2- The Chemical Basis of Life

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Gel Austin Diego Pascua || 2022
[email protected] | Twitter: @alsacze | IG: @gelaustin

Basic Chemistry  Valence shell – the outermost shell (contains

Valence electrons); hold a maximum amount
Chemistry of 8 valence electrons.
- Science of the structure and interactions of matter.
Atomic Number and Mass Number
 Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass; Atomic number
makes up all living and nonliving things; Exist in three - Number of protons in the nucleus (also the number of
states: solid, liquid, and gas. electrons)

Elements and Atoms Mass number

Chemical elements - The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom
- The simplest type of matter (having unique chemical
properties) Isotopes and Atomic Mass
Isotopes
Each named element is designated by a chemical - Two or more forms of the same element that have the
symbol, one or two letters of the element’s name in same number of protons and electrons but a different
number of neutrons.
English, Latin, or another language
- Have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers.
Atoms
- Smallest particle of an element that has its chemical
characteristics.  Radioactive Isotopes – isotopes that are unstable;
their nuclear spontaneously change (decay) into stable
Atomic Structure configuration and emit radiation as they transform into
a different element.

Atomic mass
- (or atomic weight) the average mass of all its naturally
occurring isotopes

 Dalton – (or atomic mass unit: amu) standard unit for

measuring the mass of atoms and their subatomic
particles

Ions, Molecules, and Compounds

Ions
- Atom that has either gained or given up an electron;
- An atom that has a positive or negative charge
because it has unequal numbers of protons and
Subatomic particles:
electrons.
 Nucleus: dense central core of an atom; consist of
protons and neutrons.
 Electrolyte - An ionic compound that breaks apart into
 Protons – Positively charged particles
positive and negative ions in solution.
 Neutrons – Has no charge
 Electrons – Negatively charged particles; constantly Molecule
moving around the nucleus: - Resulting combination of two or more atoms sharing
a. Electron cloud model: Represented by an electrons.
electron cloud (since electrons are always moving  Molecular mass - determined by adding up the
around the nucleus; they do not follow a fixed path atomic masses of its atoms (or ions)
or orbit)
b. Electron shell model: concentric rings around Compound
nucleus where specific groups of electrons are - Substance that contains atoms or two or more different
most likely to move around. elements.
 Innermost shell – can hold a max. of 2  Some are molecules, and some are not.
electrons; remaining shells hold a maximum of (Remember that to be a molecule, a structure
18 electrons (contains Core electrons) must be an independent unit.)
In atoms, the number of protons and Electrons are equal:
cancelling each other’s charges.

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Free Radical – atom or group of atoms w/ an unpaired
valence electron; unstable, highly reactive, and destructive
to nearby molecules.

The atoms of each element have a characteristic way of

losing, gaining, or sharing their electrons when interacting
with other atoms to achieve stability.  There are TWO kinds of forces/attraction, that operate
in a molecule: Intramolecular and Intermolecular.
The Mole and Molar Mass
1 mole (m ol) = 6.022 × 1023 = Avogadro’s number Intramolecular Forces
- It can be a 6.022 * 10 23 of atoms, molecules, or ions - Forces that hold ATOMS together within a molecule;
(f.units) - Has two main types: Ionic and Covalent
- the amount of any substance that has a mass in grams
equal to the sum of the atomic masses of all its atoms Ionic Bonds
- measurements of substances stated in moles tell us - The force of attraction that holds ions with opposite
about the numbers of atoms, ions, or molecules charges;
present. - Form only between metals and nonmetals.

Molar mass Ion

- Mass of 1 mole of a substance expressed in grams - Formed wen atoms lose or gain one or more valence
- Total mass number electrons; Positively and negatively charged ions are
Example: attracted to one another—opposites attract.
  Cation – positively charged ions; atom that has given
up an electron
Electrons and Chemical bonding  Anion – negatively charged ions; atom that has
Chemical bonding received an electron
- formed by the interaction of electrons though
sharing/transferring valence electrons.

 The chemical behavior of an atom is dependent on its

electrons.

 Inert – atom that has maximum no. of valence

electrons;
− Does not naturally form chemical bonds with other
atoms.

 Chemically reactive – atom’s valence shell is not full

forms chemical bonds with other atoms to achieve a
full valence shell, called an octet
Octet rule – tendency of atoms to combine with other
atoms until each has 8 electrons (2 electrons for
hydrogen) in its valence shell and achieve stability.

Atoms achieve an octet in two major ways:

1. Transfer of electrons between atoms. (ionic)
2. Sharing of electrons between atoms. (covalent)

 The decision whether an electron is transferred or

shared between two atoms depends on the relative Covalent bonds
difference in electronegativity between the atoms. - Forms when atoms share one or more pairs of
electrons; occurs because the atoms have similar
Electronegativity electronegativities
- the ability of an atom’s nucleus to attract electrons.
 Electronegativities of two atoms are similar, the atoms Molecule: Resulting combination of atoms sharing
tend to share electrons.
 When electronegativities are very different, the atoms
tend to transfer electrons  Single covalent bond - sharing of one pair of
electrons by two atoms. (e.g., H—H)
The number of required valence electrons for an atom
to be stable and electronegativity have a direct
relationship, i.e.: Page 2 of 6
The higher the valence electrons needed for the
valence shell to be full, the higher the electronegativity.
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 Double covalent bond - results when two atoms Metabolism - all the chemical reactions occurring in the
share 4 electrons, 2 from each atom. body.

Nonpolar covalent bonds Energy and its forms

- Equal sharing of electrons between two atoms Energy
- Results in an even charge distribution among the - The capacity to do work—that is, to move matter
atoms of the molecule - Subdivided into potential energy and kinetic energy.

Polar Covalent Bond  Potential energy - energy stored by matter due to its
- Unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms position.
- Results in a slightly positive charge (δ+) on one side  Kinetic energy - energy associated with matter in
of the molecule and a slightly negative charge (δ−) on motion
the other side of the molecule
 Can result in polar molecules Law of conservation of energy
Intermolecular Forces - energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only
- Forces that exist between MOLECULES. be transformed;
- total energy of the universe is constant
Intermolecular forces
- Weak electrostatic attractions that exist between Chemical energy - form of potential energy that is stored
oppositely charged parts of molecules, or between ions in the bonds of compounds and molecules
and molecules. (Both should be polar)
- No exchange of electrons; much weaker than the Mechanical energy - results from the position or
forces producing chemical bonding movement of objects.

Hydrogen Bonds Heat Energy - a form of energy that flows from a hotter
- Formed when a positively charged hydrogen of one object to a cooler object.
molecule is attracted to the negatively charged oxygen,
nitrogen, or fluorine of another molecule. Energy Transfer:
1. Exergonic reactions: chemical reactions that release
Solubility and Dissociation more energy than they absorb.
Solubility
- ability of one substance to dissolve in another. 2. Endergonic reactions: chemical reactions that absorb
 Polar substances readily dissolve in water (bc water is more energy than they release.
a polar substance so it interacts with these molecules
and breaks them down; whereas nonpolar substances A key feature of the body’s metabolism is the coupling of
do not) exergonic reactions and endergonic reactions. Energy
released from an exergonic reaction often is used to drive
Disassociation an endergonic one.
- (or separation from one another);
- this is what happens when ionic compounds dissolve in Activation Energy - collision energy needed to break the
water--- they dissociate/ionize chemical bonds of the reactants; needed to start a
 cations are attracted to the negative ends of water reaction.
molecules and anions are attracted to the positive
ends of water molecules.  Catalysts - chemical compounds that speed up
chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy
 Electrolytes - Cations and anions that dissociate in needed for a reaction to occur, e.g., enzymes
water; they have the capacity to conduct an electric
current, which is the flow of charged particles. Types of Chemical Reactions
 Nonelectrolyte - Molecules that do not dissociate form Synthesis reaction
solutions that do not conduct electricity - Occurs when two or more reactants chemically
combine to form a new and larger product
Chemical Reactions and Energy - Usually, endergonic
Chemical reactions
Anabolism – Synthesis reactions occurring in the body.
- occurs when atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds
interact either to form or to break chemical bonds;
 Dehydration reactions - Synthesis reactions in which
 Reactants - substances that enter into a chemical
water is a product.
reaction
 Products - substances that result from the chemical
reaction

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Decomposition Reactions
- Reverse of a synthesis reaction: larger reactant is
chemically broken down into two or more smaller
products.

Catabolism - decomposition reactions occurring in the

body In general, polar molecules are attracted to one another by:
Dipole Interactions
 Hydrolysis reactions - Reactions that use water in - The negative end of one molecule attracts the positive
this manner end of another molecule.
-
 However, in water, this attraction results in hydrogen
bonding.

 Hydrogen bonds
Reversible Reactions
- The reaction can run in the opposite direction, so that - attractive forces that arise when a hydrogen atom is
the products the products can revert to the original covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom and
reactants. also weakly bonded to an unshared electron pair of
another electronegative atom
 It allows water to have:
1. Stick to other water molecules – cohesion
2. Stick to surfaces – adhesion
Exchange Reactions 3. Absorb large amounts of heat before changing
- Consist of both synthesis and decomposition reactions. phase or boiling – high latent heat
4. Dissolve numerous polar and charged
substances (solutes) – good solvent.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (REDOX reaction)  Water is a weak electrolyte that is both amphoteric and
- Chemical reactions that result from the exchange of amphiprotic in nature
electrons between the reactants; the reactions that  Amphoteric – can react both as ab acid and as a base
break down food molecules to produce energy  Amphiprotic – a substance that can both accept ad
donate a proton or H+
 Oxidation – gain of electrons (oxidized substance
releases energy) Water and Life
Water is the major body constituent. An adult human
 Reduction – loss of electrons (reduced substance contains about 60% water (men 55-70%, women 45-60%).
gains energy)
 This is distributed in intracellular (inside the cells 28l)
These reactions are always PARALLEL: when one and extracellular (outside the cells 14l) compartments,
substance is oxidized, another is reduced at the same respectively known as intracellular fluid (ICF) and
time. extracellular fluid (ECF). The ECF is further divided
Example: When glucose (a food molecule) is into interstitial fluid (10.5l) and plasma (3.5l).
oxidized, the energy produced is used by a cell to
carry out its various functions

Inorganic Chemistry
- Generally deals with substances that do not contain
carbon (lack of carbon-hydrogen bonds)

Water
- most abundant substance in living systems; Formed
when an atom of oxygen forms polar covalent bonds Functions of water
with two atoms of hydrogen; which has remarkable 1. Water provides the aqueous medium to the organism
properties due to its polar nature which is essential for the various biochemical reactions
to occur.
Strongly electronegative 2. Water directly participates as a reactant in several
oxygen atom attracts metabolic reactions. (Dehydration reaction/hydrolysis
electrons away from the reaction)
hydrogen nuclei, leaving 3. It serves as a vehicle for transport of solutes.
them with a partial
positive charge, while its
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two unshared electron
pairs constitute a region
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4. Stabilize Body Temperature; it resists large Example:
temperature fluctuations because it can absorb large  Blood - When freshly drawn from the body, blood has
amounts of heat and remain at a stable temperature. an even, reddish color. Aft er blood sits for a while in a
test tube, red blood cells settle out of the suspension
Water Turnover and Balance and drift to the bottom of the tube
Water intake
- Water is supplied to the body by exogenous and
endogenous sources.
 Exogenous water - Ingested water and beverages, Colloid
water content of solid foods. - A mixture in which a dispersed substance or particle is
- Increase in the osmolality of plasma causes increased unevenly distributed throughout the mixture.
water intake by stimulating thirst center (located in - Differs from solutions mainly because of the size of its
hypothalamus) particles which are all large enough to scatter light; and
 Endogenous water - metabolic water produced from suspension bc the dispersed particles are small
within the body; (300-350 ml/day) is derive from the enough that they do not settle out.
oxidation of foodstuffs. - Usually appear translucent or opaque

Water output Solution Concentration

- Water losses from the body are variable. Physiologists often express solution concentration in terms
- There are four distinct routes for the elimination of of percent, molarity, molality, and equivalents.
water from the body—urine, skin, lungs, and feces.
Moles
- Amount of any substance that has a mass in grams
equal to the sum of the atomic masses of all its atoms.
- 1 mole (mol) = 6.022 × 1023 = Avogadro’s number

Percent
- Gives the relative mass of a solute found in a given
volume of solution
- (Weight-volume method) states the weight of a solute
in each volume of solvent.

Molarity
- Determines the number of moles of solute dissolved in
Diabetes insipidus - a disorder characterized by the
a given volume of solvent.
deficiency of ADH (antidiuretic hormone) which results
in an increased loss of water from the body

Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions

Mixture
- Combination of elements or compounds physically
blended but not bound by chemical bonds
- Three common liquid mixtures are solutions, colloids,
and suspensions.

Solutions
- Any mixture in which the substances are uniformly
distributed.
- Often described in terms of one substance dissolving
in another:

 The solute dissolves in the solvent.

- Because solute particles in a solution are very small, a

solution looks transparent.

Suspension
- Mixture containing materials that separate from each
other unless they are continually, physically blended
together.

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