A Project Report

ON
STUDY OF TOPOLOGICAL SPACE
Submitted

To

SWAMI RAMANAND TEERTH MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY NANDED

For the partial fulfillment
Of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.)
By
Miss.Deshmukh Nishigandha Ranjit
Miss.Boyane Vaishnavi Umakant
Miss.Gavali Vaishnavi Hanumant
B.Sc.T.Y
Under the guidance of
Prof.N.S.Pimple
Assistance professor
Department of Mathematics
Rajarshri Shahu Mahavidyalaya, Latur (Autonomous)

1
 DECLERATION
We hearby decare that the project entitled
“SYUDY OF TOPOLOGYCAL SPACE” Submitted to department of
Mathematics, Rajarshi Shahu Mahavidyalay, Latur (Autonomous)
during the year 2020-2021 as a part of partial fulfillment of degree of
Bachelor of Science is written by us and has not previously been
formed on the basis of the award of any degree or diploma or other
similar title of this or any other university, or examining body

Place: Latur

Date : 15/05/2021

(Miss.Deshmukh Nishigandha Ranjit)

(Miss.Boyane Vaishnavi Umakant)

(Miss.Gavali Vaishnavi Hanumant)

B.Sc.III

Project student

Prof.N.S.Pimple

Assistant professor

Department of Mathematics

Rajarshi shahu mahavidyalay, Latur (Autonomous)

2
NAME OF THE INSTITUTE: Rajarshi Shahu Mahavidyalay, Latur.

Adress with pin code: Chandra Nagar, Near Bus Stand, Latur-413512.

Department of: Mathematics.

CERTIFICATE-I
Certified that the project work “STUDY OF TOPOLOGICA SPACES”
carried out by (Miss.Deshmukh Nishigandha Ranjit),(Miss.Boyane
Vaishnavi Umakant) ,(Miss.Gavali Vaishnavi Hanumant); bonified
students of Rajarshi Shahu Mahavidyalay, Latur (Autonomous ) in
partial fulfillment for the Award of Bachelor of Science in
MATHEMATICS of the Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada
University Nanded during the year 2020-2021. It is certified tha all
correction/suggestion indicated for internal assessment have been
incorporated in the report deposited in the departmental library. The
project report has been approved as it satisfies the academic requirement in
respect to project work prescribed for the said Degree.

Prof.N.S.Pimple Prof.M.S.Wavre Dr.Mahadev Gavhane

Name and signature Name signature of signature of principle
Of the Guide the HOD

External viva – voce Remark if any:

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I have great pleasure in expressing my deep sense of indebtedness
and heartfelt gratitude to Prof.N.S.Pimple Assistant professor Department of
Mathematics .Rajarshri Shahu Mahavidyalay, Latur for his expert and valuable
guidance and continuous encouragement given to me during the experimental work
and especially for completion of this dissertation.

I sincerely thank Dr.Mahadev Gavhane, Principal, Rajarshri Shahu

Mahavidyalay, Latur, for his kind support.

I am indebted to Prof.M.S.Wavre, Head of Department of Mathematics

Rajarshri Shahu Mahavidyalay Latur for fruitful discussion and valuable
suggestion during every phase of my Work .

Thanks to all my friends studying in B.Sc.III Rajarshri Shahu

Mahavidyalay Latur for their help

I am at loss of words while expressing my deep feelings of gratitude

towards my family members for the loving support and inspiration which has
sustained me throughout my life.

I am thankful to all my teachers as well as non teaching staff of the

Department of Mathematics for their co-operation.

Place: Latur

Date:

4
 INDEX
Sr.No Content Page no

ABSTRACT 7

PRILIMANARIES 8-10

1 TOPOLOGICAL SPACES AND ITS PROPERTIES 11-20

2 HAUSDORFF SPACES, REMAINING PROPERTIES 22-36

OF TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

3 APLLICATIONS OF TOPOLOGICAL SPACES 37-43

4 REFERENCES 44

5
 ABSTRACT
The thesis consists of Three chapters, the details of which are given below. In the
First Chapter, we define the topological spaces. Also we define the
convergence,closed set,interior,etc . Properties of spaces are obtained on the line
of research.

In the Second Chapter, we define and study the new space called Hausdoff
space. Further some new functions of topological spaces are introduced and
studied in detail. Some preservation theorems are given.

In the Fourth Chapter, we study the various applications of topological spaces.

6
 PRILIMINRIES

 TOPOLIGY

A topology T on a set X is a collection of subsets of X such that

(1) The topology T contains both the empty set ∅ and X.

(2) Every union of elements of T belongs to T.

(3) Every finite intersection of elements of T belongs to T.

 METRISABLE

A topological space (X, T) is called metrisable, if there exists a metric on X

such that the topology T is induced by this metric.

 CLOSED SET

Suppose (X, T) is a topological space and let A ⊂ X. We say that A is closed

in X, if its complement X − A is open in X.

 CLOSURE SET

(X, T) is a topological space and let A ⊂ X. The closure A of A is defined

as the smallest closed set that contains A. It is thus the intersection of all closed
sets that contain A.

 INTERIOR

Suppose (X, T) is a topological space and let A ⊂ X. The interior A◦ of A is

defined as the largest open set contained in A. It is thus the union of all open sets
contained in A.

 BOUNDARY OF SET

Suppose (X, T) is a topological space and let A ⊂ X. The boundary of A is

defined as the set ∂A = A ∩ X − A.

 NEIGHBOURHOOD

7
 Suppose (X, T) is a topological space and let x ∈ X be an arbitrary point.
A neighbourhood of x is simply an open set that contains x.

 LIMIT POINT

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊂ X. We say that x is a limit

point of A if every neighbourhood of x intersects A at a point other than x.

 CONTINUITY

A function f : X → Y between topological spaces is called continuous if

f −1 (U) is open in X for each set U which is open in Y .

 SUBSPACE

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊂ X. Then the set

T 0 = {U ∩ A : U ∈ T}

forms a topology on A which is known as the subspace topology.

 HAUSDORFF SPACE

A topological space (X, T) is Hausdorff if any two distinct points of X have

neighbourhoods which do not intersect.

 CONNECTED SPACE

Connected Two sets A, B form a partition A|B of a topological space

(X, T), if they are nonempty, open and disjoint with A ∪ B = X. We say that the
space X is connected, if it has no such partition A|B.

 HOMOMOPHISM

A function f : X → Y between topological spaces is a homeomorphism

if f is bijective, continuous and its inverse f −1 is continuous. When such a function
exists, we say that X and Y are homeomorphic.

 COMPACTNESS

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊂ X. An open cover of A is a

collection of open sets whose union contains A. An open subcover is a

8
subcollection which still forms an open cover. We say that A is compact if every
open cover of A has a finite subcover.

9
1.TOPOLOGICAL SPACES AND ITS
PROPERTIES
INTRODUCTION:
A topological space is a more basic concept than a metric space. Its
building blocks are open sets, as suggested by the work for real numbers along the
lines .
The abstract idea of a metric space provides a useful and quite visual
example of a topological space. Through much of this chapter, we will relate our
work to corresponding ideas in metric spaces. In previous chapters, we have spent
some time on closed sets and compact sets. These were defined specifically in the
context of metric spaces, and each definition made use of the notion of a
convergent sequence. The same terms will be used again in this chapter, but they
will be redefined in the more general context of topological spaces. To distinguish
the different approaches, we will be careful in this chapter to refer to the earlier
notions as sequentially closed sets and sequentially compact sets.
So a set is sequentially closed if convergent sequences in the metric
space that belong to the set have their limits in the set, and a set is sequentially
compact if every sequence in the set has a convergent subsequence. These are the
old definitions; new ones will come soon. It will turn out, and these are two of the
important results of this chapter, that the old definitions and the new definitions
coincide in metric spaces.
The term ‘topology’ refers to the work of this chapter in general, but is
also used in the technical sense given by the following definition.
Topology is the area of mathematics which investigates continuity and related
concepts. Important fundamental notions soon to come are for example open and
closed sets, continuity, homeomorphism.

Originally coming from questions in analysis and differential geometry,

by now topology permeates mostly every field of math including algebra,
combinatorics, logic, and plays a fundamental role in algebraic/arithmetic
geometry as we know it today.

10
1.1.Topology
A topology T on a set X is a collection of subsets of X such that

(1) The topology T contains both the empty set ∅ and X.

(2) Every union of elements of T belongs to T.

(3) Every finite intersection of elements of T belongs to T.

A topological space (X, T) consists of a set X and a topology T.

A set X for which a topology T has been specified is a topological space. A subset
of X which is in T is called an open set.

Example. With X = R and T = {U ⊂ R | U is an open set of real numbers as

defined above} is a topological space. It is R under the standard topology.

Example 1. Let X = {a, b, c}. Then there are 9 possible topologies on X. They are
illustrated as follows where sets are represented by enclosing their elements with a
curve:

11
The elements of a topology are often called open. This terminology may be
somewhat confusing, but it is quite standard. To say that a set U is open in a
topological space (X, T) is to say that U ∈ T.

 Examples of topological spaces

I. The discrete topology on a set X is defined as the topology which consists of
all possible subsets of X.
II. The indiscrete topology on a set X is defined as the topology which consists
of the subsets ∅ and X only.
III. Every metric space (X, d) has a topology which is induced by its metric. It
consists of all subsets of X which are open in X.

1.2 Metrisable space

A topological space (X, T) is called metrisable, if there exists a metric on
X such that the topology T is induced by this metric.

The discrete topology on X is metrisable and it is actually induced by the

discrete metric. On the other hand, the indiscrete topology on X is not metrisable,
if X has two or more elements.

Convergence
Let (X, T) be a topological space. A sequence {xn} of points of X is said to
converge to the point x ∈ X if, given any open set U that contains x, there exists an
integer N such that xn ∈ U for all n ≥ N.

When a sequence {xn} converges to a point x, we say that x is the limit of the
sequence and we write xn → x as n → ∞ or simply

lim 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥
𝑛→∞

When X is a metric space, this new definition of convergence agrees with the
definition of convergence in metric spaces.

12
 Theorem1 .1: Limits are not necessarily unique Suppose that X has the
indiscrete topology and let x ∈ X. Then the constant sequence xn = x converges
to y for every y ∈ X

Proof :

Suppose U is an open set that contains y. Since X has the indiscrete

topology, the only open sets are ∅ and X, so U must be equal to X. This implies
that xn ∈ U for all n ≥ 1. In view of the definition of convergence, we thus have
xn → y as n → ∞.

Closed set
Suppose (X, T) is a topological space and let A ⊂ X. We say that A is
closed in X, if its complement X − A is open in X.

Theorem 1.2 : about closed sets

(1) If a subset A ⊂ X is closed in X, then every sequence of points of A that

converges must converge to a point of A.

Proof :

First, we prove 1 . Suppose {xn} is a convergent sequence of points of

A and let x denote its limit. To show that x ∈ A, we assume x ∈ X − A for the sake
of contradiction. Then X − A is an open set which contains the limit x, so there is
an integer N such that xn ∈ X − A for all n ≥ N. This contradicts our assumption
that xn ∈ A for all n ≥ 1. Thus, we must have x ∈ A.

(2) Both ∅ and X are closed in X.

Proof:

By definition, the sets ∅, X are both open in X, so their complements X,

∅ are both closed in X.

(3) Finite unions of closed sets are closed. & (4) Arbitrary intersections of
closed sets are closed.

Proof :

13
 We prove these statements using De Morgan’s laws

To prove 3 , suppose that the sets Ui are closed in X. Then their complements
X – Ui are open in X and these are finitely many, so their intersection is open in X.
Using the first De Morgan’s law, we conclude that the union of the sets Ui is closed
in X.

The proof of 4 is similar. If the sets Ui are closed in X, then their complements
X – Ui are open in X and so is their union. Using the second De Morgan’s law, we
conclude that T Ui is closed in X.

We have already established these statements for metric spaces and our proofs
apply almost verbatim in the case of topological spaces.

Closure Suppose
(X, T) is a topological space and let A ⊂ X. The closure Ā of A is
defined as the smallest closed set that contains A. It is thus the intersection of all
closed sets that contain A.

 The interval A = [0, 1) has closure Ā = [0, 1].

 The interval A = (0, 1) has closure Ā = [0, 1].

Theorem 1.3 : about the closure

(1) One has A ⊂ Ā for any set A.

(2) If A ⊂ B, then Ā ⊂ B as well.
(3) The set A is closed if and only if Ā = A.
(4) The closure of A is itself, namely Ā = Ā.

Proof :

By definition, Ā is the smallest closed set that contains A, so 1 is clear.

To prove 2 , suppose A ⊂ B. Then A ⊂ B ⊂ B and so B is a closed set that

14
contains A. Since Ā is the smallest such closed set by definition, we conclude that
Ā ⊂ B.

Part 3 should be clear because Ā is the smallest closed set that contains
A. In particular, Ā is equal to A if and only if A is closed. Finally, part 4 is a direct
consequence of part 3 . Since Ā is a closed set by definition, it must be equal to its
own closure.

Interior
Suppose (X, T) is a topological space and let A ⊂ X. The interior A0 of A is
defined as the largest open set contained in A. It is thus the union of all open sets
contained in A.

 The interval A = [0, 1] has interior A0 = (0, 1).

 The interval A = [0, 1) has interior A0 = (0, 1).

Theorem 1.4 : Main facts about the interior

1) One has A0 ⊂ A for any set A.

Proof :

By definition, A0 is the largest open set contained in A, so part 1 is clear.

2) If A ⊂ B, then A0 ⊂ B0 as well.

Proof :

suppose A ⊂ B. Then A0 ⊂ A ⊂ B and this makes A0 an open set

which is contained in B. Since B0 is the largest such open set by definition, we
conclude that A0 ⊂ B0 .

3 ). The set A is open if and only if A0 = A. & 4. The interior of A0 is itself,

namely (A0 )0 = A0 .

Proof :

It should be clear since A0 is the largest open set contained in A. In

particular, A0 is equal to A if and only if A is open. Finally, part 4 is a direct

15
consequence of part 3 . Since A0 is an open set by definition, it must be equal to its
own interior.

Boundary of set
Suppose (X, T) is a topological space and let A ⊂ X. The boundary of A is
defined as the set ∂A = Ā ∩ X − A.

Neighbourhood
Suppose (X, T) is a topological space and let x ∈ X be an arbitrary point. A
neighbourhood of x is simply an open set that contains x.

Theorem 1.5 : Characterisation of closure/interior/boundary

Suppose (X, T) is a topological space and let A ⊂ X.

(1) x ∈ Ā ⇐⇒ every neighbourhood of x intersects A.

Proof :

By definition, the closure Ā is the intersection of all closed sets that

contain A. In other words, we have

x ∉ Ā ⇐⇒ x ∉ C for some closed set C that contains A.

Setting U = X − C for convenience, we conclude that

x ∉ Ā⇐⇒ x ∈ U for some open set U contained in X − A

⇐⇒ some neighbourhood of x is contained in X − A

⇐⇒ some neighbourhood of x does not intersect A.

This is precisely the statement of the theorem.

(2) x ∈ A0 ⇐⇒ some neighbourhood of x lies within A. & (3) x ∈ ∂A ⇐⇒ every

neighbourhood of x intersects A and X − A.

Proof :

16
 By definition, the interior A0 is the union of all open sets which are
contained in A. Thus, we have

x ∈ A0 ⇐⇒ x ∈ U for some open set U contained in A

⇐⇒ some neighbourhood of x is contained in A.

This settles part 2 . To prove 3 , we recall 1 which states that

x ∈ Ā ⇐⇒ every neighbourhood of x intersects A.

Since ∂A = Ā ∩ X – A by definition, the result now follows.

Theorem1.6 : One has A0 ∩ ∂A = ∅ and also A0 ∪ ∂A = Ā for any set A.

Proof :

If x ∈ A0 , then x has a neighbourhood U that lies within A and this

neighbourhood does not intersect X − A, so x ∉ ∂A. This proves the first statement.
To prove the second, we recall that

A0 ⊂ A ⊂ Ā and ∂A ⊂ Ā.

This implies the inclusion A◦ ∪ ∂A ⊂ Ā, so it remains to prove the opposite

inclusion. Suppose that x ∈ Ā. Then every neighbourhood of x intersects A and we
examine two cases. If every neighbourhood of x intersects X − A, then we must
have x ∈ ∂A. Otherwise, there is a neighbourhood of x that does not intersect
X − A. Since this neighbourhood lies entirely within A, we must have x ∈ A0 .

Limit point
Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊂ X. We say that x is a limit
point of A if every neighbourhood of x intersects A at a point other than x.

Theorem 1.7 : Limit points and closure Let (X, T) be a topological space and
let A ⊂ X. If A’ is the set of all limit points of A, then the closure of A is
Ā= A ∪ A’ .

Proof :

17
 One has A ⊂ Ā by definition. To see that A’ ⊂ Ā as well, suppose that
x ∈ A’ . Then every neighbourhood of x intersects A at a point other than x, so x ∈
Ā. This proves the inclusion

A ∪ A’ ⊂ Ā.

To prove the opposite inclusion, suppose that x ∈ A, but x Ā. Then every

neighbourhood of x intersects A at a point other than x and so x ∈ A’ . This proves
the opposite inclusion Ā ⊂ A ∪ A’

 Intuitively, limit points of A are limits of sequences of points of A.

 The set A = {1/n : n ∈ N} has only one limit point, namely x = 0.
 Every point of A = (0, 1) is a limit point of A, while A’ = [0, 1].
 A set is closed if and only if it contains its limit points.

Continuity
A function f : X → Y between topological spaces is called continuous if
f-1 (U) is open in X for each set U which is open in Y .

Theorem 1.8 : Composition of continuous functions

Suppose f : X → Y and g : Y → Z are continuous functions between

topological spaces. Then the composition g ◦ f : X → Z is continuous.

Proof :

Suppose that U is open in Z. Then g-1 (U) is open in Y by continuity and

similarly

f -1 (g-1 (U)) is open in X. On the other hand, it is easy to check that

f-1 (g-1 (U)) = {x ∈ X : f(x) ∈ g-1 (U)}

= {x ∈ X : g(f(x)) ∈ U}

= (g ◦ f)-1 (U).

Thus, (g ◦ f)-1 (U) is open in X and so g ◦ f is continuous.

Theorem 1.9 : Continuity and sequences

18
 Let f : X → Y be a continuous function between topological spaces and let
{xn} be a sequence of points of X which converges to x ∈ X. Then the sequence
{f(xn )} must converge to f(x).

Proof :

Let U be an open set that contains f(x). Then f-1 (U) is an open set that
contains x. Since xn → x as n → ∞, there is an integer N such that xn ∈ f-1 (U) for
all n ≥ N. Thus, f(xn) ∈ U for all n ≥ N and this means that f(xn ) converges to f(x).

Subspace topology
Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊂ X. Then the set

T’ = {U ∩ A : U ∈ T}

forms a topology on A which is known as the subspace topology.

Theorem 1.10 : Inclusion maps are continuous

Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊂ X. Then the inclusion map
i: A → X which is defined by i(x) = x is continuous.

Proof :

Suppose U is an open set in X. Its inverse image is then

i-1 (U) = {x ∈ A : i(x) ∈ U}

= {x ∈ A : x ∈ U}

= A ∩ U.

Since U is open in X, the intersection A ∩ U is open in A by the

definition of the subspace topology. Thus, i is continuous.

Theorem 1.11 : Restriction maps are continuous

Let f : X → Y be a continuous function between topological spaces and let

A ⊂ X. Then the restriction map g : A → Y which is defined by g(x) = f(x) is
continuous. This map is often denoted by g = f|A.

19
Proof :

Suppose U is an open set in Y . Its inverse image is then

g-1 (U) = {x ∈ A : g(x) ∈ U}

= {x ∈ A : f(x) ∈ U}

= A ∩ f-1 (U).

By continuity, f -1 (U) is open in X, so A ∩ f-1 (U) is open in A. Thus,

g-1 (U) is open in A and the function g is continuous.

Product topology
Given two topological spaces (X, T) and (Y, T’ ), we define the product
topology on X × Y as the collection of all unions Ui Ui × Vi , where each Ui is
open in X and each Vi is open in Y .

Theorem 1.12 : Projection maps are continuous

Let (X, T) and (Y, T0 ) be topological spaces. If X × Y is equipped with

the product topology, then the projection map p1 : X × Y → X defined by
p2 (x, y) = x is continuous. Moreover, the same is true for the projection map
p2 : X × Y → Y defined by p2 (x, y) = y.

Proof :

Given a set U which is open in X, one easily finds that

p-11 (U) = {(x, y) ∈ X × Y : p1 (x, y) ∈ U}

= {(x, y) ∈ X × Y : x ∈ U}

= U × Y.

Since this is open in the product topology of X × Y , the projection map p1 is

continuous. Similarly, one has p-12 (V ) = X × V for each set V which is open in Y ,
so p2 is continuous as well.

Theorem 1.13 : Continuous map into a product space

20
 Let X, Y, Z be topological spaces. Then a function f : Z → X × Y is continuous
if and only if its components p1 ◦ f, p2 ◦ f are continuous.

Proof :

First, suppose f is continuous. Then p1 ◦ f and p2 ◦ f are compositions of

continuous functions, so they are both continuous. Conversely, suppose p1 ◦ f and
p2 ◦ f are both continuous. To show that f is continuous, it suffices to show that f-1
(U × V ) is open in Z whenever U is open in X and V is open in Y . Since

f-1 (U × V ) = {z ∈ Z : f(z) ∈ U × V }

= {z ∈ Z : p1 (f(z)) ∈ U and p2 (f(z)) ∈ V }

= (p1 ◦ f)-1 (U) ∩ (p2 ◦ f)-1 (V ),

we find that f-1 (U × V ) is open in Z and so f is continuous.

21
2.HAUSDORFF SPACES, REMAINING
PROPERTIES OF TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
Hausdorff space, in mathematics, type of topological space named for the German
mathematician Felix Hausdorff. A topological space is a generalization of the notion
of an object in three-dimensional space. It consists of an abstract set of points along
with a specified collection of subsets, called open sets, that satisfy three axioms:

(1) the set itself and the empty set are open sets.

(2) the intersection of a finite number of open sets is open.

(3) the union of any collection of open sets is an open set.

Hausdorff space
We say that a topological space (X, T) is Hausdorff if any two distinct
points of X have neighbourhoods which do not intersect.

If a space X has the discrete topology, then X is Hausdorff.

If a space X has the indiscrete topology and it contains two or more elements, then
X is not Hausdorff.

Theorem 2.1 : about Hausdorff spaces

1) Every metric space is Hausdorff.

Proof :

Let x ≠ y be points of a metric space X. Then r = d(x, y) is positive

and we shall consider the open sets

U = B(x, r/2) , V = B(y, r/2).

Since x ∈ U and y ∈ V , it remains to show that U ∩ V is empty. Suppose

then that z ∈ U ∩ V . Then we must have

22
 r = d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) < r/2 + r/2

a contradiction. Thus, U ∩ V is empty and X is Hausdorff

2) Every subset of a Hausdorff space is Hausdorff.

Proof :

Suppose that X is Hausdorff and let A ⊂ X. Given any two points

x ≠y in A, we can find disjoint sets Ux, Uy which are open in X with x ∈ Ux and y
∈ Uy. Intersecting these sets with A, we find that Ux ∩ A and Uy ∩ A are open in
A with

x ∈ Ux ∩ A, y ∈ Uy ∩ A , (Ux ∩ A) ∩ (Uy ∩ A) = ∅.

This shows that the subset A is Hausdorff as well.

3) Every finite subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.

Proof :

Suppose X is Hausdorff. If we can show that the set {x} is closed

for each x ∈ X, then this will imply that every finite set is a finite union of closed
sets, hence also closed.

It remains to show that {x} is closed for each x ∈ X. Given any point
y ≠x, we can find open sets

Ux, Uy with x ∈ Ux , y ∈ Uy, Ux ∩ Uy = ∅.

In particular, each point y ≠x has a neighbourhood that does not intersect

{x} and so y is not in the closure of {x}. This means that the closure of {x} is {x}
itself, so this set is closed, indeed

4) The product of two Hausdorff spaces is Hausdorff.

Proof :

Suppose X, Y are both Hausdorff. To show that X × Y is Hausdorff as

well, let (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) be two distinct points. Then we have either x1 ≠x2
or else y1 ≠ y2 .

23
Suppose that x1 ≠ x2 , as the other case is similar. Then there exist sets Ux1 , Ux2
which are open in X with

x1 ∈ Ux1 , x2 ∈ Ux2 , Ux1 ∩ Ux2 = ∅.

Then V1 = Ux1 × Y and V2 = Ux2 × Y are open in X × Y with

(x1 , y1 ) ∈ V1 , (x2 , y2 ) ∈ V2 , V1 ∩ V2 = ∅.

This shows that the product X × Y is Hausdorff as well.

5) A convergent sequence in a Hausdorff space has a unique limit.

Proof :

Suppose X is Hausdorff and let {xn} be a sequence that has two different
limits x ≠ y. Then there exist open sets Ux, Uy with

x ∈ Ux , y ∈ Uy , Ux ∩ Uy = ∅.

Since the limit x lies in Ux, there is an integer N1 such that

xn ∈ Ux for all n ≥ N1 .

Since the limit y lies in Uy, there is an integer N2 such that

xn ∈ Uy for all n ≥ N2 .

This actually gives xn ∈ Ux ∩ Uy for all n ≥ max{N1 , N2 }, which is contrary to

the fact that the intersection Ux ∩ Uy is empty

Connected spaces, part 1

Definition – Two sets A, B form a partition A|B of a topological space (X, T), if
they are nonempty, open and disjoint with A ∪ B = X. We say that the space X is
connected, if it has no such partition A|B.

24
Theorem 2.2 : about connected spaces

1) To say that X is connected is to say that the only subsets of X which are
both open and closed in X are the subsets ∅, X.

Proof :

Suppose A is both open and closed in X, but A is neither empty

nor equal to X. Then A and B = X − A are nonempty, open and disjoint with A ∪ B
= X, so they form a partition of X.

Conversely, suppose A, B form a partition of X. Then A, B are nonempty,

open and disjoint with A ∪ B = X. This means that A is neither empty nor equal to
X. On the other hand, B = X − A is open in X, so A is both open and closed in X.

2) The continuous image of a connected space is connected: if X is connected

and f : X → Y is continuous, then f(X) is connected.

Proof :

We may assume that f(X) = Y without loss of generality. Suppose that

A, B form a partition of Y . Then A, B are nonempty, open and disjoint with
A ∪ B = Y Since f is continuous, it easily follows that the inverse images

U = f-1 (A) , V = f-1 (B)

are nonempty, open and disjoint with U ∪ V = X. In other words, they form a
partition of X, which is contrary to the fact that X is connected. This implies that Y
must be connected as well.

3 )A subset of R is connected if and only if it is an interval.

Proof, part 1 :

An interval is a set I ⊂ R which contains all points between inf I and

sup I. Suppose that A ⊂ R is a set which is not an interval. Then there exists some
real number x such that

inf A < x < sup A, x∉ A.

25
Since x is larger than the greatest lower bound of A, we see that x is not a lower
bound of A, so a < x for some a ∈ A.

Similarly, we must also have x < b for some b ∈ A. It easily follows that the sets

U = (−∞, x) ∩ A, V = (x, +∞) ∩ A

are nonempty, disjoint and open in A with U ∪ V = A. Thus, these sets form a
partition of A and so A is not connected.

Conversely, suppose that I ⊂ R is an interval which has a partition U|V . Pick two
points x ∈ U and y ∈ V . Assuming that x < y without loss of generality, we now
set

U’ = [x, y] ∩ U, z = sup U’ .

Given any integer n ∈ N, there exists a point xn ∈ U’ such that

z − 1/n ≤ xn ≤ z.

Since U’ is closed in U and xn → z as n → ∞, we see that z ∈ U’ . In particular,

z ∈ U and x ≤ z < y. Since U is open in I, we must have z + ε ∈ U for all small
enough ε > 0 and so z + ε ∈ U’ for all small enough ε > 0. This contradicts the fact
that z = supU’

4) If a connected space A is a subset of X and the sets U, V form a partition of

X, then A must lie entirely within either U or V .

Proof :

Consider the sets A ∩ U and A ∩ V . These are open in A, they are disjoint
and their union is equal to

(A ∩ U) ∪ (A ∩ V ) = A ∩ (U ∪ V ) = A ∩ X = A.

Since A is connected, one of the two sets must be empty. Suppose that A ∩ U
is empty, as the other case is similar. Then A is a subset of X = U ∪ V which does
not intersect U, so A ⊂ V .

26
Theorem 2.3 : about connected spaces

1) If A is a connected subset of X, then Ā is connected as well.

Proof :

Suppose U, V form a partition of the closure Ā. Since A is a

connected subset of this partition, it must lie within either U or V . Assume that
A ⊂ U without loss of generality. Then we have

A⊂U⊂X−V

and this makes X − V a closed set that contains A. In view of the definition of
the closure, the smallest such set is Ā, so

Ā ⊂ X − V =⇒ U ∪ V ⊂ X − V.

This means that V must be empty, which is contrary to assumption. In

particular, Ā has no partition and the result follows.

2) Consider a collection of connected sets Ui that have a point in common.

Then the union of these sets is connected as well.

Proof :

Suppose A, B form a partition of the union and let x be a point which is

contained in Ui for all i. Then x belongs to either A or B. Assume that x ∈ A
without loss of generality. Since Ui is a connected subset of the partition, it must
lie entirely within either A or B. Since Ui contains x, however, we must have

This means that B must be empty, which is contrary to assumption. In

particular, Ui Ui has no partition and the result follows.

3) The product of two connected spaces is connected.

Proof :

27
 Suppose X, Y are connected spaces and let (x, y) ∈ X × Y . The set
X × {y} corresponds to a horizontal line in X × Y and it is also the image of X
under the function

f : X → X × {y} , f(x) = (x, y).

Since X is connected and f is easily seen to be continuous, we see that each

horizontal line X × {y} is connected. A similar argument shows that each vertical
line {x} × Y is connected as well. These two sets have a point in common, so their
cross-shaped union

Cxy = X × {y} ∪ {x} × Y

is connected itself. On the other hand, one has X ×Y = Ux Cxy for any fixed
y ∈ Y , so the product X × Y is connected as well.

Connected component
Let (X, T) be a topological space. The connected component of a point x ∈
X is the largest connected subset of X that contains x.

Theorem 2.4 : Connected components are closed

Let (X, T) be a topological space. Then X is the disjoint union of its

connected components and each connected component is closed in X.

Proof :

Let Cx be the connected component of x for each x ∈ X. According to

the previous theorem, Cx is also connected. Since Cx is the largest connected set
that contains x, this implies Cx ⊂ Cx, so the two sets are equal and Cx is closed.

Now, it is clear that X is the union of all connected components, as each

element x is contained in Cx. Thus, it remains to show that the connected
components are disjoint. Suppose that Cx, Cy have a point in common. Then Cx ∪
Cy is connected and it contains each of x, y. This actually implies that

Cx ∪ Cy ⊂ Cx and Cx ∪ Cy ⊂ Cy.

In particular, the connected components Cx, Cy must be equal.

28
Compactness
Let (X, T) be a topological space and let A ⊂ X. An open cover of A is a
collection of open sets whose union contains A. An open subcover is a
subcollection which still forms an open cover. We say that A is compact if every
open cover of A has a finite subcover.

 The intervals (−n, n) with n ∈ N form an open cover of R, but this cover has
no finite subcover, so R is not compact.
 Suppose {xn} is a sequence that converges to the point x. Then the set A =
{x, x1, x2, x3, . . .} is easily seen to be compact.

Theorem 2.5 : Compactness and convergence

Suppose that X is a compact metric space. Then every sequence in X has

a convergent subsequence.

Proof :

Let {xn} be a sequence in X and let x ∈ X be arbitrary. If the open ball

B(x, 1/k) contains infinitely many terms of the sequence for each k > 0, one may
choose a term xnk ∈ B(x, 1/k) for each k > 0 to obtain a subsequence that converges
to x.

Assume this is not the case. Given any x ∈ X, we can then find some
open ball B(x, 1/k) that contains finitely many terms of the sequence. These open
balls form an open cover of X and a finite subcover exists by compactness. Since
the finite subcover contains only finitely many terms, the whole sequence contains
finitely many terms. In particular, one of the terms appears infinitely many times
and this gives rise to a constant, convergent subsequence.

Theorem 2.6 : about compact spaces

1) A compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.

Proof :

29
 Suppose X is Hausdorff and A ⊂ X is compact. To show that X − A is
open, let x ∈ X − A be given. Then for each y ∈ A there exist disjoint open sets
Uy, Vy such that x ∈ Uy and y ∈ Vy. Since the sets Vy form an open cover of A,
finitely many of them cover A by compactness. Suppose that Vy1 , . . . , Vyn do and
let

U = Uy1 ∩ · · · ∩ Uyn .

Since U does not intersect any Vyi , it does not intersect A, either. This shows
that each x ∈ X − A has a neighbourhood U which lies entirely within X − A. In
other words, every element of X − A lies in the interior of X − A.

It easily follows that X − A is equal to its interior, so this set is open and A is
closed.

2) A closed subset of a compact space is compact.

Proof :

Suppose X is compact and let A ⊂ X be closed. To show that A is

compact, suppose the sets Ui form an open cover of A. Adjoining X − A to these
sets gives an open cover of X. This has a finite subcover by compactness, so X is
covered by finitely many of the sets Ui along with X − A. In particular, A itself is
covered by finitely many of the sets Ui and so A is compact.

3) The interval [a, b] is compact for all real numbers a < b.

Proof :

Suppose I0 = [a, b] is not compact. Then some open sets Ui form an

open cover of I0 with no finite subcover. Divide I0 into two closed intervals of
equal length. At least one of them is not covered by finitely many Ui . Denote it by
I1 and proceed in this manner to get a sequence of closed intervals In that are not
covered by finitely many Ui , while In has length (b − a)/2n and In ⊃ In+1 for all n.

The numbers xn = min In form an increasing sequence which is also bounded.

Let x denote its limit. We note that x ∈ In for all n and x ∈ Uj for some j. Since Uj
is open, there exists some ε > 0 such that I = (x − ε, x + ε) lies within Uj . Pick an
integer n such that (b − a)/2n < ε. The intervals In, I both contain x, while the length

30
of In is less than ε. This implies that In ⊂ I ⊂ Uj , which is contrary to the fact that
In is not covered by a single Uj .

4) The continuous image of a compact space is compact: if X is compact and

f : X → Y is continuous, then f(X) is compact.

Proof :

Suppose the sets Ui form an open cover of f(X). Since f is continuous,

the inverse images f-1 (Ui) must then form an open cover of X. In particular,
finitely many of them cover X, say

X = f-1 (U1) ∪ · · · ∪ f-1 (Un).

It easily follows that ,

f(X) = U1 ∪ · · · ∪ Un.

Thus, finitely many Ui cover f(X) and so f(X) is compact.

5) If X is compact and f : X → R is continuous, then f is bounded.

Proof :

According to part 4 , the image f(X) is compact. Consider the open

intervals (−n, n) with n ∈ N. These form an open cover of f(X), so finitely many of
them cover f(X) and

f(X) ⊂ (−n1, n1) ∪ · · · ∪ (−nk, nk)

for some positive integers n1, . . . , nk. Letting N denote the largest of these
integers, we conclude that

f(X) ⊂ (−N, N).

In other words, |f(x)| < N for all x ∈ X and so f is bounded.

6) If X is compact and f : X → R is continuous, then there exist points a, b ∈ X

such that f(a) ≤ f(x) ≤ f(b) for all x ∈ X.

Proof :

31
 We note that f is bounded by part 5 . Let m and M denote its infimum
and supremum, respectively. Then m ≤ f(x) ≤ M for all x ∈ X and we need to show
that neither inequality is strict. We only prove this for the first inequality, as the
other one is similar.

Suppose that f(x) > m for all x ∈ X. Then the function

1
g(x) =
f(x)−m

is positive and continuous on X, so it must be bounded. Let R > 0 be a real

number such that g(x) ≤ R for all x ∈ X. Then it easily follows that f(x) ≥ m + 1/R
for all x ∈ X. This makes m + 1/R a lower bound of f, contrary to the fact that
m = inf f.

7) The product of two compact spaces is compact.

Proof :

Suppose that X, Y are compact and consider an open cover of X × Y .

We may assume it consists of the sets Wi = Ui × Vi , where each Ui is open in X
and each Vi is open in Y .

Given any y ∈ Y , one may define a surjective function

f : X → X × {y} , f(x) = (x, y).

Then f is continuous, so X × {y} is compact and thus covered by finitely many

sets Wi = Ui ×Vi . Let V (y) denote the intersection of the corresponding sets Vi .

Then V (y) is a neighbourhood of y such that X × V (y) is covered by

finitely many sets Wi = Ui × Vi .

The open sets V (y) obtained above form an open cover of Y , so finitely
many of them cover Y . Since each X × V (y) is covered by finitely many sets Wi ,
the same is true for the product X × Y .

Theorem 2.7 : Heine-Borel theorem

A subset of Rk is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded.

32
Proof :

Suppose that A ⊂ Rk is compact. Then A is a compact subset of a

Hausdorff space, hence also closed. Since Rk is covered by the open boxes (−n, n)k
with n ∈ N, finitely many of these boxes must cover A, so A is bounded as well.

Conversely, suppose that A ⊂ R k is closed and bounded. Then there is a

positive integer N such that A is contained in the closed box [−N, N]k . We note
that this box is compact because a finite product of compact spaces is compact by
induction. In particular, A is a closed subset of a compact space, hence also
compact.

Homeomorphism
A function f : X → Y between topological spaces is a homeomorphism if f is
bijective, continuous and its inverse f-1 is continuous. When such a function exists,
we say that X and Y are homeomorphic.

Theorem 2.8 : about homeomorphisms

1) Consider two homeomorphic topological spaces. If one of them is

connected or compact or Hausdorff, then so is the other.

Proof :

Suppose that f : X → Y is a homeomorphism. Then f and its inverse

-1
f are both continuous. Since the continuous image of a connected space is
connected, Y is connected if and only if X is connected. The same argument
applies for compact spaces because the continuous image of a compact space is
compact.

Finally, suppose that Y is Hausdorff and x1, x2 ∈ X are distinct. Since f is

bijective, the images f(x1), f(x2) ∈ Y are also distinct, so they are contained in
disjoint neighbourhoods U, V . The inverse images of those are then disjoint
neighbourhoods of x1, x2.

This shows that X is Hausdorff, if Y is Hausdorff. The converse follows

by applying this result to the inverse function f-1 .

33
2) Suppose f : X → Y is bijective and continuous. If X is compact and Y is
Hausdorff, then f is a homeomorphism.

Proof :

We need only show that f-1 is continuous. Suppose U is open in X. Then

X − U is closed in the compact space X, so it is compact. Since f is continuous, it
follows that f(X − U) is a compact subset of the Hausdorff space Y , so it is closed
in Y .

On the other hand, the fact that f is bijective implies that

y ∈ f(X − U) ⇐⇒ y = f(x) for some x ∉ U

⇐⇒ y ∉ f(U).

In other words, one has f(X − U) = Y − f(U). Since this set is closed in Y , we
conclude that f(U) is open in Y , as needed

 Every open interval (a, b) is homeomorphic to R. Thus, a complete space

can be homeomorphic with a space which is not complete.
 There is no closed interval [a, b] that is homeomorphic to R because the
former space is compact and the latter space is not.

Uniformly continuous
Let (X, dX) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces. A function f : X → Y is
uniformly continuous if, given any ε > 0 there exists δ > 0 such that dX(x, y) < δ
=⇒ dY (f(x), f(y)) < ε for all x, y ∈ X.

Theorem 2.9 : about uniform continuity

1) Every Lipschitz continuous function is uniformly continuous.

Proof :

Suppose that f : X → Y is a Lipschitz continuous function. Then there

exists a constant L ≥ 0 such that

34
 dY (f(x), f(y)) ≤ L · dX (x, y) for all x, y ∈ X.

Let ε > 0 be given. When L > 0, we can take δ = ε/L to find that

dX (x, y) < δ =⇒ dY (f(x), f(y)) ≤ L · dX(x, y)

=⇒ dY (f(x), f(y)) < L · δ = ε.

This shows that f is uniformly continuous on X. When L = 0, one still has

dY (f(x), f(y)) ≤ 0 < ε, so the same conclusion holds.

2) Every uniformly continuous function is continuous.

Proof :

To say that f : X → Y is uniformly continuous on X is to say that given

any ε > 0 there exists some δ > 0 such that

dX (x, y) < δ ⇒ dY (f(x), f(y)) < ε for all x, y ∈ X.

To say that f is continuous at a point x ∈ X is to say that the same condition

holds for all y ∈ X. Thus, uniform continuity on X trivially implies continuity at all
points of X.

3) When X is compact, a function f : X → Y is continuous on X if and only if it

is uniformly continuous on X.

Proof , part 1:

Uniform continuity on X trivially implies continuity at all points of X. To

prove the converse, let ε > 0 be given. Then for each point x ∈ X there exists some
δ(x) > 0 such that

dX (x, y) < δ(x) ⇒ dY (f(x), f(y)) < ε/2.

Since the open balls B(x, δ(x)/2) form an open cover of X, finitely many of them
cover X by compactness, say

35
 Letting δ > 0 be the smallest of the finitely many numbers δ(xi)/2, we shall now
show that f is uniformly continuous on X.

part 2 : Suppose x, y ∈ X are such that dx(x, y) < δ and note that x ∈ B(xi , δ(xi)/2)
for some 1 ≤ i ≤ n. We thus have

dx(y, xi) ≤ dx(y, x) + dx(x, xi) < δ + δ(xi)/2 ≤ δ(xi). Once we now
recall the definition of δ(xi), we may conclude that ,

dy (f(x), f(y)) ≤ dy (f(x), f(xi)) + dy (f(xi), f(y)) < ε.

This shows that the function f is uniformly continuous on X.

 f(x) = √ x is uniformly continuous on [0, 1] but not Lipschitz.

 f(x) = 1/x is continuous on (0, ∞) but not uniformly continuous.

36
 3. APPLICATIONS

3.1.What are Artificial Neural Networks?

An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an information processing
paradigm that is inspired by the way biological nervous systems, such as the brain,
process information. The key element of this paradigm is the novel structure of the
information processing system. It is composed of a large number of highly
interconnected processing elements ( neurons ) working in unison to solve specific
problems. ANN's, like people, learn by example. An ANN is configured for a
specific application, such as pattern recognition or data classification, through a
learning process. Learning in biological systems involves adjustments to the
synaptic connections that exist between the neurons. This is true of ANN's as
well.That is Artificial Neural Networks are relatively crude electronic models
based on the neural structure of the brain. The brain basically learns from
experience. It is natural proof that some problems that are beyond the scope of
current computers are indeed solvable by small energy efficient packages. This
brain modeling also promises a less technical way to develop machine solutions.
This new approach to computing also provides a more graceful degradation during
system overload than its more traditional counterparts.

These biologically inspired methods of computing are thought to

be the next major advancement in the computing industry. Even simple animal
brains are capable of functions that are currently impossible for computers.
Computers do rote things well, like keeping ledgers or performing complex math.
But computers have trouble recognizing even simple patterns much less
generalizing those patterns of the past into actions of the future.

3.1.1.Artificial Network Operations

The other part of the "art" of using neural networks revolves
around the myriad of ways these individual neurons can be clustered together. This
clustering occurs in the human mind in such a way that information can be
processed in a dynamic, interactive, and self-organizing way. Biologically, neural

37
networks are constructed in a three-dimensional world from microscopic
components. These neurons seem capable of nearly unrestricted interconnections.
That is not true of any proposed, or existing, man-made network. Integrated
circuits, using current technology, are two-dimensional devices with a limited
number of layers for interconnection. This physical reality restrains the types, and
scope, of artificial neural networks that can be implemented in silicon.

Currently, neural networks are the simple clustering of the primitive

artificial neurons. This clustering occurs by creating layers which are then
connected to one another.

How these layers connect is the other part of the "art" of

engineering networks to resolve real world problems.

Basically, all artificial neural networks have a similar structure or

topology as shown in Figure (1).

In that structure some of the neurons interfaces to the real world to receive its
inputs. Other neurons provide the real world with the networks outputs.

This output might be the particular character that the network thinks
that it has scanned or the particular image it thinks is being viewed. All the rest of
the neurons are hidden from view.

But a neural network is more than a bunch of neurons. Some early

researchers tried to simply connect neurons in a random manner, without much
success. Now, it is known that even the brains of snails are structured devices. One

38
of the easiest ways to design a structure is to create layers of elements. It is the
grouping of these neurons into layers, the connections between these layers, and
the summation and transfer functions that comprise a functioning neural network.
The general terms used to describe these characteristics are common to all
networks.

Although there are useful networks which contain only one layer, or
even one element, most applications require networks that contain at least the three
normal types of layers - input, hidden, and output. The layer of input neurons
receives the data either from input files or directly from electronic sensors in real-
time applications.

The output layer sends information directly to the outside world, to a secondary
computer process, or to other devices such as a mechanical control system.
Between these two layers, there can be many hidden layers. These internal layers
contain many of the neurons in various interconnected structures. The inputs and
outputs of each of these hidden neurons simply go to other neurons.

In most networks each neuron in a hidden layer receives the signals

from all of the neurons in a layer above it, typically an input layer. After a neuron
performs its function it passes its output to all of the neurons in the layer below it,
providing a feed forward path to the output. These lines of communication from
one neuron to another are important aspects of neural networks. They are the glue
to the system. They are the connections which provide a variable strength to an
input. There are two types of these connections. One causes the summing
mechanism of the next neuron to add while the other causes it to subtract. In more
human terms one excites while the other inhibits.

Some networks want a neuron to inhibit the other neurons in the

same layer. This is called lateral inhibition. The most common use of this is in the
output layer. For example in text recognition if the probability of a character being
a "P" is .85 and the probability of the character being an "F" is .65, the network
wants to choose the highest probability and inhibit all the others. It can do that with
lateral inhibition. This concept is also called competition.

3.2.Applications of hausdorff space

39
3.2.1.The ability to separate points
Hausdorff spaces are spaces where the intuition that any two points are far off, is
concretely realized: given any two points, there are disjoint open sets containing
both of them. A number of topological spaces encountered are Hausdorff.
3.2.2.Compact subsets are closed
One of the most frequent uses of the Hausdorffness assumption is that compact
subsets of a Hausdorff space are closed. The power of this is that knowing
something about a subset as an abstract topological space, we can deduce that it is
embedded as a closed subset.
Hausdorffness is not a necessary condition for compact subsets to be closed; in
general, a topological space for which compact subsets are closed is termed a KC-
space. However, Hausdorffness is practically the most common way of ensuring
that compact subsets are closed.
The fact that compact subsets are closed is used in a number of ways; most
frequently when using a gluing lemma with local data. For instance, if is
a Euclidean point in a Hausdorff space, and is a neighbourhood of
homeomorphic to , then the image of the closed disc in is a closed subset
of the whole space. This idea is used in arguments involving manifolds and CW-
spaces; for instance the proof that any connected manifold is homogeneous.
3.2.3.Sequences have unique limits
In a Hausdorff space, it makes sense to talk of the limit of a sequence. In other
words, the same sequence of points cannot have two different limits. This is
essentially because any two distinct points are separated by disjoint open subsets.
Again, Hausdorffness is not a necessary condition for sequences to have unique
limits. A topological space in which every sequence of points has a unique limit is
termed a US-space. However, Hausdorffness is practically the most common way
of ensuring that sequences of points have unique limits.

3.3.Applications of connected spaces

We’ve spoken a lot about the connected space and the individual, internet-enabled
devices which contribute to it. But what we haven’t done, is create one
comprehensive list of the applications available for use within each connected
space. The devices and technologies which will power those spaces and enable
them to become smarter. Looking at sensor systems, data trackers, digital screen

40
applications and more that will make our offices, healthcare centres and retail
outlets far smarter than they’ve ever been before.

3.3.1.Healthcare

1. GlowCap is a small application which measures out daily medication and

dosages. This allows carers, or individuals, to better manage health medication,
from within the connected healthcare space or at home. It also allows care teams or
Doctors to measure how often medication is being taken or missed.

2. Zanthion is a medical alert system that is worn by a patient, either through

clothing or an item of jewellery. The system is connected to sensors which help
measure where someone is (for example, helping to see if they’ve fallen out of
bed). The devices then connect to a mobile app which can be employed by loved
ones, who can track how an elderly relative is doing at any time and communicate
with other relatives as needed.

3. ScreenCloud (our product) is currently being used in healthcare centres to

provide digital screens which contribute to better health and can change content
dynamically, in order to better serve patient and doctor needs. Digital signage is a
method that’s available to all medical centres and one which can be implemented
now.

4. Up by Jawbone is a fitness tracker that can be used to monitor all aspects of

health, from weight and sleep patterns, to activity and diet, to allow the user to
make better health decisions based on data.

5. Wireless sensors are being used in hospital refrigerators, freezers and

laboratories to ensure that blood samples, medications and other materials are kept
at the proper temperature. This removes a job that would usually be done manually
by staff members.

3.3.2.Hospitality

1. Robot concierges are being used in hotels such as the Henn-na in Japan, which
help to reduce staff number and allow guests to check-in automatically.

41
2. Miami airport have implemented a mobile app called MIA Airport
Official which feeds off of a connected network of 400 beacons. The primary
function is to help passengers navigate specific stores or services, to find luggage
carousels and receive live check in information. On the other side, the airport
receives refined metrics on who did what and when.

3. The Space Case is a smart suitcase that comes with GPS, fingerprint locks and
speakers. This makes the location of lost luggage apparent in seconds and helps
travellers to better track their luggage.

4. Costa Express CEM-200* is a self-service cafe that allows you to order by

touchscreen, pay cashless and see personalized digital signage, without the need of
any physical store staff.

3.3.3.Education

1. Voice user interfaces (VUIs) paired with digital signage are changing how
educational staff can interact with students within the connected education space.
Digital screens, led by voice, can be used to share information, news feeds, videos,
images and more, to aid learning within the classroom.

2. Micro:bit computers, often used in schools, can be networked with sensors,

allowing students or teachers to turn regular devices into internet-enabled things.

3. Microsoft’s Seeing Artificial Intelligence app can currently be used in schools,

run via the student’s smartphone or a special pair of glasses. The app gives a play-
by-play account of people, objects and even emotional context, that would help
students to hear and feel what’s going on around them, providing a richer learning
and social experience.

4. Glogster is an interactive means of creating posters that pulls together images,

media files, videos, audio and text, useful for students who want to collate
information outside of the classroom and present it in a new way.

42
Topology being somehow very recent in nature but has got tremendous
applications over almost all other fields. Theoretical or fundamental topology is a
bit dry but the application part is what drives crazy once we get used. In this paper
we discuss some applications in various fields of Science and Technology, like
applications to Biology, Robotics, GIS, Engineering, Computer Sciences.
Topology though being a part of mathematics but it has influenced the whole world
with so strong effects and incredible applications.

43
 4.REFERENCES
1.Topological spaces from mathsworld.wolfram.com..

2. Typology -encyclopedia of mathematics.

3. Introduction to topology by processor Denis auroux- people . math.harvard.edu

4. Topology and Its Applications , Author(s): William F. Basener.

5.Topology by JAMES R. MUNKRES , Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

6.Topological spaces by by H.J. Kowalsky

7.Britannica.com

44