INFORMATION SHEET MD-8.1.

1
“MORAL THEORIES AND MENTAL FRAMES AND WHY THEY ARE IMPORTANT.”

In this lesson, the student on his own and in the long run will be able to:

1. Explain the role of mental frames in moral experience;

2. Classify the dominant mental frames

What is a moral framework?

A moral framework is a set of codes that that an individual uses to guide his or her behavior.
Ethics are what people use to distinguish right from wrong in the way they interact in the world. Moral
values help in improving behavior, instilling respect and enhancing relationships with others. Knowing
what is right or wrong is an important element in life that shapes the character on an individual. Good
moral values allow a person to make the right decisions and improve their interactions with other
people.

Moral theories/ frameworks:

Moral theories are divided into three types:

1. Virtue Ethics
2. Consequentialist ethics
3. Duty Based Ethics/Non-consequentialist ethics

Virtue ethics is the name given to a modern revival and revision of Aristotle's ethical thinking.
Aristotle’s ethics, while not generally thought of as consequentialist, is certainly teleological. For him,
the telos, or purpose, of a human life is to live according to reason. This leads to ‘happiness’ in the sense
of human flourishing (eudaimonia). This flourishing is achieved by the habitual practice of moral and
intellectual excellences, or ‘virtues. For Aristotle, the excellences are of two types. A moral virtue is an
excellence of character, a ‘mean’ between two vices. One of Aristotle’s virtues is courage, a mean
between recklessness and cowardice, which are vices.

Virtue ethics - in which quality of character is the determiner of morality. Its most famous
incarnation is Aristotelian ethics, in which the highest moral good is the possession of certain characters
traits. However, one is supposed to have these traits in moderation. See the chart below:
 St. Thomas’ natural law ethics is based on the Aristotelian principle that everything in the world,
is organized in a teleological fashion, i.e., everything has a goal or purpose. Nevertheless, this creates
difficulty for those who do not accept the existence of a Creator or a Divine Planner. This creates
difficulty in the acceptance of the Natural Law Ethics of St. Thomas for those who do not believe in the
Divine Planner. Moreover, the ethics of St. Thomas is based on the principle of synderesis and
conscience. According to St. Thomas, this conscience is innate in a human being who was created in the
image and likeness of God. Thus, being created in the image and likeness of God, human beings will
always be geared towards goodness’s Thomas Aquinas’s moral philosophy sees the basic moral norms
(like the golden rule and the wrongness of stealing, murder and etc.) as fixed and unchangeable,
although they can be applied differently to different cultural situations. Human laws are set up to
promote the good and must accord with natural law. The first precept of natural law is that good is to be
done and pursued, and evil is to be avoided. We can know what is good by investigating our natural
(rational) inclinations.

What’s your appreciation of Kantian moral precepts? What are the advantages/disadvantages of
Kantian ethics?

Using Kant as a mental frame, analyze the connection among rights, what is legal, and what is
moral. Provide an apt case study

Kantian Case study:

 Susan decided to have an abortion

 Susan met her husband when they both just graduated from law school. She and her husband
Rick wanted a large family and thus they have four children. When the couple’s youngest child
was old enough to go to school Susan decided that she would like to return to legal practice. She
realized how much she missed what she used to do before she became a mother and felt as if
she had given up on her career.
  After she talked to her husband about the child care situation, Susan began her job application
process as a legal assistant at a law office. While searching for a job Susan became pregnant and
later on found out that the fetus has Down syndrome. The doctor was unable to tell Susan
whether the Down syndrome will be mild or severe and knowing that having a child with a
disability may prevent her from ever returning to the working world she decided to an abortion
without her husband’s knowledge.

 Using Kant’s moral theory, how do you evaluate Susan’s decision of resorting to abortion?

NONCONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES

 These are also known as deontological theories.

 These theories say that the rightness of an action does not depend entirely on its consequences.
 It depends on the nature of the action itself.

Divine Command Theory

 It asserts that the morally right action is the one that God commands.

Natural Law Theory

 A theory asserting that the morally right action is the one that follows the dictates of nature.
 People are supposed to live according to natural law—that is, they are to fulfill their rightful,
natural purpose.
 The things that we are designed to seek are called basic goods.

The Basic Goods

1. Life
2. Reproduction
3. Educate one’s offspring
4. Seek God
5. Live in society
6. Avoid offense
7. Shun ignorance

Right ethics (Deontology)& Virtue Ethics

Both focused on the action itself rather than the outcomes, and ask whether the action is
justifiable in its intent, hence the difference between those and consequentialism.

Study Guide: Deontology & Virtue Ethics

Right ethics (Deontology)

 Right ethics is duty ethics (deontology), so it compares a person's actions against some duty or
imperative. An example is Kant's Deontology, which has the Categorical Imperative that all
 persons must be ends in and of themselves and may never be used as means. Deontology
emphasizes the character of the actions.

Virtue Ethics

 Virtue ethics measure actions against some given set of virtues, with the goal being to be a
virtuous person (eudaimonia, the Greeks called it). An example is Stoicism, which, among other
aspects, holds the virtues of wisdom, justice, fortitude and temperance. Virtue ethics emphasize
the character of the person making the actions.

So, in short:

 Right ethics: Are my actions compatible with some imperative?

 Virtue Ethics: Are my actions motivated by virtue?

Autonomy: A Kantian interpretation

 By saying that we respect persons as autonomous agents, we imply that they are having equal
statuses with us, that we cannot treat them as a means only.
 Using somebody implies an imbalanced power structure, meaning that the users are

 in a higher rank;
 have more power;
 have ends in the action plan that the inferior party cannot share.

Autonomy thus requires that if I am to be treated as a means, I must also be able to recognize
the experimenter’s end as my end. If I can recognize the end. If I can recognize the promoting of
collective interests as an end that I share without contradiction, I can say being deceived is my choice.

Synthesis: Kantian Ethics

Kant argued that the source of the good lies not in anything outside the human subject, either in
nature or given by God, but rather only the good will itself.

It asserts that the morally right action is the one done in accordance with the categorical
imperative.

A good will is one that acts from duty in accordance with the universal moral law that the
autonomous human being freely gives itself.

Kant attempted to find à priori elements in morality to give it an unshakable foundation. Every
person has a conscience that expresses itself in the form of moral commands or imperatives. These
imperatives can be either hypothetical or categorical.

Two reasons of moral actions:

hypothetical imperatives
  (e.g., "If you wish to have a good reputation, be honest").
 a moral command that is conditional on personal motive or desire.

categorical imperatives

 i.e. absolute & unconditional moral commands (e.g., "Be honest")

 a moral law that is unconditional or absolute for all agents

FORMULATIONS OF THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

1. UNIVERSALITY - “Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed as a
universal law of humanity.”

2. RESPECT - “Always treat humanity, whether in yourself or in other people, as an end in itself and
never as a mere means.”

The Formula of the End Itself

 Ends, not mere means: don’t treat rational agents (others or yourself) as mere objects to be
used or exploited.
 Foundation of this principle: rational nature exists as an end in itself.
 That is, treat people as intrinsically-valuable beings, and not as mere instruments for your own
benefit.
 Based on the idea that human beings have a special dignity because of their ability to act freely
on principles, which must be respected in all people.
 Personhood is the basis of ethical value and can’t be subordinated to other values. Mustn’t
sacrifice the few even to benefit the many.

“Categorical imperatives” are commands to act without any end in mind. The act should be an end in
itself. A categorical imperative is synthetic as well as à priori. Thus the practical reason underlying
categorical imperatives gives us a strong reason to believe in innate morality.

CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES

 These are also known as teleological theories.

 These theories say that what makes an action right is its consequences.
 Specifically, the rightness of an action depends on the amount of good it produces.

Ethical Egoism

 It asserts that the morally right action is the one that produces the most favorable balance of
good over evil for oneself.
 That is, in every situation the right action is the one that advances one’s own best interests.

Utilitarianism

 It asserts that the morally right action is the one that produces the most favorable balance of
good over evil, everyone considered.
  Principle of utility: “We should act always so as to produce the greatest good for the greatest
number.”
 It treats intentions as irrelevant.

Types of Utilitarianism

 Act-utilitarianism: right actions are those that directly produce the greatest overall good,
everyone considered.

 Rule-utilitarianism: the morally right action is the one covered by a rule that if generally
followed would produce the most favorable balance of good over evil, everyone considered.

Reference:

 1. Vaughn, L. (2016). Doing Ethics: Moral Reasoning and Contemporary Issues (4th Edition). New
York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company p. 67 – 76 2. Philosophy Experiments. (n.d.). Retrieved from
www.philosophyexperiments.com/ 3. [CrashCourse]. (2016, November 7). Natural Law Theory:
Crash Course Philosophy #34. [Video File]. Retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?
v=r_UfYY7aWKo 4. [CrashCourse]. (2016, November 14). Kant & Categorical Imperatives: Crash
Course Philosophy #35. [Video File]. Retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bIys6JoEDw
5. [CrashCourse]. (2016, November 22). Utilitarianism: Crash Course Philosophy #36. [Video
File]. Retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?v=-a739VjqdSI
 Bulaong Jr., Calano, Lagliva, Mariano and Principe (2018). Ethics Foundations of Moral Valuation.
First edition, Publisher (REX Book Store)
 SELF-CHECK MD-8.1.1

Direction: Answer the following questions:

1. Moral framework
It is a set of codes that that an individual uses to guide his or her behavior.

2. Virtue ethics
It emphasizes an Individual’s character as the key element or ethical thinking, rather than rules
about the acts themselves (Deontology) or their consequences (Consequentialism).

3. Categorical imperatives
It is a moral law that is unconditional or absolute for all agents.

4. Hypothetical imperatives
It is a moral command that is conditional on personal motive or desire.

5. Utilitarianism
It asserts that the morally right action is the one that produces the most favorable balance of
good over evil, everyone considered.
SELF-CHECK ANSWER KEY MD-8.1.1
STUDENT NAME: __________________________________ SECTION: __________________

WRITTEN WORK MD-8.1.1

WRITTEN WORK TITLE: Writing Critical Essay on Moral Theories and Mental Frames

WRITTEN TASK OBJECTIVE: The student on his own and in the long run will be able to
demonstrate understanding and show their knowledge on the
topic and to express their opinion about the topic.

MATERIALS: Pen and Paper

TOOLS & EQUIPMENT: None
ESTIMATED COST: None

Direction: Answer the following questions in paragraph form.

Let’s Analyze
Questions:
1. Why are mental frames and moral theories important?
2. Is mental frame reliable in decision making?
3. What are the positive and negative consequences of
mental frames?

PRECAUTIONS: None
ASSESSMENT METHOD: Written work criteria checklist
STUDENT NAME: __________________________________ SECTION: __________________

WRITTEN OUTPUT CRITERIA CHECK LIST MD-8.1.1

CRITERIA SCORING
Did I . . .
1 2 3 4 5
1. Focus – The single controlling point made with an awareness of task
about a specific topic.
2. Content – The presentation of ideas developed through facts,
examples, anecdotes, details, opinions, statistics, reasons and/or
opinions
3. Organization – The order developed and sustained within and across
paragraphs using transitional devices and including introduction and
conclusion.
4. Style – The choice, use and arrangement of words and sentence
structures that create tone and voice.
5. Conventions – Grammar, mechanics, spelling, usage and sentence
formation.
TEACHER’S REMARKS: QUIZ  RECITATION  PROJECT

GRADE:

5 - Excellently Performed
4 - Very Satisfactorily Performed
3 - Satisfactorily Performed
2 - Fairly Performed
1 - Poorly Performed

MR. DICKSHYL M. KALLOS

TEACHER

Date: __________________