Module 5 Neutral Geometry Projective Geometry and Differential Geometry
Module 5 Neutral Geometry Projective Geometry and Differential Geometry
Module 5 Neutral Geometry Projective Geometry and Differential Geometry
5
8 hours
Course Instructor: Simple Joy M. Peacita
Contact details:
FB messenger: Simple Joy Mahilum Peacita
Email: simplejoy.peacita@deped.gov.ph
Synchronous Class Schedule: 8:00AM to 12:00NN (Monday to Saturday)
Asynchronous Class Schedule: 1:00PM to 5:00PM (Monday to Friday) and 1:00PM to 2:00PM (Saturday)
Realize, reflect and share how the study and understanding of geometry contributes to:
o everyday life and society
o other areas of the curriculum, and
o the learners’ intellectual development.
Learning Objectives
NOTES
NEUTRAL GEOMETRY
The neutral plane geometry, the geometry without a parallel line axiom, is
built up of some incidence/containment axioms, betweenness axioms,
congruency axioms and one important axiom about triangles. (These axioms are
in addition to the standard assumptions of logic.) Undefined quantities include:
points, lines, sets, etc. ... The following are sample axioms and are not meant to
be all inclusive.
Incidence Axioms:
Betweenness axioms.
1: If the point 𝑃 is between the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 then they are co-linear.
2: Given two points 𝑃 and 𝑄 there exist three points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 so that:
The congruency axioms tell us that congruent line segments can be found
on different lines with certain (intuitive) properties and that there exist congruent
angles with sides on the same or different lines with certain properties.
Finally the 𝑆𝐴𝑆 condition is assumed by axiom: Given two triangles with
corresponding sides and angles so that two sides with the included angle of one
triangle is congruent to the corresponding sides and included angle of the other
triangle, then the triangles themselves are congruent.
Theorem [ASA]: Given two triangles with corresponding sides and angles so that
two angles with the side between them of one triangle is congruent to the two
corresponding angles with the side between them of the other triangle, then the
triangles themselves are congruent.
Theorem [SSS]: Given two triangles with corresponding sides and angle so that
three of the corresponding sides of one triangle are congruent to the three
corresponding sides of the other triangle, then the triangles themselves are
congruent.
Theorem [Alternate Interior Angle Theorem]: Given two lines cut by a transversal
so that the alternate interior angles are congruent, then the lines are parallel.
(Observe that this theorem implies that Elliptic type geometry – such as the
geometry on the sphere - must have a different set of axioms.)
Exterior Angle Theorem. If ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a triangle and 𝐷 is a point on the line ⃡𝐵𝐶 so
that 𝐶 is between 𝐵 and 𝐷, then 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶) < 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐷) and 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐵𝐶) < 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐷).
Proof.
Suppose the hypothesis of the theorem and suppose that the theorem is
not true and that 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐷) ≤ 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶). If 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐷) = 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶) then lines ⃡𝐴𝐵
and ⃡𝐶𝐷 are parallel by the congruency of alternate interior angles theorem. This
would imply that we don't have a triangle. So it follows that if the theorem is not
true that we must have: 𝑚(∠𝐴𝐶𝐷) < 𝑚(∠𝐵𝐴𝐶). By Axiom there is a point 𝑃 on the
opposite side of 𝐴𝐶
⃡
than 𝐷 so that ∠𝐶𝐴𝑃 ≅ ∠𝐴𝐶𝐷.
Axiom HY [Hyperbolic Parallel Line Axiom] There is a line 𝑙 and a point 𝑃 not on 𝑙
so that there are (at least) two distinct lines containing 𝑃 and parallel to 𝑙.
For the following theorems assume that the axioms of hyperbolic geometry hold.
Theorem. There exists a triangle whose sum of angles is less than 180.
Theorem. There are no rectangles.
Theorem. The sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is less than 360.
Theorem. [AAA] Suppose that ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 are triangles such ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝑃𝑄𝑅,
∠𝐵𝐶𝐴 ≅ ∠𝑄𝑅𝑃 and ∠𝐶𝐴𝐵 ≅ ∠𝑅𝑃𝑄. Then ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅.
Proof. Suppose that the theorem is not true and that ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 are
triangles such that ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∠𝑃𝑄𝑅, ∠𝐵𝐶𝐴 ≅ ∠𝑄𝑅𝑃 and ∠𝐶𝐴𝐵 ≅ ∠𝑅𝑃𝑄, but that the
triangles are not congruent. We note that although not congruent, 𝑑𝑒𝑓(∆𝑃𝑄𝑅) =
𝑑𝑒𝑓(∆𝐴𝐵𝐶). Then it must be the case that some pair of sides are not congruent
or else the triangles would be congruent by ASA. So we assume that
̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 and that 𝑚(𝑃𝑄) < 𝑚(𝐴𝐵). Then let 𝑄’ ∈ ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 be such that
𝐴𝑄 ′ ≅ 𝑃𝑄 so we have 𝐴 − −𝑄′ − −𝐵. Let 𝑅′ ∈ 𝐴𝐶 be such that 𝐴𝑅′ ≅ ̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ 𝑃𝑅 . Then
∆𝐴𝑄′𝑅′ ≅ ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 by SAS. So ∠𝐴𝑄′𝑅′ ≅ ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶, then 𝑄’𝑅’ ∥ 𝐵𝐶 by vertical angles and
⃡ ⃡
equal alternate interior angles, so 𝑅′ must lie between 𝐴 and 𝐶.
But then:
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
A theorem from Euclid’s Elements (c. 300 BC) states that if a line is drawn
through a triangle such that it is parallel to one side (see the figure), then the line
will divide the other two sides proportionately; that is, the ratio of segments on
each side will be equal. This is known as the proportional segments theorem, or
the fundamental theorem of similarity, and for triangle ABC, shown in the
diagram, with line segment DE parallel to side AB, the theorem corresponds to
the mathematical expression CD/DA = CE/EB.
Projective invariants
With Desargues’s provision of infinitely distant points for parallels, the reality
plane and the projective plane are essentially interchangeable—that is,
ignoring distances and directions (angles), which are not preserved in the
projection. Other properties are preserved, however. For instance, two different
points have a unique connecting line, and two different lines have a unique
point of intersection. Although almost nothing else seems to be invariant under
projective mappings, one should note that lines are mapped onto lines. This
means that if three points are collinear (share a common line), then the same
will be true for their projections. Thus, collinearity is another invariant property.
Similarly, if three lines meet in a common point, so will their projections.
Pappus of Alexandria (fl. AD 320) proved that the three points (x, y, z)
formed by intersecting the six lines that connect two sets of three collinear points
(A, B, C; and D, E, F) are also collinear.
Let the distinct points A, B, C and D, E, F be on two different lines. Then the
three intersection points—x of AE and BD, y of AF and CD, and z of BF and CE—
are collinear.
The second variant, by Pascal, as shown in the figure, uses certain properties of
circles:
Cross ratio
Although distances and ratios of distances are not preserved under
projection, the cross ratio, defined as AC/BC ∙ BD/AD, is preserved. That
is, AC/BC ∙ BD/AD = A′C′/B′C′ ∙ B′D′/A′D′.
conic sections
The conic sections result from intersecting a plane with a double cone, as
shown in the figure. There are three distinct families of conic sections: the ellipse
(including the circle), the parabola (with one branch), and the hyperbola (with
two branches).
Pascal’s theorem, quoted above, also follows easily for any conic section
from its special case for the circle. Start by selecting six points on a conic section
and project them back onto the base circle. As given earlier, the three relevant
intersection points for six points on the circle will be collinear. Now project all
nine points back to the conic section. Since collinear points (the three
intersection points from the circle) are mapped onto collinear points, the
theorem holds for any conic section. In this way the projective point of view
unites the three different types of conics.
DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY
Differential geometry is a mathematical discipline that uses the techniques
of differential calculus, integral calculus, linear algebra and multilinear
algebra to study problems in geometry. The theory of plane and space
curves and surfaces in the three-dimensional Euclidean space formed the basis
for development of differential geometry during the 18th century and the 19th
century.
Since the late 19th century, differential geometry has grown into a field
concerned more generally with the geometric structures on differentiable
manifolds. Differential geometry is closely related to differential topology and
the geometric aspects of the theory of differential equations.
MMT206 – Selected Topics in Mathematics II (Modern Geometry
Module 5 | Page 8
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Differential geometry, branch of mathematics that studies the geometry
of curves, surfaces, and manifolds (the higher-dimensional analogs of surfaces).
The discipline owes its name to its use of ideas and techniques from
differential calculus, though the modern subject often uses algebraic and purely
geometric techniques instead. Although basic definitions, notations,
and analytic descriptions vary widely, the following geometric questions prevail:
How does one measure the curvature of a curve within a surface (intrinsic)
versus within the encompassing space (extrinsic)? How can the curvature of a
surface be measured? What is the shortest path within a surface between two
points on the surface? How is the shortest path on a surface related to the
concept of a straight line?
While curves had been studied since antiquity, the discovery of calculus in
the 17th century opened up the study of more complicated plane curves—such
as those produced by the French mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650)
with his “compass”. In particular, integral calculus led to general solutions of the
ancient problems of finding the arc length of plane curves and the area of
plane figures. This in turn opened the stage to the investigation of curves and
surfaces in space—an investigation that was the start of differential geometry.
Some of the fundamental ideas of differential geometry can be illustrated by
the strake, a spiraling strip often designed by engineers to give structural support
to large metal cylinders such as smokestacks. A strake can be formed by cutting
an annular strip (the region between two concentric circles) from a flat sheet of
steel and then bending it into a helix that spirals around the cylinder, as
illustrated in the figure. What should the radius r of the annulus be to produce
the best fit? Differential geometry supplies the solution to this problem by
defining a precise measurement for the curvature of a curve; then r can be
adjusted until the curvature of the inside edge of the annulus matches the
curvature of the helix.
Curvature of curves
Curvature of surfaces
If the cylinder is cut along one of the vertical straight lines, the resulting
surface can be flattened (without stretching) onto a rectangle. In differential
geometry, it is said that the plane and cylinder are locally isometric. These are
special cases of two important theorems:
A great circle arc that is longer than a half circle is intrinsically straight on
the sphere, but it is not the shortest distance between its endpoints. On the other
hand, the shortest path in a surface is not always straight, as shown in the figure.
An important theorem is:
https://brilliant.org/wiki/projective-geometry/
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.https://www.britannica.com/science/projective-
geometry/Projective-conic-sections