Volume 3 Number 2 April 2020 (120-127)

DOI: 10.1016/j.gloei.2020.05.004

Global Energy Interconnection

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
https: //www.sciencedirect.com/journal/global-energy-interconnection

Full-length article

Technical and economic demands of HVDC submarine

cable technology for Global Energy Interconnection
Xiaoling Zhao1, Yao Liu 1*, Jiawei Wu 1, Jinyu Xiao1, Jinming Hou1, Jinghui Gao2,
Lisheng Zhong2
1. Global Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation Organization, No. 8 Xuanwumennei
Scan for more details
Street, Beijing 100031, P.R. China
2. State Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Power Equipment, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710049,
P.R. China

Abstract: Power transmission across the sea is an important part of global energy interconnection (GEI). To support the
construction of GEI and to serve the needs of future clean energy trans-sea transportation and offshore wind power
development, this study a) analyzes the requirements of the GEI backbone network pertaining to direct current (DC)
submarine cable technology, and b) defines the key technical and economic indices of ultrahigh-voltage direct current
(UHVDC) submarine cable based on theoretical computations. The research is based on the thermoelectric coupling model
and the finite element method. It is shown that the dielectric strength of the insulating materials of the ±800 kV~±1100 kV/
4000 MW~12000 MW UHVDC submarine cable (extrusion insulation) should be not less than 43~65 kV/mm, while the
heat resistance is not less than 110 °C. As the cost of submarine cable is 5~10 times higher than that of the overhead line,
the project investment need to be decreased to a level within the economical carrying capacity to guarantee extensive
applicability of the HVDC submarine cable technology.

Keywords: UHVDC submarine cable, GEI, Technical index, Economic index.

1 Introduction

Global Energy Interconnection (GEI) provides the

Received: 19 December 2019/ Accepted: 20 February 2020/ Published: infrastructure foundation for large-scale exploitation, global
25 April 2020 allocation, and complementary and efficient utilization of
Yao Liu Jinming Hou various clean energy resources at a worldwide scale [1, 2]
[email protected] [email protected] in which the direct current (DC) submarine cable has an
Xiaoling Zhao Jinghui Gao indispensable part for the interconnection of clean energy
[email protected] [email protected] bases and load power system centers across the sea [3].
Jiawei Wu Lisheng Zhong Additionally, submarine cables is the only way for the
[email protected] [email protected] transmission of offshore wind power generated far away
Jinyu Xiao from the land back to the land [4].
[email protected] The highest technical level of submarine project is

2096-5117/© 2020 Global Energy Interconnection Development and Cooperation Organization. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications
Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http: //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ).

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 Xiaoling Zhao et al. Technical and economic demands of HVDC submarine cable technology for Global Energy Interconnection

applied in the Western Link with a capacity of 2200 MW and renewable energy within the continent, the proposed Asian
a voltage of ±600 kV, transferring renewable energy from Energy Interconnection also receives clean energy from
Scotland to load centers in Wales and England. However, the large energy bases located in various continents through a
transmission distance and capacity cannot satisfy the future submarine cable network.
demand of the GEI and other large-scale offshore wind power The main submarine transmission channels include the
explorations [5, 6]. For example, there are approximately Northeast Asia regional channels, and the Middle East–South–
30 overseas transmission channels proposed in the GEI Asia and Europe–South–Asia interconnections. The total
backbone grid, 50% of which have capacities > 8000 MW. transmission distance of the submarine cable is 10,000 km,
Additionally, the longest planed project planned spans a while the total capacity reaches 120 GW, whereby the
distance > 2000 km, while the line loss for the extra high proportion of the UHV projects reaches 45%.
voltage (EHV) is too large for that length. For example, the West Asia is a region with a large
The development of UHV DC submarine cable concentration of solar energy resources in the world.
technology is proposed as the solution that has the capability Its maximum solar energy exploration capacity is ~100
to transmit large capacities to distant locations. Additionally, trillion kWh/year. The surplus of electricity in West Asia is
given that the engineering cost per capacity decreases with expected to be 20 million KW in 2035 and 100 million KW
increasing voltage [7], the construction of the UHV DC in 2050, respectively. To alleviate the imbalance between
submarine cable project will reduce the cost of electricity power supply and demand, the GEI backbone network plans
transmission across the sea. the Oman–India transmission channel with a total length
The present study summarizes the demand for overseas of 2300 km, of which the Oman–India section is 1000 km
power transmission in the GEI backbone grid and proposes across the sea, while the maximum depth is 3500 m.
the target for the DC submarine cable development. To
realize the UHV technology, some key technologies must be
overcome, including the design of the structure, and material
and processing techniques. Among these technologies,
the choice and type of the insulation material is the most
critical. In this case, we constructed a multiphasic mode and
analyzed the dielectric and thermal index for the UHV DC
cable. To promote the widespread application of the DC
submarine cable, the cost of the UHV DC submarine cable
must be acceptable by the investor and decision-making
parties in most counties around the world. Therefore, we
calculated the objective cost of the submarine cable project
Fig. 1  Pathway and depth of submarine transmission
per length according to the difference between the feed-in line between Oman and India
tariff of clean energy bases and the purchasing electricity
price of load centers in the proposed projects in GEI.
2.2 Europe
2 GEI demand As one of the essential power load centers, Europe is
vigorously pursuing policies and concepts to reduce the
Offshore clean energy transportation and grid cross-sea scale of fossil energy and nuclear power utilization to
interconnections will be the main application scenarios of increase the proportion of renewable energy utilization.
HVDC submarine cables in the future [8]. It is estimated It is a pioneer in the implementation of energy reform.
that by 2050, a) there will be a worldwide market capacity The European Interconnected Power Grid aims to build a
~160 GW for a total span of 10,000 km, and b) more strong, ubiquitous European smart grid to ensure efficient
than 50% of the demand will be UHV-grade DC power access to renewable energy, such as the Arctic wind
transmission with a capacity exceeding 8000 MW [3]. power, North Sea wind power, Southern European solar
energy, and North African solar energy, and to connect
2.1 Asia with various types of regulated energy types, such as the
Asia is the world’s largest power load center and has Nordic hydropower.
abundant renewable energy resources. In addition to the In combination with the development and transportation
connection of the major load centers and the transfer of of renewable energy, especially for offshore wind power,

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the submarine cable interconnection backbone channels that range distribution and high efficient use of renewable energy
are interconnected by the European transnational continents resources both intercontinental and transcontinental. The main
include the Nordic regional, Nordic–European, and the channels of the submarine cable network for North American
European–African interconnections. The total distance trans-continental grid interconnection are: Greenland
of the submarine cable is 9000 km, the total capacity is arctic wind power access channel, North America-Asia
120 GW, and the proportion of UHV submarine cable interconnection channel and North America- South America
engineering is 69%. interconnection channel. The total distance of submarine
Greenland is an important Arctic wind power cable transportation is 5000 km and the total capacity 40 GW,
development base. The Greenland–Iceland–UK transmission all of which are UHV submarine cable projects.
channel included in the GEI is an important way for the Greenland arctic wind power access channel has a total
transportation of Greenland’s wind power resources to be length of 1000 km. The maximum depth is 1457 m, 140 km
transported to the UK and the European continent. The away from the coast of Canada.
length of the Iceland–UK section is 830 km. The maximum
depth at 170 km from the UK is 1100 m.
2.4 Africa
The proposed African interconnected power grid intends
to realize the joint operation of North Africa’s solar power
and wind power bases with central African hydropower
and the Southern African solar power bases to meet the
power consumption needs of the entire continent. These
interconnections will form a new pattern of electricity
transmission from the north to the south and from east to
west, with the connection with European and Asian grids.
The channels of submarine cable backbone in Africa
include the East–Africa–West–Africa Channel and the Africa–
European Interconnected Channel. The total length is 4000 km,
Fig. 2  Pathway and depth of submarine transmission
while the total capacity is 50 GW. The proportion of the
line between Iceland and UK UHV submarine cable engineering reaches 40%.
The North Africa region is rich in solar and wind power
resources, and can effectively compensate for the power
2.3 North America shortage in the energy transformation process in Europe.
North America’s middle region and west wind power The Algeria–France–Germany ±800 kV three-terminal DC
base, southwest solar power base and Canada hydropower project is an important channel for the transportation of
base are connected with the load centers of the west and clean energy from North Africa to Europe. The length of the
east by North American power grid. The east load center line is approximately 2400 km. The Lyon–Walgra section
receives Arctic wind power from Greenland and the west is 840 km long across the sea and 2731 m deep at a location
interconnects Asian grid from Alaska, achieving the large- 440 km away from France.

Fig. 3  Oversea power transmission route and sea depth of Fig. 4  Pathway and depth of submarine line between Lyon,
Greenland-Canada section France, and Walgra in Algeria

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(2) Thermal field theory

2.5 Demand analysis
Any point in space corresponds to a unique temperature
According to the proposed GEI backbone grid, by value. The temperature set of all the points in the selected
2050, there will be a market capacity of 260 GW and total area is called the temperature distribution of the area [24].
submarine cable length of 23,000 km worldwide. More than The temperature value of a point in a certain area is a
50% of the transmission channels will have transmission function of space, and is expressed as,
capacities > 8000 MW. Given that the largest capacity  T = f ( x, y, z , t ) (3)
of a ±700 kV cable is only 3400 MW, the voltage for the where z, y, and z, are the spatial rectangular coordinates, and
capacity of 8000 MW will be at least ±800 kV. t is time.
In terms of economy, the current total cost of the The present model is used to study the steady-state
±200~600 kV bipolar UHV DC submarine cable is in the temperature field of a single-core submarine cable, and
range of $1.0~2.6 million/km that is 5~10 times higher is constructed as a two-dimensional model. Therefore,
than that of overhead lines. Additionally, the cost per unit the variables in the temperature function include the two-
capacity of this type of cable declines as the voltage and dimensional coordinates x and y, but exclude the coordinate
capacity increase. z and the time term t. This function is expressed as
Therefore, the UHV DC submarine cable will be more  T = f ( x, y ) (4)
economical than the EHV DC submarine cable, and has the The Fourier law of heat conduction can be used to solve
ability to transmit a larger capacity of power to more distant the one-dimensional heat conduction problem. In the two-
load centers that meets the construction needs of the GEI. dimensional model, to reflect the law of heat variation with
spatial position, a more general heat conduction equation
3 Technical Index is needed. According to the law of conservation of energy,
the heat transfer equation in any region at any time can be
To realize the UHV DC submarine cable, the key obtained as follows,
challenge is the improvement of dielectric and thermal 
λ x ( ∂ 2T ) λ y ( ∂ T )
2

characteristics of insulation materials. We constructed a (5) + + Qv = 0

(∂x ) 2
(∂y 2 )
multiphysics coupling model based on electromagnetics
and thermodynamics theories. The multiphysics coupling where λx and λy are the thermal conductivity factors along
simulation software COMSOL Mutiphysics was used the directions x and y, respectively, and Qv is the thermal
to establish a two-dimensional simulation model of the source per unit space.
UHV submarine cable based on finite element analyses. Inside the heat source that is composed of (among
Accordingly, the electric and thermal fields were simulated others) insulation, shielding, current losses occur and
during the stable operation of the submarine cable. eddy currents are generated. It can be considered that the
Extreme electric fields and temperatures were obtained material is an isotropic homogeneous medium. The thermal
according to the field distribution, and the technical target conductivity coefficient λ in the convertible region can be
of the UHV large-capacity DC submarine cable was thus unified, and the heat exchange equation is thus obtained as,
proposed [9-15]. 
(6) ( 2T ) ( 2T ) Qv
  0
3.1 C oupling theory of electric and thermal (x 2 ) (y 2 ) λ
fields
In the part without heat source, such as the conductor
(1) Electric field theory shield and the outer sheath part, the generated loss can be
In the finite element analysis of a constant electric field neglected. Thus, the equation of the steady-state temperature
∇ 2φ =isρusually
(electrostatic field), the electric potential /ε used field can be simplified to,
as a solution target [16-23]. In a homogeneous medium, 
the potential satisfies the Poisson equation or the Laplace ( ∂ 2T ) ( ∂ 2T )
+ =0 (7)
equation: (∂x 2 ) (∂y 2 )
 ∇ 2φ = ρ / ε (1)
or
3.2 Boundary conditions
 ∇ 2φ = 0 (2) (1) Structure and electrical parameters
∇ 2
φ = ρ / ε
where is the electric field, ρ is the charge density, and ε is At present, the maximum cross-sectional area of
the dielectric constant. the submarine cable that can be produced by the three-

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layer extruder is approximately 21000 mm 2 (diameter continue

165 mm), and the maximum cross-sectional area of the Boundary condition
conductor produced by the conductor stranding machine Type Parameter
±800 kV ±1100 kV
is approximately 3500 mm2. Considering the technical
Cable gap 50 m, outer temperature
improvement in the future, the maximum cross-sectional
In water 30 °C, thermal conductivity factor 400
area of the three-layer extrusion of the submarine cable is W/(m2·K)
considered to be 23000 mm2 (diameter 170 mm). For ±800 kV Laying
Laying Cable gap 50 m, outer temperature 4 °C,
cable, the maximum cross-sectional area of the conductor condition
under water thermal conductivity factor 1 W/(m2·K)
is 4000 mm2, and the shielding layer is calculated to be
Laying Cable gap 50 m, outer temperature 25 °C,
approximately 2 mm. It can be inferred that the thickness
onshore thermal conductivity factor 1 W/(m2·K)
of the insulating layer is approximately 45 mm at most. For
a ±1100 kV cable, the cross-sectional area of 4000 mm2 3.3 Simulation case
cannot meet the thermal requirements; correspondingly,
the maximum cross-sectional area of the conductor is set at We consider the simulation case of the technical index
4500 mm 2 . The shielding layer is calculated to be for ±800 kV/4000 MW DC submarine cable as an example.
approximately 2 mm, and the thickness of the insulating layer As mentioned above, the cross-sectional area of the
can be estimated to be approximately 43 mm. According conductor is no more than 4000 mm2 and the thickness of
to the technical requirements of ±800 kV/4000–8000 MW the insulation layer is 45 mm. The calculation is applied in
and ±1100 kV/12,000 MW, the conductor needs to generate the case when the cables are operated at the rated power
currents in the range of 2500–5454 A. Considering the and subject to the three laying conditions, namely, in the
overload capacity of 20%, the maximum flow capacity of the seawater, seabed, and landing sections. The temperature
conductor needs to reach 3000–6545 A. and electric field distributions of the cable laid in seawater
(2) Temperature are shown in Fig. 5. The results show that the long-
The conductor resistance is increased considerably at
high temperatures and high-intensity currents. This leads
to large line-losses and low economic efficiency. At the
same time, high temperatures cause the local electric
field to be reversed in the insulating layer that easily
leads to breakdown. Therefore, it is necessary to limit the
maximum operating temperature of the cable. At present, the
maximum long-term working temperatures of XLPE, MI,
and MI-PPLP submarine cable are in the range of 70–85 °C,
while that of P-laser submarine cable in the laboratory can
reach 90 °C. Taking into account the optimization and
advancement of the insulation material in the future, the
thermal resistance should not exceed 110 °C. (a) Temperature

Table 1  Boundary conditions

Boundary condition
Type Parameter
±800 kV ±1100 kV
Conductor
s ≤ 4000 mm2 s ≤ 4500 mm2
area s
Structure
Insulation
d ≤ 45 mm d ≤ 43 mm
thickness d
2500 A (4000 MW), 5454 A
I at 1.0 pu
(5000 A) 8000 MW (12000 MW)
Current
3000 A (4000 MW), 6545 A
I at 1.2 pu
6000 A (8000 MW) (12000 MW)
Working (b) Electric field
T T ≤ 110 °C
Temperature Fig. 5  Operating characteristics of cable laid in seawater

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 Xiaoling Zhao et al. Technical and economic demands of HVDC submarine cable technology for Global Energy Interconnection

term voltage of the insulation needs to reach 19.8 kV/

4.1 Calculation process
mm, 19.3 kV/mm, and 19.7 kV/mm, respectively, while
the highest temperatures need to reach 44 °C, 32 °C, and (1) Determine the electricity price difference. To
46 °C respectively, at these three conditions. The voltage calculate the submarine transmission demand of the GEI,
withstanding level of the insulation needs to reach we obtain the electricity price difference (floor price - on-
18.6 kV/mm, 18.2 kV/mm, and 18.6 kV/mm, and the grid price) for projects with various voltages and capacities
highest temperatures need to reach 57 °C, 48 °C, and 75 °C, by comparing the on-grid price and the landing price of the
respectively, during overload operations at 1.2 pu. submarine cable project.
It is clear that for a ±800 kV/4000 MW DC submarine (2) Set the target internal rate of return. According to the
cable, the tolerance voltage of the insulating material should socio-economic development process and its demand for energy
be at least 20 kV/mm, while the thermal resistance should be consumption, we determine a proper internal rate of return (IRR)
at least 48 °C in the sea and 75 °C in the landing segment. for the indicators of major power transmission projects.
As the extreme insulation and thermal performances of solid (3) Calculate the total investment of a project. For a certain
insulation material P-laser are respectively 30 kV/mm and project with a specific voltage grade, transmission capacity
90 °C [9], the solid extruded insulation materials meet the and distance, the calculation is based on the target electricity
technical requirements of ±800 kV and 4000 MW for DC price and the set IRR index, combined with the engineering life
submarine cables. cycle, loss, and other engineering parameters, as well as annual
depreciation rate, tax, and other cost parameters. The total
3.4 Results and analyses project investment needs to be calculated, including onshore
For a ±800 kV/4000 MW DC submarine cable, the and offshore transmission investments, and investments in
withstand voltage of the insulating material should be at power conversion at both ends.
least 20 kV/mm, while the thermal resistance should be at (4) Determine the total investment of submarine cable.
least 48 °C in the sea and 75 °C in the landing segment. The total investment of the project is subtracted from the
As the extreme insulation and thermal performances of cost of the converters/substations and the overhead line to
the solid insulation material P-laser are respectively 30 kV/mm obtain the total investment of submarine cable.
and 90 °C, the solid extruded insulation materials meet (5) Calculate the economic goals of the submarine cable.
the technical requirements of the DC submarine cables of According to the total investment and the length of the
±800 kV and 4000 MW. submarine cable project, the expected economic target per
For a ±800 kV/8000 MW DC submarine cable, the unit length for submarine cable is obtained.
tolerance electric field intensity of the insulating material
4.2 Computation case
should be at least 43 kV/mm, and the heat resistance 110
°C. Compared with the best performance of the current Herein, we consider the computation case of the
insulation materials, the tolerance electric field intensity economic index for the Morocco–Portugal ±500 kV/3000
characteristics need to be improved by 43% and the heat MW DC power transmission project as an example.
resistance characteristics by 22.2%. According to a conducted survey, the electricity price
For a ±1100 kV/12,000 MW DC submarine cable, the difference is 1.14 United States dollars (USD)/kWh wherein
tolerance electric field intensity of the insulating material the feed-in tariff in Morocco is 3.0 USD/kWh and the grid
should be at least 65 kV/mm, and the heat resistance cannot price in Portugal is 4.14 USD/kWh. The ideal IRR for an
be more than 110 °C. Compared with the best performing of engineering project is 15%, but we set it to 8%, which is
the current insulation materials, the tolerance electric field a relatively good and reasonable value. For a utilization
intensity characteristics need to be improved by 117% and time of 5000 h/year and a 1.79% power loss rate, the total
the heat resistance characteristics by 22.2%. investment of the project is approximately $ 1.2 billion
USD. Besides the cost of 60 km overheard transmission on
4 Economical index land and two conversation stations on the ends, the 200 km
submarine cable investment is approximately 500 million
The economical level of DC submarine cable will USD. Therefore, the target price of ±500 kV/3000 MW
largely determine the market size and the application submarine cable in this case is approximately 2.5 USD/km.
prospects. The economic target is studied to ensure that
4.3 Results and analysis
the cost of the transmission project across the sea does
not exceed the difference of electricity prices between the According to the backbone of GEI and the power grid
beginning and the end of the project based on the expected planning of major continents and regions, the demand for
transmission prices and transmission and transformation cross-sea transmission is concentrated in Europe, Asia,
equipment costs, in combination with project returns [25]. America, and Africa. The technical demands for prospective

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Global Energy Interconnection Vol. 3 No. 2 Apr. 2020

projects for the coming 30 years is ±800 kV/8000 MW, and the range of 4000–12,000 MW should be no less than 43~65
is estimated to involve ±500 kV/2000 MW, ±500 kV/3000 kV/mm, while the heat resistance needs to be>110 °C. The
MW, and ±600 kV/4000 MW UHV projects. future cross-sectional area of the cable conductor is expected to
It is estimated that the comprehensive cost for unit be in the range of 1250–4500 mm2.
lengths of ±500 kV/2000 MW and 3000 MW DC submarine (3) To realize the worldwide applications of UHV DC
cables should be less than $2.5 million/km, while those submarine cable technology, some key economic indices
for unit lengths of ±600 kV/4000 MW and ±800 kV/8000 need to be reached. It is expected that ±500 kV/2000–3000
MW will be less than less than $3 and $7 million/km, MW, ±600 kV/4000 MW, and ±800 kV/8000 MW DC
respectively. If there is a project demand of ±800 kV/8000 submarine cables need to be decreased to approximately
MW in the short term whose technical level has not yet been $2.50, $3.0, and $7.0 million/km, to ensure comparative
reached, the solution of a double circuit in parallel of ±800 market competitiveness with overhead line costs.
kV/4000 MW can be considered, and each single-circuit
cost needs to exceed $3.8 million/km. Acknowledgements

Table 2  Estimated cost of EHV and UHV submarine cable This work was supported by the Global Energy
Interconnection Group Co., Ltd. Science and Technology
Economic targets
Voltage Capacity Price difference Project (Project No.101662224/Title: UHV large-capacity
(single circuit,
(kV) (MW) ($/kWh) DC submarine cable key technology and roadmap
$ million/km)
research) and by the National Key R&D Program of China
±500 2000–3000 0.78–3.53 2.5
(2016YFB0900702).
±600 4000 1.01–3.43 3.0
±800 4000 1.25–6.32 3.8
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Southern Power System Technology 11(4): 1-7 (in Chinese)
2006. He is working in GEIDCO, Beijing. His
[22] Chang L, Zheng X, Yaowei X, et al (2016) Simplified finite
element algorithm for steady-state load flow of dc cable based research interests include power system and
on equivalent thermal conductivity. High Voltage Electrical automation.
Appliances 52(326 (5)): 12-18 (in Chinese)
[23] Weedy B M, Chu D. (1984) HVDC extruded cables-parameters Jinghui Gao received his Ph.D. degree in
for determination of stress. IEEE Transactions on Power Electrical Engineering from Xi’an Jiao Tong
Apparatus and Systems PAS- 103(3): 662-667 University in 2012. He is working in Xi’an
[24] Wang Y, Li G, Wu J, et al (2017) Effect of temperature on space Jiao Tong University, Xi’an. His research
charge detrapping and periodic grounded DC tree in cross-linked interests include functional dielectrics and their
polyethylene, IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics & Electrical
applications in cable technology, dielectric and
Insulation 23: 3704-3711
energy storage, and bioelectromagnetic effect.
[25] Huanlin W, Bo Q, Pinglang Z(2014) 500 kV submarine cable
engineering cost structure and investment level analysis, China
Electric Power (Technology Edition) (10). (in Chinese)
Lisheng Zhong received the Ph.D. degree in
Electrical Engineering from Xi’an Jiao Tong
Biographies University, in 1997. He is working in Xi’an
Jiao Tong University, Xi’an. His research
Xiaoling Zhao received her bachelor’s degree
interests include dielectric and electrical
from the Wuhan University, Wuhan, in 2013,
insulation, cable technology, and bio-
and her Ph.D. degree from Shanghai Jiao Tong
University, Shanghai, in 2018. She is currently dielectrics.
working in GEIDCO, Beijing. Her research (Editor  Zhou Zhou)
interests include high-voltage insulation, GIS,
and submarine cable technology.

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