GENERALIZED SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 135

a
 
a
2 2

L

2
j=m 
L
2

12
b

2
m
j=m
( )
a 2+ b 2
12

m = mL m = ab
L

b

2 mass
2

m = 
length

mass
= 
area

m
b

2
m j=m
( )
a 2+ b 2
16
2b

3 j=m
( )
a 2+ b 2
18
m= ab

4
ab b
m=  
2 2
b

3 Ellipse

a 2a a a
   
3 3 2 2

FIGURE 8-1
Rigid-body mass and centroidal mass moment of inertia for uniform rod and uniform
plates of unit thickness.

Example E8-1. A representative example of a rigid-body assemblage,

shown in Fig. E8-1, consists of two rigid bars connected by a hinge at E and
supported by a pivot at A and a roller at H. Dynamic excitation is provided by a
transverse load p(x, t) varying linearly along the length of bar AB. In addition,
a constant axial force N acts through the system, and the motion is constrained
by discrete springs and dampers located as shown along the lengths of the bars.
The mass is distributed uniformly through bar AB, and the weightless bar BC

x  x
a f (t)
p(x, t) = p 
Hinge Weightless, rigid bar EH
m2 , j2
A H
N
B D E G

c1 m k1 c2 k2

a 2a a a a a

FIGURE E8-1
Example of a rigid-body-assemblage SDOF system.
136 DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES

supports a lumped mass m2 having a centroidal mass moment of inertia j2 .

Because the two bars are assumed rigid, this system has only a single
degree of freedom, and its dynamic response can be expressed with a single
equation of motion. This equation could be formulated by direct equilibration
(the reader may find this a worthwhile exercise), but because of the complexity of
the system, it is more convenient to use a work or energy formulation. A virtual-
work analysis will be employed here; although using Hamilton’s principle, as
described in Chapter 16, would be equally effective.
For the form of displacement which may take place in this SDOF structure
(Fig. E8-2), the hinge motion Z(t) may be taken as the basic quantity and all
other displacements expressed in terms of it; for example, BB 0 (t) = Z(t)/4,
DD0 (t) = 3 Z(t)/4, F F 0 (t) = 2 Z(t)/3, etc. The force components acting on
the system (exclusive of the axial applied force N, which will be discussed later)
are also shown in this figure. Each resisting force component can be expressed
in terms of Z(t) or its time derivatives, as follows:
1 1
fI1 (t) = m1 Z̈(t) = m L Z̈(t) = 2 a m Z̈(t)
2 2
1 mL L2 4
Mj1 (t) = j1 Z̈(t) = Z̈(t) = a2 m Z̈(t)
4a 4a 12 3
2
fI2 (t) = m2 Z̈(t)
3
1
Mj2 (t) = −j2 Z̈(t)
3a
hd i 1
fD1 (t) = c1 DD0 (t) = c1 Ż(t)
dt 4
fD2 (t) = c2 Ż(t)
h i 3
fS1 (t) = k1 DD0 (t) = k1 Z(t)
4
h i 1
fS2 (t) = k2 GG0 (t) = k2 Z(t)
3

The externally applied lateral load resultant is

p1 (t) = 8 p a f (t)

In these expressions, m and p denote reference values of mass and force, re-
spectively, per unit length and f (t) is a dimensionless time-dependent function
which represents the dynamic load variation.
 GENERALIZED SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 137


8a p1(t) = 8 pa f (t)

3 E′
D′ F′
B′ G′ Z(t)
Mj Mj
A 1 2 H
B C D E F G
fD (t)
fS (t) 2 fI (t)
fI (t) 1 2 fS (t)
fD (t) 1 2
1

FIGURE E8-2
SDOF displacements and resultant forces.

The equation of motion of this system may be established by equating to

zero all work done by these force components during an arbitrary virtual dis-
placement δZ. The virtual displacements through which the force components
move are proportional to Z(t), as indicated in Fig. E8-2. Thus the total virtual
work may be written

δZ 4 δZ 2Z̈(t) 2
δW (t) = −2a m Z̈(t) − a2 m Z̈(t) − m2 δZ
2 3 4a 3 3
Z̈(t) Ż(t) δZ 3 3
−j2 δZ − c1 − c2 Ż(t) δZ − k1 Z(t) δZ
3a 4 4 4 4
Z(t) δZ 2
− k2 + 8p a f (t) δZ = 0 (a)
3 3 3

which when simplified becomes

"   
am 4 j2 c1
am + + m2 + 2 Z̈(t) + + c2 Ż(t)
3 9 9a 16
  #
9 k2 16
+ k1 + Z(t) − p a f (t) δZ = 0 (b)
16 9 3

Because the virtual displacement δZ is arbitrary, the term in square brackets

must vanish; thus the final equation of motion becomes
   
4 4 j2 c1
m a + m2 + 2 Z̈(t) + + c2 Ż(t)
3 9 9a 16
 
9 k2 16
+ k1 + Z(t) = p a f (t) (c)
16 9 3
This may be written in the simplified form

m∗ Z̈(t) + c∗ Ż(t) + k ∗ Z(t) = p∗ (t) (8-1)

138 DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES

if the new symbols are defined as follows:

4 4 j2 1
m∗ = m a + m2 + 2 c∗ = c1 + c 2
3 9 9a 16
9 1 16
k∗ = k1 + k2 p∗ (t) = p a f (t)
16 9 3

These quantities are termed, respectively, the generalized mass, generalized

damping, generalized stiffness, and generalized load for this system; they have
been evaluated with reference to the generalized coordinate Z(t), which has
been used here to define the displacements of the system.
Consider now the externally applied axial force N of Fig. E8-1. As may
be seen in Fig. E8-3, the virtual work done by this force during the virtual
displacement δZ is Nδe. The displacement δe is made up of two parts, δe1 and
δe2 , associated with the rotations of the two bars. Considering the influence of
bar AE only,it is clear from similar triangles (assuming
 small deflections) that
δe1 = (Z(t) 4a) δZ. Similarly δe2 = (Z(t) 3a) δZ, thus the total displace-
ment is
7 Z(t)
δe = δe1 + δe2 = δZ
12 a
and the virtual work done by the axial force N is

7 N Z(t)
δWP = δZ (d)
12 a

Adding Eq. (d) and Eq. (a) and carrying out simplifying operations similar
to those which led to Eq. (c) shows that only one term in the equation of motion

δ e1
E″
δ e1
δZ E″
δZ
E′
E′
Z(t)
A H′ N
H″
δe
4a 3a

FIGURE E8-3
Displacement components in the direction of axial force.
 GENERALIZED SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS 139

is influenced by the axial force, the generalized stiffness. When the effect of the
axial force in this system is included, the combined generalized stiffness k ∗ is
7 P 9 1 7 N
k∗ = k∗ − = k1 + k2 − (e)
12 a 16 9 12 a
With this modified generalized-stiffness term, the equation of motion of the
complete system of Fig. E8-1, including axial force, is given by an equation
similar to Eq. (8-1). The last term in Eq. (e), which is directly proportional to
the axial force N, often is given the name “geometric stiffness.”
It is of interest to note that the condition of zero generalized stiffness
represents a neutral stability or critical buckling condition in the system. The
value of axial force Ncr which would cause buckling of this structure can be
found by equating k ∗ of Eq. (e) to zero:
9 1 7 Ncr
0= k1 + k2 −
16 9 12 a
Thus  27
4 
Ncr =k2 a k1 + (f)
28 21
In general, compressive axial forces tend to reduce the stiffness of a structural
system, while tensile axial forces cause a corresponding increase of stiffness.
Such loads can have a significant effect on the response of the structure to
dynamic loads, and the resulting change of stiffness should always be evaluated
to determine its importance in the given problem. It should be noted that axial
force in this and in subsequent discussions refers to a force which acts parallel
to the initial undistorted axis of the member; such a force is assumed not to
change the direction of its line of action or its magnitude with the motion of the
structure.

Example E8-2. As a second example of the formulation of the equations

of motion for a rigid-body assemblage, the system shown in Fig. E8-4 will be
considered. The small-amplitude motion of this system can be characterized by

mass
γ = 
area
(uniform)
fS (t) k a

fI (t)
1 I (t)
b
b fI (t)
 2
2
Z(t)
a

2 p(t)

FIGURE E8-4
SDOF plate with dynamic forces.
140 DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES

the downward displacement of the load point Z(t), and all the system forces
resisting this motion can be expressed in terms of it:

b 1
fS (t) = k Z(t) fI1 (t) = γ a b Z̈(t)
a 2
b a2 + b 2 1
fI2 (t) = γ a b Z̈(t) MI (t) = γ a b Z̈(t)
2a 12 a

The equation of motion for this simple system can be written directly by ex-
pressing the equilibrium of moments about the plate hinge:

a b
fS (t) b + fI1 (t) + fI2 (t) + MI (t) = p(t) a
2 2

Dividing by the length a and substituting the above expressions for the forces,
this equation becomes

"   #
1 b2 1 b2 b2
γ ab 2
+ 1 + + 2 Z̈(t) + k 2 Z(t) = p(t)
12 a 4 4a a

Finally, it may be written

m∗ Z̈(t) + k ∗ Z(t) = p∗ (t)

in which

 
∗ γ ab b2 b2
m = 1+ 2 k∗ = k p∗ (t) = p(t)
3 a a2

8-3 GENERALIZED PROPERTIES: DISTRIBUTED

FLEXIBILITY
The example of Fig. E8-1 is a true SDOF system in spite of the complex
interrelationships of its various components because the two rigid bars are supported
so that only one type of displacement pattern is possible. If the bars could deform in
flexure, the system would have an infinite number of degrees of freedom. A simple
SDOF analysis could still be made, however, if it were assumed that only a single