Banana Pith As A Natural Coagulant

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 7

Ecological Engineering 95 (2016) 699–705

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecological Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng

Banana pith as a natural coagulant for polluted river water


Beatrice Kakoi a,∗ , James Wambua Kaluli b , Peter Ndiba c , George Thiong’o d
a
Sustainable Materials Research and Technology Centre, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi,
Kenya
b
School of Bio-systems and Environmental Engineering, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi,
Kenya
c
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 10344-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
d
Department of Chemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Poorly managed urban runoff and wastewater collection systems contaminate surface water, making it
Received 17 March 2016 necessary to treat the water before use in households. Coagulation and flocculation are essential compo-
Received in revised form 23 June 2016 nents of the treatment of drinking water and wastewater. This study evaluated the efficacy of banana pith
Accepted 4 July 2016
as a natural polyelectrolyte and coagulant. The banana biomass was characterized for functional groups
using FTIR model 8400, point of zero charge using solid addition method, and elemental composition
Keywords:
using Perkin-Elmer Series II CHNS/O 2400 Elemental Analyser. Coagulation and flocculation tests were
Surface water
conducted using batch test for various dosages of banana pith and pH values. The turbidity removal was
Banana pith
Water treatment
fitted with kinetic models for particulate removal and particle aggregation behaviour. The functional
Coagulation-flocculation groups in banana pith were O H, C H, C O C, C N groups and the carboxylic (COO-double bond)
Kinetics and ionic carboxylic ( COOH) groups. Banana pith point of zero charge was pH 4.8. The biomass com-
prised of 32.3% carbon, 4.21% hydrogen, 1.46% nitrogen, 43.5% oxygen and 0.86% sulphur. Treatment of
turbid water with banana pith removed up to 98.5, 54.3, 96.03, 98.9, 88.7, 100, 100, 92, 81, 100 and
60% of turbidity, COD, suspended solids, sulphates, nitrates, copper, chromium, iron, zinc, lead and man-
ganese, respectively, at a banana pith dosage of 0.1 kg/m3 and initial pH of 4. The significant removal
of a wide range of contaminants was attributed to the presence of the observed large number of func-
tional groups in the banana pith. Turbidity, sulphates, copper, chromium, zinc and lead were reduced to
the required drinking water standards. However, the concentrations of suspended solids, nitrates, iron
and manganese exceeded the recommended limits and, therefore, required supplemental treatment. The
flocculation process was best described by the second order kinetic model with a half-life ␶1/2 of 1.16 min
and a rate constant of K, of 2.676 m3 /kg min. The study demonstrated that banana pith has potential for
use as a substitute for the conventional metal coagulants.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Various traditional and advanced technologies such as precipi-


tation, adsorption, coagulation, flotation, ion exchange, membrane
Surface water sources traversing urban areas contain elevated filtration and biological and electrolytic methods have been uti-
levels of dissolved and suspended materials including organic and lized to remove particulates from water (Radoiu et al., 2004).
inorganic matter and biological organisms from domestic, munici- The coagulation-flocculation process is a vital step in removal of
pal and industrial effluents and land erosion. Suspended materials colloidal particles, natural organic matter, microorganisms and
in water are undesirable because they provide attachment surfaces inorganic ions present in untreated water (Renault et al., 2009).
for disease causing micro-organisms as well as toxic substances The commonly used coagulating agents are inorganic salts, usu-
such as heavy metals (Gray et al., 2000). ally those of aluminium and iron. Although the efficacy of chemical
coagulants is well known, their use is associated with high costs and
environmental drawbacks (WHO, 2008). For example, the resulting
elevated concentration of aluminium cation residual causes health
∗ Corresponding author.
problems such as Alzheimer’s disease in humans (Divakaran and
E-mail addresses: katheubeatrice@gmail.com, beatricekakoi@yahoo.com
Pillai, 2001; Teh et al., 2014) and toxicity to aquatic life. More-
(B. Kakoi), wambuak@gmail.com (J.W. Kaluli), pkndiba@gmail.com (P. Ndiba),
thukukt@gmail.com (G. Thiong’o). over, aluminium in generated sludge causes disposal problems and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.07.001
0925-8574/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
700 B. Kakoi et al. / Ecological Engineering 95 (2016) 699–705

Fig. 1. Sampling Points on Nairobi River System.

require treatment of the sludge (Rondeau and Commenges, 2001). 2.1. Water sampling in Nairobi river
Increasing awareness of the costs, health issues and environmental
drawbacks in the use of conventional aluminium and iron-based Samples were collected from Nairobi River System at sampling
coagulants has shifted research interests towards natural organic point NA4 situated at coordinates 1◦ 14 44 S and 36◦ 59 19 E. Water
coagulants (Sook et al., 2014). Some of the coagulants of biolog- samples were collected as grab samples in pre-cleaned containers
ical origin that have been used include okra (Hibiscus esculentus) in duplicates and treated with nitric acid (2%). The samples were
(Al-Samawi and Shokrala, 1996), apricot (Prunus armeniaca), peach stored in a cool box and transported to the laboratory. The physical
kernel (Prunus persica sieb. zucc.) and beans (Phaseoulus spp.) (Jahn, and chemical characterization of the river water was conducted
2001), nirmali plants (Strychnos potatorum) (Chaudhuri and Babu, using Standard Methods (APHA, 1998).
2005), Moringa oliefera (Rico et al., 2010) and chitosan (Ozacar and
Sengli, 2002). The advantages of using organic polyelectrolyte in
place of alum include: (1) lower coagulant dose requirements, (2) 2.2. Preparation of banana pith coagulant
smaller increase in the ionic load of the treated water, (3) reduced
level of aluminium in treated water, (4) cost savings (Nazoic et al., Banana pith was obtained from harvested banana plantain at
2001). Organic coagulants, in most cases, act through adsorption- Juja, Kiambu County. The pith was cleaned and rinsed with distilled
polymer bridging and charge neutralization. water, cut into small pieces and dried in an oven at 60 ◦ C for 6 h.
Coagulation-flocculation kinetics is concerned with time The dried pieces were ground into a powder and the size passing
dependent changes in dispersions and suspensions. Coagulation- through 0.4 mm sieve used for tests.
flocculation rates indicate dispersion stability and provide valuable
information on interaction of particles (Kissa, 1999).
Banana pith is a natural polyelectrolyte that has not been 2.3. Material characterisation
used for any major economic purposes. It is a non-food waste
material that is obtained from banana plantain after fruit harvest- 2.3.1. Analysis of functional groups in banana pith
ing. Polyelectrolytes act in two distinct ways; namely, (i) charge The ground banana pith was mixed with potassium bromide at
neutralization, and (ii) bridging between particles (Bertsch et al., the ratio of 1:25. The mixture was ground and compressed using
1986). Attachment of polymer chains to particles occurs at a rate mini-hand compressor to attain a thin slate for analysis. The func-
that depends primarily on their concentrations, broadly accord- tional groups in the material for adsorption of pollutants were
ing to Smoluchowski kinetics (Gregory, 1988). This study evaluated analysed using FT-IR model 8400.
banana pith as an alternative to the conventional metal coagulants.

2.3.2. Determination of point of zero charge


The pH of a solution affects the surface charge of the biomass
2. Materials and methods as well as the degree of the ionization and speciation of different
pollutants. The point of zero charge was determined by the solid
This study was carried out in Nairobi River Basin after the join- addition method. A 50 mL of 0.1 M KNO3 solution was transferred
ing of Gitathuru, Ngong and Nairobi River tributaries (Fig. 1). Water into a series of 100 mL conical flasks. The initial pH values of the
samples from Nairobi were dosed with banana pith followed by solution were adjusted from 2 to 10 by the addition of 0.1 N of
rapid mix, flocculation and sedimentation. Contaminant removal HNO3. 1.5 g of the banana pith biomass was added to each flask and
efficiency computed was computed from reduction in turbidity. the flask capped immediately. The flasks were placed in a constant
Tests were carried out to identify functional groups in banana pith temperature water bath shaker and shaken for 24 h after which the
that are involved in pollutant removal. pH was measured.
B. Kakoi et al. / Ecological Engineering 95 (2016) 699–705 701

WhereT = Turbidity (NTU)TSSf = Conversion factor 2.3 (Metcalf and


Eddy, 2003)

2.3.5. Analysis of water samples


Coagulated water samples were filtered using filter paper No.
42 to remove floating particles. The samples were stored in plas-
tic bottles at 4 ◦ C until analysis. The samples were analysed for
COD, sulphates, nitrates, copper, chromium, iron, zinc, lead and
manganese using the standard methods (APHA, 1998).

2.3.6. Determination of the coagulation-flocculation efficiency


The efficiency E of the coagulation-flocculation process was
computed as:
(C0 − Ct )
E(%) = × 100 (2)
Fig. 2. Conventional Jar test experiment using banana pith as coagulant.
Co

3. Results and discussions


2.3.3. Elemental analysis of banana pith
The carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur content of the 3.1. Banana pith characterization
banana biomass were determined by the use of Perkin-Elmer Series
II CHNS/O 2400 Elemental Analyser. The oxygen content was deter- The removal of pollutant by natural polyelectrolytes depends
mined as the difference of the total mass and the sum of the mass on the degree of ionization of the functional groups, the degree of
of the others elements in the sample. copolymerization and/or the amount of substituted groups within
the polymer structure (Duan and Gregory, 2003; Jiang, 2001). The
functional group in the banana pith coagulant were identified in
2.3.4. Coagulation-flocculation tests the FT-IR spectrum range 500–4000 cm−1 (Fig. 3). The 3369.4 cm−1
Coagulation and flocculation tests were carried out on water peak was attributed to O H group vibrations that can be found
samples from Nairobi River using conventional jar test apparatus in macromolecules such as cellulose and pectin. The characteris-
(Fig. 2) at room temperature. The pH of the water was varied using tic peaks of C H were observed at 2925.8 cm−1 . The stretching
1 M HCL and NaOH. River water 500 mL was transferred to 1 L jars bands around 1645 cm−1 were attributed to asymmetric stretching
and placed in the jar test apparatus. Banana pith coagulant was of the carboxylic COO-double bond of deprotonated carboxylate
added at dosages of 0.1–1 kg/m3 . The mixture was subjected to functional groups (Farinella et al., 2007). The peak observed at
3 min of rapid mixing at 180 rpm followed by 20 min of mixing at 1384.8 cm−1 indicated stretching vibrations of symmetrical or
10 rpm and 30 min of settling. During settling, samples were with- asymmetrical ionic carboxylic groups ( COOH) of pectin (Farinella
drawn with pipette from 2 cm depth at 5 min intervals for 30 min. et al., 2007). The peak at 1247 cm−1 could have resulted from the
The turbidity of the samples was measured using turbidity meter C O stretching vibration of ketones, aldehydes and lactones or car-
(SGZB) to study peri-kinetic flocculation. boxyl groups (Chandrasekhar and Pramada, 2006). The bands at
The observed turbidity was taken as a measure of the con- 1029.9 cm−1 were associated with the vibrations of C O C and
centration of colloidal particles remaining in suspension. It was OH of polysaccharides (Ibarra and Moliner, 1991), while the band
converted to total suspended solids (TSS) values using the expres- at 1317.3 cm−1 could be attributed to C N groups on the biomass
sions (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003): surface. The peak at 848.6 cm−1 could be associated with amine
groups. The presence of a large number of functional groups in
TSS(mg/L) = (TSSf ) × T (1) banana pith powder indicates its potential to adsorb a wide range

Fig. 3. FT-IR Spectra of dried banana pith powder.


702 B. Kakoi et al. / Ecological Engineering 95 (2016) 699–705

Fig. 6. Effects of river water initial pH on performance of banana pith (0.1 g/L).
Fig. 4. Point of zero charge of banana pith biomass.

elevated turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and significant


of contaminants and, therefore, facilitate removal of suspended and sulphate levels. Copper and zinc levels were below the guidelines
dissolved substances from water. values. The water quality guidelines do not specify the levels of iron,
chromium and manganese in sources of drinking water. Coagula-
3.2. Point of zero charge of banana pith tion and flocculation of the river water with banana pith removed
98.5, 54.3, 96.03, 98.9, 88.7, 100, 100, 92, 81, 100 and 60% of turbid-
The pH at which the biomass surface takes a zero value is defined ity, COD, suspended solids, sulphates, nitrates, copper, chromium,
as point of zero charge (pHpzc ). At this pH, the charge of the positive iron, zinc, lead and manganese, respectively (Table 1). Treatment
surface sites is equal to that of the negative ones. The knowl- with banana pith achieved drinking water quality standards for
edge of pHpzc allows hypothesis on the ionization of the functional turbidity, sulphate, copper chromium, zinc and lead.
groups and their interaction with pollutants in solution. At pH val-
ues greater than pHpzc, the biomass is negatively charged while at 3.5. Effects of banana pith dosage on the removal of suspended
lesser pH, the solid surface is positively charged and could inter- solids from river water
act with negative species. The point zero was found to be pH 4.8
(Fig. 4). The maximum efficiency of suspended solids removal from the
initial 641.7 mg/L was obtained as 98.5% with 0.1 kg/m3 banana pith
3.3. Banana pith elemental analysis dosage while the least removal was 93% at a dosage of 1 kg/m3
(Fig. 5). Smaller coagulant dosages were marginally more effective
An elemental analysis was conducted to determine the amount than larger ones, which may be attributed to high charge density of
of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen in the biomass. the coagulant whereby lesser dosages are sufficient for destabiliza-
It was established that banana pith contains 32.3% carbon, 4.21% tion of suspended particles (Ahmed et al., 2006; Ariffin et al., 2005)
hydrogen, 1.46% nitrogen, 43.5% oxygen and 0.86% sulphur. and larger ones cause interferences.

3.4. Treatment of surface water using banana pith 3.6. Effects of pH on the removal of suspended solids

The observed levels of contaminants in Nairobi River indicate The removal of suspended solids was found to be greatest at
that the river did not meet the quality requirement for a source of pH 4 (Fig. 6). The significant effectiveness of banana pith coagu-
drinking water in Kenya (EMCR, 2006) (Table 1). The water also had lant at acidic pH may be attributed to the protonation of some of

Fig. 5. Effects of banana pith dosage on performance in river water at pH 4.


B. Kakoi et al. / Ecological Engineering 95 (2016) 699–705 703

Table 1
Characterization of Nairobi River Water before and after Coagulation with 0.1 kg/m3 of Banana Pith at pH 4 and 30 min settling time.

Parameter Raw Water Treated Water Removal (%) Guideline for

Drinking Water Sourcesa Drinking waterb

Turbidity (NTU) 279 4 98.56 – 5


COD (mg/L) 160 73 54.37 – –
Suspended solids (mg/L) 252 10 96.03 30 Nil
Sulphates (mg/L) 544 5.85 98.92 – 400
Nitrates (mg/L) 2662 299.9 88.76 10 10
Copper (␮g/L) 149 <DL (0.04) 100 1500 100
Chromium (␮g/L) 323 <DL (0.01) 100 – 50
Iron (mg/L) 19.22 1.37 92.87 – 0.3
Zinc (mg/L) 0.63 0.12 80.95 1.5 5
Lead (␮g/L) 194 <DL (0.13) 100 50 50
Manganese (mg/L) 4.32 1.74 59.72 – 0.1

DL = Detection limit.
a
Source: EMCR (2006).
b
Source: KS 05-459: Part 1:1996.

Fig. 7. TSS (mg/L) for Banana Pith Dosages at different Sampling Time at pH 4. Fig. 8. First order plots for various banana pith dosage in River water at pH 4.

the functional groups such as amino and carboxyl resulting in high


positive charge density that exerts strong electrostatic forces over
negatively charged colloidal matter (Aparecido et al., 2015). This
position was supported by the observation of point of zero charge
at pH 4.8.

3.7. Kinetic modeling of coagulation/flocculation process

The generic aggregation rate of particles during coagula-


tion/flocculation process may be described by collision opportu-
nities models (e.g. (Von Smoluchowski, 1917)) as:
dC
− = kCt˛ (3)
dt
Where,Ct is total particle concentration at time t,k is the ␣th order
coag-floculation rate constant␣ is the order of coag-floculation pro-
cess
and
Fig. 9. Second order plots for various banana pith dosage in River water at pH 4.
1
k= K (4)
2
Where, Ct is particle concentration at time t in kg/m3 , and k is the
Where,K is the rate factor for Brownian aggregation for flocculation
first order rate constant (m3 /kg min).
transport mechanism in the Von Smoluchowski equation.
Similarly, for second order reaction, Eq. (3) becomes,
The experimental data for the period studied with various
dosages of banana pith (Fig. 7) was fitted to first and second order 1  1
=k t+ (6)
reaction equations to explain the kinetic process. Ct Co
For first order reaction (␣ = 1), integration of Eq. (3) yields,
Where k is the second order rate constant (m3 /kg min).
C0 The plot of Eqs. (5) and (6) for various dosages of banana pith
ln = k t (5)
Ct are shown in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively.
704 B. Kakoi et al. / Ecological Engineering 95 (2016) 699–705

Table 2
Functional and kinetic parameters for variable dosage of banana pith of river water
for second order reaction at pH 4.

Parameters Banana Pith Dosage (kg/m3 )

0.1 0.3 0.7 1

␣ 2 2 2 2
R2 0.979 0.995 0.991 0.997
k (m3 /kg min) 2.675 0.626 0.547 0.354
K (m3 /kg min) 5.349 1.252 1.094 0.709
␶1/2 (min) 1.164 4.976 5.694 8.790

Fig. 11. Particle size distribution plot for least half time of 1.16 min.

2.676 m3 /kg min and ␶1/2 of 1.16 min) is shown in Fig. 11. The num-
ber of primary particles (singlets) decreased rapidly as the doublets
and triplets increased. The observation was attributed to forma-
tion of doublets and triplets from the quick aggregation of singlets,
to facilitate the flocculation process (Holtholf et al., 1996). The
obtained curves are expected in coagulation-flocculation process
where there is absence of excessive colloidal entrapment and high
shear resistance. The dominant mechanism depicted in the graph
is charge neutralization combined with low bridging.
Fig. 10. Experimental and Predicted variation of suspended particle concentration
with time.
4. Conclusion

The time taken for the initial concentration of suspended par- 1. The banana pith powder contains several functional groups
ticles to reduce by half, ␶1/2, is as a measure of flocculation period. including the O H and C H groups, the carboxylic (COO-double
When t = ␶1/2, C = 0.5Co. Therefore, from Eq. (6): bond) and asymmetrical ionic carboxylic ( COOH) groups, and
1 other function groups such as the C O group of ketones,
1/2 = (7) aldehydes and lactones, the C O C and OH groups of
C0 k
polysaccharides and the C N groups.
In Fig. 8, the plot of Ln (Co /Ct ) against time did not pass through 2. Using banana pith, it is possible to remove up-to 98.5, 54.3, 96.03
the origin and, therefore, was inconsistent with Eq. (5) for first order 98.9, 88.7, 100, 100, 92, 81, 100 and 60% of turbidity, COD, sus-
kinetics. However, the plot, Fig. 9 was in agreement with Eq. (6). pended solids, sulphates, nitrates, copper, chromium, iron, zinc,
Therefore, the coagulation-flocculation process can be described lead and manganese, respectively. This significant removal of a
best by the second order equation. The second order kinetics wide range of contaminants from contaminated water maybe
parameters of the coagulation/flocculation process were computed because a wide range of functional groups exist in the banana
(Table 2) and used to model the experimental data (Fig. 10). pith.
The minimum ␶1/2 obtained in this study was in close range with 3. Contaminant removal using banana pith works best under acidic
previous works (Hunter, 1993; Menkiti and OnuKwuli, 2011). The conditions (pH 4).
results indicate relatively low repulsion in acidic medium, similar 4. Coagulation-flocculation kinetics with banana pith is best
to the findings of Menkiti and OnuKwuli (2011). The discrepancies described by second order kinetics with a peri-kinetic floc-
occurring in kinetic parameters could be attributed to interplay culation half-life ␶1/2 = 1.16 min and a rate constant K of
between van der waals and hydrodynamic forces, which reduces 2.676 m3 /kg min.
the correlation between experimental and theoretical values by a
factor of up to 2 (Swift and Friedlander, 1964; Holthof et al., 1997).
Acknowledgements
3.8. Suspended particle aggregation
The authors acknowledge Jomo Kenyatta University of Agri-
For Brownian aggregation, the von Smoluchowski equation on culture and Technology (JKUAT) and NACOSTI for financing this
collision opportunities can be solved exactly resulting in a generic project. We also acknowledge the Departments of Civil Engineer-
expression for time evolution of particles of the mth order (Eq. (8)) ing and Department of Chemistry at JKUAT for providing equipment
(Holtholf et al., 1996). and technical assistance. Special thanks go to Mr John Kamathi who
helped in analysis of plant and water samples.
Cm(t) = 4C0m (Kt) m−1 (2 + KC 0 t)−(m+1) (8)
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Where,Co = initial particle concentration.Cm(t) = number particles of
the mth order at time t Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
The time evolution for singlets, M1; doublets, M2; and the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.07.
triplets, M3 for banana pith dosage 0.1 kg/m3 and pH 4 (K of 001.
B. Kakoi et al. / Ecological Engineering 95 (2016) 699–705 705

References Holthof, H., Schmitt, A., Fernandez-Barbero, M., Cabrerizo-Vilehez, P.,


Schurtenberger, P., 1997. Measurement of absolute rate constants for colloidal
APHA, 1998. Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20th particles: comparison of single multiparticle light scattering techniques. J.
ed. American Public Health Association, Washington DC. Colloids Interface Sci. 192, 463–470.
Ahmed, A., Sumath, S., Hameed, B., 2006. Coagulation of residue oil mill effluent by Hunter, R., 1993. In Introduction to Modern Colloid Science. Oxford University
chitosan, alum and PAC. Chem. Eng. J., 99–105. Press, New York, pp. 289–290.
Al-Samawi, A., Shokrala, E., 1996. An investigation into an indigeneous natural Ibarra, J., Moliner, R., 1991. Coal characterisation using pyrolysis-FT-IR. J. Anal.
coagulant. Environ. Sci. Health, 1881–1897. Appl. Pyrolysis 20, 171–184.
Aparecido, N., Fernado, R., Claudinata, A., Diego, R., 2015. Assessment of the banana Jahn, S., 2001. A drinking water from Chinese river: challenges of clarification. J.
pseudoatem as a low-cost biosorbent for the removal of reactive blue 5G dye. Water SRT-Aqua. 50, 15–27.
Environ. Technol. 36 (22), 2892–2902. Jiang, J., 2001. Development of coagulation theory and pre-polymerised coagulants
Ariffin, A., Shatat, R., Nik, N., Mohd, O., 2005. Synthetic polyelectrolytes of varying for water treatment. Sep. Purif. Methods 30 (1), 127–141.
cherge densities but similar molar mass based on acrylamide and applications Menkiti, M., OnuKwuli, O., 2011. Coagulation-flocculation studies of afzella bella
on palm oil Mill Efluent Treatment. Desalination 173, 201–208. coagulant in coal effluent uisng single and simulated multi angle
Bertsch, P., Grant, W., Barnhisel, L., 1986. Characterization of hydroxyl-aluminium nephelometry. J. Miner. Mater. Charact. Eng. 10 (3), 279–298.
solutions by aluminium-27 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Soil Sci. Metcalf and Eddy, 2003. Physical unit process. In: Waste Water Engineering
Soc. Am. J. 10, 825–829. Treatment And Re-use, 4th ed. McGraw Hill, New York.
Chandrasekhar, S., Pramada, P., 2006. Rice husk as ad adsorbent for methylen Nazoic, D., Freese, S., Thompson, P., 2001. Long term experience in the use of
blue-effects of ashing temperature. Adsorption 12, 27–43. olymeric coagulants at Umgeni water. Water Sci. Technol., 43–50.
Chaudhuri, M., Babu, R., 2005. Home water treatment by direct filtration with Ozacar Sengli, A., 2002. Effectiveness of Tannings obtained from velunia as a
natiral coagulant. J. Water Health 3, 27–30. coagulant aid for dewatering of sludge. Water Res., 1407–1412.
Divakaran, R., Pillai, V., 2001. Flocculation kaolinite suspension water by chitosan. Radoiu, M., Martin, D., Calinescu, I., Iovu, H., 2004. Preparation of polyelectrolytes
Water Res., 3904–3908. for wastewater treatement. J. Hazard. Mater. 106, 27–37.
Duan, J., Gregory, J., 2003. Coagulation by hydrolysing metal salts. Adv. Colloid Renault, F., Sancey, B., Charles, J., Morin-crini, N., Badot, P., Winterton, P., 2009.
Interface Sci. 100-102, 475–502. Chitosan flocculation of cardboard-mill secondary biological wastewater.
EMCR, 2006. Environ. Managementand Co-ord. Regulations. Standards For Effluent Chem. Eng. J. 155, 775–783.
Discharge into Public Sewers, WaterQuality. Reg.pdf, 3rd August, 2013 https:// Rico, T., Santos, F., Reis, E., 2010. Treatment of Tannery Wastewater Using Seeds of
www.elaw.org/system/files/ke. Moringa Oleifera, vol. 4. Agro Magazine Environment, pp. 96–110.
Kissa, Erik, 1999. Dispersions: Characterisation, Testing and Measurement. Marcel Rondeau, V., Commenges, D., 2001. Aluminium and alheizers disease. Lancet 333
Dekker Inc., New York, Basel, pp. 285–286 http//www.decker.com. (8629), 82–83.
Farinella, N., Matos, G., Arruda, M., 2007. Grape bagasse as a potential biosorbent of Sook, Y.C., Krishna, M.N.P., Ta, Y.W., Mavinakere, E.R., Ramakrishnan, N.R., 2014.
metals in effluent. Bioresour. Technol. 98, 1940–1946. Utilization of plant-based natural coagulants as future alternatives towards
Gray, J.R., Gylsson, G.D., Turcios, L.M., Schwarz, G.E., 2000. Comparability of sustainable water clarification. J. Environ. Sci. 26 (2014), 2178–2189.
suspended-sediment concentration and total suspended solids data. In: USGS Swift, D.L., Friedlander, S.K., 1964. The coagulation of hydrolysis by Brownian
Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4191. US Geological Survey, Reston, motion and laminar shear flow. J. Colloid Sci. 19, 621.
VA. Teh, C., Wu, T., Juan, J., 2014. Optimization of agro-industrial wastewater treatment
Gregory, J., 1988. Polymer adsorption and flocculation in sheard suspensions. using un modified rice starch as a natural coagulant. Ind. Crop Prod. 56, 17–26.
Colloids Surface, 231–253. Von Smoluchowski, M., 1917. Versuchcheiner mathematischen theorie der
Holtholf, H., Egelhaaf, S., Brokovec, M., Sharteh-Berger, P., Sticher, H., 1996. koagulations kinetic kolloider lousungen. Z. Phys. Chem., 129–168.
Coagulation rate measurement of colloidal particles by simultaneous and WHO, 2008. Water Quality Interventions to Prevent Diarrhea: Cost and Cost
dynamic light scattering. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 12, 5541–5549. Effectiveness, Geneva.

You might also like