2F-2

Design Manual
Chapter 2 - Stormwater
2F - Open Channel Flow

Open Channel Flow

A. Introduction
The beginning of any channel design or modification is to understand the hydraulics of the stream.
The procedures for performing uniform flow calculations aid in the selection or evaluation of
appropriate depths and grades for natural or man-made channels. Allowable velocities are provided,
along with procedures for evaluating channel capacity using Manning’s equation.

All the methods described herein will be based on the conservation of mass, momentum and energy
(in the form of Bernoulli’s theorem), and the Manning formula for frictional resistance. Steady
uniform flow and steady non-uniform flow are the types of flow addressed in this section.

B. Definitions
Critical Flow: The variation of specific energy with depth at a constant discharge shows a minimum
in the specific energy at a depth called critical depth at which the Froude number has a value of one.
Critical depth is also the depth of maximum discharge, when the specific energy is held constant.

Froude Number: The Froude number is an important dimensionless parameter in open-channel

flow. It represents the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces. This expression for Froude number
applies to any single-section channel of nonrectangular shape.

Hydraulic Jump: Hydraulic jumps occur at abrupt transitions from supercritical to subcritical flow
in the flow direction. There are significant changes in the depth and velocity in the jump, and energy
is dissipated. For this reason, the hydraulic jump is often employed to dissipate energy and control
erosion at stormwater management structures.

Kinetic Energy Coefficient: As the velocity distribution in a river varies from a maximum at the
design portion of the channel to essentially zero along the banks, the average velocity head.

Normal Depth: For a given channel geometry, slope, and roughness, and a specified value of
discharge Q, a unique value of depth occurs in a steady uniform flow. It is called the normal depth.
The normal depth is used to design artificial channels in a steady, uniform flow and is computed from
Manning’s equation.

Specific Energy: Specific energy (E) is the energy head relative to the channel bottom. If the
channel is not too steep (slope less than 10%), and the streamlines are nearly straight and parallel (so
that the hydrostatic assumption holds), the specific energy E becomes the sum of the depth and
velocity head. The kinetic energy correction coefficient is taken to have a value of one for turbulent
flow in prismatic channels but may be significantly different from one in natural channels.

Steady and Unsteady Flow: A steady flow is when the discharge passing a given cross-section is
constant with respect to time. When the discharge varies with time, the flow is unsteady. The
maintenance of steady flow requires that the rates of inflow and outflow be constant and equal.

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Subcritical Flow: Depths of flow greater than critical depths, resulting from relatively flat slopes.
Froude number is less than one. Flow of this type is most common in flat streams.

Supercritical Flow: Depths of flow less than critical depths resulting from relatively steep slopes.
Froude number is greater than one. Flow of this type is most common is steep streams.

Total Energy Head: The total energy head is the specific energy head plus the elevation of the
channel bottom with respect to some datum. The curve of the energy head from one cross-section to
the next defines the energy grade line.

Uniform Flow and Non-uniform Flow: A non-uniform flow is one in which the velocity and depth
vary over distance, while they remain constant in uniform flow. Uniform flow can occur only in a
channel of constant cross-section, roughness, and slope in the flow direction; however, non-uniform
flow can occur in such a channel or in a natural channel with variable properties.

C. Uniform Flow (Manning’s Equation)

1. Manning’s Equation: The normal depth is used to design artificial channels in a steady, uniform
flow and is computed from Manning’s equation:

1.486 2 1 Equation 2F-2.01

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = (𝐴𝑅 ⁄3 ) (𝑠 ⁄2 )
𝑛

where:

V = Channel velocity, ft/s (see Tables 2F-2.03 and 2F-2.04 for permissible velocities)
Q = Discharge, cfs
A = Cross-sectional area of flow, ft2
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient (see Section 2B-3)
R = hydraulic radius, ft = A/P
P = wetted perimeter, ft
s = slope of hydraulic grade line (pipe/channel slope), ft/ft

The selection of Manning’s n is generally based on observation; however, considerable experience

is essential in selecting appropriate n values. If the normal depth computed from Manning’s
equation is greater than critical depth, the slope is classified as a mild slope, while on a steep slope,
the normal depth is less than critical depth. Thus, uniform flow is subcritical on a mild slope and
supercritical on a steep slope.

Strictly speaking, uniform flow conditions seldom, if ever, occur in nature because channel sections
change from point to point. For practical purposes in highway engineering, however, the Manning
equation can be applied to most streamflow problems by making judicious assumptions. When the
requirements for uniform flow are met, the depth (dn) and the velocity (Vn) are said to be normal
and the slopes of the water surface and channel are parallel. For practical purposes, in open channel
design, minor undulations in streambed or minor deviations from the mean (average) cross-section
can be ignored as long as the mean slope of the channel can be represented as a straight line.
The Manning equation can readily be solved either graphically or mathematically for the average
velocity in a given channel if the normal depth is known, because the various factors in the equation
are known or can be determined (the hydraulic radius can be computed from the normal depth in a
given channel). Discharge (Q) is then the product of the velocity and the area of flow (A).

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2. Continuity Equation: The continuity equation is the statement of conservation of mass in fluid
mechanics. For the special case of steady flow of an incompressible fluid, it assumes the simple
form:

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 Equation 2F-2.02

where:

A = flow cross-sectional area, ft2

V = mean cross-sectional velocity, ft/s (measured perpendicular to cross-section)

The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to successive cross-sections along the flow path. The continuity
equation can be used with Manning’s equation to obtain steady uniform flow velocity as:
2⁄ 1⁄
𝑄 1.49 (𝑅 3 ) (𝐴 2)
Equation 2F-2.03
𝑉= =
𝐴 𝑛

D. Energy Flow
Flowing water contains energy in two forms, potential and kinetic. The potential energy at a
particular point is represented by the depth of the water plus the elevation of the channel bottom
above a convenient datum plane. The kinetic energy, in feet, is represented by the velocity head:

𝑉2
Kinetic energy = Equation 2F-2.04
2𝑔

In channel flow problems it is often desirable to consider the energy content with the channel bottom.
This is called the specific energy or specific head and is equal to the depth of water plus the velocity
head:

𝑉2
Specific energy = 𝑑 + 2𝑔 Equation 2F-2.05

At other times it is desirable to use the total energy content (total head), which is the specific head
plus the elevation of the channel bottom above a selected datum. For example, total head may be
used in applying the energy equation, which states that the total head (energy) at one point in a
channel carrying a flow of water is equal to the total head (energy) at any point downstream plus the
energy (head) losses occurring between the two points. The energy (Bernoulli) equation is usually
written:

𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑑1 + + 𝑍1 = 𝑑2 + + 𝑍2 + ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 Equation 2F-2.06
2𝑔 2𝑔
In this equation, cross-section 2 (subscript 2) is downstream from cross-section 1 (subscript 1), Z is
the elevation of channel bottom, and hloss represents loss of head between cross-sections 1 and 2. A
convenient way of showing specific head is to plot the water surface and the specific head lines above
a profile of the channel bottom (see Figure 2F-2.01).

Note in Figure 2F-2.01 that the line obtained by plotting velocity head above the water surface is the
same line as that obtained by plotting specific head above the channel bottom. This line represents
the total energy, potential and kinetic, of the flow in the channel, and is called the “total head line” or
“total energy line.”

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The slope (gradient) of the energy line is a measure of the friction slope or rate of energy head loss
due to friction. Under uniform flow, the energy line is parallel to the water surface and to the
streambed. For flow to occur in a channel, the total head or energy line must slope negatively
(downward) in the direction of flow.

Figure 2F-2.01: Channel Flow Terms

Figure 2F-2.02: Definition Sketch of Specific Head

Source: Design Charts for Open-Channel Flow, FHWA

1. Critical Flow: The relative values of the potential energy (depth) and the kinetic energy
(velocity head) are important in the analysis of open-channel flow. Consider, for example, the
𝑉2
relation of the specific head, 𝑑 + 2𝑔 , and the depth of a given discharge in a given channel that
can be placed on various slopes. Plotting values of specific head as ordinates and of the
corresponding depth as abscissa will result in a specific-head curve such as that shown in Figure
2F-2.02. The straight diagonal line is drawn through points where depth and specific head are
equal. The line thus represents the potential energy, and the ordinate interval between this line
and the specific head curve is the velocity head for the particular depth. A change in the
discharge or in the channel size or shape will change the position of the curve, but its general
shape and location above and to the left of the diagonal line will remain the same.

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Note that the ordinate at any point on the specific head curve represents the total specific energy
at that point. The lowest point on the curve represents flow with the minimum energy content.
The depth at this point is known as critical depth (dc) and the corresponding velocity is the critical
velocity (Vc). With uniform flow, the channel slope at which critical depth occurs is known as
the critical slope (Sc). The magnitude of critical depth depends only on the discharge and the
shape of the channel, and is independent of the slope or channel roughness. Thus, in any given
size and shape of channel, there is only one critical depth for a particular discharge. Critical
depth is an important value in hydraulic analysis because it is a control in reaches of non-uniform
flow whenever the flow changes from subcritical to supercritical.

Typical occurrences of critical depths are:

a. Entrance to a restrictive channel, such as a culvert or flume, on a steep slope

b. At the crest of an overflow dam or weir

c. At the outlet of a culvert or flume discharging with a free fall or into a relatively wide
channel or a pond in which the depth is not enough to submerge critical depth in the culvert
or flume.

2. Critical Depth Calculations:

a. The general equation for determining critical depths on the discharge rate and channel
geometry is:

𝑄 2 𝐴3
= Equation 2F-2.07
𝑔 𝑇

where:

g = acceleration of gravity, ft/s2 (32.2)

A = cross-sectional area, ft2
T = top width of water surface, ft

A trial and error procedure is needed to solve Equation 2F-2.07. The following guidelines are
presented for evaluating critical flow conditions of open channel flow:
1) A normal depth of uniform flow within about 10% of critical depth is unstable (relatively
large depth changes are likely for small changes in roughness, cross-sectional area, or
slope) and should be avoided in design, if possible.
2) If the velocity head is less than one-half the mean depth of flow, the flow is subcritical.
3) If the velocity head is equal to one-half the mean depth of flow, the flow is critical.
4) If the velocity head is greater than one-half the mean depth of flow, the flow is
supercritical.
5) If an unstable critical depth cannot be avoided in design, the least favorable type of flow
should be assumed for the design.

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b. The Froude number, Fr, calculated by the flowing equation, is useful for evaluating the type
of flow conditions in an open channel:

𝑉
𝐹𝑟 = 1⁄
𝑔𝐴 2 Equation 2F-2.08
(𝑇)

where:

Fr = Froude number (dimensionless)

V = velocity of flow, ft/s
g = acceleration of gravity, ft/s2 (32.2)
T = top width of flow, ft

If Fr is greater than 1.0, flow is supercritical; if it is under 1.0, flow is subcritical. Fr is 1.0
for critical flow conditions.

3. Critical Slope: Critical slope is that channel slope for a particular channel and discharge, at
which the normal depth for uniform flow will be the same as the critical depth. Critical slope
varies with both the roughness and geometric shape of the channel and with the discharge. For
large circular cross-section pipes, and for pipe-arch and oval pipe sections, a direct reading can be
made on the part-full flow charts for critical depth, specific head, and critical slope (for certain
values of n).

4. Supercritical Flow: Points on the left of the flow point of the specific head curve [Figure 2F-
2.02 (B)] are for channel slopes steeper than critical (supercritical or steep slopes), and indicate
relatively shallow depths and high velocities [Figure 2F-2.02 (A)]. Such flow is called
supercritical flow. It is difficult to handle because violent wave action occurs when either the
direction of flow or the cross-section is changed. Flow of this type is common in steep streams.
In supercritical flow, the depth of flow at any point is influenced by a control upstream, usually
critical depth.

5. Subcritical Flow: Points on the right of the low point of the specific head curve [Figure 2F-2.02
(B)] are for slopes flatter than critical (subcritical or mild slopes) and indicate relatively large
depths with low velocities [Figure 2F-2.02 (C)]. Such flow is called subcritical flow. It is
relatively easy to handle through transitions because the wave actions are tranquil. In subcritical
flow, the depth at any point is influenced by a downstream control, which may be either critical
depth or the water surface elevation in a pond or larger downstream channel. Figures 2F-2.02 (A)
and 2F-2.02 (C) indicate the relationship of supercritical and subcritical flows, respectively, to the
specific head curve.

E. Non-uniform Flow
Flow that varies in depth and velocity along the channel is called non-uniform. Truly uniform flow
rarely exists in either natural or man-made channels, because changes in channel section, slope, or
roughness cause the depths and average velocities of flow to vary from point to point along the
channel, and the water surfaces will not be parallel to the streambed. Although moderate non-
uniform flow actually exists in a generally uniform channel, it is usually treated as uniform flow in
such cases. Uniform flow characteristics can readily be computed and the computed values are
usually close enough to the actual for all practical purposes. The types of non-uniform flow are
innumerable, but certain characteristic types are more common.

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With subcritical flow, a change in channel shape, slope, or roughness affects the flow for a
considerable distance upstream, and thus the flow is said to be under downstream control. If an
obstruction, such as a culvert, causes ponding, the water surface above the obstruction will be a
smooth curve asymptotic to the normal water surface upstream and to the pool level downstream (see
Figure 2F-2.03).

Another example of downstream control occurs where an abrupt channel enlargement, as at the end of
a culvert not flowing full, or a break in grade from a mild to a steep slope, causes a drawdown in the
flow profile to critical depth. The water surface profile upstream from a change in section or a break
in channel slope will be asymptotic to the normal water surface upstream, but will drop away from
the normal water surface on approaching the channel change or break in slope. In these two
examples, the flow is non-uniform because of the changing water depth caused by changes in the
channel slope or channel section. Direct solution of open-channel flow by the Manning equation or
by the charts in this section is not possible in the vicinity of the changes in the channel section or
channel slope. With supercritical flow, a change in the channel shape, slope, or roughness cannot be
reflected upstream except for very short distances. However, the change may affect the depth of flow
at downstream points; thus, the flow is said to be under upstream control.

Most problems in highway drainage do not require the accurate computation of water surface profiles.
However, the designer should know that the depth in a given channel may be influenced by
conditions either upstream or downstream, depending on whether the slope is steep (supercritical) or
mild (subcritical).

Figure 2F-2.03 shows a channel on a mild slope, discharging into a pool. The vertical scale is
exaggerated to illustrate the case more clearly. Cross-section 1 is located at the end of uniform
channel flow in the channel and cross-section 2 is located at the beginning of the pool. Depth 2 is
located at the beginning of the pool. The depth of flow (d) between sections 1 and 2 is changing and
the flow is non-uniform. The water surface profile between the sections is known as backwater curve
and is characteristically very long.

Figure 2F-2.03: Water Surface Profile in Flow from a Channel to a Pool

Source: Design Charts for Open-Channel Flow, FHWA

Figure 2F-2.04 shows a channel in which the slope changes from subcritical to supercritical. The
flow profile passes through critical depth near the break in slope (section 1). This is true whether the
upstream slope is mild, as in the sketch, or whether the water above section 1 is ponded, as would be
the case if section 1 were the crest of the spillway of a dam. If, at section 2, the total head were
computed, assuming normal depth on the steep slope, it would plot (point a on the sketch) above the
elevation of the total head at section 1. This is physically impossible, because the total head line must
slope downward in the direction of flow. The actual total head line will take the position shown, and
have a slope approximately equal to Sc at section 1 and approaching slope S0 farther downstream.
The drop in the total head line hf between sections 1 and 2 represents the loss in energy due to

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friction. At section 2 the actual depth d2 is greater than dn because sufficient acceleration has not
occurred and the assumption of normal depth at this point would clearly be in error. As section 2 is
moved downstream so that total head for the normal depth drops below the pool elevation above
section 1, the actual depth quickly approaches the normal depth for the steep channel. This type of
water surface curve (section 1 to section 2) is characteristically much shorter than the backwater
curve discussed in the previous paragraph.

Another common type of non-uniform flow is the drawdown curve to critical depth which occurs
upstream from section 1 (Figure 2F-2.04) where the water surface passes through the critical depth.
The depth gradually increases upstream from critical depth to normal depth, provided the channel
remains uniform through a sufficient length. The length of the drawdown curve is much longer than
the curve from critical depth to normal depth in a steep channel.

Figure 2F-2.04: Water Surface Profile in Changing from Subcritical to Supercritical Channel Slope

Source: Design Charts for Open-Channel Flow, FHWA

Figure 2F-2.05 shows a special case for a steep channel discharging into a pool. A hydraulic jump
makes a dynamic transition from the supercritical flow in a pool. This situation differs from that
shown in Figure 2F-2.03 because the flow approaching the pool in Figure 2F-2.05 is supercritical and
the total head in the approach channel is large relative to the pool depth. In general, the supercritical
flow can be changed to subcritical flow only by passing through a hydraulic jump. The violent
turbulence in the jump dissipates energy rapidly, causing a sharp drop in the total head line between
the supercritical and subcritical states of flow. A jump will occur whenever the ratio of the depth d1in
the approach channel to the depth d2 in the downstream channel reaches a specific value. Note in
Figure 2F-2.05 that normal depth in the approach channel persists well beyond the point where the
projected pool level would intersect the water surface of the channel at normal depth. Normal depth
can be assumed to exist on the steep slope upstream from section 1, which is located about at the toe
of the jump.

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Figure 2F-2.05: Water Surface Profile Illustrating Hydraulic Jump

Source: Design Charts for Open-Channel Flow, FHWA

F. Hydraulic Jump
1. General: The hydraulic jump consists of an abrupt rise of the water surface in the region of
impact between rapid and tranquil flows. Flow depths before (supercritical depth, d1) and after
(subcritical depth, d2) the jump are less than and greater than critical depth, respectively. The
depth d1 is calculated based on the hydraulics of the channel. The depth d2 is calculated as shown
in part 2. The zone of impact of the jump is accompanied by large-scale turbulence, surface
waves, and energy dissipation. The hydraulic jump in a channel may occur at locations such as:

a. The vicinity of a break in grade where the channel slope decreases from steep to mild.

b. A short distance upstream from channel constrictions such as those caused by bridge piers.

c. A relatively abrupt converging transition.

d. A channel junction where rapid flow occurs in a tributary channel and tranquil flow in the
main channel.

e. Long channels where high velocities can no longer be sustained on a mild slope.

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Figure 2F-2.06: Hydraulic Jump and Depth of Flow

2. Hydraulic Jump Computations: The method for calculating the length of the hydraulic jump
and the resulting flow depth and velocity downstream of the jump is discussed in detail in
FHWA’s Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 14 (HEC-14), Hydraulic Design of Energy
Dissipators for Culverts and Channels. Due to the complex energy calculations required to
analyze hydraulic jumps, the use of appropriate hydraulic design software is encouraged.

Table 2F-2.03: Permissible Velocities for Channels with Erodible Linings, Based on Uniform Flow
in Continuously Wet, Aged Channels
Maximum Permissible Velocities for…
Soil Type or Lining Clear Water Carrying Water Carrying
(earth; no vegetation) Water Fine Silts Sand and Gravel
(fps) (fps) (fps)
Fine sand (non-colloidal) 1.5 2.5 1.5
Sandy loam (non-colloidal) 1.7 2.5 2.0
Silt loam (non-colloidal) 2.0 3.0 2.0
Ordinary firm loam 2.5 3.5 2.2
Volcanic ash 2.5 3.5 2.0
Fine gravel 2.5 5.0 3.7
Stiff clay 3.7 5.0 3.0
Graded, loam to cobbles (non-colloidal) 3.7 5.0 5.0
Graded, silt to cobbles (colloidal) 4.0 5.5 5.0
Alluvial silts (non-colloidal) 2.0 3.5 2.0
Alluvial silts (colloidal) 3.7 5.0 3.0
Coarse gravel (non-colloidal) 4.0 6.0 6.5
Cobbles and shingles 5.0 5.5 6.5
Shales and hard pans 6.0 6.0 5.0
Fabric and excelsior mat 7.0 7.0 7.0
Dry rip rap/gabions 10.0 10.0 10.0
Concrete pilot channel Use grass permissible velocity - Table 2F-2.04

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Table 2F-2.04: Permissible Velocities for Channels Lined with Uniform Stands of Various Grass
Covers, Well Maintained1

Permissible Velocity on…

Slope Range Easily Eroded
Cover Erosion Resistant
(percent) Soils
Soils (fps)
(fps)
0 to 5 8 6
Bermudagrass 5 to 10 7 5
Over 10 6 4
Buffalograss 0 to 5 7 5
Kentucky bluegrass
5 to 10 6 4
Smooth brome
Blue grama Over 10 5 3
0 to 5 5 4
Grass mixture
5 to 10 4 3
Lespedeza sericea
Weeping lovegrass
Yellow bluestem
0 to 5 3.5 2.5
Kudzu
Alfalfa
Crabgrass
Common lespedeza2
0 to 53 3.5 2.5
Sudangrass

1 Use velocities of 5 fps only where good covers and proper maintenance can be obtained.
2 Annuals, used on mild slopes or as temporarily protection until permanent covers are established.
3 Use on slopes steeper than 5% is not recommended.

Source: From Handbook of Channel Design for Soil and Water Conservation

G. References
U.S. Department of Transportation. Design Charts for Open-Channel Flow. Hydraulic Design Series
No. 3. 1961.

U.S. Soil Conservation Service. Handbook of Channel Design for Soil and Water Conservation.
1947.

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