The difference between inferential and descriptive statistics

Statistics simply means numerical data and is a field of math that generally

deals with the collection of data, tabulation, and interpretation of numerical data.
It is a form of mathematical analysis that uses different quantitative models to
produce a set of experimental data or studies of real life. It is an area of applied
mathematics concerned with data collection analysis, interpretation, and
presentation. Statistics deals with how data can be used to solve complex
problems. Some people consider statistics to be a distinct mathematical science
rather than a branch of mathematics.
Statistics makes work easy and simple and provides a clear and clean picture
of the work youregularlyasis.

What’s the Difference

Between Descriptive
and Inferential
Statistics?
 BY WILL HILLIER, UPDATED ON SEPTEMBER 27, 202115
mins read

All statistical techniques can be divided into two broad categories:

descriptive and inferential statistics. In this post, we explore the
differences between the two, and how they impact the field of data
analytics.
Statistics. They are the heart of data analytics. They help us spot trends and
patterns. They help us plan. In essence, they breathe life into data and help
us derive meaning from it. While the individual statistical methods we use in
data analytics are too numerous to count, they can be broadly divided into two
main camps: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Put simply, statistics is the area of applied math that deals with the collection,
organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data.

In a nutshell, descriptive statistics focuses on describing the visible

characteristics of a dataset (a population or sample). Meanwhile, inferential
statistics focuses on making predictions or generalizations about a
larger dataset, based on a sample of those data.

3. What is descriptive
statistics?
Descriptive statistics are used to describe the characteristics or features of a
dataset. The term ‘descriptive statistics can be used to describe both
individual quantitative observations (also known as ‘summary statistics’) as
well as the overall process of obtaining insights from these data. We can use
descriptive statistics to describe both an entire population and an individual
sample. Because they are merely explanatory, descriptive statistics are not
heavily concerned with the differences between the two types of data.

So what measures do descriptive statistics look at? While there are many,
important ones include:

 Distribution
 Central tendency
 Variability

Let’s briefly look at each of these now.

What is distribution?

DistrThe distributions use the frequency of different outcomes (or data points)
in a population or sample. We can show it as numbers in a list or table, or we
can represent it graphically. As a basic example, the following list shows the
number of those with different hair colors in a dataset of 286 people.

 Brown hair: 130

 Black hair: 39
  Blond hair: 91
 Auburn hair: 13
 Gray hair: 13

We can also represent this information visually, for instance in a pie chart.
Generally, using visualizations is common practice in descriptive statistics. It
helps us more readily spot patterns or trends in a dataset.

What is centra al tendency?

Central tendency is the name for measurements that look at the typical central
values within a dataset. This does not just refer to the central value within an
entire dataset, which is called the median. Rather, it is a general term used to
describe a variety of central measurements. For instance, it might include
central measurements from different quartiles of a larger dataset. Common
measures of central tendency include:

 The mean: The average value of all the data points.

 The median: The central or middle value in the dataset.
 The mode: The value that appears most often in the dataset.

Once again, using our hair color example, we can determine that the mean
measurement is 57.2 (the total value of all the measurements, divided by the
number of values), the median is 39 (the central value) and the mode is 13
(because it appears twice, which is more than any of the other data points).
Although this is a heavily simplified example, for many areas of data analysis
these core measures underpin how we summarize the features of a data
sample or population. Summarizing these kinds of statistics is the first step in
determining other key characteristics of a dataset, for example, its variability.
This leads us to our next point…

What is variability?
The variability, or dispersion, of a dataset, describes how values are
distributed or spread out. Identifying variability relies on understanding the
central tendency measurements of a dataset. However, like central tendency,
variability is not just one measure. It is a term used to describe a range of
measurements. Common measures of variability include:

 Standard deviation: This shows us the amount of variation or

dispersion. Low sA toward deviation implies that most values are close
to the mean. High A highdard deviation suggests that the values are
more broadly spread out.
 Minimum and maximum values: These are the highest and lowest
values in a dataset or quartile. Using the example of our hair color
dataset again, the minimum and maximum values are 13 and 130
respectively.
 Range: This measures the size of the distribution of values. This can be
easily determined by subtracting the smallest value from the largest. So,
in our hair color dataset, the range is 117 (130 minus 13).
 Kurtosis: This measures whether or not the tails of a given distribution
contain extreme values (also known as outliers). If a tail lacks outliers,
we can say that it has low kurtosis. If a dataset has a lot of outliers, we
can say it has high kurtosis.
 Skewness: This is a measure of a dataset’s symmetry. If you were to
plot a bell-bell curve the right-hand tail was longer and fatter, we would
call this positive skewness. If the left-hand tail is longer and fatter, we
call this negative skewness. This is visible in the following image.
Attribution: Rodolfo Hermans (Godot) at en.wiki Wikipedia BY-SA 3.0 , via
Wikimedia Commons

Used together, distribution, central tendency, and variability can tell us a

surprising amount of detailed information about a dataset. Within data
analytics, they are very common measures, especially in the area
of exploratory data analysis. Once you’ve summarized the main features of
a population or sample, you’re in a much better position to know how to
proceed with it. And this is where inferential statistics come in.

Want to try your hand at calculating descriptive statistics? In this free

data analytics tutorial, we show you, step by step, how to calculate the
mean, median, mode, and frequency for certain variables in a real dataset as
part of exploratory data analysis. Give it a go!

4. What is inferential
statistics?
So, we’ve established that descriptive statistics focus on summarizing the key
features of a dataset. Meanwhile, inferential statistics focusfocusesaking
generalizations about a larger population based on a representative sample of
that population. Because inferential statistics focuses on making predictions
(rather than stating facts) its results are usually in the form of a probability.

Unsurprisingly, the accuracy of inferential statistics relies heavily on the

sample data being both accurate and representative of the larger population.
To do this involves obtaining a random sample. If you’ve ever read news
coverage of scientific studies, you’ll have come across the term before. The
implication is always that random sampling means better results. On the
flipside, results that are based on biased or non-random samples are usually
thrown out. Random sampling is very important for carrying out inferential
techniques, but it is not always straightforward!

Let’s quickly summarize how you might obtain a random sample.

How do we obtain a random

sample?
Random sampling can be a complex process and often depends on the
particular characteristics of a population. However, the fundamental principles
invinvolved urious in a career in Data Analytics?
Start learning for free! 
1. Defining a population
1. Defining a population
This simply means determining the pool from which you will draw your
sample. As we explained earlier, a population can be anything—it isn’t limited
to people. So it could be a population of objects, cities, cats, pugs, or anything
else from which we can derive measurements!
2. Deciding your sample size
The bigger your sample size, the more representative it will be of the overall
population. Drawing large samples can be time-consuming, difficult, and
expensive. Indeed, this is why we draw samples in the first place—it is rarely
feasible to draw data from an entire population. Your sample size should
therefore be large enough to give you confidence in your results but not so
small that the data risk being unrepresentative (which is just shorthand for
inaccurate). This is where using descriptive statistics can help, as they allow
us to strike a balance between size and accuracy.

3. Randomly select a sample

Once you’ve determined the sample size, you can draw a random selection.
You might do this using a random number generator, assigning each value a
number and selecting the numbers at random. Or you could do it using a
range of similar techniques or algorithms (we won’t go into detail here, as this
is a topic in its own right, but you get the idea).

4. Analyze the data sample

Once you have a random sample, you can use it to infer information about the
larger population. It’s important to note that while a random sample
is representative of a population, it will never be 100% accurate. For instance,
the mean (or average) of a sample will rarely match the mean of the full
population, but it will give you a good idea of it. For this reason, it’s important
to incorporate your error margin in any analysis (which we cover in a
moment). This is why, as explained earlier, any result from inferential
techniques is in the form of a probability.
However, presuming we’ve obtained a random sample, there are many
inferential techniques for analyzing and obtaining insights from those data.
The list is long, but some techniques worthy of note include:

 Hypothesis testing
 Confidence intervals
 Regression and correlation analysis

Let’s explore this more closely.

What is hypothesis testing?

Hypothesis testing involves checking that your samples repeat the results of
your hypothesis (or proposed explanation). The aim is to rule out the
possibility that a given result has occurred by chance. A toptypicalample of
this is the clinical trials for the covid-19 vaccine. Since it’s impossible to carry
out trials on an entire population, we carry out numerous trials on several
random, representative samples instead.

The hypothesis test, in this case, might ask something like: ‘Does the vaccine
reduce severe illness caused by covid-19?’ By collecting data from different
sample groups, we can infer if the vaccine will be effective. If all samples
show similar results and we know that they are representative and random,
we can generalize that the vaccine will have the same effect on the population
at large. On the flip side, if one sample shows higher or lower efficacy than the
others, we must investigate why this might be. For instance, maybe there was
a mistake in the sampling process, or perhaps the vaccine was delivered
differently to that group. It’s due to a dosing error that one of the Covid
vaccines act Which shows how important hypothesis testing can be. If the
outlier group had simply been written off, the vaccine would have been less
effective!

What is a confidence interval?

Confidence intervals are used to estimate certain parameters for a
measurement of a population (such as the mean) based on sample data.
Rather than providing a single mean value, the confidence interval provides a
range of values. This is often given as a percentage. If you’ve ever read a
scientific research paper, conclusions drawn from a sample will always be
accompanied by a confidence interval.

For example, let’s say you’ve measured the tails of 40 randomly selected cats.
You get a mean length of 17.5cm. You also know the standard deviation of tail
lengths is 2cm. Using a special formula, we can say the mean length of tails in
the full population of cats is 17.5cm, with a 95% confidence interval.
Essentially, this tells us that we are 95% certain that the population mean
(which we cannot know without measuring the full population) falls within the
given range. This technique is very helpful for measuring the degree of
accuracy within a sampling method.

What are regression and correlation

analysis?
Regression and correlation analysis are both techniques used for observing
how two (or more) sets of variables relate to one another.

Regression analysis aims to determine how one dependent (or output)

variable is impacted by one or more independent (or input) variables. It’s often
used for hypothesis testing and predictive analytics. For example, to predict
future sales of sunscreen (an output variable) you might compare last year’s
sales against weather data (which are both input variables) to see how much
sales increased on sunny days.

Correlation analysis, meanwhile, measures the degree of association between

two or more datasets. Unlike regression analysis, correlation does not infer
cause and effect. For instance, ice cream sales and sunburn are both likely to
be higher on sunny days—we can say that they are correlated. But it would be
incorrect to say that ice cream causes sunburn! You can learn more about
correlation (and how it differs from covariance) in this guide.

What we’ve described here is just a small selection of a great many inferential
techniques that you can use within data analytics. However, they provide a
tantalizing taste of the sort of predictive power that inferential statistics can
offer.

5. In summary: what’s the

difference between inferential
and descriptive statistics?
In this post, we’ve explored the differences between descriptive and inferential
statistics. Let’s look at what we’ve learned.

Descriptive statistics:

 Describe the features of populations and/or samples.

 Organize and present data in a purely factual way.
  Present final results visually, using tables, charts, or graphs.
 Draw conclusions based on known data.
 Use measures like central tendency, distribution, and variance.

Inferential statistics:

 Use samples to make generalizations about larger populations.

 Help us to make estimates and predict future outcomes.
 Present final results in the form of probabilities.
 Draw conclusions that go beyond the available data.
 Use techniques like hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and
regression and correlation analysis.

One last thing to note: while we’ve presented descriptive and inferential
statistics in a binary way, they are often used in conjunction. Together, these
powerful statistical techniques are the foundational bedrock on which data
analytics is built.

To learn more about the role that descriptive and inferential statistics play in
data analytics, check out our free, five-day short course. If that’s your
interest in pursuing data analytics as a career, why not then check out
the best online data analytics courses on the market? For more
introductory data analytics topics, see the following:

 An introduction to multivariate analysis

 What’s the difference between classification and regression?
 What is data cleaning and why does it matter?

What You Should Do Now

 1. Get a hands-on introduction to data analytics and carry out your first
analysis with our free, self-paced Data Analytics Short Course.
2. Take part in one of our FREE live online data analytics events with
industry experts.
3. Talk to a program advisor to discuss career change and find out what
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This article is part of:

Data Analytics
All articles

Will Hillier
Contributor to the CareerFoundry blog

A British-born writer based in Berlin, Will has spent the last 10 years writing about
education and technology, and the intersection between the two. He has a borderline
fanatical interest in STEM and has been published in TES, the Daily Telegraph, SecEd
magazine, and more,e. His fiction has been short- and longlisted for over a dozen
awards.

Basic terminology of Statistics :

 Population –
It is an actuation of a set of individuals or objects or events whose properties
are to be analyzed.
 Sample –
It is the subset of a population.

1. Descriptive Statistics :
Descriptive statistics uses data that providesdescribesulation either through
numerical calculatcalculationsh or tables. Itablesvides a graphical summary of
data. It is simply used for summarizing objects, etc. There are two categories in
this as follows
 a). The measure of central tendency –
Measure The measurer tendency is also known as summary statistics that
are to represenrepresentter a point or a particular value of a data set or
sample set.
In statistics, there are three common measures of central tendency as
shown below:
 (i) Mean :
It is measured as an average of all value invaluesmple set.
For example,

 (ii) Median :
It measures of central the value of a sample set. In these, the data
set is ordered from lowest to highest value and then finds the exact
middle.
For example,
1. Descriptive Statistics :
Descriptive statistics uses data that providesdescribesulation either through
numerical calculatcalculationsh or tables. Itablesvides a graphical summary of
data. It is simply used for summarizing objects, etc. There are two categories in
this as follows
 a). The measure of central tendency –
Measure The measurer tendency is also known as summary statistics that is
to represent the center point or a particular value of a data set or sample set.
In statistics, there are three common measures of central tendency as
shown below:
 (i) Mean :
It is measured a by average the of all value invaluesmple set.
For example,
  (ii) Median :
It measures a of central the value of a sample set. In these, data
setthe is ordered from lowest to highest value and then finds exact
mithe ddle.
For example,


 (ii) Median :
It is measure a of central the value of a sample set. In these, data
setthe is ordered from lowest to highest value and then finds exact
mithe ddle.
For example,
  (iii) Mode :
It is value mothe st frequently arrived in sample sthe et. The value
repeated most of time in the central the set is actuallyr example,

 (b). Measure of Variability –

Measure The measureability is also known as measure a of dispersion and
used to is describe variability in a sample or population. In statistics, there
are three common measures of variability as shown below:
 (i) Range :
It is given measure a of how to spread apart values in sample sa et
or data set.
Range = Maximum value - Minimum value
 (ii) Variance :
It simply describes how much a random variable defers from
expectedthe value and it is also computed as square oa f
deviation.
S2= ∑ni=1 [(xi - ͞
x)2 ÷ n]
In these fothis formulaesent total data points, ͞x represent mean of
the data points and xi represent individual data points.
 (iii) Dispersion :
It is measure a of dispersion of set of data from its mean.
 σ= √ (1÷n) ∑ni=1 (xi - μ)2 
2. Inferential Statistics :
Inferential Statistics makes inference and prediction about population based on
a sample of data taken from population. It generalizes a large dataset and
applies probabilities to draw a conclusion. It is simply used for explaining
meaning of descriptive stats. It is simply used to analyze, interpret result, and
draw a conclusion. Inferential Statistics is mainly related to and associated with
hypothesis testing whose main target is to reject the null hypothesis.
Hypothesis testing is a type of inferential procedure that takes the help of
sample data to evaluate and assess the credibility of a hypothesis about a
population. Inferential statistics are generally used to determine how strong a
relationship is within the sample. But it is very difficult to obtain a population list
and draw a random sample.
Inferential statistics can be done with help of various steps as given below:
1. Obtain and start with a theory.
2. Generate a research hypothesis.
3. Operationalize or use variables
4. Identify or find out the population to which we can apply study material.
5. Generate or form a null hypothesis for these populations.
6. Collect and gather a sample of children from the population and simply run
the study.
7. Then, perform all tests of statistical to clarify if obtained characteristics of the
sample are sufficiently different from what would be expected under the null
hypothesis so that we can be able to find and reject the null hypothesis.
Types of inferential statistics –
Various types of inferential statistics are used widely nowadays and are very
easy to interpret. These are given below:
 One sample test of difference/One sample hypothesis test
 Confidence Interval
 Contingency Tables and Chi-Square Statistic
 T-test or Anova
 Pearson Correlation
 Bivariate Regression
 Multi-variate Regression

Descriptive Statistics
 Descriptive statistics give information that describes the data in some manner. For example,
suppose a pet shop sells cats, dogs, birds, and fish. If 100 pets are sold, and 40 out of the 100
were dogs, then one description of the data on the pets sold would be that 40% were dogs.
This same pet shop may conduct a study on the number of fish sold each day for one month and
determine that an average of 10 fish were sold each day. The average is an example of
descriptive statistics.
Some other measurements in descriptive statistics answer questions such as 'How widely
dispersed is this data?', 'Are there a lot of different values?' or 'Are many of the values the
same?', 'What value is in the middle of this data?', 'Where does a particular data value stand
concerning the other values in the data set?'
A graphical representation of data is another method of descriptive statistics. Examples of this
visual representation are histograms, bar graphs, and pie graphs, to name a few. Using these
methods, the data is described by compiling it into a graph, table, or other visual representation.
This provides a quick method to make comparisons between different data sets and to spot the
smallest and largest values and trends or changes over some time. If the pet shop owner wanted
to know what type of pet was purchased most in the summer, a graph might be a good medium to
compare the number of each type of pet sold and the months of the year.

Inferential Statistics
Now, suppose you need to collect data on a very large population. For example, suppose you
want to know the average height of all the men in a city with a population of so many million
residents. It isn't very practical to try and get the height of each man.
This is where inferential statistics come into play. Inferential statistics make inferences about
populations using data drawn from the population. Instead of using the entire population to
gather the data, the statistician will collect a sample or samples from millions of residents and
make inferences about the entire population using the sample.
The sample is a set of data taken from the population to represent the population. Probability
distributions, hypothesis testing, correlation testing, and regression analysis all fall under the
category of inferential statistics.
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Statistics 101: Principles of Statistics

11 chapters | 144 lessons | 9 flashcard sets
Ch 1. Overview of Statistics

 Descriptive & Inferential Statistics: Definition, Differences & Examples5:11

 3:24

Next Lesson

Difference between Populations & Samples in Statistics

 Defining the Difference between Parameters & Statistics5:18

 Estimating a Parameter from Sample Data: Process & Examples7:46
 What is Quantitative Data? - Definition & Examples4:11
 What is Categorical Data? - Definition & Examples5:25
 Discrete & Continuous Data: Definition & Examples 3:32
 Nominal, Ordinal, Interval & Ratio Measurements: Definition & Examples 8:29
 The Purpose of Statistical Models10:20
 Experiments vs Observational Studies: Definition, Differences & Examples 6:21
 Random Selection & Random Allocation: Differences, Benefits & Examples6:13
 Convenience Sampling in Statistics: Definition & Limitations6:27
  How Randomized Experiments Are Designed8:21
 Analyzing & Interpreting the Results of Randomized Experiments 4:46
 Confounding & Bias in Statistics: Definition & Examples3:59
 Confounding Variables in Statistics: Definition & Examples5:20
 Bias in Statistics: Definition & Examples7:24
 Bias in Polls & Surveys: Definition, Common Sources & Examples 4:36
 Misleading Uses of Statistics8:14
 Go to overview

Ch 2. Summary

Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics give information that describes the data in some manner. For example,
suppose a pet shop sells cats, dogs, birds and fish. If 100 pets are sold, and 40 out of the 100
were dogs, then one description of the data on the pets sold would be that 40% were dogs.
This same pet shop may conduct a study on the number of fish sold each day for one month and
determine that an average of 10 fish were sold each day. The average is an example of
descriptive statistics.
Some other measurements in descriptive statistics answer questions such as 'How widely
dispersed is this data?', 'Are there a lot of different values?' or 'Are many of the values the
same?', 'What value is in the middle of this data?', 'Where does a particular data value stand with
respect with the other values in the data set?'
A graphical representation of data is another method of descriptive statistics. Examples of this
visual representation are histograms, bar graphs and pie graphs, to name a few. Using these
methods, the data is described by compiling it into a graph, table or other visual representation.
This provides a quick method to make comparisons between different data sets and to spot the
smallest and largest values and trends or changes over a period of time. If the pet shop owner
wanted to know what type of pet was purchased most in the summer, a graph might be a good
medium to compare the number of each type of pet sold and the months of the year.

Inferential Statistics
Now, suppose you need to collect data on a very large population. For example, suppose you
want to know the average height of all the men in a city with a population of so many million
residents. It isn't very practical to try and get the height of each man.
This is where inferential statistics comes into play. Inferential statistics makes inferences about
populations using data drawn from the population. Instead of using the entire population to
gather the data, the statistician will collect a sample or samples from the millions of residents and
make inferences about the entire population using the sample.
The sample is a set of data taken from the population to represent the population. Probability
distributions, hypothesis testing, correlation testing and regression analysis all fall under the
category of inferential statistics.
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.
By 
Courtney Taylor
Updated on February 16, 2020

The field of statistics is divided into two major divisions: descriptive and
inferential. Each of these segments is important, offering different techniques
that accomplish different objectives. Descriptive statistics describe what is going
on in a population or data set. Inferential statistics, by contrast, allow scientists
to take findings from a sample group and generalize them to a larger population.
The two types of statistics have some important differences.

Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is the type of statistics that probably springs to most
people’s minds when they hear the word “statistics.” In this branch of statistics,
the goal is to describe. Numerical measures are used to tell about features of a set
of data. There are a number of items that belong in this portion of statistics, such
as:

 The average, or measure of the center of a data set, consisting of the mean,

median, mode, or midrange
 The spread of a data set, which can be measured with the range or standard
deviation
 Overall descriptions of data such as the five number summary
 Measurements such as skewness and kurtosis
 The exploration of relationships and correlation between paired data
 The presentation of statistical results in graphical form
These measures are important and useful because they allow scientists to see
patterns among data, and thus to make sense of that data. Descriptive statistics
can only be used to describe the population or data set under study: The results
cannot be generalized to any other group or population.

Types of Descriptive Statistics

There are two kinds of descriptive statistics that social scientists use:

Measures of central tendency capture general trends within the data and are
calculated and expressed as the mean, median, and mode. A mean tells scientists
the mathematical average of all of a data set, such as the average age at first
marriage; the median represents the middle of the data distribution, like the age
that sits in the middle of the range of ages at which people first marry; and, the
mode might be the most common age at which people first marry.

Measures of spread describe how the data are distributed and relate to each
other, including:

 The range, the entire range of values present in a data set

 The frequency distribution, which defines how many times a particular
value occurs within a data set
 Quartiles, subgroups formed within a data set when all values are divided
into four equal parts across the range
 Mean absolute deviation, the average of how much each value deviates
from the mean
 Variance, which illustrates how much of a spread exists in the data
 Standard deviation, which illustrates the spread of data relative to the
mean

Measures of spread are often visually represented in tables, pie and bar charts,
and histograms to aid in the understanding of the trends within the data.

Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics are produced through complex mathematical calculations
that allow scientists to infer trends about a larger population based on a study of
a sample taken from it. Scientists use inferential statistics to examine the
relationships between variables within a sample and then make generalizations
or predictions about how those variables will relate to a larger population.

It is usually impossible to examine each member of the population individually.

So scientists choose a representative subset of the population, called a statistical
sample, and from this analysis, they are able to say something about the
population from which the sample came. There are two major divisions of
inferential statistics:

 A confidence interval gives a range of values for an unknown parameter of

the population by measuring a statistical sample. This is expressed in
terms of an interval and the degree of confidence that the parameter is
within the interval.
 Tests of significance or hypothesis testing where scientists make a claim
about the population by analyzing a statistical sample. By design, there is
some uncertainty in this process. This can be expressed in terms of a level
of significance.

Techniques that social scientists use to examine the relationships between

variables, and thereby to create inferential statistics, include linear regression
analyses, logistic regression analyses, ANOVA, correlation analyses, structural
equation modeling, and survival analysis. When conducting research using
inferential statistics, scientists conduct a test of significance to determine
whether they can generalize their results to a larger population. Common tests of
significance include the chi-square and t-test. These tell scientists the probability
that the results of their analysis of the sample are representative of the
population as a whole.

Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics

Although descriptive statistics is helpful in learning things such as the spread and
center of the data, nothing in descriptive statistics can be used to make any
generalizations. In descriptive statistics, measurements such as the mean and
standard deviation are stated as exact numbers.

Even though inferential statistics uses some similar calculations — such as the
mean and standard deviation — the focus is different for inferential statistics.
Inferential statistics start with a sample and then generalizes to a population.
This information about a population is not stated as a number. Instead, scientists
express these parameters as a range of potential numbers, along with a degree of
confidence.

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