2.1. SP3 Hybridization

Hybridization
2.1. SP3 Hybridization

Hybridization is the idea that atomic orbitals fuse to form newly hybridized orbitals, which in turn,
influences molecular geometry and bonding properties. Hybridization is also an expansion of the
valence bond theory. In order to explore this idea further, we will utilize three types of hydrocarbon
compounds to illustrate sp3, sp2, and sp hybridization.
Methane
First and foremost, it is important to note that carbon has the electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p2.
This means that carbon would have 2 unpaired electrons in its p orbitals. Theoretically, this means
that carbon will only form 2 bonds, but that is definitely not the case.
Figure 1 Electronic configuration of unhybridized carbon
As seen in methane (CH4), carbon can form 4 bonds. The rationale behind this phenomenon is
hybridization. Supporting evidence shows that 1 s and 3 p orbitals are being combined to form hybrid
orbitals, allowing polyatomic molecule to have 25% s character and 75% p character. Thus, we call
methane a sp3-hybridized molecule.
Figure 2: Electronic configuration of hybridized carbon
The above figure also explains why the four C-H bonds are equivalent to one another. Initially,
people thought that if methane had four C-H bonds, that would mean there would be three of one
particular type, and one of another type. Hence, this is also something that hybridization explains.
Nonetheless, there is even mathematical proof to support this concept! These equations together not
only break down what the composition of each hybridized orbital, but also portray the possible
directions each orbital can orient in a 3D plane.
Figure 3: Mixing of orbitals
Don’t let the equations scare you. Carefully witness pictorally how each individual hybridized orbital
is comprised of the 25% s character and 75% p character. Then witness how the combined orbitals
form the sp3 tetrahedral shape.
Figure 4: Directions of hybridized orbitals in 3D box.
The take home message is to note that in the end, you’ll have 4 hybridized orbitals orienting as far
away from each other as possible. Thus, hybridization explains why there is a 109 degree angle
between orbitals.
Figure 5: Geometry of tetrahedral SP3 hybridized orbital
2.2. SP2 Hybridization

Ethylene
Unlike methane, ethylene is shaped differently, despite the fact that the carbon in ethylene has the
same electron configuration. What accounts for this difference? Supporting evidence shows that the
carbon in an ethylene molecule is sp2 hybridized. This means that 1 s orbital is being mixed with 2 p
orbitals.
Figure 6: Electronic configuration of SP2 hybridized carbon
This time, the energy diagram setup is different because only 2 p orbitals are being mixed. While
creating your energy diagram, however, be sure that you do not make the mistake as shown above.
By placing two electrons in the same orbital, you have broken Hund's rule, which states that all
orbitals among the same energy levels have to be filled with at least one electron before being
paired up again. The 2p orbital here is considered low enough energy to be classified within the
same energy level as the sp2 orbitals. The figure below portrays the correct way to distribute your
electrons.
Figure 7: Electronic configuration of SP2 hybridized carbon
Notice how that lone electron in the 2p orbital is separate from the electrons in the sp 2 orbitals. This
is what influence ethylene's shape. The lone electron from each carbon will remain in its respective p
orbital and form a pi bond with the other p orbital electron. Thus, ethylene is a planar molecule, with
orbitals spaced 120 degree angles apart.
Figure 8: Orbital structure of SP2 hybridized carbon (ethene)
In case you can't visualize this picture in 3D, allow me to clarify: the hot pink sp2 hybridized orbitals
are all on the same plane (let's say among the xy plane), whereas the pi bonds are running along in
a plane perpendicular to the xy plane.
Nonetheless, the figure above accurately depicts the ethylene Lewis
structure:
The double bond in the lewis structure is indicative of one sigma bond and one pi bond.
2.3. SP Hybridization
Acetylene
Supporting evidence shows that acetylene is an sp molecule. This means that 1 s orbital is being
mixed with 1 p orbital. Thus, the energy diagram setup would look like this:
Figure 9: Electronic configuration of SP hybridized carbon
As previously discussed, the lone electrons in the 2p orbitals are not part of the sp orbitals. Instead,
each electron is in its respective p orbital, and will bond with its respective p orbital of the other
carbon. This in itself will create a sigma bond and two pi bonds, leading to the formation of a linear
molecule!
Figure 10: Orbital structure of SP hybridized carbon (acetylene)

Thus, in a lewis structure, acetylene is comprised of 2 triple-bond
carbons: As you can see, the bond angle is 180 degrees, indicative
of a linear molecule. This information is consistent with what was explained earlier.

2.1. SP3 Hybridization

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Hybridization

2.1. SP3 Hybridization

Figure 1 Electronic configuration of unhybridized carbon

Figure 3: Mixing of orbitals

2.2. SP2 Hybridization

Figure 6: Electronic configuration of SP2 hybridized carbon

Figure 8: Orbital structure of SP2 hybridized carbon (ethene)

Figure 9: Electronic configuration of SP hybridized carbon

Figure 10: Orbital structure of SP hybridized carbon (acetylene)

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