SLM Organisational Behavior 19.09.2022
SLM Organisational Behavior 19.09.2022
SLM Organisational Behavior 19.09.2022
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
Understand concept of organisational behaviour
Understand nature of organisational behaviour
Understand importance of organisational behaviour
Understand determinants of organisational behaviour
Understand functions and roles of organisational behaviour
Introduction
According to L. M. Prasad, “Organisational behaviour can be defined as the study and application of
knowledge about human behaviour related to other elements of an organisation such as structure,
technology and social systems.” Organisational Behaviour (OB) is a fascinating and tough subject to
research. It has to do with individuals, groups of people, and teams of people working together.
When situational elements interact, the investigation becomes more difficult. The study of
organisational behaviour is concerned with an individual's expected behaviour inside the company.
1.1.Introduction to OB
Organisational behaviour is the study of human behaviour in organisations in order to improve
active human performance so that we can accomplish both organisational as well as human
goals. The goal of organisational behaviour is to identify the best methods for individuals to
participate. The study and use of information about how people behave inside organisations is
known as organisational behaviour. It is a human gadget designed to assist humans. It relates to
people's behaviour at work in all sorts of organisations: public, private, cooperative, commercial,
or service organisations. Whatever type of organisation you have, there exists a need to
understand organisational behaviour. Understanding, predicting, and controlling human
behaviour and the elements that impact people's performance in an organisation are all part of
the study of organisational behaviour. It is focused with the behaviour of individuals and groups
rather than the aggregate behaviour of all members. The study of people's thoughts, feelings,
emotions, and behaviours in the workplace is known as organisational behaviour. Understanding
individual behaviour is difficult in and of itself, but understanding collective behaviour in an
organisational setting is a massive administrative effort. Organisational behaviour is the
academic study of how individuals behave in organisations, and its concepts are mostly used to
improve the efficiency of enterprises. Each individual contributes a unique set of beliefs, values,
attitudes, and other personal qualities to an organisation, and these qualities of all individuals
must interact with one another in order to construct an organisational context. Managers must
grasp the underlying human element of their work in addition to the ongoing behavioural
processes involved in their own occupations. The term "organisational behaviour" denotes to
work-related behaviour that occurs in organisations.
For instance: If i want to understand my boss's personality, I'd look at the individual level of analysis.
If we want to learn how my manager's personality influences my team, I'm looking at it from a team
standpoint. However, if I want to understand how my business's culture influences my boss's
conduct, I'd be interested in the organisational level of analysis (OB). OB encompasses issues ranging
from the person to the organisation. One cannot fully comprehend an individual's behaviour without
first understanding about that individual's organisation. Similarly, he cannot comprehend how the
organisation functions without first understanding the people who comprise it. As a result, people
impact and are influenced by the organisation. Thus, a basic understanding of organisational
behaviour can help managers better grasp the wide range of human requirements and expectations.
1.2.Importance of OB
Improves the organization's Goodwill
Optimal and Improved Use of Resources
Creates a Better Organizational Environment
Understanding Purchase Behaviour of Consumers
Skill Improvement
Anticipating business-related events:
Aids in Comprehending Human Behaviour
Assists in Managing and Guiding Behaviour
Explains Power and Sanction Application
1.3.Nature of OB
Organisational behaviour is a science as well as an art. A science is the scientific study of human
behaviour. The application of behavioural knowledge and abilities obviously tends toward the
status of an art form.
Organisational behaviour manifests itself at various levels.
Organisational behaviour does not exist in a vacuum (emptiness).
Organisational behaviour is empirical, interpretive, and critical at the same time.
It is a different area of study.
Interdisciplinary approach as it attempts to combine information from diverse behavioural and
social sciences such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, and economics,
among others. Organisational behaviour, in fact, is a branch of applied behavioural sciences.
Normative and value centre
Humanistic and optimistic
Organisational behaviour is a subset of general management, not the entire management
structure. It reflects a behavioural management strategy.
Organisational behaviour is a corpus of theory, study, and application related to a rising concern
for people at work. It aids in the comprehension of human behaviour in workplaces.
Organisational behaviour is a human instrument designed to help humans. It aids in the
prediction of individual behaviour.
1.4.Determinants of OB
People, structure, technology, and the environment in which the organisation functions are the
essential determinants in organisational behaviour. An organisation, like any other operational
entity, is made up of options or components that make it possible for an organisation to manage,
and these are as follows:
People: The underlying social structure of the organisation is made up of people. They are
made up of individuals and groups. Formal or informal groups might exist.
The internal and social system of the organisation is made up of people. They are made up
of individuals and groups. Groups might be large or tiny, formal or informal, and official or
unofficial. Groups are ever-changing. They work inside the organisation to achieve their
goals.
Structure: Structure defines the formal ties between individuals in organisations. This term
refers to the formal relationship that exists between persons in an organisation. Different
individuals in the organisation execute different types of jobs, and they must be connected
in some structural way so that their work may be properly coordinated.
1.5.Functions of OB
A. Understanding Human Behavior
Organizations are made up of individuals, and they wouldn't exist without them. Managers must first
comprehend the individuals who make up the organisations in which they work if they are to grasp
the organisations in which they operate. Human behaviour can be studied from the perspective of
the following four levels: individual, group, organisational, and global. Organizational behaviour is
the instrument that assists managers in understanding human behaviour in all directions in which
the human beings interact.
Individual Behaviour: Individual behaviour is the primary subject of behavioural sciences. It
makes an effort to explain why and how someone acts in a certain way in a particular
circumstance. A variety of psychological, social, and cultural factors influence how people
behave. Integrating these elements will aid in better understanding human behaviour,
according to organisational behaviourists.
Interpersonal Behaviour: Additionally, behavioural sciences offer tools for comprehending
interpersonal behaviour in workplace settings. Two-person relationships are inevitable in
organisations. Man's most instinctive attempt at socialisation is interpersonal interaction.
Managers can better understand themselves and others by studying behavioural sciences.
Additionally, this will help to strengthen interpersonal relationships. The methods typically
employed for analysing interpersonal behaviour include role analysis, transaction analysis,
and study of perception.
Group Behaviour: A person behaves differently as a part of the group than as an individual,
according to Hawthorne studies. His actions frequently change in response to group norms.
The performance is impacted synergistically by group behaviour. The organisational process
is researched along with group formation, behaviour, and interactions. Group dynamics can
be used by management to improve teamwork, leadership, and morale.
Intergroup Behaviour: Organizations are made up of many different groups, which makes
interactions more complicated. Understanding the dynamics of the group is crucial for
managers. Group collaboration, coordination, and conflicts have an impact on group
performance. Through interaction, member rotation, avoiding win-lose scenarios, and
focusing on overall group objectives, organisational behaviour assists managers in fostering
cooperative group relationships.
Summary
The study and use of information regarding how people, groups, and individuals behave in
organisations is known as organisational behaviour. It accomplishes this by using a systemic strategy.
In other words, it considers the entire person, entire group, entire organisation, and entire social
system when interpreting relationships between people and organisations. By attaining individual,
organisational, and social objectives, its goal is to foster healthier relationships. OB covers a wide
range of subjects, including teamwork, leadership, teams, change, and human behaviour. It is
impossible to overlook how organisational behaviour affects both individuals and organisations. The
study of organisational behaviour is crucial for the smooth and effective operation of enterprises.
Personality Characteristics
The factors that predispose to certain physical, mental, and emotional states are referred to as
heredity. It determines an individual's outer limits. It also restricts the range of character
development. The arrangement and structure of genes in the chromosomes is passed down
from generation to generation in the range of 20% to 50%. According to the studies, twins who
were raised in different places have similar personalities.
Thus, heredity is the transmission of traits from an ancestor to a descendant via a mechanism
primarily based in the genes. There are numerous achievers in their fields, such as Sachin
Tendulkar, U.R. Rao, N.R. Narayana Murthy, Former Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao, who
gave the Indian economy a new lease on life, and many others. To some extent, the
performance of these high achievers is influenced by hereditary factors.
2. Environment Factors
The environment refers to the overall surroundings in which people are raised and brought up.
Culture, family, upbringing in society, and experiences are all environmental factors that
influence the formation of personality. The confrontations with family members, relatives, and
friends, as well as the social groupings to which they belong, are discussed. Culture aids in
identifying behavioural similarities and differences.
The individual's upbringing, the family's social and economic standing, and the family's size are
all factors in the family environment.
The society moulds a person's personality by forcing them to play various roles. Hereditary
features are often strengthened or weakened by the environment. When a person interacts with
the environment through speaking, for example, his speech organs ensure that he or she is
learning to speak.
There is evidence to suggest that the cultural milieu in which people are reared has a significant
impact on personality development. Children in India, for example, are taught the values of hard
work and family closeness from an early age. Males and ladies are expected to behave
differently in Indian society. Children reared in orphanages or in non-stimulating environments
are far more likely to be socially and emotionally maladjusted than children raised by loving
parents in a stimulating environment. In comparison to other family members, research
investigations have demonstrated that parents have an impact on their children's personality
development. Siblings (brothers and sisters) have an impact on personality development in
addition to parents. Elders serve as role models for younger people.
3. Situation
Without a question, inheritance and environment are the fundamental determinants of
personality, but the effects of heredity and environment on personality are also influenced by
situation. In practise, a person's personality can shift depending on the circumstances. This is
due to the fact that different situations necessitate different components of one's personality.
For example, the same person behaves considerably differently in two different situations:
during an employment interview and while enjoying a picnic with friends in a public park.The
situation necessitates specific actions. Various psychologists have found which personality traits
are important for a person's job. Individuals' ability to manage their behaviour in various settings
determines whether they are successful or unsuccessful. An applicant attending an interview, for
example, may exhibit only a few characteristics. The other characteristic or behaviour is hidden
or not displayed.
1. The Id
The id, the oldest of the three structures, is preoccupied with satisfying basic physical demands
and urges right away. It works completely subconsciously (outside of conscious thought). If your
id passed a stranger eating ice cream, it would most likely take the ice cream. It doesn't know or
care if taking someone else's belongings is impolite; all it cares about is that you want the ice
cream.
2. The Superego
The superego is concerned with societal standards and morality, and is often referred to as one's
"conscience" or "moral compass." It develops as a youngster learns what is considered right and
bad in their culture. If your superego passed by the same stranger, it would not accept their ice
cream since it would be impolite. If your id and superego were both involved, and your id was
strong enough to overrule your superego's worry, you would still eat the ice cream, but you
would most certainly feel guilty and embarrassed afterward.
3. The Ego
The ego is the intellectual, pragmatic element of our personality, in contrast to the instinctual id
and the moral superego. It is less primal than the id, and it is split between conscious and
unconscious states. It's what Sigmund Freud referred to as the "self," and its role is to balance
the id and superego's demands in the real world. So, if you went past the stranger with the ice
cream one more time, your ego would arbitrate the disagreement between your id (“I want that
ice cream right now”) and superego (“It's bad to take someone else's ice cream”) and decide to
go out and buy your own.
While waiting 10 minutes might irritate your id, your ego decides to make that sacrifice as part
of the compromise, allowing you to satisfy your ice cream craving while avoiding an awkward
social scenario and associated emotions of shame.
1. Openness
The readiness to try new things as well as engage in imaginative and intellectual activities is
referred to as openness to experience. It entails being able to "think outside the box."
People who appreciate learning new things and experiencing new things have a high level of
openness. Being intelligent and imaginative, as well as possessing a diverse set of interests,
are examples of openness.
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
The inclination and intensity with which a person wants engagement with their
surroundings, particularly socially, is referred to as extraversion. It includes people's levels of
comfort and aggressiveness in social situations. It also indicates the energy sources from
which someone gets their energy. Introverts derive their energy from within, whilst
extraverts obtain their energy from connecting with others. Extraversion encompasses
characteristics such as being active, chatty, and forceful.
4. Agreeableness
The term "agreeableness" refers to how people approach interpersonal relationships. Unlike
extraversion, which is concerned with relationships, agreeableness is concerned with people's
attitudes and interactions with others. These people are nice, helpful, and compassionate. People
who are less likeable are more likely to be distant. Kindness, affection, and sympathy are among the
traits.
5. Neuroticism
Neuroticism is a personality trait that indicates a person's overall emotional stability based on how
they view the world. It considers how likely a person is to perceive circumstances as dangerous or
challenging. It also includes a person's proclivity for unpleasant feelings. Emotional Stability is
another name for neuroticism. This dimension has to do with one's emotional stability as well as the
intensity of negative feelings. Emotional instability and unpleasant feelings are common in people
who have a high neuroticism score. Mood swings and tension are two characteristics.
5. Self Theory
The Self-Theory focuses on an individual's set of self-perceptions, as well as his perceptions of his
interactions with others and other areas of life. Carl Rogers made a substantial contribution to the
self-theory.
The self-theory is made up of four components, which are described below:
1. Self-Image: What an individual thinks about himself is referred to as self-image. Everyone
has specific views about themselves, such as who or what they are; these beliefs contribute
to a person's self-image and identity.According to Erikson, identity is developed through a
lifelong process that is largely unnoticed by the individual and society, i.e., an individual's
image of himself is constructed unconsciously in response to social conditions.
2. Ideal-Self: The ideal-self is the person who one wishes to be. It differs from self-image in
that it depicts an individual's ideal position, whereas the self-image depicts the reality that
an individual observes. As a result, there may be a discrepancy between the two.The ideal
self serves as a motivator for an individual to engage in activities that are consistent with his
ideal self's traits.
3. Looking-Glass-Self: An individual's view of how others perceive his attributes or feel about
him is referred to as the looking-glass self. Simply put, it is the perception of others'
perceptions of you, i.e., seeing yourself through the eyes of others rather than seeing
yourself as you are.
4. Real-Self: When it comes to your self-image, the real-self is what others present you. When
others react to him and express their views or perceptions about how they really feel about
him, it confirms his self-image. This is interpreted as environmental input that aids an
individual in adjusting his self-image to match the cues he has received.
2. Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a tool for gathering information about a person. The term "questionnaire" refers
to a method of obtaining responses to questions by having the respondent fill out a form.
3. Rating
Another approach of analysing a person's personality is to use a rating scale. Using this strategy, the
investigator tries to figure out what a person is like through his activities. Experts or important
people are requested to make a decision or estimate the degree to which the subject possesses a
specific trait.
An expert, a parent, a teacher, a peer, or any other relevant individual can rate others. Even a
person can rank himself.
Rating scales are effective for determining what impact an individual has made on those with whom
he has had close contact about a particular aspect of his behaviour. Teachers, counsellors,
academicians, employers, supervisors, parents, and others use rating scales in a variety of situations.
A rating scale has been designed for analysing a wide range of personal characteristics such as
leadership, tactfulness, cooperation, industriousness, honesty, emotional maturity, and so on.
Absolute rating scales and relative rating scales are the two types of rating scales. These two scales
can be subdivided further.
4. Projective Techniques
One of the most commonly used and significant tests in clinical work is projective procedures or
tests. They were mostly developed in a clinical setting and have remained useful tools for clinicians.
Some have originated from therapeutic treatments used with psychiatric patients, such as art
therapy.
Though projective techniques have been utilised for a long time, an article by L. K. Frank titled
"Projective Methods for the Study of Personality" helped to popularise them. The greatest boon to
projective methods came in 1921, when Herman Rorschach published a study describing a strategy
for determining patterns of behaviour from an individual's vocal replies to a set of ten inkblots.
Today's projective methods literature is extensive, with over 4,000 references on Rorschach alone.
Projective approaches are widely employed in many aspects of applied psychology, from hospitals
and clinics to personnel selection and career counselling.
A series of approaches known as projective techniques is used to investigate both intellectual and
non-intellectual components of personality. In these tests, the user is given an unstructured or
ambiguous task, such as a picture, inkblot, or incomplete statement, which allows for a wide range
of interpretations.
The main premise of projective tests is that an individual's interpretation of the assignment would
project his typical mode of replies, personal motives, feelings, and desires, allowing the examiner to
gain a better understanding of more subtle aspects of his personality.
Projective approaches come in a range of shapes and sizes. The Rorschach Inkblot Test and the
Thematic Apperception Test are the two most prominent representative tests of projective
approaches. The word-association or free-association test, as well as sentence completion tests, are
two other well-known projective tests.
(a) The Rorschach Inkblot Test: Herman Rorschach developed it in his monograph
"Psychodiagnostics" in 1921. In the same year, he passed away. Emil Oberholzer, Waller
Morgenthaler, and George Roemer, his associates, were instrumental in popularising the exam.
Rorschach is one of the most commonly used, popular, highly criticised, and well-researched tests
today. Multiple test administration, scoring, and interpretation methods have been developed as a
result of various improvements in this test.
The Rorschach test consists of ten cards with symmetrical inkblots on both sides. The black cards are
half of the deck, while the coloured cards comprise the other half. The cards are given to the
subjects in a specific order. The test's score is highly subjective. Several scoring categories for the
Rorschach test have been developed, but the most commonly scored categories are location (i.e. the
area of the blot that has been perceived by the subject on the basis of live response), determinant
(i.e. a characteristic of the inkblot as perceived by the subject), content (what is actually seen by the
subject), original or popular (this category tells us whether the subject has seen something similar
before), and original or popular (this category tells us whether the subject
The Rorschach test is made up of 10 inkblots that Herman Rorschach made by dripping ink on paper
and folding it over to make a symmetrical design. The inkblots are shown to the participants during
the exam, and they are asked to describe each one. After that, the test administrator asks questions
concerning the responses, such as where area of the inkblot corresponds to which response. This
test is supposed to measure unconscious attitudes and motivations and can be used to examine a
person's personality characteristics and emotional functioning.
The Rorschach test has gotten a mixed response. Some have viewed it as a kind of personality X-ray,
an essential diagnostic tool, while others have viewed its use as unethical. Researchers have
continuously painted a negative picture of Rorschach, despite the fact that clinicians are increasingly
employing this test.
(b) The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): The TAT, invented by C. D. Morgan and Henry A. Murray
in 1935 as a method to examine unconscious ideas and fantasies, is the only other projective
technique that has come close to the Rorschach method in terms of popularity and research.
A blank card and 30 photographs make up the TAT test. The images were chosen and labelled in
such a way that there are four sets of 20 cards, one for boys, one for girls, one for males, and one for
ladies above the age of 14. The testing procedure is separated into two sessions, each of which
should have no more than 10 TAT cards administered, with at least one day between the two
sessions.
Practical factors have recently led to a reduction in the number of cards issued. Most testers now
use only one session and offer the subject with 8 to 12 cards. The respondent is given the cards one
at a time and asked to tell a storey about the image that describes the portrayed situation, what led
up to it, what the characters in the image are thinking, and what the outcome will be.
Although the TAT is most commonly given as an oral test in clinical settings, it can also be given in
writing or as a group test.
Like the Rorschach test, the TAT test offers different scoring systems. The three most often used TAT
scoring systems are as follows:
Murray’s scoring system (Non-quantitative)
McClelland’s system (quantitative) and
Eron’s system (quantitative).
Many modifications to the original TAT test have been developed since its initial publication. The
Children's Appreciation Test is one such modification (CAT).
(c) The Word Association Test: Carl Jung was the first to methodically construct the free-
association exam, which was initially known as the free-association test. Kent and Rosanoff later
utilised it for mental screening. The word association test has been around for a long time. A total of
100 words were used in Jung's word association test. Rapaport and his colleagues created a word-
association test with a list of 60 terms in 1968. Kent and Rosanoff devised a 100-word word-
association test to distinguish between mentally ill and healthy people.
In the word association test, the subject is told that the examiner will utter a succession of words,
one at a time, and that he or she (the subject) should say the first word that comes to mind, with no
right or incorrect answers.
The examiner then keeps track of the response to each of his words, as well as the reaction time and
any atypical speech or behaviour manifestations that may accompany a certain response. The
subjects provide information that can be used to assess a person's personality.
(d) Sentence Completion Test: The individual is presented with a series of incomplete sentences,
most of which are open at the conclusion, that he must complete in one or more words. They're
similar to a word association exercise. Sentence completion tests, on the other hand, are seen to be
superior to word association tests since the subject can react with more than one word, there is
more flexibility and variety of responses, and more aspects of personality and experience can be
accessed.
The following are a few of the most regularly utilised sentence completion tests:
The Sack Sentence Completion Test
Rotter's Incomplete Sentence Blank and Rotter's Incomplete Sentence Blank
The Sentence Completion Test at Washington University.
5. Situational Tests
During World War II, the term "situational test" gained prominent. During World War II, the
United States Office of Strategic Services (OSS) devised and employed these tests to a large
extent. Situational tests are made up of real-life scenarios in which pupils are required to
accomplish specific tasks.
The subject's performance and behaviour in such scenarios allows us to better grasp his or her
personality. In a situational test, the subject's behaviour is assessed by a panel of qualified
judges or, in some situations, his peers. A wide range of situational tests were used in this study.
The situational stress test is one such examination that examines an individual's behaviour in
stressful, frustrating, or emotionally disrupting situations.
Another situational test is a group conversation without a leader. In such tests, a group of
examinees must work together, with none of them being identified as a leader or given specific
responsibilities based on the subject's responses and interpersonal interactions. The researcher
or observer takes note of the group members' personality traits as well as the formation of
leadership in such a leaderless group. The Office of Strategic Services employs a number of other
situational tests. These tests are referred to as OSS tests. These tests were designed to assess a
candidate's personality and provide an accurate prediction of its suitability for various military
duties.
6. Personality Inventories
Personality inventories are another approach for assessing an individual's personality. They
consist of statements, items, or questions to which the subject must respond. The responses are
quite specific and well-structured. Personality inventories address not only the individual's
outward behaviour, but also his feelings about himself, other people, and his surroundings,
which are a product of his unique biological make-up as well as the effects of his
experiences.The “trait approach” to personality investigation is commonly used in personality
inventories. It is attempted to quantify the presence and strength of these characteristics.
Personality inventories are assessments that are designed to look at one or more distinct, well-
defined aspects of a person's personality. Second, the personality inventory's questions are
often phrased in the first person.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), established by J. C. Mckinley and S. R.
Hathaway, the Bell Adjustment Inventory, Edward's Personality Preference Schedule, and others
are some of the most well-known personality inventories.
The sensory experience of the world is referred to as perception. It entails both recognising
environmental stimuli and taking action in response to them. We obtain knowledge about the
features and aspects of the environment that are crucial to our existence through the perceptual
process. Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within
our environment. Touch, sight, sound, smell, and taste are the five senses that make up perception.
It also contains proprioception, a combination of senses that allows you to notice changes in your
body's posture and movement. It also includes the cognitive processes that are required to analyse
information, such as recognising a friend's face or smelling a familiar odour
“A process through which individuals arrange and interpret their sensory experiences in order to
give meaning to their environment” is another definition of perception. The process through which
an individual picks, organises, and interprets stimuli into a meaningful and coherent picture of the
world is known as perception. Perception is the cognitive process of converting sensory stimuli into
useful information. It is the process of mentally evaluating something we see or hear in order to
later judge and render a judgement on a situation, person, or group.
Different people have different thinking styles, beliefs, feelings, and goals, and practically everyone
acts in accordance with them. Because of these characteristics, different people interpret the same
things differently.
For some, something is correct, while for others, it is completely incorrect. It all comes down to how
you approach things, what your point of view is, and how you view things. This is a matter of
perception.
It is an individual's point of view through which he or she understands a circumstance. Perception is
described as the process through which information enters the mind and is interpreted in order to
give the world some sense. Perception is the mental process of converting sensory input into useful
knowledge. It is the process of mentally analysing something we see or hear in order to judge and
provide a verdict on a situation, person, organisation, or other entity.
Perception of speech- Speech competency is the ability to interpret and comprehend the sounds
of language that are heard.
Perception of taste- Taste is the ability to recognise the flavour of substances by tasting them
using taste buds, which are sensory organs.
Perception of other senses- Other senses include balance, acceleration, pain, time, and
sensations sensed in the throat and lungs, among others.
Perception of social world- It allows people to understand other people and groups in their
social context.
It is an intellectual process in which a person selects input from the environment, organises
it, and derives meaning from it.
A cognitive or psychological process that is fundamental. The perception of their
surroundings triggers people's actions, emotions, ideas, and sentiments.
Perception is the process by which a person assigns meaning to his or her surroundings.
People's perceptions of their surroundings influence their actions, emotions, thoughts, and
feelings.
Perception can be defined in a number of ways, but it essentially refers to how a person
perceives the world.
Perception is a nearly automatic process that works in the same way for everyone, but it
usually results in varied perceptions.
It is a subjective procedure.
Motives: Employees' motives and desires cause them to view stimuli differently depending
on their level and angle. Employees with helpful motives will constantly aid management. If
they want to grow as individuals and as a company, they will see items and situations in a
positive light. Employees with a lack of motivation will not work honestly. Depending on the
motive, the perception will be different.
Interest: Individual interest attracts increased attention and recognition to stimuli. The
impact of stimuli or items on behaviour is reduced when there is less attention and
recognition. Employees that are uninterested in their work will exhibit less productive
behaviour patterns, and their perception will be poor.
Expectation: Perceptions are influenced by expectations. People see what they expect to see
when they go to the movies. They become frustrated when the object and situation do not
match their expectations. They are unable to change their ways. Employees may expect
higher remuneration, and as a result, they view management in that light. When there are
expectations present, the genuine stimuli are not effectively received. For accurate
perception, management must evolve expectations.
Self-Concept: The self-concept of the perceiver is another component that can influence
social perception. A person with a positive self-concept is more likely to perceive favourable
qualities in others. A poor self-concept, on the other hand, can cause a perceiver to pick out
bad features in another person. We can have more accurate perceptions of others if we
have a better awareness of ourselves.
Characteristics of the seen target can influence how it is perceived. Our opinion of others is heavily
influenced by their physical appearance. Individuals who are extremely gorgeous or unattractive are
more likely to be recognised in a group than those who are average looking. The way we see a target
is shaped by its motion, sound, size, and other characteristics.
Physical Appearance: Our opinion of others is heavily influenced by their physical
appearance. Physical characteristics of the target, such as height, weight, approximate age,
race, and gender, will be noticed by the perceiver. Physical appearance characteristics that
differ from the norm, are intense, or are new or unusual are more likely to be noticed by
observers.
Objects: Nearby objects are more likely to be viewed as a group than as individual objects.
We frequently group unrelated items or occurrences together as a function of physical or
temporal proximity.People, objects, and events that have a lot in common are often grouped
together. The higher the degree of similarity, the more likely we are to regard them as a
group.
Changes in circumstances lead to erroneous perceptions of people. The following factors have an
impact on perception:
Time: The context in which the perceiver interacts with the target has an impact on the
perceiver's perception of the target.
For example, a person dressed up for a party may go unnoticed, but the same attire in the office
might draw attention, even though the individual has not changed.
Situation at work: You've probably heard folks remark that their boss is one thing during the day
and another entirely when they're out in public.
Social setting: Social perception is also influenced by the strength of situational cues. Some
situations convey strong clues as to what is and is not acceptable behaviour. In these cases, we
assume that the situation can explain the individual's behaviour and that it does not necessarily
reflect the individual's temperament. In social perception, this is known as the discounting
principle. For example, you might come across an automobile salesperson who greets you with a
warm and friendly attitude, inquiries about your work and hobbies, and appears genuinely
interested in your car preferences. Is it reasonable to infer that this behaviour represents the
nature of the salesperson? Because of the situation's influence, you probably won't be able to.
This person is attempting to sell you a car, and he is likely to handle all consumers in this manner
in this situation.
The social psychology field of interpersonal perception studies the assumptions that people who
interact with one another make about one another. Since this region is interpersonal rather than
intrapersonal and necessitates the interaction of at least two actual individuals, it varies from
social cognition and person perception. Interpersonal perception is a subfield of psychology that
deals with how individuals perceive one another. Because it studies the numerous conclusions
that people draw about others based on verbal and non-verbal clues, this perception theory is
regarded as a crucial component of good communication. Understanding these habits can
frequently help you get positive responses from other individuals. It is necessary to observe at
least two people in order to study this kind of perception. The social psychology subfields of
accentuation and stereotyping are also connected to this theory of perception. Examining
people's tiny movements and minor facial expressions during conversations is one of the earliest
ways to put theories of interpersonal perception into practise. Even when the observer is unable
to hear the parties' actual spoken words, analysing these kinds of behaviours can frequently
reveal a lot about both sides. The relationship between the two people in question and the topic
of their talk are typically communicated through these patterns. Examining elements like bias
and perceived personality is part of studying interpersonal perception. On first contact, many
people have a tendency to categorise other people. These distinctions can be between "friendly"
and "hostile" or "reliable" and "untrustworthy," for example. Initial impressions may not always
be accurate because people tend to form them based on their upbringings and personalities. The
study of how personalities influence various types of assessments is a key subject of
interpersonal perception. Due to the widespread use of stereotypes to categorise others,
stereotypes play a significant role in the psychology of perception. Many people frequently do so
without being aware of it. Perceiving someone who is different as a member of a group rather
than as an individual is a frequent practise. Psychologists that focus on interpersonal perception
frequently try to develop thorough justifications for this widespread stereotyping habit. The
practise of critically recognising people as distinct persons with their own sets of strengths and
shortcomings is typically required to improve specific interpersonal skills. Perceptual
accentuation is a prevalent social psychology error in this field. This flawed mode of thinking
frequently results in false perceptions that are motivated by the perceiver's own wishes rather
than by reality. It commonly can result in misunderstandings and irregularities in some
interpersonal situations. One of the key methods to enhance this kind of interpersonal
communication is to be able to spot and adjust perceptual accentuation.
2.9 Errors and Distortion of Perception
Perception is the process of being aware of or comprehending sensory data. It is a method of
organising and interpreting sensory perceptions in order to give meaning to external forces or the
environment. When it comes to judging others, most people employ a variety of shortcuts. They're
also known as perceptual errors or perceptual accuracy barriers. The failure to perceive people,
things, or circumstances fairly and accurately is known as a perceptual error. Bias, prejudice, and
stereotyping are examples of things that have always caused humans to make mistakes in various
aspects of their lives. Perceptual error has a significant impact on organisations, and it impedes
proper decision-making skills when it comes to hiring, performance appraisal, review, and feedback,
among other things. In the workplace, there are many different sorts of perceptual errors.
1. Selective Perception
People perceive things based on their own interests, ideas, and backgrounds. It's the inability to
recognise and remember the stimuli that produce emotional distress.
We participate in selective perception because we cannot monitor everything going on around
us. People interpret what they perceive selectively based on their personal interests,
experiences, and opinions. It's the proclivity to ignore and forget stimuli that cause emotional
distress or contradict our existing ideas. For instance, because of in-group partiality, a teacher
may have a favourite student. The teacher is unconcerned with the student's poor performance.
2. Halo Effect
It is the tendency to judge a person only on the basis of a single attribute, which can be positive or
negative. In this case, a single attribute dominates the individual's other features. It aids in the fast
assessment of others. Halo error has the most profound/deep impact and implication on an
individual's perception and behaviour, among other types of perception errors. They aren't always
wrong, but they're definitely more wrong than right most of the time.
By focusing on a single habit or trait, we misinterpret others.
It has a significant impact and frequently produces inaccurate results.
For example, we have the sense that a lazy person will never be punctual in any situation.
3. Stereotyping (Grouping/Generalizing)
To make things easier, we frequently classify individuals and events into pre-defined basic
categories or groupings. Stereotyping is when we categorise people based on some features
(typically ethnicity, occupation, sexuality, and so on). It aids in the reduction of complexity. It
ignores individual distinctions and makes a mistaken decision.
Indians, for example, are irritable, fat men are jolly/happy, Americans are ambitious, Chinese
are mysterious, and Japanese are hardworking, and so on. The examples given above are not
always accurate. They are correct in general, but not in this case.
5. Projection
This is another form of perceptual error that occurs frequently. The tendency for people to
see their own characteristics in other people is known as projection. When people pass
judgement on others, they are projecting their own characteristics onto them.
6. Impression
The old saying goes, "the first impression is the last impression." At first glance, we often
build impressions about others. They begin to have impressions and sense even before they
are aware of any of their personality qualities. Perceptual distortion can occur as a result of
this. When performing a performance appraisal, this inaccuracy could lead to bias.
Here are several examples:
Students on the first bench are disciplined and intelligent.
Students on the last bench are usually considered as undisciplined and poor in academics
7. Illusion
The illusion is a misunderstanding. In this case, the user will misinterpret a stimulus and
experience it incorrectly.
In the dark, a rope, for example, can be mistaken for a snake or vice versa. An unknown
person's voice is mistaken for that of a friend. A stranger standing at a distance could be
mistaken for a known individual.
8. Horn Effect
When a person is totally judged on the basis of a perceived unfavourable quality or attribute.
As a result, the overall grade is lower than acceptable. Because he is not officially dressed at
the office, he may be informal at work as well.
Summary
A person's (or thing's) personality is a set of characteristics that distinguishes them from others.
Personality is the sum of all a person's characteristics, including their behavioural, temperamental,
emotional, and mental characteristics. The whole of someone's attitudes, interests, behavioural
patterns, emotional responses, social roles, and other individual features that persist through time
are referred to as personality. Modern personality psychology is significantly inspired by these early
philosophical roots, and seeks to determine which factors, such as free choice, inheritance, or
universality, are most relevant in developing human personality. Psychodynamic, neo-Freudian,
learning, humanistic, biological, trait, and cultural perspectives are among the various approaches to
the modern psychological study of personality. The set of mechanisms we utilise to make sense of
the many stimuli we are faced with is referred to as perception. Our perceptions are formed by our
interpretations of various sensations.The perceptual process starts when we receive stimuli from the
environment and finishes when we interpret those stimuli. This procedure occurs hundreds of
millions of times per day and is usually unconscious. The attended stimulus is created when we pay
attention to or choose one specific object in our environment. Neural processes arrange stimuli; they
begin with our sense receptors (touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing) and continue to our brains,
where we organise the information, we receive. We can interpret stimuli once we receive and
arrange them, which essentially means that we take the information and turn it into something we
can categorise. “A process through which individuals arrange and interpret their sensory experiences
in order to give meaning to their environment” is another definition of perception. There are three
types of factors that influence perceptual mechanisms:
Characteristics of the Perceiver
Characteristics of the Perceived or target, and
Characteristic of the Situation
Introduction
The process of obtaining new understanding, knowledge, actions, abilities, beliefs, attitudes, and
preferences is referred to as learning. Learning can take place in a variety of contexts. The premise
that good behaviour should be rewarded with positive consequences and that bad behaviour should
be punished with negative consequences is the foundation of the behaviour modification approach.
Positive punishment, negative punishment, positive reinforcement, and negative reinforcement are
all components of the behaviour modification process.
3.1 Concept and nature of learning
Learning is described as a permanent change in behaviour as a result of both direct and indirect
experience. It entails a change in behaviour and attitude as a result of education, training, practise,
and experience. It is completed by the development of relatively permanent information and
abilities. To different people, the term "learning" denotes different things, and it is utilised in various
theories in diverse ways. Over the last half-century, definitions of learning have shifted from changes
in an individual's thoughts or behaviour to changes in involvement in ongoing activities with other
persons to changes in a person's identity within a group as theories of learning evolved (e.g., a
change from being a follower to being a leader). Although most definitions of learning include a
change in an individual's knowledge, capacity to perform a skill, or participation in a group activity
with other people, the nature of this change varies widely among theories. . Learning has a big
influence on people's behaviour since it affects their abilities, role perceptions, and motivation.
Learning is critical for knowledge management, in addition to its significance in individual behaviour.
Knowledge management improves a company's ability to collect, share, and apply knowledge in
ways that help it survive and thrive. Learning is an important aspect of human behaviour. All of life is
a learning experience. We may see how much of a difference learning has made to an individual by
comparing the simple, crude ways in which a child feels and behaves with the complicated modes of
adult behaviour, his abilities, habits, ideas, sentiments, and the like. These are the most important
aspects of learning:
Change must be long-lasting: This indicates that once we've "learned," our behaviour must
be different, either better or worse, than it was before the learning experience. For example,
you may have “learned” to drive a car or how to operate a computer.
This shift must be the result of some form of learning or practise. Biological maturation has
nothing to do with this learning. A child, for example, does not learn to walk; it is a natural
biological process. We are not taught how to eat or drink.
Learning necessitates change, which can be beneficial or detrimental. Change may not be
noticeable until a situation develops that allows for the new behaviour. Performance does
not always represent learning.
Not all changes reflect learning: for change to be considered learning, it must be relatively
permanent. Temporary changes could simply be reflecting and not represent any learning.
As a result, behavioural abnormalities induced by fatigue or narcotics are ruled out.
Behaviour should change as a result of experience, practise, or training: this means that
behaviour resulting from maturity, disease, or physical harm does not qualify as learning.
In order to learn, the practise or experience must be reinforced; if reinforcement does not
accompany the practise or experience, the behaviour will eventually vanish.
Despite the fact that it is not mentioned in any standard definition of learning, learning is not
limited to one's schooling. Learning happens all the time in one's life.
Changes occur as a result of learning: As previously stated, people gain new information that
is processed in their mind. This procedure generates new information. Their existing pattern
of behaviour changes as a result of this new understanding.
Change must be permanent: People change their behaviour more or less permanently when
the information they have gained is translated into knowledge and wisdom.
Behavioural issues: As knowledge and wisdom increase, various attitudes and ideals should
emerge. The behaviour should alter as a result of these new attitudes and ideals.
Experiential learning: Experiential learning is a type of learning that is based on personal
experience. Direct or indirect experience, personal or through observation or reading, is
possible.
Reinforcement: In order for learning to occur or be repeated, practise and experience must
be prioritised.
Consider your own experiences acquiring new skills, such as how to tie your shoes or drive a
car. You most likely began by expressing an interest in the process, and after a period of
struggle, it became second nature to you. All of these events were part of the learning
process, which may be broken down into four stages:
Unconscious incompetence
You don't know what you don't know yet, thus this will probably be the easiest learning
stage. A learner primarily exhibits interest in something or prepares for learning during this
stage. If you wanted to learn to dance, for example, you could watch a video, speak with an
instructor, or sign up for a future session. It's possible that Stage 1 will be completed quickly.
Conscious incompetence
This is the most difficult stage for learners because they begin to realise how much they still
need to learn; they realise what they don't know. Consider the phrase "it's easier said than
done." The student must merely discuss or exhibit interest in a new experience in stage 1,
but in stage 2, he or she must begin to apply new abilities that will help them achieve their
learning goal. You would now be learning basic dance steps in the dance example above.
Practice is required to complete this stage successfully.
You're starting to master some aspects of the learning goal and are feeling more confident in
your abilities. For example, you may now be able to do fundamental dance steps with
minimal errors and without needing your instructor's assistance. Stage 3 necessitates the
repetition of skills.
This is the ultimate level, in which learners have successfully practised and repeated the
technique they learned so many times that it is practically second nature to them. You might
be able to apply your dancing talents to a freestyle dance routine that you develop yourself
at this point. However, if you want to feel like you've "mastered" a skill by the time you
reach stage 4, you'll need to keep practising and re-evaluating which stage you're in so you
can keep learning. For example, if you now feel secure in your basic dance skills and can
execute your own dance routine, you might want to branch out and try tango or swing
dancing. This will return you to stage 1 or 2, but because of the dance talents you learned
previously, you may be able to proceed through the stages more rapidly this time.
Motivation: is defined as the encouragement and support received in order to finish a task
or achieve a goal. It is a crucial part of learning since it provides us with the motivation to
accomplish a task. The coach, for example, inspired the players to win the game.
Practice: We've all heard the saying, "Practice makes perfect." It is critical to practise what
we have learned in order to be a perfectionist or at the very least complete the work. For
example, we can only call ourselves programmers if we are able to execute the code we
have created.
Environment: We learn from our environment, and we learn from the people we meet.
Internal and exterior environments are the two sorts of environments. When a child is at
home, he or she learns from their family, which is an internal environment, but when they
are sent to school, they are exposed to an external environment.
Mental group: It depicts our thinking as a result of the individuals we choose to hang out
with. Simply put, we form a group of people with whom we have a connection. It could be
for a social cause, when people with similar mindsets work together to achieve a common
goal. A gathering of readers, travellers, or other people, for example.
Fatigue and Boredom: Fatigue and boredom are two different things. Fatigue is a mental or
physical exhaustion that has an impact on overall work efficiency and competency, whereas
boredom is a demotivation or strong dislike or loathing of work. If such distaste persists in a
person's thoughts, he or she may experience fatigue or weariness, even if he or she is not
physically exhausted. Boredom, as opposed to exhaustion, irritates people more.
Age and Maturity: Age and adulthood have a significant impact on the learning process.
Learning will not take place if the person is not in the correct state of mind or lacks
intelligence. Some people can quickly integrate information into their minds, while others
may need more time to do so. Mental age and chronological age increase in lockstep, and
when a person reaches the age of sixteen, it stops developing. As a result, intellectual
adulthood is defined as an increase in age at which a person can use his or her mind to
tackle complex issues or activities.
Emotional Conditions: When the receptive environment surrounding them is favourable, the
speed and quality of the learning process can be boosted. Satisfaction, happiness, and joy
are essential for any form of learning, whereas negative emotional states operate as a
barrier to learning. Many studies have been conducted, and it is well documented that
psychological problems such as emotional anxiety, exertion, pressures, and hindrances,
among others, are not ideal for following any theoretical approach.
Needs: Every human being has a unique set of requirements. The satisfaction of these
requirements leads to the fulfilment of some life goals. The specific need is met for a short
time after the aims are achieved. Finally, an internal urge emerges, and these tendencies
resurface sooner or later, paving the door for other actions to be completed. Humans have
physiological demands such as the need for food, oxygen, air, shelter, and water, among
others. Some needs, like as acceptance, love, acknowledgment, and self-interest, are
collective. The physiological demands and the collective needs are very different. Social
requirements usually arise after physiological demands have been met. Security, love,
affection, and self-esteem serve as significant physiological requirements in the learning
process.
Interests: A person's motivation for choosing a specific behaviour from among multiple
options is their interest. To promote the learning process, engage the student in activities
that pique his or her interest.
Attitude: The learner's mental approach is critical and has a significant impact on the
learning process. If a student is actively prepared, has attention and interest in the subject
he is supposed to learn, he will almost surely have a positive attitude about it. This mindset
will enable the student to fully control the learning process while maintaining a relaxed state
of mind and maximising efficiency.
These are the primary influences on what a person learns; they form the foundation of our
behaviour, and everything we do is influenced by what we lea
Classical conditioning is the process by which people learn to associate the information value
of a neutral stimulus to a stimulus that will not induce a response in the natural world. It's
possible that such learnt behaviours (or reflexive behaviour) aren't under a person's
conscious control. A natural reaction will be elicited by an unconditional stimulus
(environmental event) in the classical conditioning process. The unconditioned stimulus is
then linked to a neutral environment event (also known as conditioned stimulus), which
brings out the behaviour. Following that, the conditioned stimulus will bring forth the
behaviour, which is known as the conditioned response, on its own.
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist whose research with dogs led to the early formulations of
classical conditioning theory, is the name most usually associated with the theory. The
sound of a metronome (the conditioned stimulus) was connected and coupled with the
conditioned response - salivation - in Pavlov's famous experiment. The dogs eventually
learned to show a salivation response (conditioned response) to the sound of the
metronome alone, according to the experiment.
The classical conditioning process can assist in the comprehension of a wide range of
organisational behaviours. The unique lights exhibited in front of any hospital's emergency
room announce the arrival of a patient who need immediate medical attention and
treatment, whereas the lights displayed throughout the building during the opening of a
new office indicate the delight of starting a new business.
This learning theory is strongly related with B.F. Skinner. Skinner suggested that behaviour is
determined from the outside, implying that it is an involuntarily learnt behaviour. The word
operant conditioning refers to voluntary behaviours that have some influence on the
environment and are referred to as operant. Skinner believed that if certain pleasurable
outcomes were produced to encourage desirable forms of behaviour, the frequency of such
behaviour would grow. This indicates that if people are positively reinforced, they will
engage in desired behaviours.
Also, if the desired behaviour is rapidly rewarded, the rewards will be more effective.
Furthermore, if unfavourable behaviour is punished, it is less likely to occur again. Most of
our actions, such as walking, talking, and working, can be classified as operant behaviour.
Instrumental conditioning is another term for operant conditioning theory. This theory
describes a learning process in which behaviour is affected or controlled by the results. Let's
use a child as an example. A child might learn how to open a package to acquire the candy
inside, or how to stay away from a hot stove. Classic conditioning, on the other hand,
establishes a link between a stimulus and a behaviour. The youngster may learn to salivate
at the sight of candy or shiver at the sight of an angry parent, as an example.
The investigation of these two types of learning dominated the study of animal learning in
the twentieth century, and they remain at the foundation of behaviour and learning today.
Learning, according to this view, is the result of purposeful thinking about an issue or
circumstance based on existing facts and responding objectively and more orientedly. It
believes that a person learns the meanings of numerous objects and experiences, as well as
the responses associated with those meanings.
This theory contends that the learner creates a cognitive structure in memory that organises
knowledge about the events that occur.
The cognitive process is emphasised in cognitive theories. The link between cognitive
environmental stimuli and expectancies is established in cognitive learning theories.
A well-known cognitive theorist is Edward Tolman. He used rats as test animals in his
experiment. He discovered that a rat could be taught to run through a complex maze with
purpose and direction in order to achieve a goal (food). The rat learnt to anticipate the
possibility that particular cognitive cues connected with the choosing point would lead to
food. Tolman's method is denoted by the letters S-S. (Stimulus-Stimulus). To put it another
way, learning is the relationship between the cue and the expectation.
Employees expect increased pay, promotions, and a high level of job satisfaction. Employees
learn that working productively allows them to meet their goals. Cognitive environmental
cues help people realise that they can work productively. The link between cognitions and
organisational behaviour is currently causing concern among organisational behaviour
researchers.
People learn from a variety of role models, including parents, teachers, classmates, and
leaders. In social learning theory, models have a substantial impact. Individuals are
influenced by the model through four different mechanisms. The following are the four
processes:
Attentional Processes: People learn from the important aspects of the models, such
as leadership abilities, attractiveness, and quick decision-making, among other
things.
Retention Process: The model's amount of effect is determined by how well the
individual remembers the model.
Learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context, not a behavioural
one.
Observing a behaviour and the outcomes of that activity can lead to learning (known
as vicarious reinforcement).
Summary
Learning is also defined as a reasonably permanent shift in the frequency with which a certain
individual behaviour occurs. The work-set and organisational norms will serve as objective
foundation for judging if an employee's behaviour is desirable or undesirable, and whether he or she
needs to learn and practise productive work behaviour in an organisational environment. As a result
of education, training, socialisation, and experience, it is the process by which skills, knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviour are produced and developed. A well-known cognitive theorist is Edward
Tolman. He used rats as test animals in his experiment. He discovered that a rat could be taught to
run through a complex maze with purpose and direction in order to achieve a goal (food). The rat
learnt to anticipate the possibility that particular cognitive cues connected with the choosing point
would lead to food. Tolman's method is denoted by the letters S-S. (Stimulus-Stimulus). To put it
another way, learning is the relationship between the cue and the expectation. People learn in a
variety of ways, including by observing others, having direct experiences, and having indirect
experiences. Social learning is defined as learning through a variety of methods. Behavioural
principles, cognitive concepts, and environmental variables are all incorporated within social
learning theory. The inputs for this theory come from classical and operant conditioning techniques.
It also recognises that learning occurs through a variety of methods, including modelling and self-
control. People learn from a variety of role models, including parents, teachers, classmates, and
leaders. In social learning theory, models have a substantial impact. Individuals are influenced by the
model through four different mechanisms.
UNIT 4: ATTITUDE AND VALUES
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
Understand concept of attitude and its components
Understand individual behaviour and attitude
Understand the theories of attitude and factors influencing it
Understand the concept of values and factors influencing it
Understand types of values
Understand effect of values on behaviour
Introduction
Attitudes are concrete evaluations of an object, whereas values are abstract and situation-
independent; attitudes can be positive or negative, whereas values are predominantly positive; and
attitudes are less important to our sense of self than values. The way we have learnt to think about
how things ought to be or how people ought to behave, especially in terms of attributes such as
honesty, integrity, openness, etc., is what values are. Attitudes are the learned responses to people
and events that have been shaped by our beliefs, values, and presuppositions. The manner in which
we respond to situations and conduct might reveal our attitude. To embrace a diverse culture and
set of behaviours as a successful manager, we must change our conduct in a way that is consistent
with our beliefs and values.
4.1 Concept of attitudes
Psychologist named Gordon Allport coined the phrase -“Attitudes are learned predispositions to
respond to an object or class of objects in a consistently favourable or unfavourable way”.
Attitude is the most important aspect that influences a person's or organization's behaviour. It
manipulates how people and objects are perceived, how they are exposed to and comprehend
information, how they choose friends and co-workers, and so on. Early in the history of social
psychology, the role of attitudes in interpreting psychological phenomena was formalised.
A positive, negative, or mixed appraisal of an object expressed at some level of intensity is referred
to as an attitude. It expresses one's positive or negative opinion on a person, place, object, or event.
These are critical factors of our attitudes toward and actions in relation to all aspects of our social
environment. Attitudes are made up of a complicated web of evaluative ideas, sentiments, and
proclivities toward specific acts.
An attitude is a reasonably persistent emotional inclination to react consistently to a certain object,
situation, person, or group of people. In what is known as the ABC model of attitudes, every attitude
has three components: A for affective, B for behavioural, and C for cognitive. The affective
component refers to an individual's emotional response to an attitude object. 'When I think about or
see a snake,' for example, I get afraid.' “a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently
favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object.” is how attitude is described.
That is, attitudes have a different impact on behaviour than values.
An individual's particular method of constantly responding in a favourable or unfavourable manner
to objects, people, or events in his surroundings is referred to as attitude. It is founded on an
individual's experience and interpretation of that experience, and it leads to specific behaviours or
viewpoints.
The way a person feels about something is reflected in their attitude. Because attitude predicts a
person's behaviour or opinions in specific situations, it is often possible to predict their behaviour or
opinions. Attitudes indicate a consistent pattern of behaviour, as well as a consistent way of thinking
and feeling.
Attitudes are variously defined as readiness to act, mental posturers, conduct guide, sentiments,
desires, anxieties, convictions, and a state of readiness! a tendency to act in favour of or against an
object in the environment; frames of reference that influence behaviour, and so on.
Thus,
Attitudes are formed as a result of one's life experiences.
They incline people to act (react) in particular ways;
Attitudes and behaviour are consistent; and
The unfavourable or favourable manner in which people behave reflects the evaluative
component of attitudes.
As a result, a person's attitude is produced by the intersection of their ideas and values. It is a
favourable or unfavourable assessment of something or someone. Furthermore, an attitude leads to
a desire to conduct in a certain way, which leads to the behaviour itself.
2. Behavioural Component
The behavioural component refers to a person's proclivity to behave in a certain way toward an
object. For example, the above-mentioned individual may opt to take the position because of
the favourable future possibilities. Only the behavioural component of attitudes may be directly
observed out of the three components. One cannot observe another person's beliefs
(informational component) or feelings (emotional component) (the emotional component). Only
inferences can be made about these two elements. However, in the study of organisational
behaviour or the behavioural component of attitudes, knowing these two components is critical.
The informational component is made up of a person's views, values, ideas, and other
knowledge about the thing. It makes no difference whether the data is empirically valid or
actual. For example, a job seeker may discover from his own sources and other employees in
the organisation that promotion opportunities in a particular company are quite good. In
reality, it could be correct or incorrect. Nonetheless, the information that person is using is
crucial to his attitude about the job and the firm.
4.3 Individual behavior and attitude
What are Attitudes?
The best way to think of an attitude is as a state of mind. Numerous variables can influence the state
of mind. Whether it is favourable or negative, an attitude generally has an impact on a person's
disposition and conduct. An attitude might be generic in character or directed at a specific item.
What is Cognitive Dissonance Theory?
The relationship between attitudes and conduct was characterised by the cognitive dissonance
theory as being uncomfortable when there is a discrepancy between the two. People will therefore
try to lessen the discomfort and thereby the dissonance.
Attitudes Affect Behavior
Two mindsets are most influential on conduct in the workplace:
Mentally challenging work, equitable rewards, supportive working conditions, supportive coworkers,
personality-job fit, and heredity/genes are some of the factors that affect how satisfied a person is
with their employment.
Organizational Commitment: Elements of organisational commitment include a desire to stay with
the organisation, a readiness to put forth a significant amount of effort on its behalf, and a belief in
and acceptance of the organization's aims and values.
Internal Aspects of Attitude
External cues can arouse an individual's attitudes. Three types of internal reactions to outside
stimuli might result in an attitude:
The extent or degree of favorability or unfavorability toward an object or event is known as its
valence.
Multiplexity: The amount of components that make up an attitude.
Relation to needs - Different attitudes are appropriate for different needs.
Centrality: How significant the attitude object is to the person.
Attitude Formation
Attitudes are acquired or learned through a variety of sources, including:
Personal experiences
Association
Family
Peer groups and society
Models and
Institutional factors.
P-O-X Model
P is a person who experiences balance or imbalance, O is a person who is thought to be in P's
environment or situation, and X is an impersonal entity or other person or object who is a
component of the unit. Two sorts of linkages can be discovered among these three parts: attitudes
of taste or assessment relationship and the second of similarity, participation, and proximity, among
others.
The relationship between P and O can be good if P likes O or negative if P dislikes O. The positive
relationship is represented by PLO, with the L, while the negative relationship is represented by P-
LO.
If P feels attraction or taste for X, or if P feels rejection or dissatisfaction for X, they are in a
relationship. If X is no longer an impersonal entity, it can now participate in the POX triad's process.
Because the psychological balance is more likely to be excellent if each element has a lot of
similarities, Heider divides the sensations into two categories: like and dislike. When there is a
positive unity relationship, there is usually a pleasant emotion relationship as well. Negative units
are grouped together in the same way that negative relationships are grouped together.
Psychological balance: P+OP (+) > O P< (+) O
It also applies to items or objects, as well as triadic connections. It is symbolised as: If a person likes
one object but dislikes another person
P (+)> X
P (-)> O
P (+)> X
When there are three positive or negative associations with two positive ones, cognitive balance is
attained. As in the previous example, the imbalance is created by two positive links and one negative
link. The person will feel imbalance (a negative multiplicative product) in this connection after
multiplying the signs, and will be driven to repair the imbalance in some way. The individual has the
ability to: They decide it's not as horrible as they originally imagined, or they come to a conclusion I
couldn't have reached. Either of them will result in psychological balance, resolving the issue and
providing unity satisfaction. (Alternatively, the person could ignore the object and another person
entirely, reducing the stress caused by the psychological imbalance.) To use Heider's Balance
Theory / Heider's theory of equilibrium to forecast the outcome of a scenario, one must weigh the
impacts of all possible outcomes, and the one that involves the least amount of effort will be the
most likely outcome.
The following is a mathematical formula for determining whether the trio is balanced:
+++= + Balanced
-+-= + Balancing
-++= – Unbalanced
For example- One person insisted that the quality of Indian cars is inferior to that of imported cars,
and that he would never own anything but an imported car. His father presents him with a new
Maruti automobile. There are three elements in this situation: the person, his father, and the car. He
may either modify his unfavourable relationship with the Maruti automobile or ask his father to
change his attitude and provide him an imported car to bring the situation back into balance. Thus, if
that individual begins to declare that the Maruti automobile isn't so bad, it indicates that he has
altered his relationship and restored equilibrium to the situation.
Criticism:
Heider's basic model has been criticised for the following reasons:
The theory ignores the degree of emotive or unit links, as well as the relevance of the
elements and relations to the perceiver.
As a result, there are no degrees of balance or imbalance, and quantitative predictions
regarding the degree of attitude change are impossible.
2 Congruity Theory
Osgood and P.H. Tannenbaum have proposed the congruity theory of attitudes which is
related to the balance theory.
This theory focuses on the changes in the evaluation of a source and a notion that are
related by an associative or dissociative statement. When a source and idea that are
positively related have the identical evaluations, and when a source and concept that are
adversely associated have the exact opposite evaluations, congruity exists.
As a result, if the recipient of a persuasive communication has a bad attitude toward the
message's content but a favourable attitude toward the message's source, or vice versa, he
or she will be compelled to adjust both of these attitudes to some extent in order to restore
congruency.
Congruity theory varies from balancing theory in that it considers gradations of element
evaluation and hence makes more exact predictions about the quantity of adjustment
needed to restore element congruency.
This theory is concerned with the consistency between a person's overall attitude or effect
toward an object or subject and his views about how it relates to his more general ideals.
This idea is primarily concerned with what occurs within an individual when an attitude
shifts.
It is assumed that as an attitude is changed, the relationship between the affective and
cognitive components of the attitude changes.
According to the hypothesis, changes in the emotive component cause changes in the
cognitive component, resulting in consistency between the two.
Dissonance is a negative motivational state that occurs when our explicit behaviour
contradicts our attitudes. This causes psychological stress, which must be alleviated. As a
result, one may anticipate people to act in conformity with their feelings in order to prevent
cognitive dissonance.
As behaviour that has already been performed cannot be changed, one's mindset might
change to relieve this tension. The incentive to commit to the behaviour, commitment to the
behaviour, and effort put into the behaviour are all elements that influence whether or
whether one's attitude changes. Any contradiction that an individual perceives between two
or more of his attitudes, or between his behaviour and attitudes, is referred to as cognitive
dissonance. According to Festinger, any sort of contradiction is unpleasant, and people will
want to lessen the dissonance and therefore the discomfort.
Individuals will seek a stable condition with the least amount of dissonance possible,
because no one can totally avoid dissonance.
Individuals' perceptions of how much control they have over the components will influence
how they react to the dissonance. They are less likely to be responsive to attitude change if
they believe the dissonance is an uncontrollable effect over which they have no control.
Dissonance can be rationalised and justified as long as it exists.
These variables show that just because a person is experiencing dissonance, they will not
inevitably move toward consistency, i.e., dissonance reduction. If individuals are required,
this theory can assist anticipate their likelihood to engage in attitude and behavioural
change.
For example, if their employment requires them to do or say things that are incompatible
with their personal attitude, they will adjust their attitude to make it compatible with their
understanding of what they have said or done.
Furthermore, after the above-mentioned elements have reduced the dissonance, the higher
the pressures to minimise it.
2. Association
An individual may come across a new attitude item that is related with an old attitude object on
occasion. The attitude toward the old attitude object may be transferred to the new attitude object
in this instance. If a new worker spends the majority of his or her time with a co-worker who is in the
supervisor's good graces and with whom the supervisor has a positive attitude, the supervisor is
likely to acquire a favourable attitude toward the new worker as well. As a result of the relationship
between the old and new workers, the old worker's positive attitude has been transferred to the
new worker.
3. Social Factors
Social roles and standards can have a big impact on people's opinions. The way people are expected
to behave in a specific role or setting is referred to as their social role. The principles that govern
what behaviours are acceptable in society are referred to as social norms.
5. Neighbourhood
We reside in a neighbourhood with a variety of cultural amenities, religious affiliations, and ethnic
diversity. It also has residents who are neighbours. These people could be from the North, the South,
or somewhere in between. People from various cultures have a variety of attitudes and behaviours.
Some of these we accept, while others we reject and possibly rebel against. In some ways,
conformity or rebellion is proof of the views we have.
7. Learning
Attitudes can be acquired through a variety of methods. Consider how advertisers utilise classical
conditioning to persuade you to buy a certain product. In a television commercial, young, attractive
people enjoy themselves on a tropical beach while sipping a sports drink. You form a good
association with this beverage as a result of the pleasant and enticing images.
8. Mass Communications
When compared to values, attitudes are less stable. Advertising communications, for example, aim
to change people's minds about a certain product or service. If the staff at Hyundai Santro can
persuade you to have a positive attitude regarding their cars, for example, such attitude may lead to
a desirable behaviour (for them)-your purchase of a Santro car.
Longitudinal Studies
Here, the researcher tracks the evolution of attitudes throughout time. He conducts more
interviews with the same people on the same attitude item at various times. In a consistent
scale of "favourable," "neutral," and "unfavourable," he charts the subjects' responses to the
attitude object over time. This approach is used to track how subjects' views toward a
certain object evolve over time.
Only when employees exhibit a positive attitude toward their work and colleagues can a healthy
relationship be built. Positive energy makes working enjoyable and makes it simpler for employees
to accomplish their objectives. A person can benefit greatly from having a positive outlook in many
different ways.
Let's examine a few of them below.
1. Profession success
The performance of employees at work serves as a barometer for their success. Instead of
complaining or coming up with justifications for poor performance, employees with a good attitude
will always consider how to complete their duty in a clearly defined manner. Success is attained as a
result, either through promotion or higher pay.
2. Efficiency
Employees are more likely to take pride in their work and deliver it when they have a positive
attitude. As a result, they generate work of higher quality and with fewer mistakes. They produce
more overall and are more productive as a result.
3. Dynamism
Managing a varied staff is the main responsibility of an organisation worker. Some employees
command respect with ease, and others frequently pay attention to and follow them. This is made
feasible by the optimistic outlook exhibited by leaders
4. Collaboration
Employees that get along well with one another are better able to form cohesive teams that work
toward a similar goal. Employees that have a positive outlook are more likely to value one other's
skills and work together to accomplish shared goals as opposed to being too bothered by their
teammates' shortcomings.
5. Making decisions
Employees that are optimistic make better decisions and do so with objectivity. It stimulates sound
reasoning, empowering workers to make informed decisions
6. Inspiration
A positive outlook aids in inspiring workers to overcome challenges they might encounter while
performing their duties. Additionally, it affects how individuals perceive their surroundings. When
they successfully overcome challenges, they become inspired to continue
7. Personal connections
Customers prefer dealing with people who have an optimistic outlook on life. Employees who have a
positive outlook are better equipped to connect with clients and gain their loyal business
8. Stress reduction
Employees' health suffers as a result of stress. So how can workers handle it? Positive thinking can
help people feel less stressed, which will lead to better health and fewer sick days for workers.
Two alternative theories are put out by social psychologists to explain this process.
The sources of the change in attitude are different for the two strategies. One strategy (cognitive
consistency approach) presupposes that the origin of the process of attitude transformation is
internal. The alternate strategy, however, places more focus on the outside forces that affect how
people think (persuasion).
According to R.K. Mukherjee, “Values are socially approved desires and goals that are internalized
through the process of conditioning, learning or socialization and that become subjective
preferences, standards, and aspirations”.
Moral ideas, general conceptions or orientations toward the universe, or simply interests, attitudes,
preferences, needs, sentiments, and dispositions have all been used to define value. However,
sociologists define this term as "the generic end that carries the connotations of rightness,
goodness, or inherent desirability." It refers to substantial and long-lasting cultural beliefs or ideals
about what is good or bad, desirable or unpleasant. It has a significant impact on a person's
behaviour and attitude, and it acts as a set of general principles in all situations. In reality, the value
reflects fundamental beliefs that one mode of action or end-state of life is individually or socially
preferable to the opposite or converse way of conduct or end-state of existence.
A value system is regarded as a relatively persistent perceptual framework that shapes an
individual's behaviour. The values are the characteristics that a person possesses that are deemed to
be desirable. Attitudes and values are comparable, but values are more lasting and well-built in
nature.
Values Characteristics:
Content and intensity are two characteristics of values. The content attribute emphasises
the importance of adhering to a specific code of conduct. The importance of that specific
rule of conduct is determined by the intensity attribute.
When we rank a person's values according to their intensity. We learn about that person's
value system.
Each of us has a hierarchy of values in our value system, which is defined by the relative
priority we place to certain values such as freedom, self-respect, honesty, self-respect, and
so on.
1. Family Factor
The most essential factor influencing an individual's value system is his immediate family. Some
principles are instilled in children. From childhood onwards, a person learns and develops values
from the personalities listed below, which remain in his mind throughout his life. The parenting
strategies that parent use shape their children's personalities. The most influential component in
an individual's learning of social behaviour, values, and conventions is his or her family.
2. Factors of Society:
School, more than any other social component, plays the most crucial influence in shaping
an individual's value system. The school teaches the youngster the fundamentals of
discipline. Furthermore, interactions with teachers, classmates, and other school and college
staff members instil values vital to the teaching-learning process in the child. Religious,
economic, and political institutions in society are other social elements that may influence
values.
3. Personal Characteristics:
Personal characteristics such as intelligence, ability, beauty, and educational level impact a
person's value development. If a person is exceptionally intelligent, for example, he will
grasp the values more quickly. If he is well educated, his school and college will instil good
ideals in him.
4. Cultural Factors:
Everything that is learnt and passed down from generation to generation is considered a
cultural component. Certain beliefs and behavioural patterns are part of culture. A person is
a member of social culture, group culture, and organisational culture. As a result, he is
known as a mash-up of various cultural components. Certain implicit and explicit beliefs
underpin culture. For example, which culture a person belongs to determines whether he is
cooperative, friendly, or antagonistic. Individual connections vary greatly across cultures and
across specific social groups. Whether an individual values money or doing good for others is
determined by his cultural background.
5. Religious Factors:
Religion provides individuals with strength and comfort in general. Religion is a set of formal
values that is passed down from generation to generation. Technology advancements have
eroded faith in traditional religious morals and beliefs.
6. Life Experiences:
A man's own personal life experiences teach him the most. Man can sometimes benefit
from the experiences of others. Most of the values that drive our behaviour are validated in
the long run by the satisfaction we have gained from pursuing them. Individuals determine
their values based on what they believe to be the most rational. Values have a direct
relationship to how much faith an individual has in them. He should have values that can
withstand the test of time. He should not have fixed values, but rather a flexible framework
that can evolve as the individual, his life position, and the socio-economic environment
change.
7. Role Expectations:
The behaviour associated with a specific job in the organisation is referred to as role
demand. Every organisation has a formal and informal code of conduct. When there is a role
conflict, role demand might cause issues. As a result, managers will need to swiftly learn the
organization's value system. If they want to climb the corporate ladder. For example, if the
manager's informal code of conduct requires him to socialise with his subordinates, he
should learn to do so, even if his personal values contradict with his duty as a manager.
The halo effect is the tendency to judge people based on a single trait, which can be positive
or negative, favourable or unfavourable. Sometimes we make snap judgments about people
based on their first impressions of them. For instance, if a person is kind, he will be seen as
good, capable, helpful, cheerful, nice, and intellectual, among other qualities. Abrasiveness,
on the other hand, is associated with being bad, dreadful, unkind, aggressive, damaging, and
evil. As a result, what one perceives in the cosmos is influenced by one's inner needs. Thus,
the halo effect allows us to see values in others that aren't actually present, but which we
perceive to be present.
4.11 Types of values
There are two primary classifications that can be applied to values:
(1) Individual values:
Honesty, loyalty, sincerity, and honour are some of the values that fall under this category. These are
the norms that individuals adhere to in order to recognise and safeguard the human personality.
Values like these are associated with the growth of the human personality.
(2) Collective values
These are values that are related with the cohesiveness of the community or collective norms of
equality, fairness, solidarity, and sociableness. Values that are connected with the cohesiveness of
the community are referred to as collective values.
There is another way to classify values, and that is according to the order in which they are arranged
hierarchically:
(1) Intrinsic values:
These are the aspects of one's character that should be considered when determining one's life
goals. They are frequently referred to as ultimate values or values that transcend all others. They are
the ones who establish the framework for human rights and duties, as well as for human values.
They are at the pinnacle of the hierarchy of values, which places them above all other aspects of
one's life that are considered important.
(2) Instrumental values:
Within the context of the plan of gradation of values, these values are placed after the intrinsic
values. These are the means through which the aims (intrinsic values) of one's life can be achieved.
You may also hear people refer to them as incidental or proximal values.
4.12 Effect of values on behavior
Finding out your values is a terrific place to start working on yourself, according to coaches you
speak with. When I first started my coaching career, I individually named my values. The decision-
making process itself surprised me the most when I named them. When in doubt, I always asked
myself: "What principles am I upholding by choosing this road or the other?" Furthermore, it made it
simple and obvious for me to stick by what I considered to be true.
My basic values of courage and connection to myself and the people around me, such as when
presented with the choice of continuing at an unfulfilling job or quitting and starting my own
business, made it simple for me to stand up for what was important to me.
Therefore, why are values so crucial? And how do our actions and decisions change after learning
about them?
Values are the things we hold most dear in terms of our behaviour or beliefs. They serve as our
moral compass. Subconsciously, values are developed as a result of a variety of influences, including
family, culture, society, educational background, etc. They are usually personal and stay the same
over the course of our lives, but how they are prioritised changes depending on the stage of life we
are in.
Naming and defining one's values allows for a great deal of knowledge and decision-making
freedom. That is having the ability to pick what is best for us, as you decide depending on your
priorities in life and what is important to you.
For instance, if you realise that freedom is your top value, you would act differently than if security
was your top priority. Or if you love adventure, this will make you choose a different path than
someone who appreciates routine.
Knowing your principles has an impact on how you act because you act in a way that is completely
consistent with who you are and you actually practise what you preach. You make choices and do
things that uphold these ideals. To uphold the values does require guts. I don't mean to imply that
simply being aware of your values would improve your life. It is them LIVING that does. Because it
embodies genuineness and integrity. Being and owning your full self and what you stand for. Staying
true to your principles entails doing the difficult things that you stand for rather than the simple
things.
There is internal dissonance when you are not living in accordance with your values. I would have
dissonance, for instance, if I were to conduct a workshop without any connection to the participants.
Knowing this, I make an effort to interact with everyone, even if that means shaking hands and
exchanging greetings with each person. I take my time since this is something that is significant to
me.
When something is in conflict with your values, you can sense it and your entire body responds to it.
We typically refer to that as a value conflict. These two or more opposing values are in competition
with one another. Take this employment as an illustration: It pays well, but you don't feel any
connection to the coworkers. It would be challenging for you to survive in that setting if connection
is one of your main values, and you would likely look for something new right away because you are
not fulfilled.
Values must be upheld, followed, and lived by every minute. When you detect a difference in
yourself, ask yourself: What am I doing or becoming that is not consistent with my values?
Values are an excellent way to become more conscious of both yourself and those around you. If you
are aware of the values of those around you, you will be able to comprehend their behaviour much
better. There would be more empathy and connection.
Last but not least, upholding your ideals would encourage others to do the same. You are granting
everyone, including yourself, complete freedom to be themselves and stand alone.
Summary
A positive, negative, or mixed appraisal of an object expressed at some level of intensity is referred
to as an attitude. It expresses one's positive or negative opinion on a person, place, object, or event.
These are critical factors of our attitudes toward and actions in relation to all aspects of our social
environment. An attitude is a reasonably persistent emotional inclination to react consistently to a
certain object, situation, person, or group of people. In what is known as the ABC model of attitudes,
every attitude has three components: A for affective, B for behavioural, and C for cognitive. The
affective component refers to an individual's emotional response to an attitude object. 'When I think
about or see a snake,' for example, I get afraid.' “a learned predisposition to respond in a
consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object.” is how attitude is
described. That is, attitudes have a different impact on behaviour than values. Attitudes are formed
through personal experience, information from others, and market-controlled sources, including
mass media exposure. A person's attitude toward an attitude object is determined by his direct
experience with it. An individual's personal experience, whether positive or negative, has a
significant impact on his attitude. It is difficult to change these attitudes that are based on personal
experience.Attitudes are formed as a direct outcome of experience.
UNIT 5: MOTIVATION
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
Understand concept of motivation
Understand motivation and behaviour
Understand the theories of motivation
Introduction
A person's demands, desires, wants, or urges are referred to as their "motives," and the word
"motivation" is derived from the word "motive," which implies the same thing. The process that
originates, directs, and maintains activities that are goal-oriented is referred to as motivation. For
example, it is what propels you to earn that promotion at work or helps you drop the extra weight
you've been carrying around. In a nutshell, motivation is what drives you to behave in a way that
brings you closer to achieving your objectives.
5.1 Concept of motivation
Motivation is derived from the word'motive,' which refers to an individual's needs, desires, wants, or
urges. It is the process of motivating individuals to take action in order to achieve a set of objectives.
Psychological elements that stimulate people's behaviour in the context of work goals include
are desire for money, success acknowledgment, recognition, job satisfaction, teamwork, and so on.
Motivation is an important characteristic that drives people to provide their best effort and
contributes to the achievement of organisational goals. Employees with strong positive motivation
will be able to produce more, whereas those with low motivation will perform worse. Motivation is
an important aspect of personnel management. A motivation is a reason for acting in a certain way.
The degree and direction of behaviour, as well as the variables that influence people to behave in
certain ways, are all aspects of motivation. The phrase "motivation" can relate to a variety of things,
including personal aspirations, how people choose their goals, and how others try to modify their
behaviour. Motivation is the act of a people doing something in order to meet some basic needs. A
manager's job is to inspire his or her personnel to achieve organisational goals by achieving higher
levels of performance.
The boss expects each employee to increase and improve their production. The employee's
behaviour is critical in achieving this. The setting in which employees find themselves has an impact
on their conduct. Finally, an employee's behaviour is a product of his or her natural drives or felt
needs, as well as the opportunity he or she has in the workplace to meet those drives or wants.
Motivating others entails persuading them to take action in the direction you desire in order to
attain a goal. Setting your own direction and then taking action to ensure that you get there is what
self-motivation is all about. Goal-directed behaviour can be defined as motivation. People are
motivated when they believe that taking a certain course of action will lead to the achievement of a
goal and a valuable reward – one that meets their needs and desires.
Individuals with high motivation participate in discretionary behaviour in the majority of positions
where they have control over how much effort they put in. These individuals may be self-motivated.
This is the ideal sort of motivation as long as it implies, they are moving in the proper path to achieve
what they are there to do. Most of us, on the other hand, require some level of motivation.
Characteristics of Motivation
Motivation is a psychological and personal concept
Motivation is both a personal and a psychological term, thus managers must research the
mental and psychological components of their employees. Motivating factors are usually
unconscious, but they can be awoken by management action.
Motivation is a Process
Motivation is the process of motivating, energising, lowering, and activating employees to
perform at a greater level. This process begins with unmet needs, progresses through
tension, drives, and goal attainment, and finally concludes with the release of tension caused
by unmet requirements.
Motivation is a never-ending process
Motivation is a long-term process rather than a one-time event. Because a person's wants
and needs are limitless. Motivating yourself is a never-ending task. There are numerous
desires that cannot be gratified all at once. As the process of meeting needs is never-ending,
so is the process of motivation. As soon as the current demand is met, a new one emerges.
As a result, motivation must be maintained.
Motivation is a difficult concept to grasp
Motivation is a complicated topic because an individual's needs and desires might be
unpredictable. A person's level of need is determined by psychological and physiological
factors.
Goal-oriented motivation
The goal of motivation should be to attain the stated goals and objectives. Goal-directed
conduct is caused by motivation, and a person's need motivates him to behave in such a way
that he strives to please himself. From the perspective of the company, the goal is to
increase productivity by improving work performance.
Since motivation is the driving force behind conduct, it has a significant impact on both short- and
long-term hopes and dreams as well as daily emotions. It can influence our conduct positively or
negatively depending on whether there is incentive present.
This research paper emphasises the numerous psychological benefits and drawbacks of motivation,
such as how it can help people achieve their goals, how it can affect daily life, and the repercussions
of lacking motivation.
From Daily Life to Dreams and Hopes
Both daily activities and long-term objectives can be impacted by motivation. Motivation can have
an impact on a person's daily existence as well as their long-term goals and aspirations. Due to the
fact that it can help us achieve a variety of goals and self-desires, motivation opens us a wide range
of possibilities.
Two basic sorts of motivation for achieving goals are task involvement and ego involvement. "Task-
involvement is a motivating state in which a person's purpose is to acquire skills and understanding
as opposed to ego-involvement, where the main goal is to exhibit superior abilities," claims Rabideau
(Butler, 1999).
The mindset required to learn something novel and engaging is task participation. One illustration is
when someone finds the drive to read a book or pick up a new instrument. Ego-involvement is a type
of motivation in which an individual's ego influences them in an effort to achieve self-satisfaction.
When someone competes against other teams, for instance, that is an illustration of this.
Both types of accomplishment motivation encourage people to pursue things they do not currently
own.
Motivational Drives and Instincts
An individual's behaviour might be affected emotionally by motivation. Three basic ideas of
motivation—instincts, drives and wants, and arousal levels—can affect our general outlook on life.
The instinct hypothesis of motivation, which is supported by instincts, which are unchanging and
ingrained patterns of behaviour, is stated on verywellmind.com (Cherry, 2019). Fear, cleanliness, and
love are a few fundamental human motivations that influence behaviour and are critical to a
person's survival. According to the "Drive theory," people have essential biological needs that must
be satisfied. To satiate one's behavioural feelings, there is a certain natural drive to eat, drink, and
sleep. In order to behave optimally, a person must maintain a specific level of arousal or satisfaction.
"A person with low arousal needs would choose calming hobbies like reading a book, while people
with high arousal needs might be compelled to engage in exiting, thrill-seeking behaviours, such as
motorcycle racing," Cherry from verywellmind.com says (Cherry, 2019). These motivational theories
can all have a good impact on someone's emotional conduct. A person's emotional behaviour may
suffer if these motivational drives are not met or fulfilled.
Health and Contentment
The well-being and happiness of an individual can have an impact on their conduct. Happiness is a
result of a variety of elements and causes, but action driven by motivation is crucial. Extrinsic
motivation and intrinsic motivation are two commonly discussed categories of emotions.
Extrinsic incentives are those that come from outside of the person and are frequently
acknowledged by things like awards, money, accolades, or social acceptance. On the other hand,
intrinsic motivations come from an individual's desire to achieve personal fulfilment. Intrinsic
motives include acts of kindness performed from the goodness of one's heart or the satisfaction
derived from solving a riddle.
The cognitive method can also help people achieve personal satisfaction and well-being. "The
cognitive approach to motivation suggests that motivation is the result of people's thoughts, beliefs,
expectations, and aspirations," according to Essentials of Understanding Psychology (Feldman 2017).
A person's level of motivation will rely on their expectations for the situation they are facing. For
instance, someone may be inspired to study for a test because they are aware that doing so will
result in a high mark.
Extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, and the cognitive approach to motivation are only a few
approaches to keep up wellbeing and happiness.
Motivational content theories concentrate on the "what’s" of motivation. They concentrate more
carefully on the various needs that people may have in their lives. People's motivations, according to
the hypothesis, will be centred on gaining the items they believe they require. You can understand
why and how people are driven by understanding their wants and needs.
The oldest of the two schools of motivation theory is the content model school. In management and
leadership training as well as the workplace, content models are currently very popular. These
theories are concerned with determining people's needs and relative strengths, as well as the goals
they seek to meet those requirements
This theory attempts to explain why different persons are motivated to work by different forms of
outcomes. It focuses on how the environment teaches us to change our behaviours in order to
maximise positive outcomes while minimising negative outcomes.
The consequences of one's actions are highlighted in reinforcement theory, as well as how these
repercussions impact future motivated behaviour. Several sorts of procedures are detailed, each of
which can be delivered on a different schedule. The three sets of hypotheses, taken together, make
a significant contribution to our understanding of the complex process of work motivation. The
theories also provide practical ideas for motivating employees and boosting performance
effectiveness in management contexts.
The goal of reinforcement theory is to describe how different forms of consequences encourage
people to work. It has been traced back to the pioneering behaviourist B.F. Skinner's work (1953). It
asserts that one's behaviour is determined by the consequences of one's actions. Behaviour that has
positive outcomes is more likely to be repeated, whereas behaviour that has negative repercussions
is less likely to be repeated. Reinforcement theory describes four main ways of modifying behaviour
based on this principle:
1. Positive reinforcement - happens when an action is followed by a positive outcome that
encourages the behaviour to be repeated. A supervisor, for example, might compliment an
employee on a job well done. Praise acts as a positive reinforcer in this circumstance, bolstering
high-quality effort. Recognition, advancement, money, approval, and fringe perks are all popular
positive reinforcers.
2.Negative reinforcement - This occurs when a behaviour is accompanied by the elimination of a
negative consequence, resulting in the behaviour being strengthened. For example, an employee
may stay late at work to rework a sales presentation in order to avoid getting reprimanded by the
supervisor the next morning. Rebuking, in this case, acts as a negative reinforcer, encouraging
avoidance behaviour.
3. Punishment - This occurs when an unfavourable consequence is applied to a certain behaviour.
An example of punishment is suspending an employee from work for two days without pay for
showing up inebriated.
4. Extinction - This occurs when the intended behaviour declines due to a lack of reward. According
to study, when managers cease complimenting employees on their good work, that employee's
performance tends to deteriorate.
Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement's effects are strongly influenced by the schedule on which reinforcers are supplied.
Continuous and intermittent reinforcement schedules are the two main types of reinforcement
schedules. Every time the desired behaviour is demonstrated, a continuous reinforcement plan
encourages it. To encourage timeliness in an employee who has a history of being late, the
management might commend the individual anytime he is on time. On the other hand, with
intermittent or partial reinforcement, not every instance of the desired behaviour is reinforced, but
reinforcement is given frequently enough to make the behaviour worthwhile to continue. The
difference between intermittent partial schedules and continuous partial schedules is whether they
are based on time (interval) or on the number of behavioural occurrences (ratio), and whether the
interval or ratio is set or flexible.
Intermittent schedules fall into four categories as a result of the two dimensions:
1. Reinforcement is delivered after uniform time intervals on a fixed interval schedule. Paying a wage
on a monthly basis, for example.
2. Reinforcement is delivered after a set number of responses on a defined ratio schedule. For
instance, being paid by the piece or being offered a day off after serving a certain number of
customers.
3. Interval schedule with variable time intervals - Reinforcement is given after varying time intervals.
4. Variable ratio schedule - After a variable (unpredictable) number of responses, reinforcement is
given. Making a varied number of calls to a potential customer to secure a transaction, for example.
Needs (content) ERG Theory Alderfer Clayton Alderfer proposed the ERG
theory theory, which is a psychological
theory. Maslow's hierarchy of needs
was further refined by Alderfer, who
categorises the hierarchy into his
ERG theory. The existence category
is concerned with the necessity to
provide people' basic material
needs for survival.
Process Theory reinforcement Skinner BF Skinner and his colleagues
theory, proposed the reinforcement theory
of motivation. It asserts that an
individual's behaviour is a function
of the consequences of his or her
actions. It is founded on the "law of
effect," which states that individual
behaviour with positive outcomes is
more likely to be repeated, whereas
behaviour with negative
consequences is less likely to be
repeated. Skinner’s reinforcement
theory of motivation ignores an
individual's internal state, i.e., an
individual's inner feelings and
motivations. This theory is entirely
focused on what happens to a
person when he takes action.
Process Theory Expectancy Theory, Vroom According to expectancy theory, a
person will behave or act in a given
way because they are driven to
choose a specific activity over others
based on the expected outcome of
that behaviour.
Process Theory Goal Setting Theory. Locke The preparation of an action plan to
encourage and guide a person or
group toward a goal is known as
goal setting. Desires and fleeting
intentions are less thoughtful than
goals. As a result, making objectives
entails committing one's thoughts,
emotions, and actions to achieving
the goal.
Summary
Motivation is an important characteristic that drives people to provide their best effort and
contributes to the achievement of organisational goals. Employees with strong positive motivation
will be able to produce more, whereas those with low motivation will perform worse. Motivation is
an important aspect of personnel management. Motivation is the act of a people doing something in
order to meet some basic needs. A manager's job is to inspire his or her personnel to achieve
organisational goals by achieving higher levels of performance. One of the most crucial aspects of
managerial functions is motivation. If a manager fails to motivate his subordinates, he will fail. It
denotes a readiness to go above and beyond in order to meet the organisation's objectives and
ambitions. It is the driving force behind people's goals, needs, and actions. The following are the
reasons for its significance like human resources effectively utilized, getting the most out of other
resources, availability to work, adaptability to change.There are a variety of competing ideas that
seek to explain motivation. These theories focus on three main components of motivation: a
person's propensity, the cognitive process, and the consequences of a person's actions.There are
three types of motivation theories based on these factors:
Content/Need based theory
Process theory
Reinforcement theory /Outcome theories
Although financial incentives are a typical means of motivating employees, there are other aspects
that influence an employee's motivation. There are several demands that must be met depending on
the individual in order for employees to put more effort into their work. A person's motivation to
work is influenced by a variety of circumstances. Motivational variables can be classified into two
categories:
Monetary Factors
Non- monetary Factors
Introduction
A group can be defined as two or more persons who interact with one another and are
depending on one another in order to accomplish particular goals. One way to describe the
actions that a group like a family takes as a unit is to refer to them as the group's behaviour.
Group dynamics refers to the social process that underlies how individuals behave and interact
with one another in the context of a group setting. Personality, power, and behaviour all have an
impact on how a group functions, and this has a direct bearing on group dynamics. Is the nature
of the interaction between the individuals helpful in advancing the mission of the group.
Nature/Features of Group
The following features of a group can be stated based on these definitions.
Two or More People: A group cannot be formed by a single person. At least two people are
required to create a group. There is no set restriction on the number of people who can
form a group.
Collective Identity: Each member of the group is acquainted with the others. Each group
member believes that he or she is a member of the group.
Interaction: The members of the group engage with one another. Each member
communicates with the others through various communication means such as face-to-face
communication, written communication, telephone communication, and communication
over a computer network, among others.
Common Purpose: Members of the group work together to achieve a common goal or
purpose. In fact, it is the shared goal that connects the members of the organisation
together
According to A.L. Sercombe, “a formal group is said to be any social arrangement in which
the activities of some persons are planned by others to achieve a common purpose.”
Formal groups are groups formed by an organisation to fulfil organisational goals. In formal
groups, a member's behaviour is conditioned by the organisation and oriented toward the
organisation's goals.
These groupings exist permanently. They are constrained by the organisation's hierarchical
authority. They must adhere to the organization's rules, regulations, and policies. The
system necessitates the formation of these groups.
Departments such as the personnel department, the advertising department, the quality
control department, and the public relations department are examples of formal
organisational groups.
Task Group: A task group is a collection of people who collaborate to fulfil a common goal.
The bounds of a task group are not restricted to its immediate hierarchical superior. It has
the ability to work across command lines. The employee's membership in the group is
determined by the obligations given to him or her, i.e., the employee's responsibility to carry
out specific tasks. Task groups might be temporary and have a set duration, or they can be
indefinite. A task group, on the other hand, can operate independently of command. If a
student is accused of a campus crime at a university, for example, the Head of Department,
the Dean of the school, the Dean of the student's welfare, the Proctor, and the Registrar of
the University may all be involved. It's worth noting that while all command groups are task
groups, task groups can cross organisational boundaries. The reciprocal does not have to be
true.
Project Group: Project groups are formed in the same way to execute a given project. The
project group's lifespan usually corresponds to the project's duration. A project group is
formed when the University Grants Commission assigns a research project to a university
professor.
Keith Davis has defined informal group as, “the network of persons and social relations
which is not established or required for formal organisation”.
Groups that aren't formal are called informal groups. In other words, these are the groups
that the organisation does not formally create or govern. These are natural arrangements in
the workplace that emerge in response to the desire for social interaction.
For instance, an informal group is made up of four employees from four different
departments who are eating lunch together.
Informal groups are formed by members for a variety of reasons that may or may not be
related to the organization's objectives. People tend to create informal groups when they
are attracted together by friendship, mutual interests, or both. These are emotional and
spontaneous groups.
These are groups formed by employees at their workplace while they are working together.
The organisation has taken no active role in their establishment. Informal groups can be
extremely beneficial and strong.
Interest Groups: Interest groups are made up of people who may or may not be members of
the same organisation (command or task groups), but who are connected by a common
interest. A group of university professors organising a seminar on socioeconomic problems
in the North-Eastern region is an example of an interest group.
Reference Group: A reference group is a particular type of informal group that people use to
evaluate themselves. A reference group may or may not be a real group that meets
regularly; it can also be a made-up group. The advisory board for a new university's advisory
board. Lecturers, for example, could be academics from other universities who specialise in
the same field.
1. Orientation (Forming)
The forming stage is the first step of group development. This stage depicts a period when
the group is just beginning to gel, and it is marked by fear and uncertainty. Members are
discreet in their behaviour, which stems from a desire to be accepted by everyone in the
group. Even though members are beginning to create impressions of each other and gain a
concept of what the group will do together, conflict, debate, misunderstanding, and
personal opinions are avoided.
Forming as they work to identify group goals and determine appropriate behaviour inside
the group, group members endeavour to get to know one another and build a common
understanding.
The shaping step usually results in a better understanding of the group's mission, deciding
how the team will be formed and who will be responsible for what, and so on. Discussion of
significant milestones or phases of the group's aim, including a rough project calendar, laying
down general group norms, such as when they will meet, and determining what resources
will be accessible for the group to use.
Members of the group are learning what to do, how the group will run, what is expected,
and what is acceptable at this point.
The storming stage is the second stage of group development. Since group members now
have a comprehension of the job and a broad sense of belonging to the group as well as the
group members, the storming stage is when conflict and competition are at their peak.
The more combative members of the group emerge at this point, while the less
confrontational ones remain in their comfort zone.
During the storming stage, questions about leadership, authority, rules, policies, norms,
responsibilities, structure, evaluation criteria, and reward systems are common. Such
questions must be addressed in order for the group to progress to the next step.
Storming occurs when group members refuse to be dominated by the group and disagree
about who should lead the group and how much power the leader should have.
The group has reached a point where it is enjoyable and delightful to be a part of. With fair
give and take, open communication, bonding, and mutual respect, group engagement is a lot
smoother, more cooperative, and productive.
If there is a disagreement or disturbance, it is quite simple to resolve and the group is able to
get back on course.
Although group leadership is critical, the facilitator can take a step back and allow group
members to take the lead and move forward collectively.
Norming occurs when group members begin to feel like they belong to the group and form
deep bonds with one another.
4. Synergy (Performing Stage)
Once a group has a firm understanding of its needs, it can go on to the norming stage, which
is the third stage of group growth. This is the point at which the group truly comes together.
Morale is high at this point, as members of the group openly recognise the abilities, skills,
and experience that each individual provides to the organisation. The group develops a
sense of belonging while remaining focused on the group's mission and aim.
Members are adaptable, interdependent, and dependable. Members are willing to adjust to
the demands of the organisation because the leadership is distributive.
Performing the group is ready to handle collective activities and work toward group goals
this is where the actual work gets done.
This stage of a group can be perplexing, as it usually occurs after the activity has been done
satisfactorily. The project is nearing its conclusion, and the team members are dispersing in
separate directions.
This stage examines the team from the standpoint of its well-being, rather than from the
standpoint of leading a team through the initial four stages of team development.
3. Balance Theory:
A Balance Theory of group formation is another highly thorough theory. According to Theodore
Newcomb's idea, people are drawn to one another because they have similar attitudes toward
shared objectives and things. As soon as a connection is made, it works to keep the attraction and
shared values in symmetrical balance. In the event of an imbalance, efforts are made to correct it.
The partnership ends if the equilibrium cannot be restored.
As a result, the balance theory is additive in that it adds the balancing component to the proximity
and interaction elements. A harmonious relationship between the group members is necessary for
the formation and survival of the group. The balance hypothesis is depicted in the following figure.
Because of their shared views and ideals, individual (A) and individual (B) will engage and eventually
create a relationship or group (C). Once this bond is established, the participants work to keep the
attraction and shared values in symmetrical balance. If there is an imbalance, an effort is made to
correct it. The connection ends if the balance can't be regained.
4. Exchange Theory:
The reward-cost results of interactions form the foundation of this theory. A person considers what
he will gain from interaction with group members while deciding whether to join one. For attraction
or affiliation to occur, a result must have a minimum positive level (rewards greater than costs). In
contrast to costs, which include anxiety, annoyance, shame, or exhaustion, benefits of interactions
satisfy requirements. In the exchange theory, proximity, engagement, and shared attitudes all play a
part.
Every person has a great yearning for a relationship with other people. Companionship. It is simple
to express one's emotions to friends. Numerous academics have discovered via their research that
persons who have less connection or company at work feel unsatisfied and are more likely to miss
work. People are very unhappy with jobs that require them to go to far locations for work. It could
result in low productivity and subpar quality. Therefore, management makes an effort to appease
them and permit them to rest in groups. People who participate in informal groups so experience
satisfaction as their social requirements are met.
Sensation of identification: Employee morale can be raised by small groups, and members feel
recognised within those groups. Working in large departments where everyone performs the same
type of work is unsatisfactory since it is challenging to maintain personal identity and be social in
large groupings.
Information source: Informal groupings have swift communication. These organisations provide as
sources of information for the group's members. In informal gatherings, information can quickly
spread from one member to all the others.
Job satisfaction: By encouraging employees to work in groups, many tedious and monotonous tasks
are preserved and made fascinating. Working in a team or group fosters motivation and can result in
greater job satisfaction. People are less satisfied with their professions when they work in solitary
environments.
Members are shielded by the added management pressure because they are all group members.
Workers may be under pressure from management to produce more, work longer hours, and
produce goods of a higher calibre. However, the workers' group has the right to refuse if the
requests are legitimate.
An employee's group colleagues provide a safe place for him to vent his dissatisfaction when
necessary. An individual may experience issues at home and at work. He may occasionally become
upset and express his frustration in front of his group members to feel relaxed.
New idea generation: Informal gatherings can serve as a foundation for innovation. It offers the staff
a welcoming environment so they may think creatively and collaborate on those ideas. Workers can
get together on a regular basis to talk about issues like low output and poor quality, and they can
work together to find solutions.
The consequences of cohesiveness are now illustrated with the help of the following diagram:
Summary
Interpersonal behaviour is essentially how two people behave while they are together in any
situation. The development of interpersonal interactions is crucial in businesses, as well as in schools
and other educational institutions. When a relationship is strong and enjoyable between two people,
or when the relationship is at its most fundamental level, it will result in appropriate behaviour.
Organizations are ultimately seeking for productive labour, which will come from this behaviour. If
there is trust and a desire to work hard among employees, they can work together to produce
excellent outcomes. Group dynamics is the study of the forces that exist inside a group. Group
dynamism is inevitable because humans have a natural urge to belong to a group. We can observe
groups of any size working for the good of a community or organisation. Group dynamism is the
term used to describe the social process by which individuals engage with one another in small
groups. A group is defined as two or more people who consider themselves to be a group and
interact on a regular basis to achieve a similar goal or purpose.
Introduction
Since the dawn of civilization, power has been an integral part of human society. Physical, political,
or social power are all possibilities. Power dynamics tend to substantially impact decisions and
people transactions in the corporate world as well. As a result, defining power can be challenging
because it is perceived and interpreted in a variety of ways. However, power is not a force that
delivers you what you want. Power is derived from a position or authority that has the ability to
affect people both positively and negatively. Politics refers to the forces that are tasked with carrying
out one's own agenda or desires. These are the motivations that make us desire people to do things
our way. In other terms, "Organizational Politics" refers to any acts that are not required as part of
organisational obligations but are carried out in order to gain personal power. “The term ‘company
politics refers to all the game-playing, snide, ‘them and us ‘aggressive, sabotaging, negative, blaming,
‘win-lose’, withholding, non-cooperative behaviour that goes on in hundreds of interactions every
day in your organisation
Nature of power
Dependency: Dependency is a basic feature of power. A person can only have power if he is
able to influence the wishes of others. Children in college, for example, are completely
reliant on their parents to cover their education expenses. Parents' dominance is recognised
by the youngsters in this scene. Parents' control diminishes dramatically after their children
find a job and begin to earn money on their own.
Power has a definite definition: It indicates that power can only be exercised by a few
people, and only under certain conditions. It demonstrates that power cannot be wielded by
everyone at all times. For different people, the domain of power is different. This could be
higher or lower in some cases.
Authority is a formal right that vests in the hands of high officials or management staff,
whereas power is a personal feature, i.e., a learned skill.
Knowledge and expertise are key sources of power. Position and office, on the other hand,
determine a person's authority.
Power can flow in any direction: upward, downward, across, diagonally, or laterally. In
contrast to authority, which only runs in one direction, namely downward (from superior to
subordinate).
The power is in the person; in other words, a person gains it; but authority is in the
designation; whoever receives the designation also receives the authority associated with it.
Legitimate Power: Legitimate power comes from a person's position inside an institution.
Managers are given the authority to direct the actions of their subordinates by the
organisation. Legitimate power is analogous to formal authority in that it can be given,
altered, or revoked by a formal institution. The organization's structure also determines the
legitimacy of lawful power based on position location. In a traditional hierarchical
organisational structure, for example, higher-level roles wield more authority than lower-
level positions. Individuals are given varying degrees of legitimate power by organisations.
Everyone knows who has the most authority in such groups, and few people dare to
confront the power structure.
Reward Power: This is the amount of control that one person has over incentives that are
valued by another. The more the authority, the higher the perceived worth of such benefits.
Pay, promotions, and valuable office assignments are examples of organisational rewards. A
manager with complete control of such incentives wields considerable power. Managers
that utilise praise and reward to motivate their employees have a lot of power.
People have coercive power if they have authority over a type of punishment, such as the
threat of dismissal, suspension, demotion, or other sort of public humiliation. A boss may be
able to bring psychological injury to an employee. The number and severity of sanctions over
which a management has control improves the manager's coercive power. Although using
coercive authority can be effective in the short term, it generally breeds resentment and
enmity, and hence is usually counterproductive in the long run.
Expert Power: is more personal than corporate in nature. Expert power is the ability to exert
influence as a result of one's expertise, exceptional skill, or knowledge. When the expert
threatens to withhold his information or talent, he gains this power. Because a person who
is difficult to replace has more power than someone who is easy to replace. If subordinates
believe their superior is competent and knowledgeable, they will automatically obey and
appreciate him. A low-ranking employee is likely to have more authority if he has crucial
information that a higher does not.
Referent Power: A person with referent power over others is someone who is respected by
others for any reason. People who regard a person with referent power may have charisma,
and those who respect him or her are more inclined to become emotionally involved with
him or her, identifying with, accepting, and eager to follow him or her. The acts, attitudes,
and clothing of people having referent authority are frequently mimicked by others. This
impersonation illustrates the burgeoning star's dominance over impersonators.
8. Greater Power:
When making requests of their subordinates, certain managers may be able to secure the backing of
higher ups in the organisation.
9. Sanctions:
Traditional methods of reward and punishment make up sanctions. By promising or withholding a
wage increase, demoting or promoting someone, or by threatening to give them a performance
review that is less than favourable, one person can establish control over another.
10. Pressure:
Power struggles in contemporary organisations sometimes include the use of pressure techniques. It
is an adversarial strategy for taking control. For instance, if the management does not agree to the
unions' demands, strikes may be threatened. On the other side, if the trade unions reject its
demands, management may threaten a lockout at the factory.
Inconsistency
Lack of clarification leads to accusations, which fuels the rumour mills to work overtime.
Although the assumptions and perceptions are based on no facts, they frequently rise to
organisational politics.
Manipulations
If someone wishes to deceive their superior, they will use organisational politics to modify
information and pass the erroneous one.
Jealousy
If someone is sharper than others, and especially if his efforts are praised by the top brass,
jealousy is certain to arise among co-workers. This leads to organisational politics, as the rest
of the employees try to smear his reputation within the corporation.
Lack of faith
The lack of trust amongst co-workers is a major factor in company politics. Employees do not
want their co-workers to receive more attention and recognition for their efforts, so they
engage in office politics and seek for ways to harm their image and reputation in the firm.
Gossips
One of the causes of office politics is employees' habit of engaging in pointless gossip about
co-workers, colleagues, and other members of the organisation.
System of rewards
Most businesses have a variety of incentive programmes in place to motivate staff to
perform at their best. This concept can backfire if everyone is striving for the ostensible
benefit.
This creates unhealthy competitiveness, with employees destroying the work of their co-
workers in their quest to outperform the competitors. At the end of the day, the reward
system becomes a major source of organisational politics.
Recognize where your power comes from: The first step is to understand the true origins of
both informal and formal power. Who is the game-changers, the one or a few people who
give up the stick and change the game? It's also crucial to be aware of the players that
operate behind the scenes and have the power and resources to influence high-ranking
officials.
Develop your interpersonal skills: Cross to the opposite side to create contacts with
executives, managers, and co-workers from other departments. Look outside your comfort
zone and immediate team members. To align with all types of people, you must know and
build high-quality connections. Developing people skills entails never betraying another
person's confidence or secrecy. Be emotionally intelligent so that your interpersonal abilities
serve you well and aid in the formation and maintenance of relationships.
Pay close attention to what is being said: If you're seeking for techniques to manage
organisational politics, you'll need to be a good listener. It's like devoting valuable time to
slowing down and concentrating on important matters.
The organization's priorities: Make sure you are informed of the organization's preferences,
as this will assist you in making selections. When you know what is important and what isn't,
you can disregard the things that don't matter and focus on the things that do.
There are no written rules: In the workplace, there are well-understood norms of conduct
that should be followed. The best method to deal with organisational politics is to find and
observe the unwritten rules at all costs; else, serious consequences can result.
Rewards and consequences: Some behaviours are praised and rewarded, while others can
have negative effects. If you want to master managing organisational politics, you should get
to know them from the start. If you are unaware of these facts, you are likely to fall prey to a
co-worker’s manipulation.
Be proactive in your approach: Being proactive entails forming a support network of people
who will be there for you no matter what. It entails having clout in a system that relies on
dirty tricks to win. A strong network can lead to important alliances that can provide
valuable insight into the opportunities and problems that may arise. It serves as an early
warning system for people who have the potential to drag you down, allowing you to be
aware of their activities from the start. Being proactive in the workplace is important
because it helps an employee fight for his or her position or convey his or her point of view.
One of the most effective methods to manage organisational politics is to be ethical and
proactive.
Be protective: Protectiveness does not imply that you must go out and protect someone
else; rather, it entails being aware of your surroundings and safeguarding yourself against
people who may turn on you at any time. It entails not being foolish or having blind trust,
but merely always alert. To protect himself from dirty and underhanded activities and
effectively manage organisational politics, an individual must be knowledgeable enough to
comprehend nuances in the workplace.
For instance, role theory proponent R.K. Merton (1968) deviates from Linton's interpretation of
status and role. According to Merton, each social position has a number of roles that collectively
make up what he refers to as a "role set," rather than just one linked role.
The fundamental cornerstones of any social structure or social system are the ideas of status and
role. Parsons claims that the'status-roles' that make up society are its subunits. An actor who
participates in a social system is "placed" in relation to other actors. His "status" is as of now. He
performs a variety of tasks in this role, which is referred to as his "role." According to him, the
proper social system unit is the "status-role." A social system can be conceptualised as a network of
statuses and the roles that go along with them.
What is Status?
A status is, simply put, a socially determined position within a community or a social system, such as
being a woman, student, teacher, child, parent, etc. Other people anticipate a status holder to act
differently depending on the circumstance. The father-child relationship is reciprocal and grants
each a place in the family unit. Status always implies a group; position is always relative. Every status
comes with a set of obligations, rights, and benefits.
The position consists of two main elements:
(1) Expectations and commitments made by other members regarding the conduct of the office
holder;
(2) The reasonable or appropriate expectations of the post holder regarding the conduct of other
members. Johnson refers to the first component as the function of a position and the second as the
status of a position. It implies the prestige of a position or an individual.
Summary
"Organisational power is the ability that you have to influence the behaviour of another stakeholder
in your organisation. Your power is measured by the extent that you can use your influence to get
that stakeholder to do something that he or she would otherwise prefer not to do" In the study of
organisational behaviour, power and politics are essential topics. Power and politics are both
dynamic notions that are a result of interactions between many elements inside organisations.
"Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely," as the saying goes. Despite this criticism,
power is critical and necessary for organisations since it acts as a fuel, providing energy to run
organisational machinery. ." The term "organisational politics" refers to people's informal attempts
to exert influence in organisations through managing common meaning. As a result, politics should
not be regarded as an intrinsically good or evil phenomena, but rather as something to be observed,
analysed, and comprehended in order to get a better understanding of organisations and how they
operate. Every group or organisation has a political agenda. A status is, simply put, a socially
determined position within a community or a social system, such as being a woman, student,
teacher, child, parent, etc. Other people anticipate a status holder to act differently depending on
the circumstance. The father-child relationship is reciprocal and grants each a place in the family
unit. Status always implies a group; position is always relative. Every status comes with a set of
obligations, rights, and benefits.
Introduction
Leadership is often defined as "the process whereby one individual influences other group members
towards the attainment of defined group or organisational goals." Or “Leadership is the process of
influencing and supporting others to work enthusiastically towards achieving objectives” Human
resources are the most valuable resource in any organisation. As a result, human resource capability
should be utilised to the fullest extent possible so that a business can demonstrate its superiority in
all areas. It is determined by the organization's management. By gaining their support, they can get
the best results from those people resources. When a manager takes on the role of true leader,
however, it is feasible to influence their conduct in the appropriate direction. We can use the
example of a cricket team to illustrate this point. Out of the eleven players on the squad, one is
chosen to be the captain, and he is the team's leader. The captain's effectiveness as a leader is
completely dependent on the team's ability to win a cricket match. It is believed that under the
direction of an effective leader, the team will win the match with ease. Effective leadership is at the
heart of every organisational success. The exercise of influence by one person over others is referred
to as leadership.
Thus, Leadership can be defined as an interpersonal influence aimed at achieving a set of objectives.
The terms interpersonal, influence, and objective are three key components of this definition.
Interpersonal meaning between people, therefore a leader is in charge of more than one
person or group.
Influence is the ability to influence people.
The goal is the destination that one aspires to reach.
Nature of Leadership
Rather than being a one-time exercise, it is a constant process of influencing the behaviour
of the followers.
It is the relationship that develops between a leader and his followers (individuals and/or
groups) as a result of their working together to achieve a common objective.
Leadership encompasses establishing objectives and policies for followers, inspiring them,
and coordinating their efforts to achieve those aims.
It is vital to lead the followers toward common objectives. While providing advice, the leader
expresses his admiration for the followers and emphasises the value of their efforts.
It is a method by which the leader exerts control over the members of a group.
Leadership is the quality of guiding other people through inspiring and motivating them.
Management refers to the process of overseeing and directing the operations of an
organisation.
Leadership necessitates that followers have faith in their respective leaders. In contrast
to management, which relies on its managers to maintain control over their
subordinates.
While management refers to the trait of being in charge, leadership refers to the ability
to influence other people.
The ability to see far into the future is essential for leadership, but management tends to
focus only on the immediate future.
In the context of management, rules and procedures are put into action, whereas
principles and guidelines are developed in the context of leadership.
Leadership requires taking the initiative. On the other hand, management is
characterised by its reactive nature.
Leadership is the agent of change. On the other side, management provides a stable
environment.
3. Providing guidance: A leader must not only monitor but also provide direction to his or her
followers. Guidance in this context refers to teaching subordinates how to do their jobs
properly and efficiently.
4. Creating confidence: Confidence is a crucial aspect that may be achieved by conveying work
efforts to subordinates, clearly describing their roles, and providing them with directions for
achieving the goals. It's also crucial to pay attention to the employees' complaints and
difficulties.
5. Building morale: Morale refers to an employee's willingness to cooperate in their task, as
well as gaining their confidence and trust. A leader can increase morale by obtaining full
cooperation from his or her subordinates, allowing them to perform to the best of their
ability while working toward a common objective.
9. Aid to Authority: Using authority alone does not always result in the desired outcomes. By
influencing, encouraging, and initiating action, leadership assists authority.
10. Leadership is Required at All Levels of Management: Effective leadership is required at all
levels of management because without it, no management can accomplish the intended
goals.
Creativity Originality
There are two major behavioural studies that are worth mentioning.
Levels of Maturity
The maturity level (i.e., the level of knowledge and skill) of the person or group determines the
appropriate leadership style.
According to Hersey and Blanchard's theory, there are four levels of maturity:
M1: The members of the group lack the necessary knowledge, abilities, and motivation to
execute the assignment.
M2: Members of the group are eager and energetic, but they lack the necessary skills.
M3: Group members possess the necessary skills and abilities to execute the work, but they
refuse to accept responsibility.
M4: The members of the group are highly skilled and eager to accomplish the target.
Maturity levels and leadership styles can be matched. According to the Hersey-Blanchard model, the
following leadership styles are best for different maturity levels:
Situational Leadership II
Kenneth Blanchard created the Situational Leadership II (or SLII) model, which improves on
Blanchard and Hersey's initial theory. Effective leaders must base their conduct on the
developmental level of group members for certain tasks, according to the revised version of the
theory.
The level of competence and commitment of each individual determines their developmental level.
These levels are as follows:
The key premise of the SLII theory is that none of these four leadership styles is superior to the
others. Rather, an excellent leader will tailor his or her actions to each subordinate's developmental
skill for the work at hand.
Factors to Consider
According to experts, there are four crucial contextual aspects that leaders must consider while
assessing the issue.
Introduction
Employee morale is a term used to describe how employees feel about themselves and their work
environment. Employees with good morale are said to be content and have a positive attitude at
work, whereas those with poor morale dislike their workplace. The environment of the workplace,
management's support, and job security are a few factors that might affect an employee's morale.
For instance, Jane will be more likely to feel emotionally at ease and less under pressure if she meets
with her boss and is told that she is on target with her work. This is because she has received a vote
of confidence from management. Job satisfaction is a key factor in employee productivity since it
demonstrates the level of pleasure that employees have at work. An emphasis on worker happiness
can encourage people to maximise their potential, creative skills, and other assets that provide your
company a competitive edge. An employee may be questioned about how they feel about the task
they are doing and how they feel about their environment during an annual performance review.
The employee is given the opportunity to directly respond to the question of whether the position
aligns with their career objectives in this question.
Contagious: Just like a virus, morale is also contagious. Consider the following scenario: an
employee is dissatisfied with the policies of the firm and continues to complain about it to
other employees. In this scenario, the individual may be fired. Then, after a certain amount
of time has passed, his coworkers will eventually begin thinking in that manner.
Long-term idea: Developing and preserving the morale of one's workforce is not something
that can be accomplished in a single day. It is a way of thinking that takes a long time and
involves an ongoing process.
Morale is the byproduct of motivation; it is the aftereffect of motivation and the interactions
within a group. It is a conceptual process that, once initiated, will quickly expand throughout
the entirety of the organisation. In addition to this, it fosters a mood, which ultimately leads
to a shared attitude.
Leadership: A strong leader has the ability to shape the mental processes of those under his
command. It has a highly significant impact on employee morale when they are treated
fairly, when they are rewarded and recognised fairly for their good work, and when they are
recognised for their outstanding work. When a CEO is sympathetic, inspirational, and
compassionate toward their employees, in contrast to a leader who acts like a tyrant,
workers report feeling more connected to the company.
Colleagues: Colleagues have the power to turn any workplace into either heaven or hell.
Imagine a person who never says anything positive about the organisation and only
complains about it. These people make everyone's working environment into a living hell.
The nature of the work: Boring, repetitive, and mundane work is something that no one
enjoys doing. It not only stifles their creative potential but also stunts their personal
development. When a job is intriguing and tough at the same time, many people are
motivated to work more. Additionally, an acknowledgement from a superior for successfully
completing a difficult work is a surefire way to boost an individual's morale.
Working Environment:The employees' thoughts are shaped in significant ways by the
environments in which they work, and one of these ways is the way in which they think
about their jobs. Employee morale can be boosted by providing a working environment that
is safe, clean, modern, hygienic, and comfortable.
Employees: The way in which an employee sees himself in relation to the organisation is
another important factor that has a significant impact on morale.
Sound Organisation Structure: A sound organisational structure with clearly defined duties,
authority-responsibility relationships, spans of control, and leadership styles boosts
employee morale and productivity. High morale is typically encouraged by flat structures
because vertical channels lengthen the links for information flow. Less levels are designed
into the organisational structure, making people easier to approach.
Employee-Oriented Approach: Managers should place greater emphasis on relationships
with employees than on relationships with tasks. Employees should be given the opportunity
to reach their full potential. The completion of tasks is influenced by employee happiness.
Instead of being viewed as manufacturing inputs, people should be recognised as human
beings. They should be aware of how they affect one another's and the organization's
production. No organisation, division, or person can function independently. When people
work together, they create synergy and raise each other's spirits.
Job Design: To maximise job satisfaction and need satisfaction, jobs should be designed to
allow employees to work to the best of their abilities. Jobs that are challenging and cutting
edge boost the morale of employees with strong "growth-needs." Jobs should be created
such that employees like performing them. It should make the work exciting and demanding
while overcoming boredom and exhaustion. People are more motivated to contribute to
organisational productivity if they enjoy what they are doing.
Development Facilities: Recreational, medical, educational, counselling, sports, and other
welfare facilities help employees grow and develop and boost their morale so they can
positively impact the productivity of the organisation.
Reduced Turnover
One of the KR department's largest expenses can be turnover. Retaining employees
improves the workplace, makes it simpler to find qualified candidates, and helps you save
money. Low job contentment makes someone more likely to be actively looking for another
employment, whereas job happiness makes someone less likely to be job seeking.
Increased productivity
Employees that express high job satisfaction typically produce more work, regardless of their
position title or pay grade. A person may concentrate and give attention to their tasks when
they are content with their job. They appear to take ownership of and accountability for
reaching the corporate objective that actually makes them happy. It makes sense for other
team members to try to boost productivity to the required level when one member of the
team exhibits high levels of it.
Employee Absenteeism
While a dissatisfied employee is more likely to take "mental health" days—days off taken for
reasons other than illness or personal affairs—than a satisfied employee, the latter is more
likely to miss work due to illness or personal matters. People who are content with their jobs
may be more inclined to show up to work when they are unwell; on the other hand, those
who are dissatisfied with their jobs are more likely to call in sick even if they feel well
enough to work.
5. Being helpless
Knowing something is wrong but being powerless to take action is the worst thing that can possibly
take place. There is nothing more pitiful than for someone to be unable to solve an issue. Job
discontent is just like this. Most of the time, you are unable to pinpoint the source of your
unhappiness; so, you are forced to keep reporting to work as things get worse. Until you come up
with a solution to your job discontent, there isn't much you can do.
These days, job discontent at work is rather frequent and only becomes worse over time. However,
with perseverance, preparation, and the love of all your loved ones, you can overcome issues
associated to job discontent.
9.9 Determinants of job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is a complex, intangible concept. Employee work satisfaction is influenced by a
variety of things. There are two groups that they fall under. They are both organisational and
individual factors. Below is a discussion of them:
A - Organizational Determinants:
The majority of employees' time is spent in workplaces. As a result, a variety of
organisational elements affect employees' job satisfaction. By arranging and managing the
organisational aspects, organisations can improve employee happiness. Learn about the
factors that affect job satisfaction inside a company.
Wages: The compensation a worker expects from a job is referred to as a wage. It serves as a
tool for meeting needs. Everyone anticipates receiving a prize on par. The pay should be
equitable, fair, and reasonable. Job satisfaction results from feeling that rewards are just and
equitable.
Work Environment: The work environment has a big impact on how happy you are at work.
Jobs requiring intelligence, abilities, skills, challenges, and the potential for more flexibility
make the employee happy at work. Job discontent is brought on by feelings of boredom, a
lack of variation in the tasks, irritation, and failure.
Working Conditions: Motivating employees requires good working conditions. They offer a
sense of security, warmth, and inspiration. Workplace hazards make it seem as though
health is in risk.
Job Content: The term "job content" relates to elements like accomplishment,
accountability, advancement, and acknowledgment. Job satisfaction is higher in jobs with a
variety of tasks and less repetition. Job dissatisfaction results from a job with poor content.
Leadership Styles: The degree of job satisfaction is also influenced by leadership style.
Democratic governance improves work satisfaction. Democratic leaders encourage
coworkers to treat one another with warmth, respect, and camaraderie. On the other hand,
employees who work for autocratic bosses report feeling unsatisfied with their jobs.
B. Personal Determinants:
The psychological elements are connected to job satisfaction. As a result, a variety of personal
circumstances affect each employee's level of job satisfaction. Here are several examples:
Personality: Each person's psychological circumstances influence their personality. The
psychological conditions are determined by elements like perception, attitudes, and
learning. As a result, these variables influence people's levels of satisfaction.
Age: An important factor in determining job happiness is age. Employees that are younger
and have more energy are probably to feel more fulfilled. Employee aspirations rise as they
get older. They experience dissatisfaction if their objective is not realised.
Education: Education gives people the chance to grow as people. It improves personal
intelligence and the evaluative process. Employees with advanced degrees tend to be
persistent, logical, and intelligent. As a result, they are able to comprehend the issue and
positively evaluate it.
Gender Differences: Job happiness is influenced by the employees' gender and race. Even if
they work tiny jobs, women are more likely than men to be content with their lives.
Summary
Employee morale can be defined as an employee's disposition, level of contentment, and overall
outlook during their time spent working for an organisation or a company. If your company has a
bad culture, then there will be negative impacts in the form of low productivity, low employee
happiness, and other such things. To begin, it can most surely result in a bigger loss of employees,
which is called attrition.
Psychological factors play a role in job satisfaction. It expresses how she feels about her job.
Workplace happiness is a mentality. This opinion of the job has been formed permanently. While
performing their duties, employees interact with both people and other resources. They feel either
positively or negatively about the setting and content of the task during the process. Since the
human relations method has grown so well-liked, the idea of job happiness has become more
important.
Introduction
The process of growth, decline, and transition within an organisation is referred to as organisational
change. Though one may believe that organisations are stable structures in a changing society, this is
not the case. Organisations, on the other hand, are constantly changing. Organisational change can
take a variety of forms. Organisations can change dramatically while keeping their names; the new
organisation may look nothing like the old one except in name. All of this contributes to
organisational change being a difficult and perplexing phenomena or process. It's a lot more
complicated than ordinary human behaviour. In order to be viable and scale, almost every business
will go through a transition or shift at some point. Whether you're hiring new staff, expanding a
department, or merging with another company, these changes can have a significant impact on your
company's trajectory.
Change is a natural part of life, and it allows for growth. It is a purposeful decision made by the
organization's management. Unfortunately, organisational change isn't always easy to adapt to, and
it can be frightening for all team members who are affected.
It's critical to understand the process and what to expect as a manager entrusted with overseeing
organisational change or leading your staff through it.
People work in production, research, development, administration, and other areas in any
organisation. In order to change, the organisation needs take stock of the situation and make
changes in their mindset and working style.
Moving from one state of equilibrium to another: Change entails transitioning from one
state of equilibrium to another. It disrupts the existing equilibrium and creates a new one in
which new ways of working are integrated into the system.
In whole or parts: It may involve changes in individual areas of the organisation (technology,
structure, or people) or the entire organisation. Even if change is implemented in one part of
the company, it has an impact on the entire company. Change in one part, such as
technology, necessitates changes in people's learning and, in some cases, structure in order
to adapt that technology.
Essential activity: Change is not a force that organisations may choose to respond to or
ignore. Change must be accepted by organisations if they are to exist. They can, on the other
hand, plan for change or respond to it. The former approach to change is beneficial to the
development and growth of an organisation.
Change agents: Change agents are the ones who bring about change. Internal or external
change agents are also possible. Top leaders in the company might be internal change
agents. Executives engage external agents, who are outside specialists or advisors, to
kickstart the transformation process.
Marketing conditions: Since every business exports its products to the environment, it must contend
with market competition. There are two different types of pressures that might impact an
organization's ability to compete: rival companies that provide the same items and customers who
don't purchase the product. Any modifications to these forces might necessitate appropriate
alterations to the organisation. For instance, numerous international companies entered the Indian
market after the economy was liberalised. Numerous Indian organisations were compelled by this to
adapt to the changing circumstances. As a result, there have been several instances of businesses
selling off non-core operations in order to focus on core operations, buy non-core operations, and
build competitive competence to handle threats from competitors. Similar to this, customers'
demands, preferences, and attitudes toward a product's price point may fluctuate. These
adjustments are being made by the organisations to bring products that satisfy the needs of the
consumer.
Social changes: Social changes are reflected in terms of people's demands, wants, and working
styles. Numerous factors, including the degree of education, urbanisation, sense of autonomy, and
global effect as a result of new information sources, have contributed to social changes. People in
the organisation behave differently as a result of these social changes. It must modify how it
functions there to conform to the needs of the populace.
Political and legal changes: Political and legal considerations in general define the activities that an
organisation can engage in and the approaches it will use to carry them out. Changes to these
political and legal aspects could have an impact on how the organisation operates.
Internal Forces
Any change in an organization's internal factors may also require adjustments to how it operates.
Changes in external factors are not the only ones that may require organisational changes. Due to
both deficiencies in current organisational procedures and changes in managerial personnel, such a
change is necessary.
Changes in the managerial staff: In addition to environmental changes, there have been changes in
the managing staff. Old managers are swapped out for new ones as a result of retirement,
promotions, transfers, or terminations. Each new manager adds his or her own thoughts and
methods to the company. More so in the organisation, the relationships. Changes in managerial
personnel result in changes to the relationships, especially informal ones. Additionally, even though
there are no changes in the staff, their attitudes do. As a result, an organisation must adapt as
necessary.
Deficiency in Current Organization: In some cases, modifications are required due to flaws in the
current organisational structure and procedure. These flaws could take the form of an
unmanageable management span, a high number of managerial levels, a lack of coordination
between various departments, communication barriers, a proliferation of committees, an
inconsistency in the formulation of policy, a lack of cooperation between the line and staff, etc.
There are two other internal elements that contribute to organisational changes in addition to these
two.
The type of workforce: Over time, the nature of the labour force has evolved. Different generations
have articulated various work values. Over-50s workers place a high emphasis on being loyal to their
companies. Mid-thirties to early forties workers are only loyal to themselves. The newest workforce
is committed to their careers. The makeup of the workforce is likewise rapidly evolving. The younger
generation of workers has received better education, and they are more critical of bosses' authority
and place a greater focus on human values. Their behaviour has also evolved significantly, making it
difficult for managers to guide individuals toward business objectives. A further burden on
management is the high rate of personnel turnover.
Many times, organisational adjustments are made merely to prevent inflexibility or inertia from
setting in. An organisation should be dynamic since there are times when a single method is not the
ideal management tool, according to a conscious manager. Thus, improvements are made to ensure
that employees grow to like change and that there is no needless resistance when significant
changes are made to the business.
10.3 The process of planned change
The process of preparing the entire organisation, or at least a large portion of it, for new goals or
new directions is known as planned change. Culture, internal structures, measurements and
records, processes, or any other important and connected component can all be used to guide
the path. Change is unavoidable, and the most successful businesses welcome it. Not all changes
can be anticipated. Organizations are occasionally faced with situations in which they must
quickly adjust to change. It's crucial to understand that change management and innovation
management are not the same thing. Innovation is a transformational process that necessitates
major changes.
Recognize the need for change as the first stage in the planned change process. It's
critical to identify a weak point in terms of materials, machineries, labour, organisational
structure, technology used, and so on. The correct identification of weak regions that
cause flaws in organisational activities aids in the implementation of appropriate
measures.
The change may be needed by external or internal factors, and it is determined by top
management.
2. Establishment of Objectives
The goals for the planned change should be established. The change's goals must be
specific, precise, and feasible. They should be time-bound and numerically stated. They
should avoid becoming idealistic or overconfident. A manager must clearly identify goals
while taking into account organisational resources and possibilities.
Prior to the start of the planned change, it is vital to specify the goals that will be
changed. Both threats and opportunities should be assessed, and the required
modifications in particular terms, such as changes to the product, culture, and so on,
should be determined. They should have specific objectives set for them.
3. Relevant Variables Diagnosis
Another significant aspect of the planned change process is the analysis of many
relevant elements that may have an impact on the change's implementation. On the
basis of forecasting, future variables are estimated. Internal and external variables
are included in these variables.
Money, resources, machines, and personnel are internal variables, whereas rival
strategy, government policy, technological change, and social and cultural attitudes
are external variables. The adoption of appropriate tools and strategies for planned
change is aided by a thorough examination of pertinent variables.
Following a review of important variables that may influence change, the next phase
in the planned change process is to choose the best technique. The technique must
be evaluated in a scientific and practical manner in order to determine the optimal
course of action. After weighing all of the options, management decides on the best
course of action.
Following the selection of the suitable change technique, action plans for each step
of the proposed change must be developed. A detailed plan must be created,
concentrating on each and every modification activity. For each unit of work, these
thorough plans include the establishment of policies, norms, timelines, and budgets.
Without the formation of derivative or complementary plans, it is difficult to achieve
planned change.
6. Actual Implementation
The planned change procedure comes to a close with this stage. Change is a
continual function and, at the end of the day, the organization's operation. After a
period of time, the implementation of change must be evaluated in order to
determine the real performance achieved. Only after reviewing real performance
can the manager take corrective action in a timely manner. And, if the actual
performance matches the plan, the chosen strategy must be implemented.
Employees may also be uneasy about the changes being implemented and express their
dissatisfaction, often unconsciously, by their actions, language, and the tales and discussions
they share in the workplace. In the worst-case situation, employees may be adamant in their
reluctance to accept any changes, resulting in friction and confrontation within your company.
The following are the common causes of change resistance in all organisations:
People are unwilling to leave their comfort zones, as defined by present ways, in order
to learn something new.
Sociological Resistance: Sometimes resistance comes from a group of people rather than
a single person. Individuals do not allow their acceptance in such situations for fear of
breaking links with the group.
Changes should be gradual which means that it should be welcomed in stages. A one-
time large modification would bring activities to a halt right now.
Changes should not harm worker safety.
With initial changes, managers with leadership skills would eventually push staff to do
so.
Employees who will be affected by the changes must be polled for their thoughts.
Employees' confidence and efficiency will be boosted by educating and training them on
the new methodology.
presents a situation's advantages and disadvantages in a way that makes them comparative.
takes into account all potential changes.
promotes consensus regarding the relative importance of the variables on each side of the balance
sheet.
encourages open discussion of a problem's causes and potential solutions.
PROCESS OF FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS
Implement a force field analysis by doing the following:
List every potential internal and external force that could support or undermine the proposed
solution.
Determine the relative power of each force.
Draw a force field diagram of the forces, with the length of each arrow corresponding to the
strength of the force it represents.
Discuss ways to raise the forces for the change and decrease the ones against it for each force, but in
particular for the stronger ones.
10.7 Change agents
A person from within or outside of an organisation who assists another organisation or portion of an
organisation in modifying how it conducts its operations is referred to as a change agent.
One way to think of them is as a change agent, or a person who has the ability to bring about
transformations by motivating and swaying the actions of others. An individual who acts as a change
agent will advocate for, champion, facilitate, and support the implementation of change inside an
organisation. They concentrate on individuals and the relationships that exist between them. A
change agent is someone who motivates and persuades key individuals to bring about the essential
changes for the transformation. These changes may include shifts in the individuals' wants, attitudes,
and actions. Change agents play an essential part in the field of organisational change management
(OCM), which is an essential part of ensuring the success of any company change. OCM is a discipline
that focuses on the people who are responsible for driving change.
To refer to someone as a "change agent" is equivalent to using the terms "agent of change" and
"change advocate." A "change champion" performs duties that are analogous to those of a "change
agent." On the other hand, a change champion may be little more than a figurehead, whereas a
change agent typically operates "behind the scenes" to achieve their goals.
A change agent is a person who promotes and supports a new way of doing something within a
company, whether it be the use of a new process, the adoption of a new management structure, or
the transformation of an old business model into a new one. In the world of business, a change
agent is an individual who fulfils this role.
An individual who serves as a catalyst for the change management process is referred to as a change
agent, often known as an advocate of change. By motivating and influencing others, they assist an
organization—or a division of an organization—in changing how it functions. A change agent will
advocate for, support, enable, and encourage the implementation of change inside an organisation.
Summary
The term "change" refers to a shift in the status quo or the creation of something new. Change is the
disruption of the current state of equilibrium. It is any change that occurs in an organization's entire
work environment. John Bull defined organisational change as “When an organisational system is
disturbed by some internal or external force, change frequently occurs. Change as a process, is
simply modification of the structure or process of a system. It may be good or bad, the concept is
disruptive only.” The process of growth, decline, and transition within an organisation is referred to
as organisational change. Though one may believe that organisations are stable institutions in a
changing society, this is not the case. Organisations, on the other hand, are always changing.
Organisational transformation can take a variety of forms
Introduction
If disagreements and differences of opinion become a source of conflict, the organisation must act
quickly. Conflict in the workplace can be beneficial or harmful to the organisation. The Chinese
character for conflict, in fact, has two meanings: opportunity and risk. As a manager, we must
determine and concentrate on how to maximise the positive features while minimising the
unfavourable ones. Our objective must be to improve the benefits gained from managing and
encouraging positive conflict, such as task and process conflict, while also managing, resolving, and
lowering the negative impacts of relational conflict. Organizational conflict has been defined in a
variety of ways by various authors. Frustration, incongruence, incompatibility, and mismatch are
common key terms used in these definitions.
Conflict is described as a breakdown in decision-making standards that arises when an individual or
group has difficulties choosing an alternative.
The term "conflict" can be defined as "collision" or "disagreement." The conflict may arise between
two individuals or between two groups of organisations; it may arise between two individuals or
between two groups of organisations when their goals and events are incompatible. Conflict,
according to Chaung and Megginson, “is the struggle between incompatible or opposing needs,
wishes, ideas, and interest of people.” When an individual or a group encounters a goal that neither
party can achieve satisfactorily, conflict ensues. Conflict, evasive fights, riots, and wars have all
become common terms, and dozens of armed combat situations may be found around the world
almost every day of the year. These are more violent forms of conflict, but a manager deals with a
lot of minor and non-violent resistance like disputes, criticism, and disagreement. Conflict can be
constructive or destructive, and it can be positive or negative. It could be cognitive or affective in
nature.
When personnel from differing backgrounds and work styles are brought together for a common
business goal, workplace conflict is unavoidable. Conflict can be controlled and resolved, and it
should be. The chances of workplace conflict have increased, with tensions and concerns at an all-
time high as a result of the current political division and racial injustice conversations at work.
11.1 Concept of organizational conflict
Organisational conflict refers to disagreements among employees or a group of people striving to
achieve a certain organisational goal. When a manager or supervisor is unable to define the task that
has been assigned to the staff, this occurs. Conflict in the workplace can be both constructive and
detrimental. In an organisational setting, however, negative adoption is common. Employee conflict
can arise in a company, just as it might in our personal lives, but it must be resolved as soon as
feasible. Otherwise, the organisation will have to deal with the difficulty of maximising its
advantages or earnings. Organisational conflict, also known as workplace conflict, is defined as a
condition of dispute or misunderstanding inside an organisation caused by competing needs, ideas,
views, values, or goals. When two or more people interact at work, conflict arises when their
perspectives on a task or a decision differ.
When workers demand more pay but the firm owner or management wants pay levels to stay the
same, this is an example of organisational conflict.
When a conflict becomes an issue, it:
Inhibits productivity
Causes a drop in morale
Leads to more and longer-lasting conflicts, and
Leads to unsuitable behaviour
Indicators of Conflict
Body language
Colleagues who do not speak to or ignore one other
Deliberately undermining or refusing to cooperate with one another, resulting in the team's
demise contradicting and disparaging each other
Differences of opinion, regardless of the topic
Holding back bad news
Pleasant surprises
Public declarations that are forceful
Using media to air disagreements
Wanting to be powerful
Lack of respect is getting worse.
Disagreement in the open
Lack of candour when it comes to money challenges or other delicate issues
There are no defined objectives.
There was no discussion of success, failure to meet goals, and no attempt to objectively,
thoroughly, or at all evaluate the superintendent.
When issues affect the entire organisation, factions convene to debate them individually.
Conflict is a layered process as conflict takes place in levels. The first layer is always
miscommunication. Differences in values, viewpoints, interests, and interpersonal
relationships make up the remaining levels. It's also known as a process because it starts
with one party believing the other is working against or harming their interests and ends
with competing, cooperating, compromising, or avoiding.
Everywhere there is conflict. There are no two people alike. As a result, they may differ from
one another. The disagreements, whether they are based on ideals or not, can lead to
conflict. Despite the fact that conflict is unavoidable, it can be minimised, deflected, and/or
resolved. Because we're dealing with people's lives, employment, children, pride, self-
concept, ego, and sense of mission, conflict arises. Conflict is unavoidable and frequently
beneficial; strong teams, for example, go through a “form, storm, norm, and perform”
phase.
Conflict can exist on a latent or overt level; however, the term "conflict" is usually used to
refer to overt acts.
Conflict is defined as intentional conduct. 'X' tries to prevent 'Y' from achieving his (X's)
objectives. There is no conflict if the intervention is unintentional.
Conflict arises when two or more parties pursue goals, values, or events that are mutually
exclusive. It is predicated on the notion that there are two or more parties with mutually
contradictory interests or ambitions.
Competition is not the same as conflict. In a conflict, one side sees an opportunity to
obstruct the other's ability to get resources or engage in activities. Both sides want to win in
a competition, but neither side actively interferes with the other.
Individuals, groups, and organisations all have varied needs and values, but limited
resources. Conflict is a natural part of life. As a result, conflicts will inevitably arise as a result
of this incompatibility. The disagreement itself is not an issue; however, if it is properly
managed, it becomes one.
Conflict affects everyone as it can happen within an individual, between two or more
individuals, in groups, or between organisations.
Inter-individual Conflict
In a larger organisation, this dispute occurs between two or more people. Different personalities
or ideas on how to achieve goals can cause conflict. It's possible that interpersonal conflict
occurs without either party noticing it.
Tanya has worked as a digital marketer for her employer for four years and has always expected
to succeed the director of marketing when he retires. When it came time to fill the position,
however, the corporation hired someone who had only been with the company for a year. Tanya
was dissatisfied with both her former and new supervisors, but she never expressed her feelings
to either of them.
When there are several people with different ideas, histories, and experiences working toward a
same objective, this level of conflict arises between members of a single group. Even though
they all desire to accomplish the same thing, they may disagree on how to get there. When team
members have different communication styles and personalities, intragroup conflict can arise.
Example: A company is going to launch a new product, and Josh and Ashley believe that a direct
mail campaign to a specific audience is the ideal marketing plan. Beth and Tom believe that
running ads on social media is a better strategy. An influencer campaign, according to Adam,
would have the greatest impact. Due to the disagreement, no promotional strategy has been
developed, despite the fact that the launch date is only two weeks away. The atmosphere is
tense, and the delays are affecting other departments.
Inter-group conflict
This level of conflict arises when distinct factions within a bigger organisation or those with different
main aims collide. For example, an e-commerce company's marketing staff is advertising a brand-
new project that is expected to boost the average order value of each order by 15%. Customers are
notified of the launch date and a timetable is created. Despite their best efforts, the web developers
in charge of building and deploying the additional functionality on the website are behind schedule.
Web developers are irritated by unrealistic timelines, and the marketing department is irritated by
the launch's delay
Inter-organisational Conflict
Intra-Organisational Conflict
Conflict between line and staff departments: Most organisations have staff departments to
help line departments. The line-staff interaction is prone to squabbles. Personal qualities of
staff managers and line managers are often distinct. Staff employees are more educated,
come from a diverse range of backgrounds, and are younger than line staff. Diverse values
and views are typically associated with these different personal qualities, and the emergence
of these different values tends to cause conflict.
Role Conflict: A role is a collection of actions that others expect people to do in their jobs.
Conflict is a common part of playing a role.
Innovation
Healthy competition that emerges from conflict encourages creativity and innovation among
workers. There is a strong sense of necessity during times of conflict, which causes
employees to develop different points of view. Employees frequently believe that in order to
compete with their coworkers internally, they must create fresh business plans and
methods.
Empathy
When workers sit down together to resolve disputes, they are more able to comprehend
one another's perspectives, feelings, and points of view. Since personality conflicts and
differences in opinion cause the majority of confrontations. Therefore, team members
would be more likely to avoid conflicts in the future if they developed and learned empathy.
Feelings manifested
Employees have the chance to communicate their actual feelings and emotions during
conflicts. It's crucial to offer emotions, especially negative ones like mistrust, resentment,
rage, and fear, several opportunities to express themselves. These emotions may ignite in an
unanticipated way that causes greater harm if they are not communicated appropriately and
in a timely manner. Their annoyance shouldn't be allowed to fester for too long.
low spirit
Team member morale and motivation are impacted by conflicts. Employees will naturally
become stressed out and unable to concentrate on their work if issues are not resolved.
Employees become unsure of their roles and the future when conflicts persist for an
extended period of time. Their low morale is primarily caused by this mental state.
Absenteeism
Employees that are stressed out at work may take time off, which might increase
absenteeism. They experience burnout as a result of ongoing disagreements at work.
Additionally, they begin to avoid the unpleasant and toxic office atmosphere that conflict
causes because they feel powerless to resolve it. Employee absences worsen the situation
because productivity continues to decline and because it makes it more expensive to hire
new workers.
Financial expense
Conflicts cost money as well. Businesses that are unable to handle workplace disputes suffer
financial losses. According to research done in 2008 by CPP Inc., US employees spend 2.8
hours each week settling disagreements, which costs the country close to $359 million.
When there is a significant turnover of employees owing to disagreements, organisations
must incur additional costs for hiring and training replacement workers. Unresolved disputes
cause businesses to lose consumers, which results in monetary loss and a negative
reputation.
Communication Issues
Unresolved disagreement at work also leads to poor communication. Employees lose their
ability to communicate effectively if there is continual squabbling and bickering at work. This
leads to miscommunication, mistrust, and low morale, all of which exacerbate the problem.
The secret to performance is effective communication. Additionally, poor communication
leads to low productivity, employee turnover, and financial loss.
Violence
Unchecked or unresolved conflict can result in fierce fighting and ignite violence. When
there is a problem but no real attempt is made to resolve it, it occurs. If violence takes
occurred at work, firms suffer significant legal, financial, and reputational losses. Violence
also has a negative effect on workers' productivity, morale, and physical and mental health,
in addition to other effects.
Talk about which areas of conflict are the most essential to you to resolve.
Accommodating or Smoothing Style: This is a term that relates to both cooperative and non-
aggressive behaviour. Accommodation can be a selfless deed, a long-term plan to persuade people
to cooperate, or a capitulation to others' views. While some people view people who use the
accommodating manner positively, others may see them as weak and submissive. When someone
uses an accommodating manner, they can act as though the dispute will go away in time and ask for
collaboration. Reassurance and support will be used to try to alleviate tensions and stress. The
emphasis is on the contending groups' similar interests, with a de-emphasis on their differences. The
parties will be generous and selfless. Smoothing is a more sensitive strategy than withdrawal.
Smoothing might be utilised in the short term when a temporary solution is required.
Collaborating or Win-Win Style: It describes assertive, cooperative, and forceful behaviour. It's a
win-win strategy for resolving interpersonal conflicts. When someone collaborates, they want to get
the best results possible. Parties disclose information openly, make an effort to listen, and create
empathy. The issue is being attempted to be depersonalised. Parties debate the topic of gathering all
essential information, considering a complete range of possibilities, and attempting to solve the
problem rather than simply accommodating differing points of view. The problem is mutually
defined by information sharing and communication. All partners are considered as contributing to
the success of the project.
Compromising or Lose-Lose Style: This describes a level of collaboration and assertiveness that is
halfway between the two extremes. This personality type engages in a give-and-take strategy and is
capable of making a series of concessions. This is a time-honoured means of resolving disputes.
Because each party is expected to give up something of value in exchange for a concession, there is
no clear winner or loser. The emphasis in this style is on the process of compromise and bargaining.
The compromise style, unlike the cooperating style, does not increase mutual satisfaction. Moderate
but partial satisfaction is obtained through compromise.
Summary
The term "conflict" can be defined as "collision" or "disagreement." The conflict may arise between
two individuals or between two groups of organisations; it may arise between two individuals or
between two groups of organisations when their goals and events are incompatible. Conflict,
according to Chaung and Megginson, “is the struggle between incompatible or opposing needs,
wishes, ideas, and interest of people.” When an individual or a group encounters a goal that neither
party can achieve satisfactorily, conflict ensues. Conflict, evasive fights, riots, and wars have all
become common terms, and dozens of armed combat situations may be found around the world
almost every day of the year. These are more violent forms of conflict, but a manager deals with a
lot of minor and non-violent resistance like disputes, criticism, and disagreement. Conflict can be
constructive or destructive, and it can be positive or negative. It could be cognitive or affective in
nature. Misunderstanding, Lack of Role Clarification, Individual differences, Ineffective
Communication and Lack of Role Clarification etc are some reasons of conflict in
organisation.Conflicts at work have a variety of effects on both employees and employers. Conflicts
can have a variety of detrimental effects, including decreased production, low morale, mental health
issues, and financial costs. However, the reality is that, despite the perception that conflict is bad, it
can also have positive effects. These advantages can be used to strengthen and increase the
productivity of teams if they are handled timely and properly.
Introduction
The term "organisational effectiveness" describes how a company has come to fully understand
itself, in part because of: Leaders who set clear objectives for their teams and explain how to
effectively carry them out. Management involves putting in place transparent communication
channels and decision-making processes. Organizations utilise the notion of organisational
effectiveness to determine how successful they are in achieving desired results. The extent to which
businesses fulfil the objectives they have set represents organisational effectiveness, an issue that
takes into account a number of distinct elements.
12.1 Concept of organizational effectiveness
An organization's efficiency in achieving its goals with the aid of available resources while without
placing an undue burden on its people is measured by the concept of organisational effectiveness. It
concerns the company's ability to produce the desired quantity of goods, the effectiveness of its
process, and the amount of waste generated. It is a proven fact that when the leadership system is
functioning at its finest, performance inevitably increases. The role of a leader includes seeing the
future, setting goals, getting organised, formulating strategies, putting them into action,
communicating clearly, ensuring that goals are aligned, cultivating talent, fostering responsibility,
allocating resources, and producing results. To achieve its objectives, a company requires a defined
mission and vision that can deal with the rapidly evolving industry. Retaining, motivating, and
developing human resources should be a top priority for a company entity if it wants to achieve
organisational effectiveness.
The following are some variables that affect organisational efficiency:
Casual variables - These are independent variables that may be changed by the organisation
and its management, such as its leadership, business strategies, and policies, skills, and
conduct. The casual aspects can determine how an organisation will develop.
End-result variables: These include productivity, loss, costs, and earnings. The end-result
variables show an organization's accomplishments.
The following sentences highlight the key distinctions between effectiveness and efficiency:
Efficiency is the capacity to generate the most amount possible given the available
resources. Effectiveness is the degree to which the actual result is as close to the planned
result as possible.
Efficiency has a near-term viewpoint. On the other hand, effectiveness is viewed from a
long-term perspective.
When a strategy is put into action, efficiency must be maintained, but when a strategy is
being formed, effectiveness is needed.
While an organization's activities are measured for efficiency, its own plans are evaluated for
effectiveness.
Efficiency is the result of real output after taking into account the quantity of inputs.
Effectiveness, on the other hand, is related to both means and ends.
Concentrate on Growth and Education - Organizational leaders should take proactive steps
to collaborate with various groups and people. Before creating a work plan to increase the
effectiveness of the organisation, a leader must be aware of the advantages and
disadvantages of various professionals. Prior to implementing any modifications to the firm,
it is important to take into account the specialists' education in the various fields. It is
important to consider their aptitudes, competencies, and strengths. It is important to
pinpoint their flaws or the places where particular specialists have trouble cooperating as a
team. Leaders should motivate employees to work toward specific objectives and assign
assignments based on their qualifications, experience, and background. Understanding
diverse specialists, their roles within the organisation, and how to enhance or leverage
particular capabilities is necessary for organisational effectiveness.
Keeping the clientele in mind- When determining the demands and interests of the clients,
organisational effectiveness performs effectively. Both effective management and overall
business efficiency are critical. Customers search for alternatives to meet their wants and
achieve their objectives if a professional does not offer a high-quality good or service.
Focus on producing quality services or goods – Although customers are crucial to a business'
success, it is also necessary for it to offer high-quality goods and services. The aim is to
preserve a balance between high-quality and affordable alternatives. Any company wants to
increase product quality while staying inside its allocated spending limit. taking advice on
how to make the items better without raising the cost of the materials from specialists in
various fields. A leader obtains a variety of ideas about how to improve the organisation by
enlisting specialists from other fields in the decision-making process.
Goal approach – The objective method seeks to maximise profits by providing the highest
possible level of service, with the expectation that this would result in increased output. One
of the drawbacks of using a goal-oriented strategy is that it might be challenging to
distinguish between the actual aim and the ideal goal.
Functional approach –The functional approach presupposes that the organisation has
already determined what its aims are, and that the primary focus at this point should be on
figuring out how to achieve these goals while also contributing to society. This strategy has
the drawback that the organisation has the freedom to pursue its aims in whatever way it
sees fit, which raises the question of why the organisation would accept the provision of
services to the community as its ultimate objective.
1. Exploitative Authoritative
When it comes to management, an exploitative-authoritative structure indicates that those
in higher-up positions in the hierarchy are the ones who bear the blame. The people who are
lower on the organisational hierarchy, known as subordinates, have no say in the decisions
that are made and are not involved in this process.
The people at the top don't put much stock in those working below them, and when it
comes to making decisions, there is no place for debate. Instead of being a two-way street,
communication in such a system goes in only one direction: downward.
Warnings and other forms of intimidation are typically what are conveyed to workers
through company communication. As a direct consequence of this, only upper management
feels responsibility for the accomplishment of organisational goals.
2. Benevolent Authoritative
The Likert Management System includes a style of management known as the benevolent-
authoritative management system. This form of management is a form of management in
which the responsibility also falls in the top tier in the hierarchy.
The primary distinction between this method and the one described above is that the
motivation of the workers has not been created through the use of threats and warnings,
but rather through the provision of rewards.
The superior has more faith in his subordinates, and the subordinates are rewarded for their
participation because of the superior's increased faith in them. Communication already leans
more toward being a two-way street, but it is still confined to what an employee's superior
would like to hear when it is directed from the employee to the superior. In essence, the
subordinates do not consider themselves to be free to offer recommendations or provide
ideas pertaining to their work. The end effect is a breakdown in communication and
collaboration among team members.
3. Consultative
4. Participative
The Likert Management System is an example of a participative management style in which
higher-level management puts complete faith in lower-level employees and strongly
encourages those employees to take an active role in the decision-making process.
The workers have been given the impression that they are free to discuss any topic with
their supervisors. The participative management system is distinguished, in addition, by the
strong extrinsic motivator aspects of effective teamwork and remuneration.
The trust that lower management has in higher management is at a high level, as is the
amount of openness and frequency with which communication takes place.
Importing the Relevant Information: Organizations must be able to access the input, or the
relevant information, from the outside world.
Conversion Process Modification: During the conversion process, the organisation collects
environmental inputs for subsequent processing.
Stabilizing Internal Changes: The fourth cycle stage entails stabilising an organization's
internal sub-system that depends on an external sub-system. This is because changes in one
might have an impact on others, and those changes may be favourable or unfavourable.
Investigating New Outputs: After the internal transformation has stabilised, the company
can export new outputs that adhere to environmental standards.
Feedback: The final stage of the cycle involves getting feedback on the results of the
adjustments in order to better gauge the condition of the external environment and the
level of integration of the internal environment. This is comparable to stage one.
According to the theory of successful coping, each step must be successfully navigated, and failure at
any one of these stages may result in ineffectiveness.
The key organisational requirements for efficient coping are as follows:
A reliable method of communication that can transmit accurate information should be in
place.
An organization's internal flexibility should be sufficient to allow for the introduction and
acceptance of changes.
Integration and dedication to organisational goals, which foster a willingness for change, are
necessary for successful coping.
There should be a positive internal environment that can encourage effective
communication, lessen rigidity, and promote self-defense.
It takes more work to maintain organisational performance, especially when significant
organisational changes occur.
Summary
The effectiveness with which a company can achieve its goals is known as organisational
effectiveness. This refers to a business that achieves its goals or a business that is lucrative without
wasting resources. In order for an organisation to be productive, everyone must perform to the best
of their abilities. In other words, it refers to an organization's ability to achieve the required
outcomes with a minimal expenditure of effort, time, money, and material and human resources.
The organization's objectives will determine the desired outcome. A company can increase its
earnings by producing and selling a product with minimal waste in order to meet its financial
objectives. The two facets of organisational effectiveness are organisational development. The body
of knowledge known as organisational development places emphasis on the growth of
organisational effectiveness, particularly during times of transition.