DIFFERENT KINDS OF FORMAT IN RESEARCH

WRITING

American Psychological Association (APA) Style Format

APA Paper Formatting Basics

• All text should be double-spaced

• Use one-inch margins on all sides
• All paragraphs in the body are indented
• Make sure that the title is centered on the page with your name and school/institution
underneath
• Use 12-point font throughout
• All pages should be numbered in the upper right-hand corner
• The manual recommends using one space after most punctuation marks
• A shortened version of the title (“running head”) should be placed in the upper left-hand
corner

Writing and Organizing Your APA Paper in an Effective Way

This section of our guide focuses on proper paper length, how to format headings, spacing, and
more! This information can be found in Chapter 2 of the official manual (American Psychological
Association, 2020, pp. 29-67).

Categories of papers
Before getting into the nitty-gritty details related to APA research paper format, first determine the
type of paper you’re about to embark on creating:
Empirical studies
Empirical studies take data from observations and experiments to generate research reports. It is
different from other types of studies in that it isn’t based on theories or ideas, but on actual data.

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Literature reviews
These papers analyze another individual’s work or a group of works. The purpose is to gather
information about a current issue or problem and to communicate where we are today. It sheds
light on issues and attempts to fill those gaps with suggestions for future research and methods.

Theoretical articles
These papers are somewhat like a literature reviews in that the author collects, examines, and
shares information about a current issue or problem, by using others’ research. It is different from
literature reviews in that it attempts to explain or solve a problem by coming up with a new theory.
This theory is justified with valid evidence.

Methodological articles
These articles showcase new advances, or modifications to an existing practice, in a scientific
method or procedure. The author has data or documentation to prove that their new method, or
improvement to a method, is valid. Plenty of evidence is included in this type of article. In addition,
the author explains the current method being used in addition to their own findings, to allow the
reader to understand and modify their own current practices.

Case studies
Case studies present information related an individual, group, or larger set of individuals. These
subjects are analyzed for a specific reason and the author reports on the method and conclusions
from their study. The author may also make suggestions for future research, create possible
theories, and/or determine a solution to a problem.

General paper length

Since APA style format is used often in science fields, the belief is “less is more.” Make sure
you’re able to get your points across in a clear and brief way. Be direct, clear, and professional.
Try not to add fluff and unnecessary details into your paper or writing. This will keep the paper
length shorter and more concise.

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Margin sizes in APA Format
When it comes to margins, keep them consistent across the left, right, top, and bottom of the page.
All four sides should be the same distance from the edge of the paper. It’s recommended to use at
least one-inch margins around each side. It’s acceptable to use larger margins, but the margins
should never be smaller than an inch.

Title pages in APA Format

The title page, or APA format cover page, is the first page of a paper or essay. Some teachers and
professors do not require a title page, but some do. If you’re not sure if you should include one or
not, ask your teacher. Some appreciate the page, which clearly displays the writer’s name and the
title of the paper.

The APA format title page for student papers includes six main components:

✓ the title of the APA format paper

✓ names of all authors
✓ institutional affiliation
✓ course number and title
✓ instructor’s name
✓ due date

Title pages for professional papers also require a running head; student papers do not.
Some instructors and professional publications also ask for an author’s note. If you’re required or
would like to include an author’s note, place it below the institutional affiliation. Examples of
information included in an author’s note include an ORCID iD number, a disclosure, and an
acknowledgement.

Here are key guidelines to developing your title page:

✓ The title of the paper should capture the main idea of the essay, but should not contain
abbreviations or words that serve no purpose. For example, instead of using the title “A
Look at Amphibians From the Past,” title the paper “Amphibians From the Past.” Delete
the unnecessary fluff!

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✓ Center the title on the page and place it about 3-4 lines from the top.
✓ The title should be bolded, in title case, and the same font size as your other page text. Do
not underline or italicize the title. Other text on the page should be plain
(not bolded, underlined, or italicized).
✓ All text on the title page should be double-spaced. The APA format examples paper below
displays proper spacing, so go take a look!
✓ Do not include any titles in the author’s name such as Dr. or Ms. In contrast, for your
instructor’s name, use the form they prefer (e.g., Sagar Parekh, PhD; Dr. Minako Asato;
Professor Nathan Ian Brown; etc.).
✓ The institutional affiliation is the school the author attends or the location where the author
conducted the research.

Sample of an APA format title page for a student paper:

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 • Sample of title page for a professional paper:

Running heads in APA Format

The 7th edition of the American Psychological Association Publication Manual (p. 37)
states that running heads are not required for student papers unless requested by the instructor.
Student papers still need a page number included in the upper right-hand corner of every page. The
6th edition required a running head for student papers, so be sure to confirm with your instructor
which edition you should follow. Of note, this guide follows the 7th edition.

Running heads are required for professional papers (e.g., manuscripts submitted for
publication). Read on for instructions on how to create them.

Are you wondering what is a “running head”? It’s basically a page header at the top of
every page. To make this process easier, set your word processor to automatically add these
components onto each page. You may want to look for “Header” in the features.

A running head/page header includes two pieces:

1. the title of the paper

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 2. page numbers.

Insert page numbers justified to the right-hand side of the APA format paper (do not put p. or pg.
in front of the page numbers).

For all pages of the paper, including the APA format title page, include the “TITLE OF YOUR
PAPER” justified to the left in capital letters (i.e., the running head). If your full title is long (over
50 characters), the running head title should be a shortened version.

Preparing outlines in APA Format

Outlines are extremely beneficial as they help writers stay organized, determine the scope
of the research that needs to be included, and establish headings and subheadings.

There isn’t an official or recommended “APA format for outline” structure. It is up to the
writer (if they choose to make use of an outline) to determine how to organize it and the characters
to include. Some writers use a mix of roman numerals, numbers, and uppercase and lowercase
letters.

Here’s our version of how APA format for outlines could look:

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How to form an abstract in APA

An APA format abstract (p. 38) is a summary of a scholarly article or scientific study.
Scholarly articles and studies are rather lengthy documents, and abstracts allow readers to first
determine if they’d like to read an article in its entirety or not.

You may come across abstracts while researching a topic. Many databases display abstracts
in the search results and often display them before showing the full text of an article or scientific
study. It is important to create a high-quality abstract that accurately communicates the purpose
and goal of your paper, as readers will determine if it is worthy to continue reading or not.

Here are some helpful suggestions to create a dynamic abstract:

1. Abstracts are found on their own page, directly after the title or cover page.
2. Professional papers only (not student papers): Include the running head on the top of
the page.
3. On the first line of the page, center the word “Abstract” (but do not include quotation
marks).
4. On the following line, write a summary of the key points of your research. Your abstract
summary is a way to introduce readers to your research topic, the questions that will be
answered, the process you took, and any findings or conclusions you drew. Use concise,
brief, informative language. You only have a few sentences to share the summary of
your entire document, so be direct with your wording.
5. This summary should not be indented but should be double-spaced and less than 250
words.
6. If applicable, help researchers find your work in databases by listing keywords from
your paper after your summary. To do this, indent and type Keywords: in italics. Then
list your keywords that stand out in your research. You can also include keyword strings
that you think readers will type into the search box.
7. Use an active voice, not a passive voice. When writing with an active voice, the
subject performs the action. When writing with a passive voice, the subject receives the
action.
1. Active voice: The subjects reacted to the medication.

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 2. Passive voice: There was a reaction from the subjects taking the medication.
8. Instead of evaluating your project in the abstract, simply report what it contains.
9. If a large portion of your work includes the extension of someone else’s research, share
this in the abstract and include the author’s last name and the year their work was
released.
APA format example page:

Here’s an example of an abstract:

Visual design is a critical aspect of any web page or user interface, and its impact on a
user’s experience has been studied extensively. Research has shown a positive correlation between
a user’s perceived usability and a user’s assessment of visual design.

Additionally, perceived web quality, which encompasses visual design, has a positive
relationship with both initial and continued consumer purchase intention. However, visual design
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is often assessed using self-report scale, which are vulnerable to a few pitfalls. Because self-report
questionnaires are often reliant on introspection and honesty, it is difficult to confidently rely on
self-report questionnaires to make important decisions. This study aims to ensure the validity of a
visual design assessment instrument (Visual Aesthetics of Websites Inventory: Short version) by
examining its relationship with biometric (variables), like galvanic skin response, pupillometry,
and fixation information.

Our study looked at participants assessment of a webpage’s visual design and compared it
to their biometric responses while viewing the webpage. Overall, we found that both average
fixation duration and pupil dilation differed when participants viewed web pages with lower visual
design ratings compared to web pages with a higher visual design rating.

The body of an APA paper

On the page after the title page (if a student paper) or the abstract (if a professional paper), begin
with the body of the paper.

Most papers follow this format:

1. At the top of the page, add the page number in the upper right corner of all pages,
including the title page.
2. On the next line write the title in bold font and center it. Do not underline or italicize it.
3. Begin with the introduction and indent the first line of the paragraph. All paragraphs in
the body are indented.
Sample body for a student paper:

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Most scientific or professional papers have additional sections and guidelines:
1. Start with the running head (title + page number). The heading title should be in capital
letters. The abstract page should be page 2.
2. The introduction presents the problem and premise upon which the research was based.
It goes into more detail about this problem than the abstract.
3. Begin a new section with the Method and use this word as the subtitle. Bold and center
this subtitle. The Method section shows how the study was run and conducted. Be sure
to describe the methods through which data was collected.
4. Begin a new section with the Results. Bold and center this subtitle. The Results section
summarizes your data. Use charts and graphs to display this data.
5. Begin a new section with the Discussion. Bold and center this subtitle. This Discussion
section is a chance to analyze and interpret your results.
1. Draw conclusions and support how your data led to these conclusions.
2. Discuss whether or not your hypothesis was confirmed or not supported by
your results.
3. Determine the limitations of the study and next steps to improve research
for future studies.
Sample body for a professional paper:

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Proper usage of headings & subheadings in APA Format

Headings (p. 47) serve an important purpose in research papers — they organize your paper
and make it simple to locate different pieces of information. In addition, headings provide readers
with a glimpse to the main idea, or content, they are about to read.

In APA format, there are five levels of headings, each with a different formatting:
• Level 1:
• This is the title of your paper
• The title should be centered in the middle of the page
• The title should be bolded
• Use uppercase and lowercase letters where necessary (called title capitalization)
• Level 2:
• Place this heading against the left margin
• Use bold letters
• Use uppercase and lowercase letters where necessary
• Level 3:
• Place this heading against the left side margin
• Use bold letters
• Use uppercase and lowercase letters where necessary
• End the heading with a period
• Level 4:
• Indented in from the left margin
• Bolded
• Use uppercase and lowercase letters where necessary
• End the heading with a period
• Level 5:
• Indented
• Bolded
• Italicized
• Use uppercase and lowercase letters where necessary
• End the heading with a period

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 Following general formatting rules, all headings are double spaced and there are no extra
lines or spaces between sections.

Here is a visual APA format template for levels of headings:

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Use of graphics (tables and figures) in APA Format

First and foremost, the only reason why any graphics should be added is to provide the reader with
an easier way to see or read information, rather than typing it all out in the text.

Lots of numbers to discuss? Try organizing your information into a chart or table. Pie charts, bar
graphs, coordinate planes, and line graphs are just a few ways to show numerical data, relationships
between numbers, and many other types of information.

Instead of typing out long, drawn out descriptions, create a drawing or image. Many visual learners
would appreciate the ability to look at an image to make sense of information.

Before you go ahead and place that graphic in your paper, here are a few key guidelines:
1. All graphics, whether they’re tables, photographs, or drawings must be numbered. The
first graphic, labeled as 1, should be the first one mentioned in the text.
1. Follow them in the appropriate numerical order in which they appear in the
text of your paper. Example: Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Figure 3.
2. Example: Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Figure 3
2. Only use graphics if they will supplement the material in your text. If they reinstate
what you already have in your text, then it is not necessary to include a graphic.
3. Include enough wording in the graphic so that the reader is able to understand its
meaning, even if it is isolated from the corresponding text. However, do not go
overboard with adding a ton of wording in your graphic.
4. Left align tables and figures

Tables:
General format of a table should be:

1. Table number
2. Title
3. Table
4. Note
• Here are a few pointers to keep in mind:

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 1. Choose to type out your data OR create a table. As stated above, in APA format,
you shouldn’t have the information typed out in your paper and also have a table
showing the same exact information. Choose one or the other.
2. If you choose to create a table, discuss it very briefly in the text. Say something
along the lines of, “Table 1 displays the amount of money used towards fighting
Malaria.” Or, “Stomach cancer rates are displayed in Table 4.”
3. If you’re submitting your project for a class, place your table close to the text
where it’s mentioned. If you’re submitting it to be published in a journal, most
publishers prefer tables to be placed in the back. If you’re unsure where to place
your tables, ask!
• Numbers & Title:
1. Include the table number first and at the top. Table 1 is the first table discussed
in the paper. Table 2 is the next table mentioned, and so on. This should be in
bold.
2. Add a title under the number. Create a brief, descriptive title. Capitalize the first
letter for each important word. Italicize the title and place it under the table
number.
• Formatting:
1. Only use horizontal lines.
2. Limit use of cell shading.
3. Keep the font at 12-point size and use single or double spacing. If you use single
spacing in one table, make sure all of the others use single spaces as well. Keep
it consistent.
4. All headings should be centered.
5. In the first column (called the stub), center the heading, left-align the
information underneath it (indent 0.15 inches if info is more than one line).
6. Information in other columns should be centered.
• Note: If you need to further explain something, or include an APA format citation, place
it in a note below the table. There are 3 types:
1. General. Information about the whole table.
2. Specific. Information targeted for a specific column, row, or cell.

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 3. Probability. Explains what certain table symbols mean. For example,
asterisks, p values, etc.
Here’s an APA format example of a table:

Figures:
Figures represent information in a visual way. They differ from tables in that they are visually
appealing. Sure, tables, like the one above, can be visually appealing, but it’s the color, circles,
arrows, boxes, or icons included that make a figure a “figure.”
There are many commonly used figures in papers. Examples APA Format:

• Pie charts
• Photographs
• Maps
• Hierarchy charts
• Drawings
General format of a figure is the same as tables. This means each should include:

1. Figure number
2. Title

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 3. Figure
4. Note
Use the same formatting tables use for the number, title, and note.

Here are some pointers to keep in mind when it comes to APA format for figures:
1. Only include a figure if it adds value to your paper. If it will truly help with
understanding, include it!
2. Either include a figure OR write it all out in the text. Do not include the same
information twice.
3. If a note is added, it should clearly explain the content of the figure. Include any
reference information if it’s reproduced or adapted.
APA format sample of a figure:

Photographs:
If you have a photograph you would like to include in your project, here are some
guidelines from the American Psychological Association.

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 1. Create a reference for the photograph. Follow the guidelines under the table and figure
sections above.
2. Do not use color photos. It is recommended to use black and white. Colors can change
depending on the reader’s screen resolution. Using black and white ensures the reader
will be able to view the image clearly. The only time it is recommended to use color
photos is if you’re writing about color-specific things. For example, if you’re discussing
the various shades of leaf coloration, you may want to include a few photographs of
colorful leaves.
3. If there are sections of the photograph that are not related to your work, it is acceptable
to crop them out. Cropping is also beneficial in that it helps the reader focus on the main
item you’re discussing.
4. If you choose to include an image of a person you know, it would be respectful if you
ask their permission before automatically including their photo in your paper. Some
schools and universities post research papers online and some people prefer that their
photos and information stay off the Internet.

B. Writing Style Tips

Writing a paper for scientific topics is much different than writing for English, literature,
and other composition classes. Science papers are much more direct, clear, and concise. This
section includes key suggestions, explains how to write in APA format, and includes other tidbits
to keep in mind while formulating your research paper.
Verb usage in APA

Research experiments and observations rely on the creation and analysis of data to test
hypotheses and come to conclusions. While sharing and explaining the methods and results of
studies, science writers often use verbs.

When using verbs in writing, make sure that you continue to use them in the same tense
throughout the section you’re writing.

Here’s an APA format example:

We tested the solution to identify the possible contaminants.

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It wouldn’t make sense to add this sentence after the one above:

We tested the solution to identify the possible contaminants. Researchers often test solutions by
placing them under a microscope.

Notice that the first sentence is in the past tense while the second sentence is in the present tense.
This can be confusing for readers.

For verbs in scientific papers, the APA manual recommends using:

• Past tense or present perfect tense for the explanation of the procedure
• Past tense for the explanation of the results
• Present tense for the explanation of the conclusion and future implications

How to reduce bias & labels

The American Psychological Association strongly objects to any bias towards gender,
racial groups, ages of individuals or subjects, disabilities, and sexual orientation (pp. 131-149). If
you’re unsure whether your writing is free of bias and labels or not, have a few individuals read
your work to determine if it’s acceptable.

Here are a few guidelines that the American Psychological Association suggests:
• Only include information about an individual’s orientation or characteristic if it is
important to the topic or study. Do not include information about individuals or labels if it
is not necessary.
• If writing about an individual’s characteristic or orientation, for essay APA format, make
sure to put the person first. Instead of saying, “Diabetic patients,” say, “Patients who are
diabetic.”
• Instead of using narrow terms such as, “adolescents,” or “the elderly,” try to use broader
terms such as, “participants,” and “subjects.”
• “They” or “their” are acceptable gender-neutral pronouns to use.
• Be mindful when using terms that end with “man” or “men” if they involve subjects who
are female. For example, instead of using “Firemen,” use the term, “Firefighter.” In
general, avoid ambiguity.

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 • When referring to someone’s racial or ethnic identity, use the census category terms and
capitalize the first letter. Also, avoid using the word, “minority,” as it can be interpreted as
meaning less than or deficient. Instead, say “people of color” or “underrepresented groups.”
• When describing subjects in APA format, use the words “girls” and “boys” for children
who are under the age of 12. The terms, “young woman,” “young man,” “female
adolescent,” and “male adolescent” are appropriate for subjects between 13-17 years old;
“Men,” and “women,” for those older than 18. Use the term, “older adults.” for individuals
who are older. “Elderly,” and “senior,” are not acceptable if used only as nouns. It is
acceptable to use these terms if they’re used as adjectives.
Read through our example essay in APA format, found in section D, to see how we’ve reduced
bias and labels.

Spelling in APA Format

• In APA formatting, use the same spelling as words found in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary (American English) (p. 161).
• If the word you’re trying to spell is not found in Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, a second
resource is Webster’s Third New International Dictionary.
• If attempting to properly spell words in the psychology field, consult the American
Psychological Association’s Dictionary of Psychology

Abbreviation do’s and don’ts in APA Format

Abbreviations can be tricky. You may be asking yourself, “Do I include periods between the
letters?” “Are all letters capitalized?” “Do I need to write out the full name each and every time?”
Not to worry, we’re breaking down the publication manual’s abbreviations (p. 172) for you here.

First and foremost, use abbreviations sparingly.

Too many and you’re left with a paper littered with capital letters mashed together. Plus, they
don’t lend themselves to smooth and easy reading. Readers need to pause and comprehend the
meaning of abbreviations and quite often stumble over them.

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 • If the abbreviation is used less than three times in the paper, type it out each time. It would
be difficult to remember what an abbreviation or acronym stands for if you’re writing a
lengthy paper.
• If you decide to sprinkle in abbreviations, it is not necessary to include periods between
the letters.
• Prior to using an unfamiliar abbreviation, you must type it out in text and place the
abbreviation immediately following it in parentheses. Any usage of the abbreviation after
the initial description, can be used without the description.
• Example: While it may not affect a patient’s short-term memory (STM), it may
affect their ability to comprehend new terms. Patients who experience STM loss
while using the medication should discuss it with their doctor.
• If an abbreviation is featured in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary as is, then it is
not necessary to spell it out.
• Example: AIDS
• For units of measurement, include the abbreviation if it sits with a number. If the unit of
measurement stands alone, type it out.
• Examples APA format:
• 4 lbs.
• The weight in pounds exceeded what we previously thought.

Punctuation in APA Format

One space after most punctuation marks

The manual recommends using one space after most punctuation marks, including
punctuation at the end of a sentence (p. 154). It doesn’t hurt to double check with your teacher or
professor to ask their preference since this rule was changed recently (in 2020).

The official APA format book was primarily created to aid individuals with submitting
their paper for publication in a professional journal. Many schools adopt certain parts of the
handbook and modify sections to match their preference. To see an example of an APA format
research paper, with the spacing we believe is most commonly and acceptable to use, scroll down
and see section D.

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Commas
It’s often a heated debate among writers whether or not to use an Oxford comma (p. 155),
but for this style, always use an Oxford comma. This type of comma is placed before the words
AND and OR or in a series of three items.

Example of APA format for commas:

The medication caused drowsiness, upset stomach, and fatigue.
Here’s another example:
The subjects chose between cold, room temperature, or warm water.

Apostrophes
When writing a possessive singular noun, you should place the apostrophe before the s. For
possessive plural nouns, the apostrophe is placed after the s.

• Singular: Linda Morris’s jacket

• Plural: The Morris’ house
Dashes
Em dashes (long dash) are used to bring focus to a particular point or an aside. There are no spaces
after these dashes (p. 157).

Use en dashes (short dash) in compound adjectives. Do not place a space before or after the dash.
Here are a few examples:

• custom-built
• 12-year-old
• pp. 90-108
•

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Number rules in APA Format

Science papers often include the use of numbers, usually displayed in data, tables, and
experiment information. The golden rule to keep in mind is that numbers less than 10 are written
out in text. If the number is more than 10, use numerals.

APA format examples:

• 14 kilograms
• seven individuals
• 83 years old
• Fourth grade
The golden rule for numbers has exceptions.
In APA formatting, use numerals if you are:
•

• Showing numbers in a table or graph

• Referring to information in a table or graph
• Table 7
• Including a unit of measurement directly after it. Examples APA format:
• 8 lbs.
• 5 cm
• Displaying a math equation
• 4 divided by 2
• Showing a time, age, or date
• 8:08 a.m.
• 6-month-olds
Use numbers written out as words if you are:
•

• Starting the sentence with a number (but try to rearrange the sentence to avoid
this!)
• Ninety-two percent of teachers feel as though….
• Writing out a commonly used word or saying
• Hundred Years’ War

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 • Including a fraction
• One-sixth of the students
• Showing a time, age, or date
• 8:08 a.m.
• 6-month-olds
Other APA formatting number rules to keep in mind:
•

• Always include a zero before a decimal point

• 0.13 g
• Keep Roman numerals as is. Do not translate them into Arabic numerals.
Examples APA format:
• World War II
• Super Bowl LII
• If you’re including plurals, do not include an apostrophe!
• It’s 1980s, not 1980’s!

Overview of APA references

Here’s an example of a reference:

Wynne-Jones, T. (2015). The emperor of any place. Candlewick Press.
An APA format citation is an APA format in-text citation. These are found within your paper,
anytime a quote or paraphrase is included. They usually only include the name of the author and
the date the source was published.

Here’s an example of one:

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is even discussed in the book, The Emperor of Any Place. The main
character, Evan, finds a mysterious diary on his father’s desk (the same desk his father died on,
after suffering from a hypertrophic cardiomyopathy attack). Evan unlocks the truth to his father
and grandfather’s past (Wynne-Jones, 2015).
Both of the ways to credit another individual’s work — in the text of a paper and also on the final
page — are key to preventing plagiarism. A writer must use both types in a paper. If you cite

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 something in the text, it must have a full reference on the final page of the project. Where there is
one, there must be the other!

Now that you understand that, here’s some basic info regarding APA format references (pp.
281-309).
1. Each reference is organized, or structured, differently. It all depends on the source type.
A book reference is structured one way, an APA journal is structured a different way,
a newspaper article is another way. Yes, it’s probably frustrating that not all references
are created equal and set up the same way. MLA works cited pages are unique in that
every source type is formatted the same way. Unfortunately, this style is quite different.
2. Most references follow this general format:

Author’s Last name, First initial. Middle initial. (Year published). Title of source. URL.
Again, as stated in the above paragraph, you must look up the specific source type you’re
using to find out the placement of the title, author’s name, year published, etc.

In-text APA citation format

Displaying where the original information came from is much easier than you think.
Directly next to the quote or information you included, place the author’s name and the year
nearby. This allows the reader of your work to see where the information originated.

APA allows for the use of two different forms of in-text

citation, parenthetical and narrative Both forms of citation require two elements:
1. author’s name
2. year of publication
The only difference is the way that this information is presented to the reader.

Parenthetical citations are the more commonly seen form of in-text citations for academic
work, in which both required reference elements are presented at the end of the sentence in
parentheses. Example:
Harlem had many artists and musicians in the late 1920s (Belafonte, 2008).

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 Narrative citations allow the author to present one or both of the required reference
elements inside of the running sentence, which prevents the text from being too repetitive or
burdensome. When only one of the two reference elements is included in the sentence, the other
is provided parenthetically. Example:
According to Belafonte (2008), Harlem was full of artists and musicians in the late
1920s.

If there are two authors listed in the source entry, then the parenthetical reference must
list them both:
(Smith & Belafonte, 2008)

If there are three or more authors listed in the source entry, then the parenthetical
reference can abbreviate with “et al.”, the latin abbreviation for “and others”:
(Smith et al., 2008)

The author’s names are structured differently if there is more than one author. Things will
also look different if there isn’t an author at all (which is sometimes the case with website pages).

References page in APA Format

An APA format reference page is easier to create than you probably think. We go into detail on
how to create this page on our APA reference page. If you’re simply looking for a brief overview
of the reference page, we’ve got you covered here.
Here are some pointers to keep in mind when it comes to the references page in APA format:
• This VIP page has its very own page. Start on a fresh, clean document (p. 303).
• Center and bold the title “References” (do not include quotation marks, underline, or
italicize this title).
• Alphabetize and double-space ALL entries.
• Use a readable font, such as Times New Roman, Arial, Calibri, or Lucida (p. 44).
• Every quote or piece of outside information included in the paper should be referenced and
have an entry.

26
 • Even though it’s called a “reference page,” it can be longer than one page. If your
references flow onto the next page, then that’s a-okay.
• Only include the running head if it is required by your teacher or you’re writing a
professional paper.
Sample reference page for a student paper:

Final APA Format Checklist

Prior to submitting your paper, check to make sure you have everything you need and
everything in its place:
1. Did you credit all the information and quotes you used in the body of your paper and
show a matching full reference at the end of the paper? Remember, you need both!
Need more information on how to credit other authors and sources?
2. Is your title page properly formatted? You may feel tempted to make the title in a larger
font size or add graphics to jazz it up a bit. Keep it professional looking and make
everything 12 pt. size font and double spaced. Here are recommended font sizes:
1.
1.
1. 12-pt. Times New Roman
2. 11-pt. Calibri, Arial, Georgia
3. 10-pt. Lucida, Sans Unicode, Computer Modern

27
 3. If you created an abstract, is it directly after the title page? Some teachers and professors
do not require an abstract, so before you go ahead and include it, make sure it’s
something he or she is expecting.
4. Is this a professional paper or a student paper?
1. Professional paper — Did you include a running head on every single page
of your project?
2. Student paper — Did you include page numbers in the upper right-hand
corner of all your pages?
5. Are all headings, as in section or chapter titles, properly formatted? If you’re not sure,
check section number 9.
6. Are all tables and figures aligned properly? Did you include notes and other important
information directly below the table or figure? Include any information that will help
the reader completely understand everything in the table or figure if it were to stand
alone.
7. Are abbreviations used sparingly? Did you format them properly?
8. Is the entire document double spaced?
9. Are all numbers formatted properly? Check section 17, which is APA writing format
for numbers.
10. Did you glance at the sample paper? Is your assignment structured similarly? Are all of
the margins uniform?

Submitting Your APA Paper

If you’re submitting your paper to a journal, you probably need to include a cover letter.

Most cover letters ask you to include:

1. The author’s contact information.
2. A statement to the editor that the paper is original.
3. If a similar paper exists elsewhere, notify the editor in the cover letter.
Once again, review the specific journal’s website for exact specifications for submission.

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Modern Language Association (MLA) Style Format

MLA Paper Formatting Basics

• Use white 8 ½ x 11” paper.

• Make 1 inch margins on the top, bottom, and sides.
• The first word in every paragraph should be indented one half inch.
• Indent set-off or block quotations one half inch from the left margin.
• Use any type of font that is easy to read, such as Times New Roman. Make sure that italics
look different from the regular typeface.
• Use 12-point size.
• Double space the entire research paper, even the Works Cited page.
• Leave one space after periods and other punctuation marks, unless your instructor tells you
to leave two spaces.

MLA Format Background

The Modern Language Association (MLA) is an organization responsible for developing

MLA format. It was developed as a means for researchers, students, and scholars in the literature
and language fields to uniformly format their papers and assignments. This uniform, or consistent,
method to developing a paper or assignment allows for easy reading. Today, MLA is not only used
in literature and language subject areas; many others have adopted it as well.
The Modern Language Association released the 9th and most current edition of their MLA
Handbook in April 2021. The Handbook provides thorough instructions on citing, as well as
guidelines for submitting work that adheres to the Modern Language Association’s rules and
standards. Although we’re not affiliated with the MLA, our citation specialists bring you this
thoughtful and informative guide on the format.

Formatting the Header in MLA

To create a header for your first page, follow these steps:

29
 • Begin one inch from the top of the first page and flush with the left margin.
• Type your name, your instructor’s name, the course name and number, and the date on
separate lines, using double spaces between each.
• Double space once more and center the title. Do NOT underline, bold, or type the title in
all capital letters. Only italicize words that would normally be italicized in the text.
Example: Character Development in The Great Gatsby
• Do not place a period after the title or after any headings
• Double space between the title and first lines of the text

General Paper Formatting

Paper Choice
While many professors, instructors, and publications allow electronic submission, some
prefer printed, hard copies of papers. This section focuses on the type of paper to use for printed
submission.

If you choose to print your paper, use white paper only. Do not use ivory, off-white, or any
other shades or colors.

30
 Choose a standard, high quality paper to print your project on. Do not use cardstock. It is
not necessary to use resumé paper. Use typical, high quality printer or copy paper.
When it comes to size, 8 ½-by-11-inch paper is the recommended size. If you’d like to use a
different size, ask your teacher prior to submission.

Use One-Inch Margins in MLA

Use one-inch margins around the entire page. The running head should be the only item
seen in the one inch margin (see below for more on running heads).

Most word processing programs automatically default to using one inch margins. Check
the page settings section of the program to locate the margin size.

Indenting Paragraphs in MLA

Indent the first word in every paragraph. Sentences should begin one half inch from the left
margin.

It is not necessary to manually measure half an inch. Use the “tab” button on the keyboard
to create a half inch space.
Double Space Paragraphs in MLA
MLA research paper format requires that the entire research paper or MLA format essay
includes double-spaced lines. Double-spaced lines should be found in between the written body of
the work, in the heading, and also on the MLA reference page.

While it may seem tempting to place a few extra lines between the heading, title, and
beginning of the paper, lines should all be double spaced.

Font and Font Size in MLA

In an MLA paper, it is acceptable to use any font type that is easy to read. Many source
types, such as books and articles, use fonts that are easy to read, so if you’re seeking an appropriate
font style, look at other sources for guidance. Two of the most used fonts are Arial and Times New
Roman.

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 It is important for the reader to be able to distinguish the difference between italicized and
regular font, so if you choose a font style different than Arial or Times New Roman, make sure
the difference between the two type styles is evident.
The use of a 12-point font size is recommended as this is the default size for many words
processing programs. It is acceptable to use another standard size, such as 11-point or 11.5-point.

Binding
Some professors or instructors will provide guidance on how to secure hard copies of
projects. If your instructor does not provide you with any expectations or guidance, a simple staple
in the top left corner should suffice. If a stapler is not available, some instructors allow paper or
binder clips.

Do not fold the top left corner down to secure the pages together. The page could easily
unfold, causing a mess of papers. While binders and plastic holders are cute they add bulk to a
professor or instructor who may like to take the papers home for grading purposes. Keep the
binding simple and clean. Staples work best, and binder and paper clips are the next best option.

MLA Heading & Title Page Instructions

The web page “Formatting a Research Paper” gives two options when it
comes to creating the header for your project:

1. An MLA format heading can be placed at the top of the first page
2. A title page can grace the front of the assignment. If you choose to create a title page,
keep in mind that there aren’t any official title page or cover page guidelines in MLA
format. See more information below.

If choosing option one, creating an MLA heading, you’ll need to include four
main components:

• Your full name

• Your instructor’s name

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 • The name and number of the course or class
• The assignment’s due date
The first item typed on the paper should be your full name.

1. Position your name one inch from the top and left margins of the page.
2. Add a double space beneath your name and type the name of your instructor.
3. Below the professor or instructor’s name should be a double space, followed by the
name of the course, class, or section number (if available).
4. Below it, include another double space and add the assignment’s due date (Day Month
Year).
Here’s an example:

The assignment’s title should be placed below the due date, after a double space. Align the
title so it sits in the center of the MLA format paper. The title should be written in standard
lettering, without underlines, bold font, italicized font, or any quotation marks. Only include italics
or quotation marks if your title includes the title of another source.

Here is an example of an MLA header for an MLA format essay, paper, or assignment:

Neal E. Bibdarsh

Professor Haujeemoto

English 201

2 Nov 2017

33
The Trials and Tribulations of Lincoln’s Reciting of “The Gettysburg Address”

*Note: The quotation marks here are around the title of a speech included in the paper’s title.
Title Page
Most research papers use a standard MLA format heading, like the one seen above. If your
instructor requires you to create a standalone title page, ask him or her for specifications. MLA
does not have specific instructions for developing an MLA title page. We recommend you use an
MLA header for your project.

If your teacher or professor requires a standalone title page, but has not provided any
guidance or specifications, here are a few suggestions from EasyBib.com and this MLA guide:
1. Center and double space all of the text on your page.
2. Place the name of your school at the top of the page.
3. Skip down to about the center of the page and type the title of your paper. Do not bold
the title, italicize the entire title, place quotation marks around it, or type the title out in
capital letters.
4. Use italics for the titles of any sources in the title of your paper. Example: An Analysis
of Mythical Creatures in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire
5. The title should be written in title case form. Capitalize the:
1. first letter of the title
2. first letter of the last word
3. first letter of any adjectives, adverbs, nouns, pronouns, and verbs
6. If your paper has a subtitle, include on the next line below your title.
7. Skip down to the bottom third of the page and add your name, the the name of your
instructor, the name/number of the course or class, and the assignment’s due date on
four separate lines.
8. Keep the font size at 12 pt., or a size close to it, to make it look professional.
9. Use the same font as the text of the paper. The Modern Language Association
recommends any font that is easy to read and has a clear distinction between italics and
standard font. Times New Roman and Arial are recommended, but many other fonts
work as well.

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 10. Include a page number in the top right corner of the paper. For more information on
how to style page numbers, check out the next section, “Running Head and Page
Numbers.”
11. We do not recommend adding any images or cover art to the title page.

Running Head & Page Numbers in MLA

A running head is a brief heading that is placed in the top right corner of every page in a project.
The Modern Language Association Style Center (online) states that the running head consists of:

• Last name of the paper’s author

• Page number
General tips to keep in mind:
• The running head is placed in the upper right-hand corner, half an inch from the top margin
and one inch from the right margin of the page.
• Type your last name before the page number.
• The last name and page number should be separated by a single space.
• Do not place the word “page” or use an abbreviation, such as p. or pg., before the page
number.
• Quite often, the running head begins on the second page, but your instructor may ask you
to include the running head on the first page of the assignment. As always, if your instructor
provides you with specific directions, follow his or her guidelines.

Before adding this information manually onto every single page, check to see if the word
processor you’re using has the capability to automatically add this information for you. Try looking
in the settings area where page numbers or headers can be added or modified.

Google Docs: Adding a header

1. Go to the menu section “Insert.”

35
 2. Select “Page numbers” and select the option that places the page number in the upper-
right corner.
3. A page number will appear; your cursor will blink next to it.
4. Move your cursor to the left of the page number.
5. Type your last name. Add a space between your name and the page number.
6. You should now have a properly formatted header on every page!
Quotations in MLA

Quotes are added into assignments to help defend an argument, prove a point, add
emphasis, or simply liven up a project.

Quotes should not take up the majority of your paper or assignment. Quotes should be
sprinkled sparingly throughout. Use direct quotes from outside sources to enhance and expand on
your own writing and ideas.

Words from quotes belong to the individual who spoke or wrote them, so it is essential to
credit that individual’s work. Credit him or her by adding what is called an “in-text citation” into
the body of the project.

There are three ways to add quotes:

1. With the author’s name in the sentence (a citation in prose).
Example:

Dan Gutman shares a glimpse into the overall plot by stating, “I didn’t know it at the time, but a
baseball card—for me—could function like a time machine” (5).

In the above example, Dan Gutman is the author of the book that this quote is pulled from.

2. Without the author’s name in the sentence (a parenthetical citation).

Example:

The main character’s confusing experience is realized and explained when he states “I didn’t know
it at the time, but a baseball card—for me—could function like a time machine” (Gutman 5).

36
 In the above example, Dan Gutman’s name isn’t included in the sentence. It’s included in
the parentheses at the end of the sentence. This is an example of a proper MLA style citation in
the body of a project.

3. In a block quote, which is used when a large quote, of 4 lines or more, is added into a
project.
Using footnotes and endnotes
The Modern Language Association generally promotes the use of references as described
in the sections above, but footnotes and endnotes are also acceptable forms of references to use in
your paper.

Footnotes and endnotes are helpful to use in a variety of circumstances. Here are a few
scenarios when it may seem appropriate to use this type of referencing:

• When you are referring to a number of various sources, by various authors, in a section of
your paper. In this situation, it is a good idea to use a footnote or endnote to share
information for parenthetical references. This will encourage the reader to stay focused on
the text of the research paper, instead of having to read through all of the reference
information.
• When you are sharing additional information that doesn’t quite fit into the scope of the
paper, but is beneficial for the reader. These types of footnotes and endnotes are helpful
when explaining translations, adding background information, or sharing counterexamples
to research.
To include a footnote or endnote, add a superscript number at the end of the sentence the
footnote or endnote refers to. They can be included mid-sentence if necessary, but be sure to add
it after any punctuation, such as commas or periods. Find a location that doesn’t distract the reader
from the content and flow of the paper.

Within the text example:

Numerous well-known children’s books include characters from a wide range of races and
ethnicities, thus promoting diversity and multiculturalism.

At the bottom of the page (footnote) or at the end of the section (endnote):

37
 See Isadora, Parr, and Velazquez. While Parr’s work features characters of various colors,
such as pink or blue, children easily correlate it with individuals of different races and ethnicities.

On the last page of the assignment, the writer includes the full references for the books by
Isadora, Parr, and Velazquez.

Microsoft Word Document: Adding a header

1. Go to the menu section “Insert.”
2. Select “Page numbers” and select the option that places the page number in the upper-
right corner.
3. Either:
1. Double-click in the space at the top of the page (where the page number is).
2. OR Go to the “Insert” menu, select “Header,” and select “Edit Header.”
4. Type your last name next to page number. If it isn’t already right-aligned, go to the
“Home” menu and right-align your name.
5. You should now have a properly formatted header on every page!

Paraphrases in MLA

Paraphrases are created when text or speech from another source are added into a project,
but the writer chooses to summarize them and weave in his or her own writing and writing style.

Even though the writer modifies the information from another source, it is still necessary
to credit the source using proper format (Handbook 98). Paraphrased information uses the same
MLA reference format as stated in the section directly above this one.
Here is an acceptable paraphrase:

Original text:
“Stay hungry. Stay foolish.” Steve Jobs

Paraphrase:
38
Steve Jobs encouraged students at Stanford to continue with their determination, drive, and
ambitious behavior. They should never be simply satisfied with the status quo. They should
continue to push themselves despite possible obstacles and failures.

To develop a well-written paraphrase, follow these simple, step-by-step instructions.

1. Find a phrase, sentence, paragraph, or section of original text you’d like to turn into a
paraphrase.
2. Read the text carefully and make sure you fully comprehend its meaning. A writer can
only develop a well-written paraphrase if the information has been fully grasped and
understood. If you’re having difficulty understanding the information, take a few
minutes to read up on tricky words and background information. If all else fails, ask a
friend to see if they’re able to make sense of the concepts.
3. After analyzing and completely understanding the original text, put it to the side. Take
a moment to think about what you’ve read and connect the idea to your own assignment.
4. Now that the information is completely understood, take a moment to rewrite what
you’ve read, in your own words and writing style. Do not simply substitute words in
the original text with synonyms. That’s plagiarism! Show off and demonstrate your
ability to process the original information, connect it to the content in your paper, and
write it in your own individual and unique writing style.
5. Include an in-text reference next to the paraphrase. All paraphrases include references,
similar to direct quotes. See the “Quotations” section of this guide to learn how to
properly attribute your paraphrased information.
6. Give yourself a pat on the back! Paraphrasing is an important part of the research and
writing process.

Using Abbreviations in MLA

Abbreviations are commonly used in many source types including websites, blog posts,
books, and journal articles. It is acceptable to use abbreviations in all of these sources.

39
 When it comes to school and research assignments, however, the MLA Handbook states
that abbreviations should be used rarely in the prose of your paper (293). Spelling out abbreviations
into their full words and meanings is recommended. This ensures understanding and avoids any
confusion from your reader.

There are times when you may feel it is perfectly acceptable to use an abbreviation rather
than its typed out counterpart in a paper. If you do abbreviate, be sure you are using commonly
accepted abbreviations, which you can find in the dictionary. You can also review Appendix 1 in
the MLA Handbook.
General Abbreviation Tips
• When including abbreviations, do not place periods in between capital letters. For example:
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus can be abbreviated to HIV, not H.I.V.
• United States should be US, not U.S.
• Digital video disc should be DVD, not D.V.D.
• For lower case abbreviations, it is acceptable to include periods between the letters.
• The abbreviation, “For example” = e.g.
• If there is a mix of lower case and upper case letters, do not use periods if the majority of
the letters are upper case. Examples include PhD and EdD

Abbreviating Months
Type out entire month names when being used in the body of a research paper or assignment.

Example:
She rented out the beach house from May through September
When it comes to references, MLA bibliography format requires months longer than four letters
to be abbreviated.

Example:
• July = July
• November = Nov.

40
Other abbreviations that are perfectly acceptable to use in a bibliography (not the body of a project)
include:

• p. or pp. for page and page numbers

• ch. for chapter
• ed. for edition
• trans. for translation or translated
• vol. for volume
• no. for number
• rev. for revised
Again, these abbreviations should only be used in the final page(s) of a project, the MLA Works
Cited list. They should not be used in the body of a project.

Abbreviating Publishers
One of the quirkiest things about this particular style is how publisher names are structured on the
final page of references. Certain words are abbreviated, some words are omitted, and other words
are written in full.

Words describing what type of business the publisher is are omitted from the works cited. Here’s
a breakdown of the words that should be excluded:

• Co. (Company)
• Corp. (Corporation)
• Inc. (Incorporated)
• Ltd. (Limited)
• The (when at the beginning of the name)
If a publisher’s name contains the words “University” and “Press” (or the equivalent in another
language), the words should be abbreviated to the letters “U” and “P” in your citation. But if only
one of the words appears, it should be written out normally.

Here are a few examples:

• University of Delaware

41
 • Yale UP
• U College of London P
• MIT Press
All other words related to the names of publishers should be written out in full.

Abbreviating Titles
Certain classical and biblical works are abbreviated in a bibliography, but also in any parenthetical
references in the text.

The official handbook provides a lengthy list, spanning over multiple pages, of the preferred
abbreviations to use for classical and biblical works (Handbook 295-301), but here’s a quick
snapshot of some of the commonly used ones:
Hebrew Bible or Old Testament = OT

• Deut. = Deuteronomy
• Gen. = Genesis
• Lev. = Leviticus
• Num. = Numbers
• Ps. = Psalms
New Testament = NT

• 1 Cor. = 1 Corinthians
• Jas. = James
• Matt. = Matthew
Shakespeare:

• Ado = Much Ado about Nothing

• 3H6 = Henry VI, Part 3
• JC = Julius Caesar
• Mac. = Macbeth
• MND = A Midsummer Night’s Dream
• Oth. = Othello
• Rom. = Romeo and Juliet

42
 Again, the titles above are allowed to be abbreviated both in references in parentheses in the
body of a project and also on the final page of references. If you’re wondering why, it’s because
they’re cited often and it’s unnecessary to type out the entire title names.

Formatting Numbers in MLA

Use of Numerals
If the project calls for frequent use of numbers (such as a scientific study or statistics), use
numerals that precede measurements.

Example:
• 247 milligrams
• 5 pounds
Other items to keep in mind:

In divisions, use numbers, ex: In page 5 of the study

Arabic Numbers
When including a number in a paper, spell out the number if it can be written as one word
(such as six) or two words (such as sixty-two). For fractions, decimals, or longer numbers, type
them out using digits. For larger numbers, write the number itself (Handbook 82-84).
Here are a few examples:

• one
• 2½
• three
• 8½
• 17.953
• eighteen
• twenty-seven
• forty-four

43
 • one hundred
• 101
• 247
• 5,306
If the number comes before a unit of measurement or label, type the number using digits.

• 4 pounds
• 8 tablespoons
• 3-5 years
• chapter 9
• 3 July 2018
• 25 King Street
• 5:00 a.m.

More on Numbers
Starting a sentence with a number is generally frowned upon. Try modifying the sentence
so that the number, or number word, is found elsewhere.

Instead of:

225 children were found in the warehouse, some malnourished and diseased.
Use this sentence:

A total of 225 children were found in the warehouse, some malnourished and diseased.
If modifying the sentence is not possible or does not work well with the flow of the
assignment or paper, type out the written number:

Two hundred twenty five children were found in the warehouse, some malnourished and
diseased.
Do not include any ISBN numbers in your paper.

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Outline Format
The Modern Language Association does not have any requirements regarding the structure
of an outline. If your teacher asks you to create an MLA outline, we recommend using roman
numerals, capital and lowercase letters, and numbers.

Here is an example of a recommended outline structure:

In addition to outlines, use roman numerals for suffixes.

• King George IV
• Ramses III

45
Using Images, Tables, & Musical Scores in MLA

Photographs, data sets, tables, graphs, and other images are often added into projects or
papers to promote or aid understanding. They provide meaningful visuals for the reader. If the
illustration or visual image does not enhance the quality of the paper, do not include it in the
project.

Tables and illustrations should be placed as close as possible to the text that they most
closely refer to.

Images
For an image to be significant and easily identifiable, place it as close as possible to the
text in the project where it is discussed.

It is not acceptable to simply place an image in a project without including identifiable

information. All images must include information about its origin.

Here are the directions to properly attribute an image:

1. Create a label for the image or illustration and place it directly beneath the image. Begin
the label with the abbreviation “Fig.,” which is short for figure.
• Assign an Arabic number. The image closest to the beginning of the project
should be labeled as Fig. 1. The next image in the project should be Fig. 2.
and so on.
2. Provide a caption. The caption should be a brief explanation or the title of the contents
of the image. Place the caption directly next to the label.
3. Immediately following the caption, it is acceptable to include attribution information.
If the image is not discussed further in the rest of the paper or project, it is acceptable
to include the MLA bibliography format citation below the image and omit it from the
bibliography or MLA format works cited page.
In the text of the project or paper where the figure is discussed, include the label in
parentheses to ensure the reader knows where to find the figure in your paper.

Example 1:

46
In the text:
Sarah’s tattoo design was filled with two of her favorite flowers: lilies and daffodils along a thinly
curved vine (fig. 1).

Image formatting:
(Image Would Be Here)
Fig. 1. Sarah’s Tattoo. barneyWILLIAMSable, Deviant Art, 2011,
barneywilliamsable.deviantart.com/art/Sarah-s-Tattoo-design-193048938.

Example 2:

Fig. 1. White Studio. “Houdini and Jennie, the Elephant, Performing at the Hippodrome, New
York.” Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/96518833/.
Tables
When adding a table or data set into a project, it is formatted a little differently. Above the
data set, include the label “Table” with an Arabic numeral, and title it. The table number and title
should be located flush left and on separate lines. The first table seen in the project is labeled as

47
Table 1. The second table in the project is Table 2, and so on. The table’s title should be written in
title case form (the first letter of each word is capitalized, except for small, insignificant words).

Underneath the table, provide the source and any notes. Notes should be labeled with a
letter, rather than a numeral, so the reader is able to differentiate between the notes of the text and
the notes of the table.

Example 1:
Table 4

International Scholars from India Enrolled at Yale University a

Year India South Korea

2012-2013 191 126

2013-2014 200 123

2014-2015 197 116

2015-2016 210 120

Source: “International Scholars Academic Year 2015-2016.” Yale University, Office of

International Students and Scholars, yale.app.box.com/v/scholar-2015-2016.
a. The numbers reflect students who are enrolled full-time.
The information included above and below any images or table should be double spaced,
similar to the rest of the project or paper.

Example 2:

48
Musical Scores
Musical scores need to be labeled as well. When including a musical score in a project,
label musical scores with “Ex.” which is short for example. This label should be placed below the
musical score. Next to the abbreviation “Ex.”, assign the score an Arabic numeral. The first
musical score in the project should be labeled as Ex. 1. The second musical score found in an
assignment should be labeled as Ex. 2., and so on.

If possible, provide a caption after to the label. If the caption below the sheet music includes
enough information about the source, it is not necessary to include the full reference at the end of
the assignment.

Here is an example of a possible label and caption:

Ex. 4. Scott Joplin, The Entertainer, piano, C major.

Another example:

Using Lists in MLA

It’s appropriate to add lists into an MLA format essay as long as the proper rules are
followed.

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 Lists created using MLA essay format look different than a grocery list or any other type
of vertical listing of items. Items in a list are included in your prose, rather than the traditional
vertical style.

Often, you will use a colon between the introductory sentence and the list. But you should
not include a colon if the first item in the list is part of the sentence.

List Example #1
Here is an example of how a list may look incorporated into the prose of a research project
or assignment:

William Shakespeare wrote numerous plays, many of which were considered tragedies: Romeo
and Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, Julius Caesar, and King Lear.

List Example #2
Here is an example of how a list may look in a research project or assignment when the
list is part of the introductory sentence:
Many of William Shakespeare’s were tragedies. Some of his most popular tragedies
include Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, Julius Caesar, and King Lear.

MLA Citation Format

The majority of this guide focuses on MLA formatting in regard to MLA paper format
rules and guidelines. If you’re seeking information related to the proper formatting of an MLA
citation, refer to our individual pages and posts on various types of citations.

If you’re simply looking for the general structure for full references, which are found on
the final pages of projects, here’s the proper order:

Author’s Last name, Author’s First name. “Title of Source.”* Title of Container, Names of other
contributors along with their specific roles, version of the source (if it differs from the original or

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is unique), any key numbers associated with the source that aren’t dates (such as journal issue
numbers or volume numbers), Name of the Publisher, publication date, location (such as the URL
or page numbers).
*Note: A title may be in italics instead of quotation marks, depending of the type of source. The
general rule is that works that are self-contained (like books, journals, or television shows) are
formatted in italics. Works that are part of a larger work (like articles, chapters, or specific
episodes) are formatting in quotation marks.
MLA Format Citing FAQs:
“What in the world are containers?”
Containers are what hold the source. If you’re creating a reference for a chapter in a book, the title
of the chapter is the title of the source, and the container is the title of the book. The book holds
the chapter, so it’s the container. If you’re searching for how to cite a website, here’s a tip: the title
of the source is the name of the individual page and the title of the container is the name of the full
website.
“This seems like a lot of information for a reference. Is it all necessary?”
The short answer is “No!” When citing, only include the components that help the reader locate
the exact same source themselves.

Edits and Proofreading

Editing and proofreading your assignment prior to submission is an incredibly important

step in the research process. Editing involves checking the paper for the following items:

1. Spelling: Are all words spelled correctly? Review all proper names, places, and other
unique words to ensure correct spelling. When finished, run the project through a spell
checker. Many words processing programs, such as Microsoft Word and Google Drive,
provide a free spell checking feature. While spell checks are beneficial, they do not
always spot every mistake, so make sure you take the time to read through the
assignment carefully. If you’re still not sure if your project contains proper spelling,
ask a friend to read through it. They may find a mistake you missed!
2. Grammar: Check your assignment to make sure you’ve included proper word usage.
There are numerous grammar checkers available to review your project prior to

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 submission. Again, take the time to review any recommendations from these programs
prior to accepting the suggestions and revisions.
3. Punctuation: Check to make sure the end of every sentence has an ending punctuation
mark. Also make sure commas, hyphens, colons, and other punctuation marks are
placed in the appropriate places.
4. Attribution: Do all quotes and paraphrases include a citation? Did you create an in-
text citation for each individual piece of information?

Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) Format

What is Chicago style? What is Turabian?

You may have heard the terms “Chicago” and “Turabian” used interchangeably and
wondered what the difference is. Simply put, they are just about the same.

Turabian is a simpler version of Chicago style meant for students who are writing materials
that will not be published. Since the CMOS is meant for material that is intended for publication,
it’s often used by scholars, publishers, and other professional academics. The Turabian guide is
shorter and includes information on formatting rules, the basics of researching and writing
academic papers, and citation style. Despite these differences, these two books work in tandem;
both are considered to be official Chicago style.

Paper Formatting Guidelines

Since Chicago style is typically used for manuscripts that will be published, The Chicago
Manual of Style does not offer many guidelines for paper formatting. This is because publishers
each have their own house styles and authors must follow these exactly. There are a few areas
where guidance is offered.

• Manuscripts: Generally, manuscripts should be double-spaced (CMOS 2.8). Exceptions

are block quotations, table titles, and lists in appendixes, which should be single-spaced,
and certain front matter (e.g., table of contents), footnotes or endnotes, and bibliographies
and reference lists, which should be single-spaced internally but have a blank line between
each separate item (Turabian A.1.3).

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 • Spaces at the end of sentences and after colons: Chicago recommends one space (CMOS
2.9; Turabian A.1.3).
• Margins: Margins should be at least one inch on all four sides (CMOS 2.10). Certain forms
of writing like dissertations or theses may require a larger margin on the left side to allow
room for binding, but each institution will have different requirements (Turabian A.1.1).
• Justification: Text should be justified to the left (CMOS 2.10).
• Font: Turabian recommends using a font that is both readable and readily available to most
people such as Times New Roman or Arial. Times New Roman font size should be no
smaller than 12-point and Arial no smaller than 10-point. Footnotes and endnotes may
require different sizing and you should refer to your instructor’s guidelines (Turabian
A.1.2).
• Pagination: Pagination of the body of the paper and back matter should use arabic
numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.). Front matter like the title page and table of contents should use
lowercase roman numerals (i, ii, iii, etc.). For the placement of page numbers, the general
rule is to adhere to local guidelines and be consistent. (Turabian A.1.4)

Citing Your Sources

Chicago style has two citation styles to let readers know that you used information from
somewhere else and to show them where to find it.

1. notes and bibliography style

2. author-date style.
Though different, each style allows you to tell your readers how you found your
information.

The 2 styles
The first style is the notes and bibliography style. This style uses footnotes or endnotes
to point readers to the original source of the information. This style also often provides a
bibliography at the end that readers consult, but this is not always necessary if sources are cited in
full in your text.

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 The second style is called author-date style. This style uses parenthetical in-text citation
to let readers know to look at the reference list at the end to find the full citation for the information
you have used.
Here’s a chart to compare these two citation styles:

You must cite your source in any of the following situations:

• If you quote a source exactly
• If you reword ideas from a source
• If you use any material (e.g., statistics, data, methodology) from a source you read while
writing
When citing your sources, you usually need a few key pieces of information:
• Who created the source? This might be an author, editor, translator, or corporate body.
• How can you identify the source? This information will likely include a title, page
numbers, volume or issue numbers, and edition.
• What is the publication information? This might include the name of the publishing
company, the year of publication, and the name of the journal or book the information is
in.

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 • Where can others find the source? This is important for online sources and singular
material like that found in rare book collections or archives. For online material, you’ll
want to record a URL or database name if possible. For rare book or archival material,
you’ll need the name of the place you found it and the collection name.
Why citing your sources is important?
Telling your readers where you found your information is a very important part of the
writing process. It gives credit to the hard work others have done. It also lets readers know
that your information is reliable—they don’t just have to take it from you; they can go see what
other researchers have written about the topic.
Citing your sources also helps readers to understand the context of your project. You
can show that you understand the work that has already been done and where your own research
fits in.
Finally, your readers might want to build on your research. Citing helps them to know
where you found your information when readers do their own research. They might even cite
you if you formally published your work. You can read more about how to integrate the research
of others into your paper in Chapter 7 of the Turabian manual or Chapter 13 in the CMOS.

Notes and Bibliography Style

This style uses superscript numbers at the ends of sentences. These numbers
alert readers that the sentence contains information from another source. Each
superscript number refers to a note.

The notes are located at the bottom of the page (footnotes) or at the end of the paper,
chapter, or book (endnotes).

• Footnotes make it very easy for readers to find your source, but they can interrupt the
document flow.
• Endnotes tend to reduce distraction on the page, but then the reader must flip pages to find
the source you cite.
Unless your instructor has told you otherwise, the choice between footnotes and endnotes is up to
you. You just need to be consistent and stick to one style or the other.

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 If you don’t plan to have a bibliography at the end of your work, make sure you use the
full footnote citation form the first time you cite from a work. After the first citation, any other
citations to the same work can then use a shortened form.

Updates to “Ibid”
It’s important to note that previous editions of the CMOS encouraged the use of “ibid”
when the same source was cited multiple times in a row. “Ibid” is a Latin word meaning “in the
same place.”
The 17th edition of the CMOS, however, overturns this recommendation because the use
of “ibid” can be confusing for readers and authors can easily cite to the wrong source if they are
not careful.

The current recommendation of the CMOS is to always use the shortened form of the
citation. If you refer to the same work multiple times in a row, you may leave out the shortened
title and just list the author’s last name and the page number to which you are citing (See CMOS
14.34 for more information.).

Full Bibliography
If you are including a full bibliography, you might choose only to use shortened citation
forms in your footnotes or endnotes. You may also use the shortened structure that omits the title
for sources that you cite several times in a row.
Keep in mind that if you cite a different source, you need to use the full shortened structure the
next time you cite from a source you have used before. Here’s an example:

1. Robisheaux, Langenburg, 58

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 2. Robisheaux, 59.
3. Robisheaux, 70.
4. Cyrus, Scribes, 80.
5. Robisheaux, Langenburg, 95.
Citation Examples
Here are a few examples of citation structures in the notes and bibliography style. For more
examples and information on this style, check out the EasyBib Chicago footnotes guide.
Book:

Journal article:

Newspaper or magazine article:

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Author-Date Style
This style uses parenthetical in-text citations and a reference list to guide readers to the sources
you cite. The in-text citation generally includes the:

• Author’s last name

• Year of publication
• Page numbers referenced
Using the parenthetical citation, the reader can then look at the reference list and find full
information for the source.The reference list for this style is usually titled “References” or “Works
Cited” and is organized in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. The parenthetical in-text
citation always comes at the end of a sentence and is placed before the final punctuation.

In-text citation example

Nicholson’s study reveals a great deal about the general practices of ARL institutions in
regard to the technical processing of these personal libraries. About half of the institutions kept
the personal libraries shelved together and half used a Library of Congress classification scheme
(Nicholson 2010, 114-115).

In the reference list, the citation would appear as follows:

Nicholson, Joseph R. 2010. “Making Personal Libraries More Public: A Study of the
Technical Processing of Personal Libraries in ARL Institutions.” RBM: A Journal of Rare Books,
Manuscripts, and Cultural Heritage 11, no. 2 (Fall): 106-133.

Additional Examples
Here are more examples of parenthetical in-text citations and their full citations as they
would appear in the reference list. There are even more guides linked at the bottom of this page.
Book:

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Journal article:

Newspaper or magazine article:

Website:

Social media:

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In-text citation examples
When building in-text citations, you might come across more complicated citations. This chart
shows some of the most common citation types you will come across and how to build in-text
citations
for them.

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Formatting Your Bibliography or Reference List
Bibliographies and reference lists are located at the end of your paper. You should include
every source you cite in your bibliography or reference list.

Here are a few guidelines to follow:

• Center your title (either “Bibliography” or “Reference List”) at the top of the page.
• Organize entries alphabetically by the last name of the author (or title if no author is
known).
• Each entry should be single-spaced with a blank line between entries.
• Each entry should also have a half-inch hanging indent.
3-em dashes
While sometimes 3-em dashes are used in bibliographies and reference lists in repeated list entries
under the same author, the 17th edition of CMOS actually recommends that authors not do this in
citation lists (CMOS 14.67 and 15.17).
Using 3-em dashes can cause a number of problems and it is best to just use the author’s name
each time, especially if submitting your work for formal publication.

If your editor or publisher wants to use the 3-em dash, they will insert them where necessary. You
can also check with your teacher and see what they want you to do.

American Medical Association (AMA) Style Format

Some health science programs will adhere to the style of the American Medical Association
(AMA). If you are in a course or program that uses AMA, you’ll need to familiarize yourself with
the style not just for classroom assignments, but in order to better understand the research language
of the field.

AMA does not have a specific style for formatting papers, so check with your instructor or
assignment guidelines when it comes to margins, line spacing, fonts, indents, title papers, etc.

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Recommended Formatting Guidelines

Always refer to the assignment guidelines when it comes formatting your writing. If
your assignment does not specify any formatting, follow these general AMA guidelines:

• Margins: One-inch margins are required around the text. Leave the right margin
unjustified (ragged). No columns!
• Line Spacing: Double-space the main text (single space only within the abstract, notes,
titles and headings, block quotes, tables and figures, and references—everything but the
main text)
• Font: Use Times New Roman, 12-point font
• Indents: Half-inch indents are standard (use the “tab” button) for new paragraphs
• Page Numbers: Place page numbers in the top right-hand corner throughout (starting with
the title page)
• Page Headers: Put the title of your document in the top left-hand corner of the page
• Title Page: If your assignment requires a title page, on the first blank page of your
document center the following:
o Title of document
o Your name
o Your Instructor’s name
o Course title
o Due date
• No Title Page: If your assignment does not require a title page, in the right-hand corner of
your first page, include:
o Your name
o Your instructor’s name
o Course title
o Due date

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Sample Formatting for AMA Title Page

Sample Formatting for No Title Page

Citing Sources

Learn how to cite sources within your document:

In-Text Citations

AMA format dictates that every outside text included in your writing—meaning any idea
that is not your own—must be cited with superscript numbers, e.g., “I have a dream.”1 These
superscript numbers will correspond to a full citation in your reference section. This way, your
reader knows which ideas are not yours and can easily trace them back to their original source.

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 To create a superscript number in Microsoft Word, click on the “X2” icon in the toolbar (as
seen below):

When Should I Use Superscript Numbers?

Place the superscript number on the outside of the second quotation mark, after you paraphrase,
and after you use someone else’s idea or information. For example:

• Smith showed that “the study proved no substantial change in the patient.” 1
• The treatment was effective in people who ate corn.1
• Martin found that 34% of the adults in his study were not affected,1 which
conflicted largely with earlier trials.2,4

AMA Reference Section

Every in-text citation must have a corresponding full citation in the reference section of your
paper. These citations will correspond to all the texts you used throughout your essay. Here are
some general AMA rules for structuring your reference page:

• Items are listed numerically in the order they are cited in the text
• Include up to 6 authors. For more than six, provide the names of the first three authors and
then add “et al.”
• If there is no author, start with the title
• Periodicals (journals, magazines, and newspapers) should have abbreviated titles. To check
for the proper abbreviations, search the PubMed journal database.
• Use proper citation format for each reference. Below is a guide to help you.

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AMA Citation Guide

Use the templates below to format the citations in your reference section:

Online Journals

Author last name First Initials. Article title. Journal Name. Year;volume(issue No.): inclusive
pages. doi: xxxxx.

1. Pfeiffer JA, Wickline MA, Deetz J, Berry ES. Assessing RN-to-RN peer review on clinical
units. J Nurs Manag. 2012;20(3):390-400. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2834.2011.01321.x.

Online Journals without a “doi”

Author last name First Initials. Article title. Journal Name. Year;volume(issue No.): inclusive
pages. URL. Published date. Updated date. Accessed date.

1. Pfeiffer JA, Wickline MA, Deetz J, Berry ES. Assessing RN-to-RN peer review on clinical
units. J Nurs Manag. 2012;20(3):390-400. Published 2012. Accessed March 5, 2018.

Print Books

Author last name First Initials. Book Title. Edition number (if 2nd or higher) ed. Place of
publication: Publisher’s name; copyright year.

Print Books with more than 6 authors

First three authors’ names, et al. Book Title. Edition number ed. Place of publication: Publisher’s
name; copyright year.

Books with Editors

Author last name First Initials, eds. Book Title. Edition number (if 2nd or higher) ed. Place of
publication: Publisher; year.

eBooks or Online Books

Author last name First Initials. Book Title. Edition number (if 2nd or higher) ed. Place of
publication: Publisher’s name; copyright year. URL. Published date. Updated date. Accessed date.

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Chapter/Article from a Book

Author(s) of article. Title of article. In: Editor’s name, ed. Title of Book. Place of publication:
Publisher; Year: Chapter or page number.

Website

Author (or, if no author is available, the name of the organization responsible for the site). Title
(or, if no title is available, the name of the organization responsible for the site). Name of the Web
site. URL. Published [date]. Accessed [date].

1. Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society. Health IT Career

Development. HIMSS website. http://www.himss.org/health-it-career-services/career-
development. Accessed March 23, 2017.

Online Article

Author last name First Initials. Title. Name of the Publication. URL. Published date. Updated date.
Accessed date.

Other Media

Author last name First Initials. Title [Format of Media]. Place of publication: Publisher; Year.

Interviews/Oral Communication

Text (First Initials. Last name, oral communication, date of communication).

• According to the drug manufacturer (C. E. Beaton, oral communication, December 2011),
the drug became available in France in May 2010.

Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are vital to writing in the health sciences and are a powerful and convenient
way to present data or information. A table contains information in columns and rows, while
a figure is any non-table graphic that displays information, such as an image, photo, map, graph,
chart, or illustration. Proper format is essential to presenting visual data/information, so all tables
and figure must contain the following:

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• Label
o All tables/figures should be labeled as such should be numbered in the order they
appear in the document, e.g., Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, etc.
o When discussing the table/figure in the document, refer to them by their label, e.g.,
“As seen in Table 1, the data support the findings.”
o If necessary, use an algebraic superscript to create a footnote
• Title
o All table/figures should have titles that accurately describe the information within
them
• Citation (unless data is original)

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References:
• https://www.easybib.com/guides/citation-guides/apa-format/
• https://www.easybib.com/guides/citation-guides/mla-format/
• https://www.easybib.com/guides/citation-guides/chicago-turabian/
• https://www.bellevuecollege.edu/health/writing/format-and-style/ama-style/

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