INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Structuralism…the first step

What is Psychology?  The focus of study was way too narrow
 Psychology is the Scientific study of  They studied people only like themselves-
Behavior and Mental Processes. very wealthy white males.
 Psychology is the science of human  No valid research was produced
behavior and mental processes.  This school of thought was a great start, but
 Behavior is anything we do – overt actions no longer exists
and reactions
 Mental processes are our internal The Next Evolution
experiences – thoughts, feelings,  FUNCTIONALISM is the second
memories… perspective to emerge, founded by
William James
Why study Psychology?
 Psychology helps us scientifically evaluate Functionalism
common beliefs and misconceptions about  William James
behavior and mental processes.  Functionalism focused on behavior in
addition to mind and consciousness.
Goals of Psychology  They studied how and why the mind
 Describe functions
 Explain  Used direct observations to supplement
 Predict introspection.
 Control behavior and mental processes  How experience helps us.
Behaviorism
Where Psychology Comes from:
 A History (July 12, 1967)  John Broadus Watson
Ancient Contributors to Psychology  Behaviorism focuses on learning
 Socrates observable (measurable) behavior.
 Pointed out that people are social  B.F. Skinner – Learned behavior is
creatures who influence one another – behavior that is reinforced
Introspection (careful examination of
Gestalt Psychology
one’s thoughts and emotions – to gain
self-knowledge)  Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka,
Wolfgang Köhler
 Gestalt focused on perception and its
Where did Psychology come from? influence on thinking and problem
 The first psychological laboratory was not solving
created until 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt. o Perception is more than sum of
 Wundt was responsible for creating the first their parts
school of psychological thought called o Active and purposeful
Structuralism – This school focused only on o Insight learning The Importance
immediate conscious experience and of
thought.
Psychoanalysis
 Sigmund Freud
Problems with Structuralism  Psychoanalysis
 This group of Psychologists used a - Influence of unconscious
technique called Introspection which was a motives and conflicts
process of self-examination where the
- Theory of personality “Much of
person described and analyzed thoughts as
our lives is governed by
they occurred.
unconscious ideas and impulses”
 - Therapy  Psychology as science conducts research on
behavior and mental process in a scientific way.
This means being unbiased or objective as well
as reliable so that the results may be replicated
Freud’s view of the Human Mind by another researcher. Psychologists use several
research strategies to investigate a phenomenon.
In the Philippines,
In the Philippines, psychology was taught as early The Scientific Method
as the 17th century at the University of  Formulate a research question
 State the hypothesis
San Carlos in Cebu and University of Santo Tomas
 Test the hypothesis
(UST). However, these beginnings of
 Draw conclusions based on findings
Psychology were closely tied up with Philosophy  Publish research
and Education until the 1960’s.  Replicate study
In 1962, the emphasis on scientific approach and
Experimental Method
nationalism lead to the founding of the
 Demonstrates cause and effect through
Psychological Association of the Philippines (PAP). scientific method
This is the professional organization  Independent variable- can be
ofpsychologists in the Philippines manipulated
 Dependent variable-measured
During the 1970’s, a greater interest in indigenous result/outcome
psychology led to the founding of the Ex. What is the effect of alcohol to
Pambansang Samahan sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino person’s agresison?
(PSSP) in 1975.  Experimental groups
 Control groups
This is a multidisciplinary group interested in the  Placebos
Filipino psyche.
Case Study
 Gather information about individuals or small
In 2009, the Republic Act No. 10029 (RA 10029) or groups – Sometimes used to investigate rarities
the Philippine Psychology Act of 2009 was enacted. – In-depth look at individual.
This law regulates the practice of psychology and Survey Method
psychometrics here in the Philippines to protect the  Used to collect information that cannot be
public from inexperienced or untrained individuals observed directly – Survey questionnaires.
offering psychological services, and to nurture Observation Methods
competent, upright and assiduous psychologists 1. Naturalistic Observation – Observe subjects
whose standards of practice are excellent and in their natural environment – Unobtrusive
globally competitive. The delivery of psychological measure
services includes, but not limited to: 2. Participant Observation
- Psychological intervention: Clinical Method
- psychological counseling  Used frequently by psychologists working with
- psychotherapy people having psychological difficulties, this
- Psychosocial support method studies the individual as a unique
- Coaching whole, by means of systematic observation,
interviews, psychological testing, etc. Through
- psychological debriefing
these means, the psychologist tries to
- group process
reconstruct the personal and family history
Methods of Psychology prior and relevant to the onset of the
psychological difficulties (anamnesis).
Understanding of the past is thought to be
 important in the understanding of an - benefits of the research justify the
individual’s present behavior. harm
Longitudinal Method
 In this method an individual is followed over a Modern Perspectives in Psychology
relatively long period of time, with  Biological: the role of biological processes
observations and measurements made at and structures, and heredity in explaining
periodic intervals. behavior
 The advantage of this method consists in the  Psychoanalytic: the role of unconscious
multiple observations of the same people, motivation and early childhood experiences
giving a more reliable and consistent picture. Its in determining behavior and thought
disadvantage lies in the fact that it is a time-  Behavioral: the role of environment in
consuming procedure, often spread over years. shaping and controlling behavior
 Cognitive: the role of mental processes-
Archival Method perception, thinking, and memory-that
 The archival method systematically studies underlie behavior
written records, statistical archives, and  Humanistic: the importance of an
physical traces of human beings, instead of individual’s subjective experience as a key
their actual behaviors. These include diaries, to understanding his or her behavior
letters, paintings, books, poems, movies,  Evolutionary: the roles of inherited
speeches, etc. Systematic observations of these tendencies that have proven adaptive in
can reveal patterns of behavior humans
 Cross-cultural: the roles of social and
Indigenous Research Method cultural influences on behavior
 The following are examples of indigenous AREAS IN PSYCHOLOGY
methods:
Developmental: Looks at human development
Iskala ng Mananaliksik across the life span. Developmental psychology
 Pagmamasid once focused primarily on child development but
 Pakikiramdam today devotes a great deal of research to
 Partatanung-tanong adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
 Pagsubok
 Pagdalaw-dalaw Social: Focuses on interpersonal behavior and the
 Pagmamatyag at pagsubaybay role of social forces in governing behavior. Typical
topics include attitude formation, attitude change,
Ethics of Research with Humans prejudice, conformity, attraction, aggression,
 Ethical review committee and ethical intimate relationships, and behavior in groups
standards
- Promote individual dignity, human Experimental: Encompasses the traditional core of
welfare and scientific integrity. topics such as sensation, perception, learning,
- Ensure no harm will come to subjects. conditioning, motivation and emotion.
 Informed consent
Physiological: Examines the influence of genetic
 Confidentiality
factors on behavior and the role of the brain,
 Deception
nervous system, endocrine system, and bodily
 Debriefing
chemicals in the regulation of behavior.
Ethics of Research with Animals Cognitive: Focuses on “higher” mental processes
 Animals are used when research cannot be such as memory, reasoning, information processing,
carried out with humans language, problem solving, decision making, and
 Animals may be harmed, only when: creativity.
- there is no alternative, and
Personality: Interested in describing and
understanding individuals’ consistency in behavior,
Human Development – scientific study of the
which represents their personality. This area is
changes that occur in people as they age, from
interested in factors that shape personality and with conception until death.
personality assessment.
Clinical: Concerned with evaluation, diagnosis, and 2 Factors
treatment of individuals with psychological
1.HEREDITY (Nature)
disorders, as well as treatment of individuals with
How does heredity function?
psychological disorders, as well as treatment of less
The process of human reproduction
severe behavioral and emotional problems. Approximately 5 million of sperms will swim
Principal activities include interviewing clients, through their final target- the egg that is hidden in
psychological testing, and providing group and the fallopian tube. These sperms have some
individual psychotherapy. tremendous
forces and large in volumes, nevertheless, only one
Counseling: Overlaps with clinical psychology in
of them
that specialists in both areas engage in similar The outer layer of the egg is protected by a layer of
activities – interviewing, testing, and providing transparent coating, which looks like a beautiful
therapy. Counseling psychologists usually work planet suspending in the universe. After crossing
with a somewhat different clientele, providing more bridges successfully, the sperms finally meet
assistance to people struggling with everyday the egg.
problems of moderate severity – they specialize in
family, marital, or career counseling. 2.ENVIRONMENT (Nurture)
Surroundings, people, social status, etc.
Educational: Work to improve curriculum design,
achievement testing, teacher training, and other The Process of Reproduction
aspects of the educational process. School Prenatal Development
psychologists usually work in elementary or Conception - when a sperm penetrates the ovum
secondary schools, where they test and counsel Zygote - a fertilized egg
children having difficulties in school and aid parents
and teachers in solving school-related problems. 23 pairs of chromosomes

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Germinal Stage – Conception through implantation

– Zygote divides and becomes implanted in the
uterine wall
Embryonic Stage – Implantation until about 8th
week – Major organ systems are formed – Genetic
code (XX or XY) causes sex organs to differentiate
• Y sex chromosome – testes form and produce
androgens
– Embryo is suspended in amniotic sac
Nutrients and wastes are exchanged with mother
I/O: Perform a wide variety of tasks in the world of through placenta
business and industry. These tasks include running Embryo is connected to placenta by umbilical cord.
human resources departments, working to improve Fetal Stage – Beginning of third month until birth –
staff morale and attitudes, striving to increase job Characterized by maturation and gains in size
satisfaction and productivity, examining
organizational structures and procedures, and
making recommendations for improvements
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of  guilt comes from being made to feel bad about
Development self-initiated activities and ideas
Erikson’s psychosocial theory of
development considers the impact of external Initiative vs. Guilt
factors, parents and society on personality Is the child given appropriate responsibilities?
development from childhood to adulthood.  How are mistakes dealt with?
According to Erikson’s theory, every person must  A time for play, not formal education
pass through a series of eight interrelated stages  Encourage child to have own ideas
over the entire life cycle.
Industry vs. Inferiority (competence)
Psychosocial Development Erikson’s Theory Ages 6 to 12 Years School Age
Psychosocial development Am I encouraged to make and do things, and then
– Involves changes in our interactions and praised for my accomplishments?
understanding of one another as well as in our  When children succeed in learning new skills
knowledge and understanding of ourselves as and obtaining new knowledge, they develop a
members of society sense of industry
– Stages are a pairing of the most positive and most  A feeling of competence arising from their work
negative aspects of the crisis of that period and effort
– Crisis – is a turning point in life when we have  social tasks: making friends, following rules,
the potential to move forward or to regress. sharing ideas
 industry is orientation toward working, doing,
Ages 0 to 1 Year Infancy producing
Trust vs. mistrust  Children with a sense of industry show an
(infancy) Is the world a trustworthy place? interest in school work, tasks they are given at
infants need to feel cared for and loved home and display a responsible attitude
If babies’ needs are met, they learn to trust people  This sense of inferiority can become further
and expect life to be pleasant entrenched if that child is criticized by their
rejected children are more fearful, insecure, jealous, parents or other people.
aggressive, hostile, isolated – mistrustful.
Identity vs. Role-Confusion (fidelity)
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Ages 1 to 3 Ages 12 to 18 Years Adolescence & Teen
Early Childhood Who am I? What do I believe in? What path will I
Am I capable of doing things on my own? choose for myself?
 Awareness of emerging skills develops  time of psychological and physiological
 Toddlers realize they can direct their own revolution
behavior. Adolescent are faced with deciding who or what
 positive resolution includes acceptance of they want to be in terms of occupation, beliefs,
negative feelings - rage, anger, hatred - as well attitudes, and behavior patterns
as independence must develop strong identity - sexual, personal
 A toddler with a sense of autonomy will be lack of identity = inability to progress
interested in exploring their surroundings successfully
 They will tend to perform this exploration by
themselves, and as a result may appear to Identity Development
wander off randomly or try to escape from their  Cultural and ethnic identity
parents somehow to explore new surroundings.  Career identity
 Gender identity
Initiative vs. Guilt (purpose) Ages 3 to 6  Self- identity
years Preschool Age  Autonomy
Is my growing independence supported?
 child decides what kind of person to be
 initiative comes with freedom and opportunity Family and Teens
to initiate motor play and intellectual pursuits
  Parenting styles that involve listening, Intimacy vs. Isolation (love) Ages 18 to 35
asking clarifying questions and higher -level Years Early Adulthood
reasoning is more effective than Can I fully commit to another person?
– Threats, sarcastic remarks  intimacy is the ability to care deeply for another
person
Peer relationships  the ability to share one’s true feelings
 Average at least 18 hours per week with  the ability to give and receive affection
peers  People who succeed in this task will have
 Friendships-intimacy intimate relationships
 Loyal  An adult who is capable of intimacy will tend
 Close friendships assist with self - to form close bonds with people, such as by
exploration, understanding of others, stress forming friends and having romantic
of teen years, and school stress relationships with members of the opposite sex,
eventually leading to marriage.
Cliques and Crowds  An adult with a sense of isolation finds it
 Cliques-small group of close or good difficult to form relationships with people, and
friends is unable to understand what other people are
 Crowd-loosely organized group of several thinking or feeling.
cliques and others  As a result, they spend most of the time by
 Dating-apart of teen life; assist teens in themselves, with little or no friends.
learning about people, love relationships,  This stage can be summarized by saying that an
etiquette, culture and cooperation adult with intimacy can form close
 Peer pressure-pressure to conform-seen in relationships with people, whereas an adult
dress grooming and participation in social with isolation cannot.
activities
Generativity vs. Stagnation (care)
Problems in Teen Years Ages 35 to 55 Middle Age
 Depression What can I contribute to the next generation?
 Suicide  care represents concern for others and need to
 Delinquency give to next generation
 Drug Abuse  The challenge to be creative, productive and
 At Risk nurturant of the next generation
 Thereby benefiting themselves, their family,
 An adolescent with a sense of identity will feel community, country and future generations
as though they know where they are going in  An adult with the trait of generativity is
life, or at least what they would like to be when capable of productive work, which they usually
they are older. undertake for several years.
 Adolescents with a sense of role confusion feel  This trait is also linked to helping others in some
as though they have no direction or purpose in way, for example a mother who looks after her
life, and feel unsure as to what the future holds children.
for them.  An adult with a trait of self-absorption is
 They are unlikely to have any long- term goals, more concerned with themselves rather than
and their behavior could best be described as other people.
drifting aimlessly through life. They are also  This stage can be summarized by saying that a
likely to have low self-esteem. person with generativity likes to give
 So, in summary, an adolescent with a sense of something to others, whereas a person with the
identity knows what they want to be when they trait of self-absorption likes to take things
are older. Whereas an adolescent with a sense from others.
of role confusion, is uncertain as to what they
will be or do when they are older. Integrity vs. Despair (wisdom) Ages 55 to 65
to death old age
 Do I have regrets, or am I satisfied with how my Schemas
life went? Schemas are mental molds into which
 wisdom comes from a meaningful life we pour our experiences.
 integrity reflects the life well-lived
 Elderly people who succeed in, addressing this
issue will enjoy life and will not fear death The principle of conservation
 despair reflects a wish to do it over correctly - The recognition that changes in size or
 with despair, one does not find peace and will shape do not change the amount of a
fear death
 A person with a trait of integrity can face death
with peace of mind, because they know their life
has been lived to the fullest and they have
achieved the things they wanted to do in life.
 A person with a trait of despair feels a sense of
desperation as their life draws to a close,
because they feel they have wasted it and not substance - is not acquired during this
been able to do the things they hoped to do. stage.
 In summary a person with srity can accept
death, but a person with despair wishes for a  Preoperational Stage
second chance and for more time before they - Piaget suggested that from 2 years old
die. to about 6-7 years old, children are in
the preoperational stage - too young to
Four Stages of Piaget’s Theory perform mental operations.
Cognitive Development
- Piaget believed that the driving force behind
intellectual development is our biological
development amidst experiences with the
environment. Our cognitive development is
shaped by the errors we make.

 Sensorimotor Stage
- Approximate age range
 Concrete operational
Birth – 2 years
- Approximate age range
- Children explore the world using the senses
and ability to move 1. - 12 years
- babies take in the world by looking, hearing, - They are able to conserve, reverse
touching, mouthing, and grasping. Children thinking, and classify objects in terms of
younger than 6 months of age do not grasp their many
object permanence, i.e., objects that are out characteristics. They can also think
of sight are also out of mind. logically and understand analogies but
only concrete
 Preoperational
events.
- Approximate age range
- given concrete materials, 6- to 7-year-
2 - 7 years olds grasp conservation problems and
- Young children can mentally represent mentally pour liquids back and forth into
and refer to objects and events with glasses of different shapes conserving
words or pictures and they can pretend. their quantities.
However, they can’t conserve, logically
reason, or simultaneously consider many Cognitive Development
characteristics of an object In Childhood
 The principle of conservation
 - The recognition that changes in  Age
size or shape do not change the Birth – 1 year
amount of a substance - is  Erogenous Zone
acquired during this stage. Children gratify the sex instinct by
stimulating the mouth, lips, teeth, and gums.
Cognitive Stage
 Formal operational 2. ANAL
❑ Approximate age range  Age
12 years - adulthood 1 - 3 years
❑ Major Characteristics:  Erogenous Zone
Development of logical and abstract
thinking Anal activities such as defecation become
the primary methods of
Formal Operational Stage
- Around age 12, our reasoning ability
expands from concrete thinking to
abstract thinking. We can now use
symbols and imagined realities to
systematically reason. Piaget called this
formal operational thinking.’s Stages of
Psychosexual Development
- Freud believed that every child goes
through a sequence of development
stages, and the experiences during these
stages will determine his or her adult
personality characteristics.
- The adult personality is formed by the
end of the 5th year of life.
- Each stage has a corresponding
erogenous zone, which is the greatest
source of stimulation and pleasure
during that stage.
- In order to make a smooth transition
from one psychosexual stage to the
next, the child must neither be over-
gratified or under-gratified because it
can lead to fixation or regression.

FIXATION
- Freud uses the term fixation to describe
what occurs when a person does not
progress normally from stage to stage
and remains overly involved with a
particular stage.
- That person will prefer to gratify his or
her needs in simpler or more child-like
ways, rather in an adult mode that would
result in normal development.

1. ORAL STAGE
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR - Cell body
- Nucleus
If we can understand how the brain, the nerves, and
- Axon
the glands interact to control feelings, thoughts, and
- Dendrites
behavior, we can begin to truly understand the
- Myelin sheath
complex organism called a HUMAN BEING
TYPES OF NERVE CELLS (neurons)
The body’s total response mechanism
- Sensory neuron (from senses)
Receiving mechanism (sense organs) - connecting
- Interneuron (brain and spinal cord)
mechanism (nervous system) - responding
- Motor neuron (to muscles)
mechanism (muscles and glands)
3 types of neurons
SENSE ORGANS
Sensory Neuron- a neuron that carries information
- Sense organs carry message about the
from the senses to the central nervous system
environment to the central nervous
system - Also called the afferent neuron
Receptors cells- specialized nerves cells sensitive Motor neuron- a neuron that carries message from
for a certain stimuli the central nervous system to the muscle of the body
THE CONNECTING MECHANISM - Also called the afferent neuron
nervous system
Interneuron- a neuron found in the center of the
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTMEM- The bran spinal cord that receives information from the
and spinal cord sensory neurons and send commands to the muscles
through the motor neurons
BRAIN- Interprets and stores information and
sends orders to muscles, gland and organs - Interneurons also make up the bulk of
the neurons in the brain
SPINAL CORDS- Pathway connecting the brain
and the peripheral nervous system NEURON IS A NERVE CELL
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYTEM- Transmits Signal direction
information to the from the central nervous system
Dendrites
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM-
Cell body
automatically regulates glands, internal organs and
blood vessels pupil dilation, digestion and blood Axon
pressure
Signal Direction
PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION- maintains
body functions under ordinary conditions; saves Synapse
energy MYELIN COATING
SYMPATHETIC DIVISION- prepares the body - Axon coated with insulation made of
to react and expend energy in times of stress myelin cells
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM- carries sensory - Speeds signals
information and controls movement of the skeletal - Signal hops from node to node
muscles - 330 mpg vs 11 mph

WHAT MAKES UP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM? How are neurons connected

The neurons are “the cells”

 - Sending the message to other cells; the - Visual imagery
synapse - Music
- The synapse carries a signal from cell to
Cerebral Hemisphere
cell
- There are a lot of proteins and chemical - Corpus collosum- thick band of neurons
in your body to do the work that connects the right and left cerebral
hemisphere
100 billion or so neurons- what’s the problem with
- Cerebral cortex- the outermost later if
some of them dying?
gray making up the superficial aspect of
- Cells multiply all the time the cerebrum
Reflex: Simplest Nerve Circuit LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEXT
Rapid response - Frontal lobe
- Parietal lobe
- Automated
- Occipital lobe
Signal only goes to the spinal cord - Temporal lobe

- No higher level processing Frontal Lobe

Advantages - The frontal lobe of the brain is located

deep to the frontal bone of the skull
- Don’t need to think or make decision - It plays an integral role in the following
about functions/ actions
- Blinking - Memory function
- Balance - Emotions
- Pupil dilation - Decision making/ reasoning
- Startle - Personality
Things that can change neurons and their Temporal lobe
connection
- Located on the sides of the brain, deep to
- Accidents- Physical injury of your the temporal bones of the skull
neurons - They plat an integral role in the
- Drugs – bind important receptors on following function
neurons, cause the neuron to die - Hearing; organization/ comprehension of
- Alcohol- damages the dendrites- can language
repair after abstinence - Information retrieval (memory and
- Disease memory information
The Hemispheres Parietal lobe
DOMINANT FUNCTIONS - The Parietal Lobe is involved in
Left hemisphere processing pain and touch sensation. It's
- Language where the Somatosensory (from your
- Math skin and internal organs) Cortex resides.
- Logic It's also associated with cognition
(including calculating location and speed
Right hemisphere of objects), movement, orientation,
- Spatial abilities recognition and speech.
- Face recognition - The Parietal Lobe of the brain is located
deep to the Partial Bone of the skull.
 - It plays a major role in the following - The Thalamus is the relay station in the
functions/actions: brain. Most of the sensory signals,
- Senses and integrates sensation(s) - auditory (sound), Visual, Somatosensory
Spatial awareness and perception (from your skin and internal organs), go
(Proprioception through this organ on their way to other
- Awareness of body/ body parts in space parts of the brain for processing. It also
and in relation to each other) plays a function in motor control
Occipital lobe The Spinal Cord
- The Occipital Lobe of the Brain is - This is the information superhighway of
located deep to the Occipital Bone of the the body. It carries information up to the
Skull. brain and instructions back down.
- Its primary function is the processing,
The Medulla Oblongata
integration, interpretation of VISION
and visual stimuli. - Helps control the body's autonomic
functions (things you don't need to think
The AMYGDALA
about to perform) like respiration,
- t's name is latin for almond which relates digestion and heart rate. Also acts as a
to its shape. It helps in storing and relay station for nerve signals going
classifying emotionally charged to/from the brain
memories. It plays a large role in
The Pons
producing our emotions, especially fear.
It's been found to trigger responses to - Has roles in your level of arousal or
strong emotion such as sweaty palms, consciousness and sleep. Relays sensory
freezing, increased heart-beat/respiration information to/from the brain. Also
and stress hormone release. involved in controlling autonomic body
functions.
The HIPPOCAMPUS
The Cerebellum
- Its primary role is in memory formation,
classifying information, long-term - Mostly deals with movement. It
memory. Like the RAM in your regulates and coordinates movement,
computer, it processes and stores new posture and balance. Also involved in
and temporary memory for long term learning movement
storage. It's also involved in interpreting
incoming nerve signals and spatial THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
relationships. the PNS carries messages between the central
nervous system and the rest of the body
The HYPOTHALAMUS
Its job is to connect the central nervous system to
- It monitors and controls your circadian the rest of the body
rhythms (your daily sleep/wake cycle),
homeostasis (making sure your body is SOMATIC SYSTEM
running smoothly), apetite, thirst, other - Made up of all the nerves carrying
bodily urges and also plays a role in messages from the CNS to the muscles
emotions, autonomic functions and of the body—specifically the skeletal
motor functions. muscles that allow people to move their
The Thalamus bodies Ex. When we are walking, raising
hands in class, smelling a flower, seeing
 a pretty picture we are using the somatic - Prevent other from firing
nervous system
Neurotransmitters of interest to psychologist
2 divisions
Acetylcholine (ACh)
- Sympathetic - Controls muscle contractions
- Parasympathetic
Paralysis
Control involuntary functions
- Prevalent in hippocampus
- Heart beat - Memory
- Blood pressure - Alzheimer’s disease
- Respiration Dopamine
- Digestion
- Pleasure, voluntary movement, learning,
Can be influenced by thought and emotion memory
- Parkinson’s disease
Types of Neurotransmitters - Schizophrenia
Acetylcholine- involved in memory and Norepinephrine
stimulates movement - Excitatory neurotransmitter
Serotonin- mood, sleep and appetite - Accelerates heart rate, affects eating,
linked to activity levels, learning and
GABA (Gamma- aminobutyric add)- remembering
sleep and inhibits movement - Mood disorders, depression, bipolar
disorder
Glutamate- Memory formation
Serotonin
Norepinephrine- control of movement and - Emotional arousal and sleep
sensation of pleasure - Eating disorders, alcoholism,
depression, aggression, insomnia
Dopamine- Movement and sensation of
pleasure Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Endorphins- pain relief - Inhibitory may help relax anxiety

reactions – Depression
Neurotransmitters
Endorphins
Receptor’s site - Occur naturally within the brain and
- On dendrite of receiving neuron bloodstream
- inhibit pain
Reuptake - May be connected to indifference to pain
• Runner’s high
- Neurotransmitters reabsorbed
The endocrine system
Excitatory neurons
They have no ducts and secrete their chemicals
- Cause other neurons to fire directly into the bloodstream. The chemicals
secreted by this type of gland are called
Inhibitory neurons “hormones.”
Regulation by chemical messenger itself. Whether you are eating, drinking,
sleeping, cleaning etc... your body is
- Neurotransmitter released by neurons
constantly burning calories to keep you
- Hormones release by endocrine glands
going)
Hormones affect behavior and emotions by
Parathyroid
controlling muscles and organs such as the heart,
pancreas, and sex organs - The parathyroid is a group of small
glands that are found on the thyroid and
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
emit hormones which help regulate
Homoeostasis calcium throughout the body. If levels
get too low the bones will be instructed
- maintaining internal balance in the body to release more; if the levels get too high
- organism must keep internal conditions the bones are told to absorb the extra
stable even if environment changes calcium.
Hypothalamus Thyroid
- Located in the brain, the hypothalamus - The thyroid is located around the
releases hormones which stimulate or esophagus. It creates hormones which
suppress the production of other control metabolic processes in all cells
hormones throughout the body. and control blood calcium levels.
Pituitary - Metabolism - the rate the body uses
oxygen and produces energy
- The pituitary is a small body that hangs
in the central area of the brain. It Parathyroid Gland
produces hormones which help control Hormone: Parathormone
the body’s water and electrolyte levels,
help with childbirth, trigger the - Removes calcium and phosphate from
production of sex hormones, and bone
promote body growth. - Increases absorption of calcium by the
digestive tract
Disorders of Pituitary - Increases renal retention of calcium and
Gigantism- hyper-secretion of growth hormone excretion of phosphate

Pituitary dwarfism: Hypo-secretion of growth Goiter

hormone - Goiter, an enlargement of the thyroid
Growth Disorders gland, is caused mainly by a lack of
iodine in the diet.
- Growth disorders are caused by - Since the introduction of iodized salt,
abnormal amounts of growth hormone. goiters have become rare in the United
- With early diagnosis and proper States.
treatment, a child with a growth disorder
can reach a normal height. kind of hyperthyroidism that has inflammation of
the eyes, swelling of the tissues around the eyes,
Thyroid Gland and bulging of the eyes (called Graves
- Hormones ’ophthalmopathy).
- Thyroxine – regulates metabolism Graves’ Disease
(metabolism is the amount of energy
(calories) your body burns to maintain
 - Graves’ disease, also called • relatively slender arms and legs. Children tend to
hyperthyroidism, is a disorder in which be obese with slowed growth rates. Other signs
an overactive and enlarged thyroid gland appear in the skin, which becomes fragile and thin,
produces excessive amounts of bruises easily, and heals poorly. Purple or pink
thyroxine. stretch marks may appear on the abdomen, thighs,
- Symptoms include nervousness, buttocks, arms, and breasts. The bones are
insomnia, weight loss, increased thirst, weakened, and routine activities such as bending,
rapid heartbeat, and intolerance for hea lifting, or rising from a chair may lead to backaches
- Low thyroxine production, called and rib or spinal column fractures
hypothyroidism, causes fatigue, dry skin,
- Women with Cushing’s syndrome
weight gain, constipation, and sensitivity
usually have excess hair growth on their
to cold.
face, neck, chest, abdomen, and thighs
- Thyroxin deficiency in children can lead
- Their menstrual periods may become
to cretinism – a condition characterized
irregular or stop.
by stunted growth and mental retardation
- Men may have decreased fertility with
Pancreas diminished or absent desire for sex and,
sometimes, erectile dysfunction
- The pancreas is located between the two
kidneys. Produces hormones which Adrenal medulla: neuroendocrine organ
adjust carbohydrate metabolism. When
- Hormones: Epinephrine and
blood sugar levels rise (after you eat)
Norepinephrine - enhance function of
insulin lowers the levels; when blood
sympathetic nervous system (Fight or
sugar levels are low (if you haven’t eaten
flight)
all day) glucagons raises the blood
- Epinephrine is of interest to
levels.
psychologists because of its emotional as
- Prevents the accumulation of sugar in
well as physical effects. It intensifies
the blood
most emotions and is central to the
- Hormones:
experience of fear and anxiety
- Glucagon & Insulin
- Too little insulin results in diabetes, too Ovaries and testes
much of it results in hypoglycemia
Ovaries
The adrenal Glands
- Ovaries are found in the abdomen of
- Adrenal cortex women. They produce hormones which
- Hormones: assist with the development of the
- Glucocorticoids: cortisol – blood glucose female reproductive organs and prepare
regulation (release when the body the uterus for pregnancy
experiences stress)
- Mineralocorticoids: aldosterone – Testes
sodium/fluid/urine - Testes are found in the scrotum of males.
Signs and symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome vary, They generate hormones which facilitate
but most people with the disorder have the development of male reproductive
organs and produce sperm.
• upper body obesity
TESTES
• a rounded face
Hormone: testosterone (steroidal)
• increased fat around the neck
- Functions:
 - Regulates development and normal
functioning of sperm, male reproductive
organs, male sex drive
- Development of male secondary sex
characteristics
Ovaries
Hormones (steroidal) and functions:
- Estrogen: initiates development of
secondary sex characteristics, regulates
menstrual cycle
- Progesterone: regulates menstrual cycle
Sensation and perception Internal factors – perceiver
Sensation - process by which information about the - Motives/ interest
world is registered by the senses and transmitted to - Perceptual set
the brain. - Past experiences
- Physical characteristics
Perception is that part of the process by which
sensations are organized into a meaningful pattern Visual perception
and concept.
- It is constant
Absolute threshold - Perception has organizing tendencies
which take several forms
- It is the minimum intensity of a stimulus
- Applying the gestalt law of grouping
that must be present or it to be detected
(sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch) Shape constancy
Terminal threshold - Even though these images cast shadows
of different shapes, we still see the
- It is the maximum physical energy,
quarter as round
which can still be detected by a sense
organ, and beyond which there will be Perception has organizing tendencies which takes
no more sensation, or a sensation of a several forms
different modality.
- Figure and group perception-
Differential threshold emphasized by the gestalt psychologist;
they theorized that we perceived figures
- It is the smallest amount of stimulus
and forms as whole patterns that are
energy necessary to recognize the
more that the simple sum of individual
difference between two stimuli.
sensation
Sensor adaptation
Gestalt laws of perceptual grouping
- It refers to the reduction in sensitivity to
How do we group objects perceptually? Several
stimulation as stimulation persists
principles
through time, and to increase in
sensitivity with lack of stimulation. - Similarity
- Proximity
Attention - readiness to perceive; a pre-perceptive
- Continuation
set of expectancy based on one’s interests and
- Closure
motivations, as well as the nature of the stimuli
which impinge upon us. Vison is not necessarily what we see but how our
brain interprets the world around us, our own
Factors influencing perception
experiences can shape how we perceive this world
- External factors – stimuli
Depth of perception – how far it is?
- Internal factors- perceiver
- The ability to see objects in three
External – stimuli
dimensions although the images that
- Intensity, size and color strike the retina are two- dimensional,
- Contrast allows us to judge distance
- Repetition
Distance and depth perception
- Movement
- Novelty or unusual Monocular cues:
 - Size - Method of determining depth by noting
- Linear perspective- parallel lines that closer objects partially
- Texture gradient- farther = smoother obstruct/block the more distant objects
- Atmospheric perspective- quality of - Also called the overlap
discernment
Relative height
- Overlap
- Height - Method of determining depth by noting
- Motion parallax- when moving, distant that distant objects appear higher in your
objects move in the same direction while field of vision than do closer objects
close objects move in the opposite - This reversed above the horizon where
direction or at least appear to do so higher objects seem closer.
Binocular cues Texture gradient
- Convergence- eyes turn inward to see - Method of determining depth by noting
closer objects that distant objects have a smoother
- Retinal disparity – stereovision texture than nearby objects
Depth cues that require the use of only one eye Relative clarity
Monocular depth cues include - Method of determining depth by noting
that distant objects are less clear than
- Relative size
nearby objects
- Relative motion
- Tends to work outdoors because light
- Interposition
from distant objects passes through more
- Relative height
atmosphere, we perceive hazy objects as
- Texture gradient
farther away than sharp, clear objects
- Relative clarity
- Linear perspective Linear perspective
Relative size - Method of determining depth by noting
that parallel lines appear to converge in
- The larger the object appears, the close
the distance
the object is to the viewer
- The lines appear to eventually merge on
- The smaller the object appears, the
the horizon.
farther away it is to the object
Light and shadow
Relative motion
- Nearby objects reflect more light into
- A person who is moving can determine
our eyes.
depth by focusing on a distant object
- Given two identical objects, the dimmer
- As we move, objects that are actually
one seems farther away.
stable may appear to move
- Brain assumes that light comes from
- Objects further away than the object of
above.
focus will appear to move slowly in the
same direction as the subject is moving Depth perception= binocular depth cues
- Objects closer than the object of focus
will appear to move quickly in the Binocular depth cues
opposite direction - Depth cues that require the use of both
Interposition eyes
- There are two types: Retinal Disparity &
Convergence
Retinal disparity - Vibrate in sympathy with them
- Transmit auditory information to the
- A binocular depth cue resulting from
brain
slightly different images produced by the
separation of the retinas in the left and Locating sounds
right eye
Loudness and sequence in which sounds reach the
- Because our eyes are about 2 ½ inches
ear provide cues
apart, the retina receives slightly
different images of the world. - May turn head to clarify information
- The greater the difference between the
two images, the closer the object is to the Perception of loudness and pitch
viewer. - Related to number of receptor neurons
- The more alike the two images, the on the organ of corti
further away the object is perceived. - Sounds are perceived as louder when
- Is most effective when the item is quite more sensory neurons fire
close to the person
Deafness
Auditory perception
- Conductive deafness
- loud, clear sounds seem to be nearby, - Damage to middle ear
and weak or indistinct sounds usually - Hearing aids can help
seem to be far away. But this is not - Sensorineural deafness
always an accurate way to judge - Damage to inner ear or auditory nerve
distance. If an object (a wall) comes - Cochlear implants may help with
between the source of the sound and the damage to inner ear, but not auditory
receiver, the sound source will seem to nerve
be farther away than if there were no
obstruction. Perception of speech

Sound - when people talk in your language, you

clearly perceive that they are uttering a
- Sound waves require a medium; air or series of words. You can tell where one
water word ends and where the next word
- Human ear is sensitive to sound waves begins, you recognize the pattern. But
with frequencies of 20 to 20,000 cycles when you listen to an unfamiliar
per second language, the words seem jumbled
Pitch together in a hurried flow, and you
perceive few distinct separations.
- Frequency
- Expressed in hertz The chemical senses: smell and taste
- Pitch of women’s voice is higher than Smell
men’s
- Odors trigger receptor neurons in
Loudness olfactory membrane
- Height of sound waves - Odors are sample molecules of
- Expressed in decibels substances in the air
- Sensory information about odors is sent
The ear to the brain through the olfactory nerve
- Odor contributes to flavor of foods
- Shaped and structured to:
- Capture sound waves Taste
 - Taste is sensed through taste cells - Nervous system can only process a
- Receptor neurons on taste buds limited amount of stimulation
- Four primary taste qualities - Rubbing the pained area competes for
- Sweet, sour, salty and bitter neural attention
- Umami (fifth basic taste) – savory - Closes the “gate” on pain messages to
- Flavor of food depends on odor, texture, the brain
temperature and taste
Pain perception
- Individuals have taste sensitivities
- Association - you focus your attention
Skin senses
on the painful sensations, but attempting
Touch and pressure to study them carefully and in a detached
manner rather than thinking of them as
- Skin sensory receptors fire when skin
painful or bothersome.
surface is touched
- Imagining that the affected part of your
- Active touching
body is numb and insensitive
- Some areas of the body are more
- Making positive self-statements to
sensitive
yourself
- Nerve endings are more densely packed
- More sensory cortex is devoted to Acupuncture
perception of sensations in those areas
Ancient Chinese method of pain control
Temperature
- Research shows it stimulates nerves to
- Receptors are located just beneath the the hypothalamus releasing endorphins
skin - Endorphins are similar in structure and
- Skin temperature increases – receptors effect to morphine
for warmth fire
Kinesthesis and the vestibular sense
- Skin temperature decreases – receptors
for cold fire Kinesthesis
- Sensations for temperature are relative
Sense that informs you about the position and
Pain motion of your body
- Nociceptors in skin are stimulated - Sensory information is sent to the brain
- Pain is usually sharpest where nerve from sensory organs in joints, tendons
endings are densely packed and muscles
- Pain can be felt deep within body
- No nerve endings for pain in the brain Vestibular system

Prostaglandins - Housed mainly in semicircular canals in

your ears
- Facilitate transmission of pain message - Monitor your body’s motion and
- Heighten circulation to injured area position in relation to gravity
(inflammation)
- Pain-relieving drugs inhibit production Perception of movement
of prostaglandins - perception of speed is relative; we do not
- Emotional response and response to actually see speed but rather how fast
stress affect degree of pain something is moving in relation to
Gate theory of pain something else.
Errors of perception that require no sense organ stimulation.
ESP is encompassed in that infant
Illusions
science called “parapsychology”, which
Source of illusions explores matters that often contradict
physical laws and phenomena that do not
- Illusions occur because our perceptual fit into recognized bodies of knowledge.
system is structured to function as
though our assumptions and hypotheses Some phenomena in the realm of esp
about the world around us are true
Telepathy- a process of thought transference from
- In situations where our assumptions
one person to another. People gifted with telepathy
appear to be true but are actually not, we
can read another person’s mind;
automatically construct perceptions that
bring some sense of meaning and order. Clairvoyance- the ability to perceive events or
These misperceptions are called objects that are hidden from sight;
illusions. Then we realize that there are
Precognition- the ability to predict the future, to
alternative, incompatible, and equally
know events yet to take place
valid perceptions in addition to the one
we constructed. Psychokinesis- the ability to influence physical
events by sheer mental concentration.
Optical illusion
Extra sensory perception
- illusions that deceive the human visual
system into perceiving something that is - If any of these phenomena were
not present or incorrectly perceiving scientifically demonstrated to be valid,
what is present. we would have to reconstruct our entire
scientific view of nature, not just in
Errors of perception
psychology but in physics as well.
- ILLUSIONS - occur when there is lack - Note : ESP - there is no coherent theory
of correspondence between a percept and to explain such phenomenon even if one
a physical stimulus object that evokes it were to admit its existence
- deceive the human visual system into
Consciousness
perceiving something that is not present
or incorrectly perceiving what is present. - Consciousness has been defined by
psychologists as our awareness of ourselves
Hallucinations and delusions
and our environment. It includes the
- Hallucinations - are impressions of internal and external stimuli and events
sensory vividness arising from inner, that we are aware of at any time.
mental factors - The awareness varies depending on our
- Delusions - are false beliefs organized attention to the task at hand.
from both perception and memory, in Leave of consciousness
which an individual may mistake his
own identity or misinterpret the actions Consciousness - a person’s awareness of everything that
of others is going on around him or her at any given moment

Extra sensory perception Waking State of Consciousness - state in which

thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear, organized,
- ESP is defined as the acquisition by the and the person feels alert
mind of some information, which could
not have been perceived by the normal
senses. Hence, it refers to perceptions
Altered State of Consciousness - state in which - amount of sleep needed may be partly
there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental genetically determined
activity as compared to waking consciousness. - additional sleep is need when you are
under stress
Altered states of consciousness
- as you age, you require less sleep
Daydreaming • Sleeping • Dreaming • Hypnosis •
measuring sleep
Meditation • Use of psychoactive drugs
electrodes measure
Daydreaming and fantasies
- eye movements
- Almost everyone daydreams at one point
- elector myelogram
or another.
- Electroencephalogram
- Young adults tend to fantasize more
- A camera may also record body
than older adults, and admit to more
movements
sexual fantasies.
- Although 95% of all people have sexual Stage 1
fantasies, men tend to fantasize more
- Light sleep. Muscle activity slows down
than women.
occasional muscle twitching.
Fantasy-prone personality:
Stage 2
- someone who imagines and recalls
- Breathing pattern and heart rate slows.
experiences with lifelike vividness and
Slight decrease in body temperature
who spends considerable time
fantasizing. Stage 3
Why Might Daydreaming Be Helpful and Adaptive - Deep sleep begins, brain begins to
for Humans? generate slow delta waves
A way to escape • Prepare for future events • Aware Stage 4
of unfinished business • Increase creativity •
Substitute for impulsive behavior - Very deep sleep. Rhythmic breathing
limited muscle activity. Brain produces
Sleep delta waves
Sleep – natural state of rest characterized by: Stage 5
A reduction in voluntary body movement - Rapid eye movement. Brainwaves speed
up and dreaming occurs, muscles relax
Decreased awareness of the surroundings
and heart rate increases. Breathing is
Sleep deprivation impairs cognitive skills to a great rapid and shallow
extent
Sleep- nrem stage
Functions of sleep
Stage of sleep
- rejuvenates the body
Hypnagogic state- Relaxed state of dreamlike
- helps us recover from stress
awareness between wakefulness and sleep
- helps us consolidate learning and
memories Myoclonia: abrupt movement when a person has a
- may promote development of infant’s sense of falling
brains
Takes about 90 minutes to get through the four
amount of sleep stages and REM sleep
A typical night sleep - May dream in color or black and white
- Pleasant dream or nightmare
- Typically, 4-5 episodes of REM sleep
per night Why do we dream what we dream?
- Later episodes are longer and farther
- Memories of the day
apart
- Traumatic events – Nightmares
- Most “deep sleep” (stages 3 & 4) occurs
- Reflections of unconscious desires –
early
Freud
Lifespan changes in sleep types
Altering Consciousness Through Hypnosis,
- Newborns sleep up to 16 hours, in Meditation, and use of psychoactive drugs
several sleep episodes
Hypnosis
- Total sleep time decreases with age
- Proportion of Stages 3-4 decreases, and - HYPNOSIS is an altered state of
Stage 1 increases attention and awareness in which the
person becomes highly suggestible to
Sleep, Learning and Memory
thoughts given by the hypnotist.
- Individuals deprived of REM sleep - Hypnotists use special induction
- Learn more slowly techniques to focus the subject's
- Forget what they have learned quicker attention and guidance is given as to
- Show REM rebound what the subject will experience,
increasing the power of suggestibility.
Sleep disorders
- When hypnotized, the subject readily
Insomnia • Narcolepsy • Sleep paralysis • Apnea accepts the suggestion and ideas offered
by the hypnotist and will carry out
Deep sleep disorders suggestions even after they emerge from
Occur in stage 3 or 4 sleep • More common in the hypnotic trance. This is called
children • Sleep Terrors • Bed-Wetting • POSTHYPNOTIC SUGGESTION
Sleepwalking - Hypnosis is used to treat fears,
addictions, emotional trouble, pain
Other sleep disturbances control, stress, and so on.
Snoring • Bedwetting(enuresis) • bruxism • Sleep Meditation
talking
- MEDITATION is a learned technique
Nightmares that refocuses attention to achieve an
- dreams with frightening, sad, angry, or altered state of consciousness. Some
uncomfortable content during REM people focus on mantras such as
sleep SHANTI (peace) and experience great
spiritual transcendence into an
NIGHT TERRORS: ecstatically blissful state of peace.
- upsetting nocturnal experiences that - Root is on Buddhism
occur most often in preschool-age kids - Matras are often chanted
during non-REM sleep - Words or sounds used during mediation

dreams Near death experiences

- Cognitive activity that occurs while you - Near Death Experiences: an altered state
are sleeping of consciousness reported after a close
- Most vivid during REM sleep brush with death.
Altering Consciousness Through Drugs - Impairs cognitive functioning and
coordination
Drug use – taking meds properly and in its correct
- Men more likely to become alcoholic
dosage
than women
Drug abuse- intentional improper use of a drug - Alcohol has stronger effect on women
- Asian and Asian American less likely
Drug misuse- improper use of a drug than Europeans and European
Substance Abuse and Dependence Americans to drink to excess
- Asians more likely to show flushing
- Substance abuse is repeated use of a response
substance despite impaired functioning - Can lead to physiological dependence
- Substance dependence is characterized
by loss of control over use of the Opiates
substance - Group of narcotics derived from the
- Organize life around getting and using a opium poppy
substance - Laboratory produced opioids
- Tolerance - Morphine, heroin, codeine, Demerol
- Withdrawal symptoms - Major application is pain relief
Causes of Substance Abuse and Dependence - Provides a strong euphoric “rush”
- Can lead to dependence
- Experimentation
- Recommendation or observation of Barbiturates
others - Depressants with medical uses
- Reinforcement by peers or positive - Relaxation, pain management, treatment
effects of epilepsy, high blood pressure and
- Avoidance of withdrawal effects insomnia
- Genetic predisposition toward - Rapidly lead to dependence
physiological dependence - Dangerous to mix barbiturates and
Types of drugs alcohol

Depressants (downers) – Slow down the brain and Stimulants (uppers) – Speed up the brain and central
central nervous system. Examples are alcohol, beer, nervous system. Examples are caffeine (coffee, tea)
wine, vodka, gin etc heroin, tranquilizers, sleeping nicotine (cigarettes), amphetamines, speed, cocaine
pills and diet pills

Alcohol Stimulants

- Most abused drug Amphetamines

- 10 to 20 million Americans are - Stimulant
alcoholics - Taken in high doses produces euphoric
- Half of all Americans use alcohol feeling
regularly - May cause insomnia, restlessness,
- About 4 college students die each day psychotic symptoms and a “crash” upon
from alcohol-related causes withdrawal
- Binge drinking - Tolerance develops quickly and users
- Depressant may become dependent
- Slows activity of central nervous system - Ritalin
- Effects - Common treatment for hyperactive
- Lowers inhibitions children
Cocaine RISK FACTORS
- Stimulant that produces euphoric - Friends who use drugs (this is the
feelings number one predictor of who will
- Physical dangers experiment with drugs/alcohol)
- Sudden rises in blood pressure, - Family management problems
decreased oxygen supply to the heart, - poorly defined rules
quickened heart rate - inconsistent application of rules
- Overdose - lack of monitoring
- Can cause restlessness and insomnia, - excessive discipline
tremors, headaches, nausea, convulsions, - negative communication patterns
hallucinations, delusions, - poor anger management
cardiorespiratory collapse - Absence of healthy recreational or
leisure interests
Nicotine
- Early antisocial behavior (e.g.,
- Addictive stimulant in tobacco smoke • aggression, hyperactivity, defiance)
- Creates physiological dependence on - Parental drug use and a positive RISK
tobacco FACTORS attitude toward use
- Appears to reduce stress - Academic Failure (low and failing
- Depresses appetite and raises metabolic grades)
rate - Little commitment to school
- Cigarette smoke also contains - Favorable attitude towards drug use
- Hydrocarbons (tars) - Early first use of drugs
- Carbon monoxide - Prenatal exposure to alcohol (FAS/E)
- Secondhand smoke
Protective factors
Hallucinogens – These drugs alter the user’s state of
- Involvement in alternative activities
consciousness. (Distort auditory and visual
- Sense of wellbeing and self-confide
sensations) Examples are LSD, ecstasy, magic
- Positive future plans
mushrooms, marijuana
- Healthy coping strategies to deal with
Substance abuse and society What are the effects of stress
substance abuse on society? - Positive attitude towards learning
- Knowledge about risks associated with
- Spread of diseases such as HIV/AIDS substance use
and Hepatitis C through sharing needles, - Negative attitude towards substance use
or having unprotected sex - Positive relationships with adults
Substance abuse and society - Friends disapprove of drugs and use

- Effects on unborn children or other Learning

complications from drug use Behaviorist Perspective
EFFECTS OF DRUG USE ON CHILD - A relatively permanent change in
- Miscarriages Premature birth behavior that arises from practice or
- Low birth weight experience
- Birth defects Cognitive perspective
- Developmental problems
- A baby’s health problems, if caused by - Mental change that may or may not be
a drug will continue to grow as the child associated with changes in behavior
grows.
Ivan Pavlov – 1904 Nobel Prize Winner in response initially evoked by another
Physiology stimulus
- Classic conditioning Conditioned fear and anxiety
- Stimulus, Response, Neutral Stimulus
- Many of our phobias and fears are direct
Conditioned Stimulus, & Conditioned
result of classical conditioning
Response
- Stimulus • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • Processes in classical conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) • Neutral
Stimulus (NS) • Unconditioned Acquisition- This term refers to the learning of the
Response (UCR) • Conditioned conditioned response
Response (CR) Extinction – This refers to a gradual weakening and
What are stimuli? disappearance of conditioned response

- A stimulus is something that causes a - How does this usually occur?

response Processes in classical conditioning
Unconditioned stimuli Spontaneous Recovery- After extinction, a response
- A stimulus that you did not have to be may spontaneously reappear
TAUGHT to react to. Stimulus generalization
- You react by instinct
- Stimulus Generalization – An organism
Unconditioned response that has learned a response to a specific
- A response from a stimulus that you DID stimulus responds in same way to stimuli
NOT have to be trained to react to that are similar to original stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus John B. Watson study

- A stimulus that you have to be - Little Albert”- 11-month-old •

TAUGHT to react to Conditioned to fear bunnies

Conditioned response Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses

- A response to a stimulus that you had to Counterconditioning – a fear reduction technique in

be trained to react to which pleasant stimuli are associated with fear-
evoking stimuli so that the fear evoking stimuli lose
Neutral stimulus their aversive qualities
- A stimulus that doesn’t mean anything to Flooding – a behavioral fear-reduction technique
you yet based on principles of classical conditioning
Classic conditioning Systematic desensitization – a technique in which a
hierarchy of fear evoking stimuli is presented which
- Pavlov studied how a person could
the person remains relaxed
control a dog’s behavior
- He especially focused on dog drool Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning Through classical (Pavlov) conditioning, an
organism associates different stimuli that it does not
- Pavlov wanted the dogs to drool every
control. Through operant conditioning, the organism
time he rang a bell
associates its behaviors with consequences.
- The type of learning in which a stimulus
Behaviors followed by reinforcements increase;
acquires the capacity to evoke the
those followed by punishers decrease. This simple Reinforcer – A stimulus or event that increases the
but powerful principle has many applications and odds of repeating the behavior that led to it
also several important qualifications.
- I give my kids money when they clean
- A type of learning in which responses their room…this stimulus increases the
can be controlled by their consequences odds they will do it again
Reward- more likely behavior will repeat Punisher – A stimulus or event that functions to
decreases the odds of repeating the behavior that
Punishment- less likely to repeat behaviors
lead to
Respondent Behavior
- I spank my kids when they throw food
- Behavior that occurs as an automatic at the dinner table…this event decreases
response to some stimulus the odds they will do it again
- food when hungry; water when thirsty
Positive reinforcement
operant behavior
- Something desirable is added to the
- The act operates on the environment to environment and this encourages
produce rewarding or punishing stimuli (reinforces) behavior
- good grades = MONEY; bad grades = - Behaviors are strengthened when they
grounded are followed by the introduction of a
stimulus
Important People in Operant Conditioning
Negative reinforcement
B.F. Skinner- radical behaviorism
- Something undesirable is subtracted
Skinner box from the environment and this
Edward Thorndike- law of effect encourages (reinforces) behavior
- NR are aversive stimuli such as loud
Puzzle box noise, cold, pain, or nagging
Skinner - We are more likely to repeat behaviors
that lead to their removal
Operant Chamber- – - Example
- “Skinner Box” - Say I have a headache
- Soundproof - The NR is the pain of the headache
- Bar or key that an animal presses or - I take aspirin and the headache goes
pecks to release a reward of food or away
water - Headache pain (stimulus) - - aspirin
- Device that records these responses (response) - - consequence (headache
- Shaping gone)
- Procedure in which reinforcers (like - I will take aspirin again because it
food) gradually guide an animal’s removed something unpleasant
actions toward a desired behavior - So…positive and negative do not mean
good or bad. Instead, positive means
Edward L. Thorndike- Operant Conditioning adding a stimulus, and negative means
Chamber removing a stimulus
Two important concepts used in Operant Continuous Reinforcement
Conditioning
- Reinforcing the desired response every
time it occurs
Partial Reinforcement Over justification Effect
- Reinforcing a response only part of the - When external rewards undermine the
time. intrinsic satisfaction of performing a
- slot machine behavior
- You don’t expect to win every time but - Makes people only do something for
hope to win sometime reward or prize and not for pure joy
- The acquisition process is slower, but… - Usually, the reward may lessen and
– replace the person’s original, natural
- Greater resistance to extinction motivation so that the behavior stops if
the reward is eliminated
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Types of reinforcement
- Reinforcement of a behavior after a
specified or fixed time (interval) has Primary Reinforcers- reinforcements that happen
passed. naturally; not learned (i.e. getting food when
- You get paid every two weeks hungry, taking your hand off a burning stove to
- A worker gets a bonus once a year – relieve pain)
After receiving a reward (a
- Things that are in themselves rewarding
reinforcement) the worker has to wait
and satisfy biological needs
one year for another reward (fixed
- Like food, warmth, or water
interval
Secondary (or Conditioned) Reinforcer-
Conditioned Reinforcers- (secondary reinforcers)
Variable-interval Schedule are learned. (i.e. if a rat in Skinner’s box learns that
when a light signal goes off it signals food, the light
- Reinforcement of a behavior at
becomes on the secondary reinforcer
unpredictable (variable) time intervals.
- You don’t know when the reinforcement - Something that you have learned to
is coming so you keep trying or have to value through classical conditioning –
be prepared to take action Money, fines or grades
- Secondary reinforcers can loose their
Fixed-ratio Schedules
effectiveness
- Reinforcement of a behavior only after a
Observational learning
specified (fixed) number of responses
- Movie rentals that say rent 5 get one free - Learning occurs not only through
- A worker gets a bonus after every three conditioning but also from our
items he sells observation of others.
- “We are, in truth, more than half what
Variable-ratio Schedule
we are by imitation”
- Reinforcement of a behavior after an
Observational Learning: Definition
unpredictable (variable) number of
responses Observe and imitate others
- Working on sales commission
Modeling- Process of observing and imitating a
- Sometimes called the gambler’s
specific behavior
schedule
- Back to the lottery… - We learn all kinds of social behaviors by
- You don’t know when you will win but observing and imitating others
you do know the more you buy the better
your chances Mirror neurons
 - Mirror neurons provide a neural basis for - General knowledge
observational learning
Implicit memory
- Example: when a baby imitates a face an
adult is making, mirror neurons are - Procedural memory- skill memory
firing - Thing’s people do, not things stated
clearly
Bandura’s experiment
- Things done repeatedly- habits
Albert Bandura
Priming
- Pioneer of research in observational
- Memory of things that reflect repetitio
learning
that makes associations automatic
- BoBo Doll Experiment – Reinforcement
- Memory of the alphabet or
and punishment leads to imitating a
multiplication tables
behavior
- Requires less neural activity
Social Influence on Observational Learning
Retrospective Memory Versus Prospective Memory
Television:
Retrospective memory
- More hours children spend watching
- Recalling information previously
violent TV or playing violet video
learned
games, more at risk for aggression and
- Episodic, semantic and implicit
crime as teens and adults
memories
- Homicides doubled between 1957 and
1974, coinciding with the introduction of Retrospective memory
television
- Recalling information previously
Memory: remembrance if thing past and future learned
- Episodic, semantic and implicit
Memory system
memories
Explicit vs implicit memories
Prospective Memory
Explicit memory- declarative memory
- Prospective memory tasks – Habitual
- Memory for specific information; that tasks
can be stated or declared - Easier to remember than occasional tasks
- Information can be autobiographical or - Event-based tasks
general - Triggered by events
- Time-based tasks
Implicit memory- non declarative memory
- Performed at a certain time or after a
- – Memory of how to perform a certain time has elapsed
procedure or skill
Influences on Retrospective and Prospective
- Skill memories
Memory
Explicit memory
Age related decline
Episodic memory- autobiographical memory
- More related to speed of cognitive
- Memories of things that happen to us or processing than loss of information
take place in our presence
Moods and attitudes and prospective memory
- Autobiographical memories
Semantic memory
 - Depressed people less likely to push to Iconic memory
remind themselves to do what they
Icons
intend to do
- Mental representations of visual stimuli
Processes of memory
- Brief, but accurate, photographic
Encoding memories
- Photographic or Eidetic imagery
Transforming information into psychological
- mental representations of visual stimuli
formulas that can be represented mentally
over long periods of time
- Visual – represented as a picture - Iconic memory is common, eidetic
- Auditory – represented as sounds memory is not
- Semantic – represented in terms of
Echoic memory
meanings
Echoes
Storage
Mental representations of sounds
Maintaining information over time
Memory traces of echoes last longer than icons
Methods of storing information
Short term memory
- Maintenance rehearsal
- Metamemory - Focusing on a stimulus in the sensory
- Elaborative rehearsal register, retains it in short-term memory
(STM) for a minute or so after the trace
Retrieval
decays
- Locating information and returning it to - Also called working memory
consciousness - Rehearsal allows information to be
- Retrieval relies on cues retained indefinitely

Definition of memory Serial position effect

- Process by which information is Tendency to recall the first and last items in a series
encoded, stored, and retrieved
- May be more attention to first and last
Stage of memory items
- May rehearse first item more often and
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory last most recently
Three stages of memory – Sensory memory – Short- Chunking
term memory (STM) – Long-term memory (LTM)
- A grouping of stimuli that is perceived
Stages determine whether, and how long, as a discrete piece of information
information is stored - Number of items held in STM –
Sensory memory - Seven (plus or minus two) – Chunking
stimuli allows for semantic coding
- First stage of memory encountered by a
stimulus Interference in short term memory
- Holds impressions briefly, but long - Attention to distracting information
enough so series of perceptions become interferes with STM
psychologically continuous - Appearance of new information in STM
- Memory trace • Decays within a second displaces old information
• Visual sensory register
Long term memory Interference theory
- Vast storehouse of information - Retroactive interference – New learning
- Long-term memories are distorted – interferes with the retrieval of old
- Schemas bias our memories learning • Proactive interference – Older
- No known limit known for amount of learning interferes with the capacity to
information stored in long-term memory retrieve more recently learned material
(LTM)
Repression
- Long-term memories may last a life-
time - Freudian concept of motivated forgetting
- Not lost by displacement – Automatic ejection of painful
memories from conscious awareness –
Levels of processing model of memory
Dissociative amnesia
- Memories endure when processed
Recovered memories
deeply – Attention, encoding, storing,
retrieval all involved - Recovery of repressed memories has
little scientific support • Implanting false
Flashbulb memories
memories
- Tend to remember events that are
Infantile amnesia
important and emotionally stirring –
Memories are more distinctive – - Freud – repression • Immature
Increased networks of association – hippocampus • Cognitive explanations –
Elaborative rehearsal – Secretion of No interest in remembering the past –
stress hormones Specific episodes
- versus networks of memories –
Organization in long-term memory
Unreliable use of symbolic language
- Categorization of information –
Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia
Hierarchical structure
- Superordinate classes of inform - Anterograde Amnesia – Unable to
Categorization of information remember events that occur after
- – Hierarchical structure physical trauma •
- • Superordinate classes of information - Retrograde Amnesia – Unable to
remember events that occur prior to
Tip of the tongue phenomenon
physical trauma
“Feeling of knowing”
- Acoustic and semantic coding may help
provide a useful retrieval cue
- May reflect incomplete learning
Forgetting
How do We Measure Forgetting?
- Nonsense syllables – Depend on acoustic
coding and maintenance rehearsal •
Three tasks for measurement –
Recognition – Recall – Relearning •
Method of Savings