Online Teaching and Learning in

Higher Education during COVID-19

This timely volume documents the immediate, global impacts of the coro-
navirus pandemic (COVID-19) on teaching and learning in higher educa-
tion. Focusing on student and faculty experiences of online and distance
education, the text provides reflections on novel initiatives, unexpected
challenges, and lessons learned.
Responding to the urgent need to better understand online teaching
and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, this book investigates how
the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) impacted
students, faculty, and staff experiences during the COVID-19 lockdown.
Chapters initially look at the challenges faced by universities and educators
in their attempts to overcome the practical difficulties involved in develop-
ing effective online programming and pedagogy. The text then builds on
these insights to highlight student experiences and consider issues of social
connection and inequality. Finally, the volume looks forward to asking
what lessons COVID-19 can offer for the future development of online
and distance learning in higher education.
This engaging volume will benefit researchers, academics, and educators
with an interest in online teaching and eLearning, curriculum design, and
more, specifically those involved with the digitalization of higher educa-
tion. The text will also support further discussion and reflection around
pedagogical transformation, international teaching and learning, and edu-
cational policy more broadly.

Roy Y. Chan is Assistant Professor of Education and Director of the

Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) Program in Leadership and Professional
Practice in the Helen DeVos College of Education at Lee University,
Tennessee, USA.

Krishna Bista is Professor of Higher Education in the Department of

Advanced Studies, Leadership and Policy at Morgan State University,
Maryland, USA.

Ryan M. Allen is Assistant Professor of Practice in the Attallah College of

Educational Studies at Chapman University, California, USA.

9780367647155_FM.indd 5 10-05-2021 20:34:45

 Online Teaching and
Learning in Higher
Education during
COVID-19
International Perspectives
and Experiences

Edited by
Roy Y. Chan,
Krishna Bista, and
Ryan M. Allen

9780367647155_FM.indd 7 10-05-2021 20:34:45

 First published 2022
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2022 selection and editorial matter, Roy Y. Chan, Krishna Bista,
Ryan M. Allen; individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Roy Y. Chan, Krishna Bista, Ryan M. Allen to
be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of
the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted
or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Chan, Roy Y., 1986- editor. | Bista, Krishna, 1980- editor. | Allen, Ryan M., editor.
Title: Online teaching and learning in higher education during COVID-19: international
perspectives and experiences / edited by Roy Y. Chan, Krishna Bista, Ryan M. Allen.
Description: New York, NY: Routledge, 2022. | Series: Routledge studies in global student
mobility | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021007882 | ISBN 9780367647155 (hardback) | ISBN
9780367647179 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003125921 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Education, Higher--Computer-assisted instruction--Case studies. |
Instructional systems--Design--Case studies. | Social distancing (Public health) and
education--Case studies. | COVID-19 Pandemic, 2020---Case studies.
Classification: LCC LB2395.7 .O67 2022 | DDC 378.1/7344678--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021007882
ISBN: 978-0-367-64715-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-64717-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-12592-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Galliard
by SPi Global, India

9780367647155_FM.indd 8 10-05-2021 20:34:45

 1 Is Online and Distance
Learning the Future in
Global Higher Education?
The Faculty Perspectives
during COVID-19
Roy Y. Chan, Krishna Bista,
and Ryan M. Allen

Introduction
The demand for online and distance education has expanded dramati-
cally around the world since the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
pandemic in early 2020. Most notably, the ongoing and evolving global
COVID-19 restrictions have heightened the importance of online teach-
ing and learning in higher education broadly and international education
particularly (Dwivedi et al., 2020; Paudel, 2021). Today, the pandemic
has presented the world with never-before-seen global challenges. Many
colleges and universities have been grappling with unclear recruitment pri-
orities and severe financial constraints while at the same time collaborating
and cooperating with new industry partners and philanthropic organiza-
tions to navigate the shifting COVID-19 landscape (de Wit & Altbach,
2021). Institutions of higher education, especially those from middle- and
upper-income countries, have purchased and deployed new technologies
and approaches (face-to-face, online, synchronous, asynchronous) in all
departments as a direct consequence of the pandemic, yet there has been
little consideration of how those information and communication tech-
nologies (ICT) will be used for the future (Altbach & de Wit, 2020). As
many postsecondary institutions continue to confront the challenges of
remote instruction, the need to understand the purposes and functions
of online teaching and learning is vastly needed not only to prepare stu-
dents for the complexity of digitalization but also to help prepare them for
the globally competitive knowledge-based economy (Oleksiyenko et al.,
2020).
The most common way to provide students with remote instruction
is the use of audio and video conferencing (e.g., Zoom, Google Meet,
Skype). Since the COVID-19 lockdown, the use of audio and video
conferencing has become crucial for faculty members and staff to pres-
ent content in multiple ways and formats. According to the International

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 4 Roy Y. Chan et al.
Association of Universities’ (IAU, 2020b) global survey on the impacts
of COVID-19, two-thirds of the responding institutions worldwide have
replaced classroom teaching with distance learning. In the United States,
the American Council on Education (ACE, 2020) COVID-19 survey of
268 college and university presidents found that more than half (55%)
planned to offer ‘predominantly online, with some in-person instruction’
in the spring 2021 semester, which meant that the entire academic year
would be online. The integration of hybrid and blended learning formats
has provided students with added convenience, flexibility, and a safety
net to pursue tertiary education at a distance. Furthermore, video con-
ferencing and learning management systems (e.g., Canvas, Blackboard,
Moodle) have helped students who are unable to attend in the real world
to optimize learning remotely. Although online and distance education
has grown substantially over the past decade, and most notably since the
COVID-19 lockdown, limited research has examined the role of distance
education in shaping accessible learning. Furthermore, very few studies
have examined the impacts of COVID-19 on student success during the
transition to online learning.
In this introductory chapter of the book, we discuss how the world-
wide COVID-19 pandemic has radically changed the status quo in global
higher education, with faculty members and staff forced to engage in
developing professional development opportunities (teaching training) to
stay competitive and relevant for its constituents (students, alumni, par-
ents, policy makers). Specifically, we illustrate how the expansion of ICT
and information technology specialists has affected institutions’ abilities
to survive in the future, as several colleges and universities begin to shut
down (The College Crisis Initiative (C2i), 2021). We also share how the
COVID-19 restrictions have widened the digital gap across all teaching
and learning spaces (due to the lack of a national response to the public
health crisis), while exacerbating economic and structural inequalities with
regards to ICT access (i.e., Internet, electricity, computers) among histori-
cally vulnerable populations (e.g., rural children, families of color, students
with disabilities, students of refugee status; Salmi, 2021). As technologi-
cal advancements and travel bans continue to grow around the world, we
highlight the changing examples, patterns, and frameworks afforded by
online and distance education from an international and comparative lens.
We also provide alternative assumptions, paradigms, and reflections for
teacher-scholars and advanced practitioners to consider that will inspire,
challenge, and connect them during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.
Key questions that are asked include how do scholars, policy makers, and
practitioners move from talking head to active learning remotely? How
do they make learning valuable and successful when teaching virtually?
How do they proactively engage faculty, staff, students, and alumni with
the goal of building and sustaining authentic relationships online? How
do they best support their students with plans for intercultural learning

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 Is Online and Distance Learning the Future 5
and study abroad virtually? And how do they redesign and deliver remote
courses that emphasize field-based and experiential learning? Ultimately,
we seek to equip and empower researchers, governments, health officials,
policy makers, and stakeholders with the broad understanding needed to
enhance the quality of online teaching and learning in higher education as
set forth by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Online Teaching and Learning in Higher Education

during COVID-19
The COVID-19 crisis has rapidly accelerated the digital transformation of
education globally, as colleges and universities have had to make numerous
changes to their teaching styles, research processes, and collaborative rela-
tionships. The most dramatic change is the shifting modes of instruction
from once fully residential-only learning to fully online, remote, or hybrid
learning environments. This inevitably has created myriad challenges for
students in low- and middle-income countries, with many expressing con-
cerns that learners are unable to access the Internet due to low broadband
connection (Mseleku, 2020). The International Association of Universities
report (2020a) has identified three main challenges to online and distance
education: (1) technical infrastructure and accessibility, (2) distance learn-
ing competencies and pedagogies, and (3) the field of study. The report
concludes that the growing digital divide and socioeconomic inequalities
with large groups of students, the disparities in online learning, and the
lack of teaching preparation by the faculty are a few notable challenges and
topics in the field of higher education and international education.
Today, one can argue that the rapid transition to online and distance
education is ubiquitous of necessity (Altbach & de Wit, 2020). More stu-
dents than ever before are learning from a distance at home, as COVID-19
infections continue to rise around the world. The ongoing pandemic has
not only impacted how educational administrators, faculty, and students
communicate with each other but has also redefined online teaching and
learning in drastic ways. Past studies have shown that many faculty and
staff struggle to teach students online in the most effective way, as global
demand for distance learning degrees dwindles (Day et al., 2021; Kemp,
2020). With this shift, recent research has suggested an increased disen-
gagement for and use of new digital resources and technological advance-
ments in developing countries (Mseleku, 2020). To ensure equitable
access, support, and learning for as many students as possible – including
disabled and refugee students – we believe that colleges and universities
must redirect resources to expand professional development opportunities
in virtual teaching and to invest heavily in supporting inclusive and equi-
table online learning experiences. As current teacher-scholars and practi-
tioners in the academy, we believe it is vital for educators to meet student
communication needs and how they are taught from a distance.

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 6 Roy Y. Chan et al.
Opportunities and Challenges to Online and Distance
Education
The COVID-19 pandemic has dramatically worsened inequalities within
domestic higher education sectors and between countries (de Wit &
Altbach, 2021). Globally, one of the biggest challenges in the era of mass
higher education pertains to the issue of quality, as both students and
faculty have argued that remote learning is “inferior” and not of the same
quality as face-to-face instruction (Shim & Lee, 2020). A survey from
Means and Neisler (2020) reported that student satisfaction and motiva-
tion have significantly decreased during the pandemic, with half of U.S.
students expressing dissatisfaction with their learning after their course
went online. As noted by Altbach and de Wit (2020), ‘The lack of motiva-
tion of students for online delivery will become an issue with the cohort
planning to enter higher education this fall’ (p. 3). While one can argue
that the delivery of online and distance education is far more costly than
traditional face-to-face instruction, numerous challenges and uncertainties
remain with regards to the quality of remote instruction, the increased
workload without formal compensation, and the limited resources avail-
able to prepare faculty for online instruction (Day et al., 2021).
To best prepare our students for the rising complexity of digitaliza-
tion, faculty members and instructional designers must implement new
pedagogical approaches and practices to support student learning (study,
work, teach, language, volunteer abroad, international student services,
and career services). Higher education needs to prepare for a different
future in which we educate young adults and adult learners for responsible
citizenship. The use of ICTs requires learners to adapt and integrate new
learning skills and competencies in the classroom (ElSaheli-Elhage, 2021).
When faculty members work to implement evidence-based teaching prac-
tices, whether in-person or online, they are also working to create more
inclusive learning environments that promote equity. Achieving equity
requires that educators teach with practices that embrace the diversity of
their students’ backgrounds.
The challenge, however, is that many faculty members are resistant to
implement evidence-based teaching practices in the classroom that foster
more inclusive online learning environments (Gratz & Looney, 2020).
Specifically, faculty members from lower- and middle-income countries
are often wary of teaching online courses because they have had limited
exposure to or training in remote instruction, let alone have experience
with developing high-quality online courses (Altbach & de Wit, 2020).
This is highly evident among faculty members holding over ten years of
teaching experience who may complain that online teaching takes more
time to prepare for than traditional face-to-face courses (Cutri & Mena,
2020). Some faculty members may also argue that remote instruction
can decrease student learning outcomes and that the use of distance and

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 Is Online and Distance Learning the Future 7
hybrid learning approaches has led to negative student experiences due
to a disconnect with the faculty (Day et al., 2021). While professional
development opportunities (faculty training) are available at both the fed-
eral and institutional levels, many professors have expressed displeasure
with online learning due to either their inability to communicate clearly or
their discomfort with modifying their teaching style. Despite these myriad
challenges, the COVID-19 pandemic has allowed many developing and
developed countries to expand connectivity for higher education institu-
tions and their students.
A few notable benefits of online and distance learning include the ability
to reach new and previously underserved student populations, the ability
to adapt and change to meet individual needs, and the capacity to innova-
tive remotely within the classroom (Dhawan, 2020). New partnerships
and opportunities have been born from the necessities brought by the
pandemic. The expanding role of online and distance education has also
encouraged several institutions of higher education to offer international
joint and dual degrees, to teach courses collectively or simultaneously,
and to conduct research collaboratively (Salmi, 2021). In other words,
key technological innovations and effective cross-unit collaborations and
investments will be significant for institutions seeking to generate revenue
and recruit international distance learning students in the post-COVID
era. Effective online learning is highly dependent on faculty training.
Faculty members who are open to change are more likely to experience
higher levels of satisfaction toward online and distance education than less
experienced faculty (Cutri & Mena, 2020).
In short, we believe that educators must work together to develop
innovative, inclusive and equitable online learning environments for stu-
dents to succeed in higher education. At the same time, we also believe
that the academy must be prepared for any future pandemics, disasters, or
other disruptions and expand on the current models developed and imple-
mented during the emergency transition to remote instruction (Affouneh
et al., 2020). Faculty should embrace research-based teaching practices
and determine the most effective ones during (and after) the pandemic to
enhance student learning.

Organization of the Book

This book provides a broad range of issues pertaining to online teaching
and learning in global higher education. The chapters selected in this book
bring a unique perspective to how online and distance education should
be leveraged to facilitate student mobility and integrated as an element in
the “multiplicity” of future offers. The book is divided into three parts.
The first section of the book includes five chapters that discuss the
nature and effectiveness of innovative forms of online teaching, learning,
and assessment adopted during and after the pandemic. In Chapter 2,

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 8 Roy Y. Chan et al.
Michelle Rippy and Monica Munoz describe the process of designing
authentic online courses during and post-COVID-19 pandemic through
training, design, and pedagogy. In Chapter 3, Linda Dam uses social
media platforms to provide a qualitative thematic analysis of key debates,
highlighting the disparity in university remote teaching effectiveness dur-
ing a pandemic. In Chapter 4, Darren Turnbull, Ritesh Chugh, and Jo
Luck explore the case for incorporating synchronous tools, such as video
conferencing and live chat into online testing strategies to improve the
validity and effectiveness of assessment delivery. Dawn Joseph, Rohan
Nethsinghe, and Alberto Cabedo-Mas use narrative inquiry methodol-
ogy to highlight current challenges, dilemmas, and opportunities that they
have encountered in relation to student learning and working from home
using a range of interactive multimedia tools. Finally, in Chapter 6, Huy
Pham, Binh Nguyen Thanh, Thai Vu Hong Nguyen, and Upasana Jain
investigate the effectiveness of authentic assessments during the COVID-19
period to determine whether authentic assessments work better (or worse)
at RMIT University, Vietnam.
The second section of the book includes five chapters that address the
impact of distance education on students, social inclusion, and access dur-
ing COVID-19, with special attention to student well-being and social
inequalities. In Chapter 7, Jack Reed and Catherine Dunn describe how
the use of social media in higher education has increased students’ sense
of belonging and community development, especially in developing coun-
tries where remote learning is limited. In Chapter 8, Vander Tavares draws
on teacher research to show that the switch to online delivery in Canadian
universities has limited international students’ ability to engage in mean-
ingful social interaction with the faculty and consequently, affected their
overall sense of community. Romana Manzoor and Wayne Bart present
evidence-based information in Chapter 9 on how online learning has
expanded and exacerbated access to higher education for vulnerable and
underrepresented students. In Chapter 10, Mmabaledi Seeletso describes
that the use of ICTs in Botswana, Africa, may facilitate further social exclu-
sion and digital divide in higher education because of the COVID-19 pan-
demic. Lastly, in Chapter 11, Ivan Gruzdev, Evgeniia Shmeleva, Raman
Kalinin, and Kseniia Vilkova use survey data from more than 18,000
undergraduate students to show how the shift to online and distance edu-
cation has created numerous challenges for students in Russian public uni-
versities. They conclude that the most common difficulties students face
in Russia are poor Internet connection, lack of interaction with peers and
faculty, insufficient self-regulated learning skills, and inadequate space to
study at home.
The third and final section of the book includes six chapters that address
specific case studies of lessons learned from teaching and learning remotely
during the COVID-19 pandemic. In Chapter 12, Raffaella Borasi, Richard
DeMartino, Nathan Harris, and Dave Miller combine entrepreneurship,

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 Is Online and Distance Learning the Future 9
pedagogy, business, and higher education organizational theory to show
that COVID-19 could be a catalyst for disruption in higher education.
In Chapter 13, Anatoly Oleksiyenko employs virtual autoethnography
in the online community of global higher education to enable a better
understanding of the diverse and conflicting narratives and memories that
shape our increasingly cyber-bound societies. In Chapter 14, Hei-hang
Hayes Tang, Beatrice Y. Y. Dang, Rosalind Latiner Raby, and Joanna W.
Y. Yeung investigate the rise of online learning in Hong Kong commu-
nity colleges and examine the implications for a possible paradigm shift
of liberal education in light of synergizing virtual and face-to-face teach-
ing. In Chapter  15, Mousumi Mukherjee uses an online survey of 106
students from a private university in India to discuss the pros and cons of
mainstream online distance learning in the middle of the global pandemic.
She concludes that the COVID-19 lockdown and social distancing norms
might reshape online and distance education for many years to come. In
Chapter 16, Eden Stephens and Jen Scoot Curwood examine how teacher
education within Australian higher education institutions has been rei-
magined in the online sphere and provides several benefits and hindrances
that have resulted from the COVID-19 pandemic. Lastly, in Chapter 17,
Shytance Wren uses diffusion innovation theory to show that the blended
learning model should be implemented in the United Arab Emirates pub-
lic higher education institutions.
The book concludes with a short epilogue from the editors that high-
lights key overarching messages and commonalities from the 17 chapters.
We anticipate that these chapters will empower educators, administrators,
practitioners, policy makers, and families with new ideas, principles, and
advice that they can apply this academic year and beyond. A few guiding
questions in this book are as follows:

• How do we make learning valuable and successful when teaching

virtually?
• How do we proactively engage faculty, staff, students, and alumni with
the goal of building and sustaining authentic relationships online?
• How do we redesign and deliver remote courses that emphasize field-
based and experiential learning?
• How do we best support our students with upcoming plans for inter-
cultural learning and study abroad virtually?
• How do we move from talking head to active learning remotely?

Bios
Roy Y. Chan, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Education and
Director of the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) Program in Leadership
and Professional Practice in the Helen DeVos College of Education at

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 10 Roy Y. Chan et al.
Lee University, Tennessee. Previously, Dr. Chan served as the Director of
TRIO Student Support Services, where he oversaw the day-to-day opera-
tions of the program and managed a budget of $1.3 million funded by
the U.S. Department of Education. His research interest includes cross-
border and transnational higher education, study abroad, college access
and completion, and educational philanthropy. Dr. Chan currently serves
as Senior Chair-Elect of the Comparative and International Education
Society (CIES) Study Abroad and International Students Special Interest
Group and previously served as an advisor to the Forum on Education
Abroad’s Data Committee. His latest books include Impacts of COVID-19
on International Students and the Future of Student Mobility (Routledge,
2021), The Future of Accessibility in International Higher Education (IGI
Global, 2017) and Higher Education: A Worldwide Inventory of Research
Centers, Academic Programs, and Journals and Publications (Lemmens
Media, 2014). Dr. Chan holds a Ph.D. in history, philosophy, and pol-
icy in education from Indiana University Bloomington; a M.A. in higher
education administration from Boston College; a M.Ed. in comparative
higher education from the University of Hong Kong; and a B.A. in crimi-
nology, law & society from the University of California, Irvine.

Krishna Bista, Ed.D., is a Professor of Higher Education in the

Department of Advanced Studies, Leadership, and Policy at Morgan State
University, Maryland. His research focuses on college student experiences,
faculty-student relationships, and cross-cultural teaching and learning
strategies in higher education. Previously, Dr. Bista served as the Director
of Global Education at the University of Louisiana at Monroe, where he
was Chase Endowed Professor of Education in the School of Education.
Dr. Bista is Founding Editor of the Journal of International Students,
a quarterly publication in international education. He is also Founding
Chair of the Study Abroad and International Students Special Interest
Group (SIG) at the CIES. He has reviewed several book projects related
to educational research, international and comparative education series
for Routledge, SAGE, Palgrave MacMillan, and Bloomsbury publica-
tions. His latest books are Higher Education in Nepal (Routledge, 2020),
and Global Perspectives on International Experiences in Higher Education:
Tensions and Issues (Routledge, 2019).

Ryan M. Allen, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Practice in the Attallah

College of Educational Studies at Chapman University, California. His
research interests include international and comparative education, global-
ization of higher education, international students and study abroad, and
educational technology. Dr. Allen’s work can be seen in various publica-
tions, such as University World News, Journal of Studies in International
Education, and Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International
Education. Prior to this book project, he coedited Kuo Ping Wen: Scholar,

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 Is Online and Distance Learning the Future 11
Reformer, Statesman (Long River Press, 2016). Dr. Allen holds a Ph.D. in
international and comparative education from Teachers College, Columbia
University; an M.A. in international relations from Yonsei University; and
a B.A. in public relations from the University of Central Oklahoma.

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