2024 (2076/77-2080/81 BS.), prepared with a 25 year vision
of ‘Prosperous Nepal, Happy Nepali’, also recognizes the forestry sector as an economically
productive sector with sustainable forest management as a primary pillar. Meanwhile,
sustainable forest management has also been recognized as vital in achieving the Ministry
of Forests and Environment’s vision of ‘Forestry for Prosperity’.

Successful implementation of sustainable forest management therefore calls for uniformity

in understanding among stakeholders and forest technicians. This resource book will help
in transferring knowledge on diverse aspects of sustainable forest management among
stakeholders in the field, forest users and local resource persons. I am thankful to the experts
who contributed in preparing this manual and WWF Nepal for publishing it.

Man Bahadur Khadka

Director General
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 1: FOREST MANAGEMENT.............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background............................................................................................................................................1

1.2 Sustainable Forest Management .........................................................................................................3

SECTION 2: SILVICULTURE................................................................................................................ 6
2.1 Silvicultural Operation......................................................................................................................... 6

2.2 Silvicultural System............................................................................................................................. 9

2.3 Rotation Age.......................................................................................................................................18

SECTION 3: FOREST MANAGEMENT PLAN................................................................................ 19

3.1 Forest Operational Plan......................................................................................................................19

3.2 Forest Resource Assessment............................................................................................................. 22

3.3 Monitoring and Evaluation................................................................................................................25

SECTION 4: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS ..................................................27

4.1 Environmental Safeguards.................................................................................................................27

4.2 Social Safeguards...............................................................................................................................27

SECTION 5: FOREST CERTIFICATION...........................................................................................28

5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 28

5.2 Forest Certification in Nepal............................................................................................................. 28

REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................31
GLOSSARY
TERM MEANING

Afforestation Establishing a forest in a previously unforested area

Volume of trees that can be harvested from a forest per year,

Annual allowable cut
without affecting its growth and health

Biomass The total dry weight of plant materials

Diameter of tree Diameter measured at 1.3 meters above ground level

Community of living organisms interacting with each other

Ecosystem and with the physical environment as an independent
system

Forest composed of trees at almost the same age. A natural

Even-aged forest forest with 25% variation in age is also considered an
even-aged forest

A threshold diameter set to harvest trees from a forest. Also

Felling diameter
known as exploitable diameter

Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher

Forest
than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10%

Sum of trees/plants growing in a forest by number or by

Growing stock
volume

Increment Growth of a tree or a forest in a certain time period

Mixed forest Forest composed of two or more species of trees/plants

Tree retained in a forest to produce seeds and provide

Mother tree
shelter

Forest Operational
Approved plan to manage a forest for a certain time period
Plan

Pole A plant with a diameter between 10 and 29.9 centimeters

Pruning Removal of live or dead branches and twigs from a plant

Pure forest Forest composed of at least 80% trees of a single species

TERM MEANING

Reestablishing a forest in a deforested land or degraded

Reforestation
forest

Renewing of forest crops by natural or artificial means.

Regeneration Also refers to plants produced such as seedlings and
saplings

Regeneration felling Felling of forest crop except mother/seed trees

Regeneration period Time period between regeneration and forest establishment

Time period between regeneration and final felling of a

Rotation age
forest crop

Plant with a height of more than one meter and a diameter

Sapling
of less than 10 centimeters

Seedling Plant with a height of less than one meter

Silviculture Science of cultivating and growing forest crops

Silvicultural Silvicultural treatment applied to cultivate and grow a tree

operation or a forest crop

Planned program of silvicultural treatments during the

Silvicultural system
entire life of a forest crop

Removal of trees/plants from a forest to reduce their

Thinning
density

Tree Plant with a diameter of at least 30 centimeters

Forest composed of trees/plants with various ages or age

Uneven-aged forest
classes

Table showing the estimated average volume of trees based

Volume table
on diameter, or diameter and height

Number or volume of trees that can be harvested annually

Yield
or periodically, from a forest
SECTION 1:
FOREST MANAGEMENT
1.1 Background
Forest is an area covered by trees. Globally 118 natural ecosystems reported in Nepal,
accepted definition of a forest is ‘a land 112 ecosystems (95%) are forest dominant.
spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees Moreover, Nepal’s forests provide shelter
higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover to 30,167 species of living beings including
of more than 10%, or trees able to reach 13,067 plants and 17,097 animals. Stanton
these thresholds in situ. A total of 6,661,000 (1972) has classified Nepal’s natural forests
hectares of forests exist in Nepal, covering into 35 types (Table 1).
44.74% of the country’s total area. Of the

Table 1: Forest Types in Nepal

SN Forest Type Lower temperate mixed broad-leaved

18
forest
1 Shorea robusta forest Upper temperate mixed broad-leaved
19
forest
2 Dalbergia-Acacia forest
20 Rhododendron forest
3 Terminalia forest
21 Betula utilis forest
4 Tropical deciduous riverine forest
22 Abies spectabilis forest
5 Tropical evergreen forest
23 Tsuga dumosa forest
6 Sub-tropical evergreen forest
24 Pinus excelsa forest
7 Sub-tropical deciduous hill forest
25 Abies pindrow forest
8 Schima-Castanopsis forest
26 Picea smithiana forest
Sub-tropical semi-evergreen hill
9
forest
27 Cupressus forest
10 Pinus roxburghii forest
28 Cedrus forest
11 Quercus incana-Q lanuginosa forest
29 Larix forest
12 Quercus dilatata forest
30 Alnus forest
13 Quercus semecrpifolia forest
31 Populus ciliata forest
14 Quercus lamellosa forest
32 Hippophae forest
Castanopsis tribuloides-C. hystrix
15
forest
33 Moist alpine scrub
16 Lithocarpus pachyphyla forest
34 Dry alpine scrub

17 Aesculus-Juglans-Acer forest
35 Juniper forest

1
Prior to 1933 (1990 BS), forest management communities in forest resource protection and
was paid relatively little attention in Nepal. management, the government launched the
In the 1930s (1990s BS), the forests of Terai Panchayat Forest and Panchayat Protected
served as a source of revenue for the country Forest in 1978 (2035 BS) which gave rise
through export of timber from the Sal tree to the notion of community-based forest
(Shorea robusta) to India, particularly management in Nepal. Community based
for railway slippers. The forests of Terai forest management has been mainstreamed
and inner Terai were divided into east and in Nepal's forest management after the
west blocks to regulate timber harvesting endorsement of Master Plan for Forestry
during this period. Forests were also used as Sector in 1988 (2035 BS). There are two
collective resources under systems such as forest management regimes in Nepal at
Kipat and Guthi by indigenous people and present: government managed forests and
local communities until 1950 (2007 BS). community managed forests.
The practice of transferring tenure rights of Government managed forests include forests
forests by rulers to their families or people within protected areas, block forests/inter-
of interest in the form of Birta or Jagir was provincial forests and protected forests
also prevalent during this period. In 1957 (forest conservation areas), while community
(2013 BS), the government nationalized all managed forests include community forests,
forests of Nepal considering them as the collaborative forests, religious forests,
property of the state. Protection of national leasehold forests (pro-poor and industrial)
forests were regulated after the formulation and forests within conservation areas/buffer
of Forest Act in 1962 (2018 BS). zones. Besides, trees have also been grown in
The nationalization of forests however public lands and urban areas as public land
limited local community’s ownership over the forests and urban forests. Figure 1 below
surrounding forests, contesting its protection. presents the different forest management
In order to enhance the role of local regimes in Nepal.

Forest in Protected Areas

Government Block Forest/

Managed Forest Inter Provincial Forest

Forest Conservation Area

National Forest
Community Forest

Collaborative Forest

Private Forest
Religious Forest
Community
Managed Forest
Pro-Poor Leasehold Forest

Industrial Leasehold Forest

Forests within Conservation

Areas/Buffer Zones

Figure 1: Forest management regimes in Nepal

Beyond protection of forests, sustainable the concept of sustainable forest management,

forest management also plays an important silvicultural systems, forest operational
role in ensuring sustainable use of forest plans, environmental and social safeguards,
products and forest ecosystem services and forest certification, as a reference for
ultimately improving human wellbeing. This forest users, local resource persons, forest
resource book provides a brief description on technicians and stakeholders.

2
1.2 Sustainable Forest Management

1.2.1 Concept 1.2.2 Sustainable Forest

Sustainable forest management has Management in Nepal
been defined by various international Nepal is in the early stages of sustainable
organizations. According to the International forest management implementation.
Tropical Timber Organization, sustainable In the 1990s, attempts were made to
forest management is the process of managing implement sustainable forest management
forests to achieve one or more clearly in the Terai region with support from
specified objectives of management with Food and Agricultural Organization and
regard to the production of a continuous Finnish International Development Agency,
flow of desired forest products and services whereupon operational forest management
without undue reduction of its inherent plans were prepared for various districts in
values and future productivity as well as any the Terai and Siwalik. However, those plans
undesirable effects on the physical and social could not be implemented due to various
environment. Meanwhile, the United Nations reasons.
Forum on Forests defines sustainable forest In the pathway to sustainable forest
management as a dynamic and evolving management, scientific forest management
concept that aims to maintain and enhance implementation was initiated in 2011 (2067
the economic, social and environmental BS) in a few collaborative and community
value of all types of forests, for the benefit forests of Kapilvastu and Rupandehi districts.
of present and future generations. As of 2020, scientific forest management has
In summary, sustainable forest management been implemented in 121,852 hectares across
is ‘the management of forests to achieve community forests, collaborative forests
optimum yield and continuous flow of desired and government managed forests, in 52
forest products and services, enhancing forest districts of the country as per scientific forest
productivity and maintaining economic, management procedure 2014 (2071 BS).
social and environmental values of forests.’ Meanwhile, the Forest Resource Assessment
Silviculture is the foundation of sustainable of 2015 (2071 BS) has identified 1,176,000
forest management which regulates products hectares of forests in Nepal—880,000
and services provided by a forest. hectares in Terai & Chure and 296,000
Sustainable forest management primarily: hectares in the mid-hills—as potential areas
for scientific forest management.
• Provides optimum forest products and
In order to ensure sustainable forest
services as per the production capacity
management, it is crucial to consider
of a forest
economic, social and environmental values of
• Continuously provides forest products and forests along with silvicultural systems and
services in the present and in the future practices while implementing scientific forest
• Improves forest condition and productivity management. Figure 2 shows the timeline of
and ensures the presence of forests for key forest management initiatives in Nepal.
future generations
• Maintains and enhances environmental,
social and economic values of forests
• Increases employment and revenue

3
 2020 15th Periodic Plan
Forest Act 2019 2020 - 2024

2019
Forestry Policy
2019

2017 14th Periodic Plan

2017-2019

Forestry Sector 1st National

Strategy 2016 2016
Sivilculture
Workshop 2017

Scientific Forest 1st National

Management 2015 Collaborative
Procedure 2014 Forestry Workshop
2015
5th DFO
National Workshop 2014 13th Periodic Plan
2014 2014-2016

MoFSC Vision-
Forestry for Prosperity 2011 12th Periodic
2013 Plan 2011-2013

Initiation of Scientific
Forest Management 2009 5th National
2011 Community Forestry
Workshop 2009

2000
Forest Policy
2000
Forest Act
1993
1988 Master Plan for
Forestry Sector
1988

National 1976
Forestry Plan 1976

Figure 2: Timeline of forest management in Nepal

4
 Forest Management Timeline in Nepal
1970s: Sustainable forest management vision of the Ministry of Forests and
envisioned under Nepal’s first national Soil Conservation formulated in 2013.
Forestry Plan formulated in 1976 (2033 Prioritization and implementation of
BS). silviculture based sustainable forest
management recommended in the
1980s: Master Plan for the Forestry
District Forest Officers’ fifth national
Sector formulated in 1988 (2045 BS)
workshop in 2014 (2071 BS), as well
for 20 years, emphasizes sustainable
as in the first national workshop on
forest management in various forest
collaborative forestry in 2015 (2071 BS).
management regimes.
Forestry Sector Strategy 2016 (2072 BS)
1990s: The Forest Act of 1993 (2049 targets to bring 50% of forests in the
BS) provisions the development of Terai and Siwalik, and 25% of forests in
operational plans for implementation the mid-hills under sustainable forest
of forest management interventions. management by 2025 (2081 BS). The
first national silviculture workshop
2000s: Forest Policy of 2000 (2057
2017 (2073 BS) concluded to implement
BS) emphasizes sustainable forest
silviculture based sustainable forest
management in the block forests of the
management in all types of forests in
Terai and Siwaliks. Implementation
Nepal. The fourteenth three-year plan
of sustainable forest management
2017-2019 (2073/74-2075/76 BS)
initiated supported by policy decisions
prioritizes increase in forest productivity
following the fifth national workshop
and forest products through participatory
on community forestry 2009 (2065 BS).
and sustainable forest management.
2010s: Nepal’s twelfth and thirteenth Forest policy 2019 (2075 BS) prioritizes
three-year plans 2011-2013 (2067/68- increase of forest productivity and
2069/70 BS) and 2014-2016 (2070/71- production of forest produce through
2072/73 BS) respectively, prioritizes sustainable forest management.
sustainable management of all types
2020s: The fifteenth five-year plan
of forests, adopting scientific and
2020-2024 (2076/77-2080/81 BS)
participatory approaches to increase
prioritizes significant increase in the
forest productivity and ecosystem
contribution of forestry sector to national
services. Sustainable forest management
prosperity through optimum utilization
recognized as a key pillar to achieve
of forest resources, sustainable forest
‘forestry for prosperity’, a long-term
management and entrepreneurship.

5
SECTION 2:
SILVICULTURE
2.1 Silvicultural Operations 2.1.2 Weeding and Cleaning
Weeding refers to the removal of unnecessary
Silvicultural operation refers to the silvilcultural plants that negatively affect the growth of the
treatments applied to cultivate and grow a desired plants. Weeding can be undertaken
tree or a forest crop. Common silvicultural during the seedling stage up till the sapling
operations include plantation, weeding, stage. It helps reduce the competition for
cleaning, pruning, thinning and felling. light and nutrition among plants, thereby
supporting growth of the desired plant. While
2.1.1 Plantation
in a plantation forest or a newly afforested area,
Methods widely used for cultivating forest weeding is usually carried out twice annually
crops include seeding, plantation and natural in the initial years, the process is conducted
regeneration. The process of planting a seedling only once in the following years.
or sapling—also the first stage of afforestation
Cleaning refers to the removal of diseased or
and reforestation—is known as plantation.
malformed plants and climbers to support
The prerequisites for successful plantation
growth of a desired plant. Cleaning helps
are as follows:
provide adequate space for growth of the
• Species: Selection of appropriate species plant, while reducing competition for moisture,
that meet plantation objectives, suits the nutrients and light and helps the saplings grow
plantation site, and are valuable for the uniformly. Cleaning is generally undertaken
community and market during the sapling stage.
• Seedling: Well grown and healthy seedlings
2.1.3 Pruning
• Pitting: Generally 45 cm deep pit with Pruning refers to the removal of branches and
enough diameter and prepared at least two twigs—whether live or dead—from a plant
months before plantation (Figure 3) (Figure 4) helping to produce straight, knot-
• Planting: Plantation undertaken during free and healthy boles. The density of the
tree determines the frequency and intensity
appropriate seasons; usually rainy seasons
of pruning—it is not required for the forests
or when adequate water or moisture is with dense trees or poles.
available.

Before pruning After pruning

Pit for Plantation

45 cm

Plantation

Figure 4: Pruning technique

Figure 3: Plantation technique

6
Pruning is widely applied in pine trees and less two-third of the total height in sapling, pole
practiced in the trees belonging to broadleaf and tree stages, respectively. However, heavy
species. Plants can be pruned when they are pruning can limit the photosynthesis process
in the sapling, pole or tree stage. Usually, and affect the growth of trees.
plants are pruned up to one-third, half and

2.1.4 Thinning
The removal of plants from a forest to reduce Number of plants to be retained in a forest
its density is known as thinning. Thinning is determined by the rotation age of forest
helps create better light conditions for the crops. When the age of a forest crop reaches
growth of desired plants retained in the two-third of its rotation age, thinning is
forests. It promotes diameter growth of usually discontinued. For species with a
favorable plants. Thinning helps create better long rotation age, such as Shorea robusta,
light conditions in the forests by permitting thinning can be undertaken up to 5 times or
sunlight to fall on the ground, and thus, more. Based off expert knowledge and views,
facilitates natural regeneration. Thinning the number of plants to be retained while
can be applied in both plantation forests thinning natural forest of Shorea robusta
and natural forests. Forest can be thinned is presented in Table 2.
when plants are in the sapling stage, pole
stage and tree stages until they mature.
A typical thinning is presented in Figure 5.
Before thinning After thinning

Figure 5: Thinning technique

Table 2: Number of plants to be retained while thinning Shorea robusta forest

Age Group Base Age Number of Plants (per ha)

10-20 years 15 years 1600

20-30 years 25 years 1200

30-40 years 35 years 800

40-50 years 45 years 400

50-60 years 55 years 250

7
Thinning can be carried out through two • Timely removal of logs and residue from
different methods: High Thinning and Low the felling site to avoid forest fires
Thinning. • Mark trees before felling
High Thinning or Crown Thinning: • Maintain a marking register with a
In high thinning, plants in the upper description of the marking number, species,
canopy i.e. dominant and co-dominant diameter, height, class, GPS location of
plants, are removed to favor the growth the trees to be felled
of plants in lower canopy. High thinning
• Approval of the marking register from the
is applied when a large number of plants
authorized forest office
exist in the lower canopy and very few
plants exist in the upper canopy. • Ensure proper data management related
to felling
Low Thinning: In low thinning, plants
• Maintain a felling register with detailed
in the lower canopy i.e. suppressed,
record of logs i.e. species, marking number,
sub-dominant and deformed plants, are
log number (as specified), diameter, length,
removed to favor the growth of dominant
hole size (if any), gross volume, net volume,
and co-dominant plants. Low thinning is
grading etc.
usually applied to light demander species.

2.1.5 Felling
Felling refers to harvesting of trees after
achieving targeted rotation age of forest
crops. The following should be considered
while felling:
• Ensure minimum damage to the
surrounding crops and natural regeneration
• Avoid felling when it is windy
Notch
• Use felling saw to minimize damage to the Felling Cut

tree being felled (Figure 6)

• Provide safety measures and precautions
to the workers to ensure safety Figure 6: Felling technique

Equipment and Tools used for Felling and Logging

Bow Saw Bow saws are used for felling, bucking and cutting off large branches.

Pruning saws are specifically made to cut off tree branches, small
saplings and poles. Some pruning saws are blended with small sharp
Pruning Saw
blades with a long pulling rope to cut climbers and small twigs in the
upper canopy.
Cross cut saws are generally used for felling trees and bucking.
Cross Cut Saw
They are also used to cut bigger sized trees.

Power Chain Power chain saws are the most efficient tools for felling trees, also used
Saw for bucking and cutting branches of trees.

8
2.2 Silvicultural System
Silvicultural system refers to a planned creating or maintaining uneven-aged forest.
silvicultural treatment program—designed for The forest area is divided into working blocks
the entire lifecycle of a forest crop—applied based on the felling cycle. The numbers of
to regulate achievements of predictable working blocks should equal the years of
forest products and services over time. It felling cycles. Plants of all ages or age classes
helps to increase yield and productivity of are distributed in each working block and
forests with targeted species and species in the entire forest area. Predicted growth
composition. Selection of a silvicultural of forest crop and proportion of diameter
system depends on the forest type; species classes is used to determine felling cycle.
dominance; condition of forest; targeted Felling is generally carried out in one working
species; site quality; regeneration potential; block per year on bigger sized trees with
felling intensity; topography; biodiversity an exploitable diameter. Average annual
and ecosystem services; and availability of increment of species and rotation age is
technical capacity and financial resources. used to determine exploitable diameter.
Commonly practiced silvicultural systems Felling carried out using a selection system
include selection system, shelterwood system, is depicted in Figure 7. An example of felling
clear felling system and coppice system. cycle, working block and felling year under a
selection system, applied to a forest with 80
2.2.1 Selection System years of rotation age and 10 years of felling
In a selection system, felling and regeneration cycle is presented in Table 3.
is distributed over an entire forest area–

Before felling

After felling

Figure 7: Felling in selection system

9
Table 3: Felling in selection system

Rotation Felling Working

Felling Year
Age Cycle Block (WB)

WB 1 1st, 11th, 21st, 31st, 41st, 51st, 61st, 71st

WB 2 2nd, 12th, 22nd, 32nd, 42nd, 52nd, 62nd, 72nd

WB 3 3rd, 13th, 23rd, 33rd, 43rd, 53rd, 63rd, 73rd

WB 4 4th, 14th, 24th, 34th, 44th, 54th, 64th, 74th

80 years

10 years

WB 5 5th, 15th, 25th, 35th, 45th, 55th, 65th, 75th

WB 6 6th, 16th, 26th, 36th, 46th, 56th, 66th, 76th

WB 7 7th, 17th, 27th, 37th, 47th, 57th, 67th, 77th

WB 8 8th, 18th, 28th, 38th, 48th, 58th, 68th, 78th

WB 9 9th, 19th, 29th, 39th, 49th, 59th, 69th, 79th

WB 10 10th, 20th, 30th, 40th, 50th, 60th, 70th, 80th

Selection system is applicable in the Yield regulation under selection

following types of forests: system
• Uneven-aged forest that have plants of all In a selection system, bigger sized and
ages or age classes mature trees from forests–identified based
• Forests in the hills, mountains or fragile/ on exploitable diameter–are harvested.
Exploitable diameter is calculated based
instable topographies
on the rotation age and average annual
• Forests grown in lands over a 19-degree increment. Every tree with an exploitable
slope diameter present in the working block is
• Forests valuable for biodiversity and felled. In addition to bigger sized trees, dead,
ecosystem services dying, diseased and deformed plants that
hinder the growth of targeted plants are also
removed during felling.

10
Sustainable Forest Management
Normal age gradation/age class distribution is crucial for sustainable forest management
2.2.2 Shelterwood System
In a shelterwood system, a forest area is selected based on the potential capacity of
divided into periodic blocks based on the a tree to produce quality seeds and shelter
rotation age and regeneration period of for regeneration. In addition to mother/seed
the targeted species. For example, if the trees, other valuable trees are also retained
rotation age is 80 years and the regeneration for biodiversity and ecosystem services; and
period is 10 years, a forest area is divided selected saplings and poles of targeted species
into 8 periodic blocks. Each periodic block can also be retained for future crops. In a
is further divided into 10 annual sub-blocks. harvested annual sub-block, forest crop is
Regeneration felling is carried out in one grown through natural regeneration, seeding
annual sub-block every year. In regeneration or plantation of targeted species. Mother/
felling, the entire forest crop is harvested, seed trees can be removed after a forest is
except for a few mother/seed trees (Figure 8). established in a harvested sub-block, or can
When the shelterwood system is applied for be retained to maintain biodiversity. An
the first time, regeneration felling starts from example of annual sub-blocks and timing of
the annual sub-block where mature and over- regeneration felling under the shelterwood
mature trees exist. Mother/seed trees are system applied in a forest with 80 years of
retained to produce seeds for regeneration, rotation age and 10 years of regeneration
and provide shelter for regeneration against period is presented in Table 4.
adverse climatic factors. Mother trees are

Before felling

After felling

Figure 8: Regeneration felling in shelterwood system

13
Table 4: Regeneration felling in a shelterwood system
Age of Periodic Annual Age of Periodic
Year of Regene- Annual Sub- Year of Regene-
Forest Block Sub-Block Forest Block
ration Felling Block (SB) ration Felling
Crop (PB) (SB) Crop (PB)
SB 1.1 1st SB 5.1 41st
SB 1.2 2nd SB 5.2 42nd
SB 1.3 3 rd
SB 5.3 43rd
SB 1.4 4th SB 5.4 44th
SB 1.5 5 th
SB 5.5 45th
71-80 PB 1 31-40 PB 5
SB 1.6 6 th
SB 5.6 46th
SB 1.7 7th SB 5.7 47th
SB 1.8 8 th
SB 5.8 48th
SB 1.9 9th SB 5.9 49th
SB 1.10 10 th
SB 5.10 50th
SB 2.1 11 th
SB 6.1 51st
SB 2.2 12th SB 6.2 52nd
SB 2.3 13 th
SB 6.3 53rd
SB 2.4 14th SB 6.4 54th
SB 2.5 15 th
SB 6.5 55th
61-70 PB 2 21-30 PB 6
SB 2.6 16 th
SB 6.6 56th
SB 2.7 17th SB 6.7 57th
SB 2.8 18 th
SB 6.8 58th
SB 2.9 19th SB 6.9 59th
SB 2.10 20 th
SB 6.10 60th
SB 3.1 21 st
SB 7.1 61st
SB 3.2 22nd SB 7.2 62nd
SB 3.3 23 rd
SB 7.3 63rd
SB 3.4 24th SB 7.4 64th
SB 3.5 25 th
SB 7.5 65th
51-60 PB 3 11-20 PB 7
SB 3.6 26 th
SB 7.6 66th
SB 3.7 27th SB 7.7 67th
SB 3.8 28 th
SB 7.8 68th
SB 3.9 29th SB 7.9 69th
SB 3.10 30 th
SB 7.10 70th
SB 4.1 31 st
SB 8.1 71st
SB 4.2 32nd SB 8.2 72nd
SB 4.3 33 rd
SB 8.3 73rd
SB 4.4 34th SB 8.4 74th
SB 4.5 35 th
SB 8.5 75th
41-50 PB 4 1-10 PB 8
SB 4.6 36 th
SB 8.6 76th
SB 4.7 37th SB 8.7 77th
SB 4.8 38 th
SB 8.8 78th
SB 4.9 39th SB 8.9 79th
SB 4.10 40 th
SB 8.10 80th

14
In addition to regeneration felling, other Shelterwood system is applicable in
silvicultural operations such as preparatory following types of forests:
felling, improvement felling and thinning
• Shorea robusta forests and mixed broadleaf
are also practiced in shelterwood system to
forests in Terai and the Siwalik
improve quality of forest crop. Preparatory
felling creates an enabling condition for • Chirpine forests of mid-hills
regeneration by opening up the canopy • Forests grown in a land with less than
cover. Preparatory felling is generally 19-degree slope
carried out in a periodic block where
• Forests and species with the capacity to
regeneration felling is planned immediately
produce quality seeds for regeneration
after the currently working periodic block.
Likewise, improvement felling and thinning • Forests without adequate saplings and
is carried out in other periodic blocks to poles (uniform shelterwood)
improve quality of forest crop. • Forests with adequate saplings and poles
In each tenure of the forest operational (irregular shelterwood)
plan (usually 10 years), various silvicultural
operations are practiced to improve quality
of forest. Silvicultural operations carried out
Yield regulation in shelterwood
in shelterwood system applied in a forest
system
with 80 years of rotation age and 10 years of
regeneration period are presented in Table 5. In a shelterwood system, forest crop yield
is regulated through a volume-controlled or
an area-controlled method.
Table 5: Silvicultural operations
in shelterwood system • In the volume-controlled method, the
total number of trees (to be harvested
Periodic
Silvicultural Operations during regeneration felling) in a periodic
Block (PB)
block are divided by regeneration period
PB 1 Regeneration felling to calculate the number of trees to be
harvested in a year.
PB 2 Preparatory felling
• In the area-controlled method, the periodic
PB 3 Improvement felling/thinning block is divided by regeneration period to
create equal-sized annual sub-blocks for
PB 4 Improvement felling/thinning regeneration felling in a year.

PB 5 Improvement felling/thinning

PB 6 Improvement felling/thinning

PB 7 Improvement felling/thinning

PB 8 Improvement felling/thinning

15
 2.2.3 Clear Felling System
In a clear felling system, every tree from Clear felling can be carried out either in
a forest is harvested and new plants are blocks or in strips. Clear felling executed
grown to generate forest crops. The forest in strips is presented in Figure 9. An
area is divided into annual working blocks example of annual working blocks and
based on the rotation age and felling period. felling schedule applying clear felling
All trees from the annual working block is system executed in a forest with 10 years
removed or harvested in the same year. of rotation age and 10 years of felling period
New crops are grown through plantation is presented in Table 6.
or natural regeneration post harvesting.

Before felling

After felling

Figure 9: Clear felling in strip

Table 6: Felling operations in a clear felling system

Felling Annual Working

Rotation Age Year of Felling
Period Block (WB)

WB 1 1st
WB 2 2nd
WB 3 3rd
WB 4 4th
WB 5 5th
10 years 10 years
WB 6 6th
WB 7 7th
WB 8 8th
WB 9 9th
WB 10 10th

16
Clear felling system can be applied in • Forests having few environmental risks
the following types of forests: • Forests having zero or few number of
• Forests having zero or little potential for saplings and poles
natural regeneration • Forests that grow on flat lands with good
• Degraded forests site quality

2.2.4 Coppice System

In a coppice system, forest crops are grown managed to grow future crops. In coppice
through coppice. In this system, a forest is with standard system, selected trees as well
divided into annual working blocks based as plants regenerated from the seed are
on the rotation period. Trees in the annual retained, grown for future crop. Coppice
working blocks are harvested and coppice management is presented in Figure 10.
regenerated from the harvested blocks are

Before coppice management

After coppice management

Figure 10: Coppice management

17
 2.3 Rotation Age
Rotation age of a forest crop refers to a Table 7: Rotation age of selected species
planned period between regeneration
Rotation Age
and final felling. Rotation age is largely SN Species
(Year)
determined by the type of species, site quality
and management objectives. Generally, 1 Sal 80-100
rotation age is the age of the crop when it 2 Sissoo 30-40
produces maximum yield. Maximum yield
3 Khair 25-35
is produced when current annual increment
and mean annual increment culminates 4 Eucalyptus 10-15
(Figure 11). Taking reference from various 5 Teak 45-55
literatures, rotation age of selected species
is presented in Table 7. 6 Chirpine 55-65

Current Annual 7 Patula Pine 30-40

Increment
Rotation
Age
Increment

Mean Annual
Increment

Age
Figure 11: Rotation Age

Information on Nepal’s Forests

(Source: Department of Forest Research and Survey, 2015)

Forest Area and Distribution

• Forests, including other wooded lands, occupies a total of 6.61 million ha which is
44.74% of the total area of the country. Of this, forest covers 5.96 million ha and other
wooded lands cover 0.65 million ha.
• Out of the total area of forest, 4.93 million ha (82.68%) lies outside protected areas
and 1.03 million ha (17.32%) inside protected areas. Within protected areas, core areas
and buffer zones contain 0.79 million ha and 0.24 million ha of forests, respectively.

Number of Trees and Growing Stock

• The total number of stems with diameter at breast height > = 10 cm estimated in the
forest of Nepal is 2,563.27 million (429.93/ha).
• The estimated total stem volume with diameter at breast height >=10 cm is 982.33
million m3 (167.76 m3/ha)

Biomass and Carbon Stock

• The total above-ground air-dried biomass in the forests of Nepal is 1,159.65 million
tones (194.51 t/ha)
• The total estimated carbon stock of Nepal’s forests is 1,054.97 million tones (176.95 t/ha).
Out of this, tree components (live, dead standing, dead wood and below ground biomass),
forest soils, litter and debris constitute 61.53%, 37.80% and 0.67% respectively.

18
SECTION 3:
FOREST MANAGEMENT PLAN
3.1 Forest Operational Plan
The Forest Operational Plan is a legal A standard forest operational plan comprises
document prepared for a fixed time period of various socio-economic and technical
(usually up to ten years) to guide forest aspects presented in Table 8. The standard
management in a particular forest. process of formulating forest operational
plans is presented in Figure 12.

Table 8: Content in a forest operational plan

Content Basic Considerations

Socio-economic aspects

• Traditional users
Identification of users and
• Adjacent households
groups
• Forest dependent households

• Household survey (household, education, occupation, caste, ethnicity,

livestock)
• Meetings and discussions with user groups and stakeholders
Collection and analysis of
• Information collection pertaining to demand and supply of forest products
socio-economic data
• Identification of possible forest entrepreneurship opportunities and markets
• Identification of indigenous people, marginalized communities and
pro-poor households

• Direct benefits
• Indirect benefits
Financial analysis
• Direct investment
• Benefit/cost ratio

Technical aspects

• Forest management plan of Division Forest Office

Identification of forests • Interest and capacity of user group
• Topographic condition and accessibility

• Demarcation of forest boundary

Mapping of forest boundary • Boundary survey
• Participatory resource mapping

• Historical background
Assessment of forest condition • Type of forest
• Challenges and opportunities of forest management

19
 • Sampling
• Measurement (diameter, height, regeneration)
• Estimation of biodiversity and ecosystem services
Survey and assessment • Identification of productive and risk-prone areas (forest fire, flood,
landslide, soil erosion)
• Growing stock (number and volume)
• Biomass and carbon stock

• Forest condition
Determination of goals and
• Forest productivity
objectives of forest management
• Socio-economic analysis

• Types of forests, condition of the forest, and targeted species

• Rotation age
• Site quality, topographic condition and land stability
Selection of silvicultural system
• Biodiversity and ecosystem services
• Availability of financial resources and human resources
• Other environmental, social and economic aspects

Division of blocks and

• Silvicultural system applied for forest management
sub-blocks

• Forest boundary
Finalize map of forest
• Blocks and sub-blocks (boundary, area)

• Silvicultural operations (plantation, weeding, cleaning, pruning, thinning,

felling, etc.)
• Forest protection (forest fire management, grazing management, illegal
harvesting/extraction control, encroachment control, biodiversity
Forest management conservation, ecosystem services improvement, wetland conservation,
interventions and schedule pest and disease control, soil conservation, climate adaptation etc.)
• Management of Non-Timber Forest Products
• Collection and utilization of forest products (harvesting/collection,
transportation, storage, distribution, sale, etc.)

• Annual income and expenditure

Fund management • Benefit sharing (considering pro-poor household, indigenous people,
marginalized communities)

• Capacity building of forest users

Social and institutional
• Institutional capacity of user groups
development
• Community development

• Annual workplan
Monitoring and evaluation
• Legal and financial governance

20
 Identification of user Information to user
group, discussion in group on technical Collection and
the user groups and and socio-economic analysis of socio-
decision of the user aspect of forest econmic data and
groups operational plan information

Identification of Preparation of
Forest resource forest, boundary
survey and participatory
survey and map resource map
assessment preparation

Identification of Determination of
Division of blocks blocks and sub-blocks forest protection
and sub-blocks for silvicultural and management
operations interventions

Finalization of forest Discussion on

operational plan the draft forest Preparation of
incorporating feedback operational plan draft forest
from user group and with user groups operational plan
stakeholders and stakeholders

Endorsement of Submission of forest Approval of forest

forest operational operational plan to operational plan
plan by general concerned forest from concerned
assembly of user office for approval forest office
groups

Implementation
Monitoring and of approved forest
evaluation operational plan

Figure 12: Forest operational plan preparation process

21
3.2 Forest Resource Assessment
3.2.1 Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting samples Community forestry inventory guideline
from various sections of a forest that are 2004 (2061 BS) recommends using stratified
subsets of the population. Samples are systematic sampling for community forests.
selected from different sections of the forests In this method, a sampling plot is designed
to ensure proper representation, accuracy by dividing a forest area into various strata
and reliability. Since complete enumeration based on forest condition and types. 0.5%
is usually not feasible, sampling is an sampling intensity is usually practiced in
important method used for forest resource community forests, although, sampling
measurement. Under this method, required intensity depends on the objective of forest
measurements are made in the sample plots, management, required level of accuracy
and condition of a forest determined by and level of biodiversity. Sample plots can
assessing forest resources present in the be circular, rectangular or square shaped as
same plot. presented in Figure 13. However, circular
plots are most commonly used for forest
There are two broad types of sampling
resource assessment. Determination of
methods: random sampling (simple random
circular, rectangular and square plots, as
sampling and stratified random sampling)
provisioned in the community forestry
and non-random sampling (systematic
inventory guideline 2004 (2061 BS) is
sampling and stratified systematic sampling).
presented in Table 9.

Tree

Pole

Seedling Sapling

Sapling
Seedling
Pole

Tree

Figure 13: Circular, rectangular and square shaped sample plots

Table 9: Determination of circular, rectangular and square plots

Length and
Radius Length
Area of Breadth
Required for Required for
Form of Plant Sample Plot Required for
Circular Plot Square Plot
(m2) Rectangular
(meter) (meter)
Plot (meter)
Tree 500 12.61 25 x 20 22.36 x 22.36
400 11.28 20 x 20
300 9.77 20 x 15 17.32 x 17.32
200 7.97 20 x 10 14.14 x 14.14
Pole 100 5.64 10 x 10
Sapling 25 2.82 5x5
Seedling 10 1.78 5x2 3.16 x 3.16

22
3.2.2 Measurement

Diameter
Diameter of a tree refers to its diameter at caliper are commonly used to measure the
breast height (DBH). As the breast height diameter. Under Vernier caliper method,
varies from person to person, 1.3 meter measurement is made in two perpendicular
above ground level is set as the standard directions and averaged to calculate the
height for measurement. However, height diameter. Linear tape can be used to measure
may vary according to the position of the girth of a tree which can later be converted
tree (Figure 14). Diameter-tape and Vernier to diameter.

Diameter
Diameter mesasurement
mesasurement
1.3 m
Diameter 1.3 m
mesasurement
1.3 m

Diameter
Diameter mesasurement
mesasurement
Diameter
1.3 m 1.3 m mesasurement 1.3 m

Diameter
mesasurement Diameter
mesasurement
1.3 m 1.3 m

23 Figure 14: Tree diameter measurement

 Height
Height of a tree refers to the length of a
straight line from the ground level to the tip
of a tree. Tree height is used to calculate total
volume, commercial volume and biomass of a
tree. Moreover, height is also considered as an
indicator of site quality. Sunto clinometer and
Height
range finder are commonly used equipment to
measure the height of a tree. The measurement
of tree height is shown in Figure 14.

Height Height Height

Figure 15: Tree height measurement

Log
Log refers to the bole section of a felled tree. The quality of a tree is determined by its
While logs of 6 ft length are common, its log; logs are also used to grade a tree as first
length can vary depending on the purpose class, second class or third class (Table 1o).
for which it is being used.

24
Table 10: Grading of trees

Grade of a Tree Description

First class Tree with a straight bole from which three or more six-feet long logs can be
extracted

Second class Tree with a straight bole from which two six-feet long logs can be extracted

Third class Tree with a straight bole but with holes or twigs, or having a twisted bole
from which logs cannot be extracted

Stack
Stack refers to a pile of wood, usually prepared other damages. Permission from the forest
to measure fuelwood. Standard size of a authority is mandatory while transporting
stack’s length is 20ft, breadth is 5ft and forest products from felling sites to depots
height is 5ft. Every stack is marked with a and from depots to the marketplace.
distinct number tag. Stacks are prepared
and segregated according to the species. As 3.2.3 Data Management
needed, stacks can be prepared as half-stack To ensure effective and efficient forest
or quarter stack–the size of a half stack being management, data and information collected
10ft in length, 5 ft in breadth, 5 ft in height, should be assessed and analyzed. Some
and that of a quarter stack being 5 ft in length, of the parameters to be documented and
5 ft in breadth, and 5 ft in height. analyzed include annual production; annual
felling; revenue collected; income generated;
Depot distribution and sale of forest products;
Depot refers to a place where woods creation of employment; regeneration
are stockpiled. In a depot, piles of logs quantity and timing and provision of meeting
are segregated according to the species. minutes of user groups or committees.
Generally, bigger and longer logs are placed
in the bottom, and smaller/shorter logs 3.3 Monitoring and
are placed on the top of a pile. A register Evaluation
is prepared and maintained in the depot Monitoring and evaluation is indispensable
with detailed information of individual logs for sustainable forest management.
including log number, species, size and grade. Monitoring helps track forest operational
Species and grade wise number and volume plans to determine achievement against
is summarized and documented for each the set targets and derive lessons that guide
pile. Fuelwood is also stacked and stored in future strategies and implementation.
appropriate sizes. Depots should be located Self-monitoring and joint monitoring are
in the area where transportation facilities commonly practiced in community-based
are available. A map with detailed location forest management. While self-monitoring is
of piles and stack is prepared and displayed conducted by user groups, joint monitoring
in larger depots—this helps in monitoring the is carried out by a team representing forest
depot properly. To the extent possible, depots user groups and concerned forest offices.
are constructed outside the forest and safety Frequent self-monitoring and at least one
and security measures are provisioned to joint monitoring in a year is considered
protect the depot from forest fires, theft, and appropriate. After each monitoring event,

25
the team prepares a monitoring report that against objectives and targets set for forest
is presented to the general assembly of user management, forest development, group
groups for discussion and decisions, if any. mobilization, institutional development,
Forest user groups submit monitoring reports forest users’ socio-economic impacts, penalty
to the concerned forest offices periodically and reward systems and their effectiveness,
or as required. forest product distribution systems and their
effectiveness, fund mobilization, financial
In order to assess achievements of the forest
compliance and governance.
operational plan, an evaluation is carried out.
Evaluations mainly focus on achievements

Role of Local Resource Person in Forest Management

The role of local resource persons is important in community-based forest management.
Local resource persons facilitate forest user groups and forest technicians in preparing
and implementing forest operational plans in the following ways:
• Identification of forest users
• Socio-economic data collection
• Preparation of participatory resource map of forests
• Forest boundary surveys
• Measurement of height and diameter of trees
• Information collection on local name and use of forest species
• Identification of risk zones (forest fire, flood, landslide, soil erosion) in forests
• Organizing meetings and discussions with local communities and stakeholders
• Facilitation in forest operational plan implementation and monitoring.

Province wise forest cover of Nepal

(Source: Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, 2017)

Percentage Covered Percentage Covered

Total Forest
Province by Forests by Forests
Area (ha) Area (ha) (total area of the province) (total forest of the country)

Province 1 2,590,500 1,134,250 43.8 % 17.2 %

Province 2 966,100 263,630 27.3 % 4.0 %

Bagmati 2,030,000 1,090,880 53.7 % 16.5 %

Gandaki 2,150,400 817,290 38.0 % 12.4 %

Lumbini 2,228,800 974,380 43.7 % 14.7 %

Karnali 2,798,400 1,183,400 42.3 % 17.9 %

Sudurpaschim 1,953,900 1,146,110 58.7 % 17.3 %

26
SECTION 4:
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS
4.1 Environmental 4.2 Social Safeguards
Safeguards 4.2.1 Workers' Health and Safety
4.1.1 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Ensuring workers’ health and safety is essential
Conservation to achieve sustainable forest management.
Biodiversity and ecosystem conservation are The following should be considered to ensure
important factors that need to be considered workers’ health and safety:
while planning and implementing sustainable • Provide training to workers to handle
forest management principles. While preparing harvesting tools and ensure personal
the forest management plan, rare, endangered safety prior to felling or other silvicultural
and threatened species in the forest are operations
identified and special conservation measures
are implemented to conserve such species. But • Manage safety gear for the workers
protection and restoration of wildlife habitats involved in harvesting or other silvicultural
such as grasslands, wetlands, and water spring operations
sources are factored in while developing and • Manage first-aid kits during felling and
implementing the forest management plan. other silvicultural operations
Trees and forest patches that are crucial for
• Properly inform other members of the team
biodiversity are retained in the forests.
working close to felling sites as a precaution
During collection and transportation of
• Ensure safe use of tools and proper storage
forest products, damage and disturbance
after use
to the geo-physical condition of the forest
and its surroundings should be minimized. • Provide wages and insurance to the workers
Silvicultural operations should be carried out as per standards
with additional caution and care in fragile
lands, erosion prone areas and slopes. Felling
4.2.2 People's Participation
in slope areas over 19 degrees should be Participation of indigenous people and
avoided. Likewise, harvesting in rainy seasons local communities is vital for sustainable
should be avoided to minimize soil loss and forest management. The following should be
instability. Moreover, attention should be considered to facilitate effective participation
given to reducing sound and air pollution of indigenous people and local communities
during harvesting. in forest management.
• Identify and ensure indigenous people
4.1.2 Product Safety
and local communities’ rights and access
Necessary precautions should be taken while to forest resources
felling and carrying out other silvicultural
• Identify and protect traditional knowledge
operations to minimize loss and damage of
and intellectual property of indigenous
harvested products and forest crops. To the
people and local communities
extent possible, trees should be felled from
the ground level. Efforts should be made • Identify and enhance social, cultural and
to minimize loss and damage of remaining religious values of indigenous people and
trees/plants, regeneration and retained forest local communities
crop. Harvested forest products should be • Prioritize indigenous people and local
stored properly. communities in employment opportunities
generated through forest management

27
SECTION 5:
FOREST CERTIFICATION
5.1 Introduction 5.2 Forest Certification
Forest certification is a global practice in Nepal
that refers to inspections carried out by Forest certification is a new practice in Nepal.
a third party to ensure responsible forest National standards that include 10 principles
management. Most countries across the and 70 criteria, have been developed in Nepal
globe, have adopted the Forest Stewardship through the Forest Stewardship Council for
Council’s principles, criteria and indicators certification of sustainable forest management.
of forest certification. The standards are presented in Table 11.
Table 11: National Standards for Forest Certification
Code Principles and Criteria

1 Principle 1: Compliance with Laws

1.1 Legally authorized entity
1.2 Approved management plan with clearly defined forest boundary and users right
1.3 Legal rights to implement management plan
1.4 Right, or engage with regulatory agencies, to control illegal resources use
1.5 Comply with applicable national and local laws, ratified international conventions and
obligatory codes of practice relating to trade of forest products
1.6 Identify, prevent and resolve disputes over issues of statutory or customary law
1.7 Commitment not to offer or receive bribes in money or any other form of corruption, and
compliance with anti-corruption legislation where this exists
1.8 Long-term commitment to adhere to Forest Stewardship Council principles and criteria
2 Principle 2: Workers’ Rights and Employment Conditions
2.1 Uphold the principles and rights at work as defined in the International Labor Organization
declaration
2.2 Promote gender equality
2.3 Implement health and safety practices
2.4 Payment of wages that meet or exceed minimum wage standards
2.5 Demonstrate that workers have job-specific training and supervision to ensure safety
2.6 Mechanisms to resolve grievances and fair compensation to workers for loss or damage to
properties, occupational diseases, or occupational injuries
3 Principle 3: Indigenous Peoples’ Rights
3.1 Identify indigenous peoples’ tenure and access rights to forest resources and ecosystem
services
3.2 Recognize and uphold legal and customary rights of indigenous peoples
3.3 Coordinate with indigenous people and get their free, prior and informed consent for
management activities
3.4 Recognize and uphold rights, customs and culture of indigenous peoples
3.5 Identify sites in the management unit, which have special cultural, ecological, economic,
religious or spiritual significance
3.6 Uphold rights of indigenous people to protect and utilize traditional knowledge and
compensate for utilization of such knowledge and intellectual property

28
4 Principle 4: Community Relations
4.1 Identify tenure and access rights of local communities to forest resources and ecosystem
services
4.2 Recognize and uphold legal and customary rights of local communities
4.3 Provide reasonable opportunities for employment, training and other services to local
communities, local contractors and local suppliers
4.4 Contribute to social and economic development of local communities
4.5 Take action to identify, avoid and mitigate significant negative social, environmental and
economic impacts on affected communities
4.6 Mechanism for resolving grievances and providing fair compensation to local communities
and individuals
4.7 Identify sites which are of special cultural, ecological, economic, religious or spiritual
significance
4.8 Uphold rights of local communities to protect and utilize traditional knowledge and
compensate for utilization of such knowledge and intellectual property
5 Principle 5: Benefits from the Forest
5.1 Identify, produce, or enable the production of, diversified benefits and/or products, based on
the range of resources and ecosystem services
5.2 Normally harvest products and services at or below a level which can be sustained
permanently
5.3 Demonstrate that positive and negative externalities of operations are included in the
management plan
5.4 Use of local processing, local services and local value addition
5.5 Demonstrate commitment to long-term economic viability through planning and
expenditures
6 Principle 6: Environmental Values and Impacts
6.1 Assess environmental values inside and outside the management unit, potentially affected by
management activities
6.2 Identify and assess potential impacts of management activities on the identified
environmental values
6.3 Identify and implement effective actions to prevent negative impacts of management
activities on environmental values
6.4 Protect rare and threatened species and their habitats in the management unit
6.5 Identify and protect representative sample areas of native ecosystems and/or restore them to
more natural conditions
6.6 Effectively maintain continued existence of naturally occurring native species and genotypes,
and prevent losses of biological diversity
6.7 Protect or restore natural water courses, water bodies, riparian zones and their connectivity
6.8 Manage landscape in the management unit to enhance environmental and economic
resilience
6.9 Do not convert natural forest to non-forest land use
6.10 Do not convert natural forests into plantation forests unless any special circumstances
7 Principle 7: Management Planning
7.1 Set policies (visions and values) and objectives for management, which are environmentally
sound, socially beneficial and economically viable
7.2 Prepare and implement a management plan which is fully consistent with the policies and
management objectives
7.3 The management plan shall include verifiable targets by which progress towards each of the
prescribed management objectives can be achieved

29
Code Principles and Criteria
7.4 Update and revise the management plan periodically
7.5 Make publicly available a summary of the management plan free of charge, excluding
confidential information
7.6 Proactively and transparently engage affected stakeholders in management planning and
monitoring processes
8 Principle 8: Monitoring and Assessment
8.1 Monitor the implementation of management plan, including its policies and management
objectives
8.2 Monitor and evaluate environmental and social impacts of the activities carried out in the
management unit, and changes in its environmental conditions
8.3 Analyze the results of monitoring and evaluation and feed the outcomes of this analysis back
into the planning process
8.4 Make publicly available a summary of the results of monitoring free of charge, excluding
confidential information
8.5 Develop and implement a tracking and tracing system
9 Principle 9: High Conservation Values
9.1 Assess and record the presence and status of High Conservation Values in the management
unit
9.2 Develop effective strategies that maintain and/or enhance the identified High Conservation
Values through engagement with affected stakeholders, interested stakeholders and experts
9.3 Implement strategies and actions that maintain and/or enhance identified High Conservation
Values
9.4 Demonstrate that periodic monitoring is carried out to assess changes in the status of High
Conservation Values, and adopt management strategies to ensure their effective protection
10 Principle 10: Implementation of Management Activities
10.1 Regenerate forest, by natural or artificial regeneration methods, in a timely fashion to
pre-harvesting or more natural conditions
10.2 Regenerate using native species and local genotypes, and species that are ecologically well
adapted to the site and management objectives, unless there is convincing justification to use
others
10.3 Only use alien species when knowledge and/or experience have shown that any invasive
impacts can be controlled, and effective mitigation measures are in place
10.4 Do not use genetically modified organisms in the management unit
10.5 Use silvicultural practices that are ecologically appropriate for the vegetation, species, sites
and management objectives
10.6 Minimize or avoid use of fertilizers
10.7 Avoid use of chemical pesticides
10.8 Minimize, monitor and strictly control use of biological control agents according to
internationally accepted scientific protocols
10.9 Assess risks and implement natural hazard control strategies
10.10 Manage infrastructural development, transport activities and silviculture so that water
resources and soils are protected, and disturbance of or damage to rare and threatened
species, habitat, ecosystems and landscape values are prevented, mitigated and/or repaired.
10.11 Manage activities associated with harvesting and extraction of timber and non-timber forest
products by minimizing waste and conserving environmental values
10.12 Dispose waste materials in an environmentally appropriate manner

30
References
Amatya. S.M., & Shrestha, K.R. (2003). Nepal forestry handbook. Nepal Foresters Association, Kathmandu, Nepal.

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 3
WWF Nepal works in
three landscapes - Terai Arc Landscape,
Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape,
Sacred Himalayan Landscape and
National Conservation Priority Areas

5
WWF Nepal’s programs
focus on 5 goals; Forests,
Wildlife, Climate & Energy,
Freshwater and Governance

Working to sustain the natural

world for the benefit of people
and wildlife

together possible TM
nepal.panda.org