Chapter one Introduction to PLC and Types of Control System

Introduction to PLC

PLC Course chapter one Programmable Logic Controllers ( PLCs ), also referred to as programmable controllers, are in the computer family. They are used in commercial and industrial applications. A PLC monitors inputs, makes decisions based on its program, and controls outputs to automate a process or machine. This course is meant to supply you with basic information on the functions and configurations of PLCs .

History PLC
During the Industrial Revolution of the 18th-and 19th-centuries, many traditionally manual processes were taken over by machines. These early machines relied on gears and pulleys to work and were, by our standards, extremely primitive. The first major breakthrough in the development of

of

PLC Course chapter one control systems came with the invention of electrically powered machines. The first control systems were developed in the early years of the 20th century and used sequential Relay Circuits for machine control. A major technical breakthrough in its day, and still used in some plants today, relay technology enabled machines to work faster and more safely. Relay circuits performed their job very well, but they required large amounts of floor space, and huge amounts of energy. Adding to their drawbacks as the basis for a machine control system, relay circuits also took a long time to install, troubleshoot, and modify. Finally, in the early 1970s, a device was developed to replace sequential relay circuits: the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). As you will remember from reading about them in Module 24, PLCs are more reliable, faster, more flexible and more efficient than relay-based systems. For example, PLCs are cheaper and easier to wire and maintain than relays. Furthermore, when it comes to troubleshooting, PLCs are much quicker than relays at testing and debugging the program. PLCs are used in all kinds of industries. In fact, almost any industrial process that uses electrical control needs a PLC. For example, let's assume that when a switch turns on we want to turn a solenoid on for 5 seconds and then turn it off regardless of how long the switch is on. We can do this with a simple external timer. But what if the process included 10 switches and solenoids?

PLC Course chapter one We would need 10 external timers. What if the process also needed to count how many times the switches individually turned on? We need a lot of external counters. With a PLC, however, we can dispense with those unwieldy timers and counters, and simply program the PLC to count its inputs and turn the solenoids on for the specified time. . The following figure is a Traditional Relay Logic & PLC logic circuit

- Comparison of PLC with Other Control Systems :C\Cs

Price Per Function Physical Size Operating Speed Noise Immunity

Relay systems
Fairly Low

Digital Logics
Low

Computers
High

PLC systems
Low

Bulky Slow Excellent

Very Compact Very Fast Good

Fairly Compact Fairly Fast Fairly Good

Very Compact Fast Good

Installation

Time Consuming Time Consuming Time Consuming in Design and in Design in Programming

Easy in Programming 4

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Install

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and Install

Complex Operation Ease of Changes Easy of Maintenance

None

Yes

Yes

Yes

Very Difficult Poor-large No. Of Contacts

Difficult Poor if ICs Soldered

Quite Simple Poor-several Custom Boards

Very Simple Good-few Standard Cards

Advantages of PLCs : The same, as well as more complex tasks, can be done with a PLC. Wiring between devices and relay contacts is done in the PLC program. Hard-wiring, though still required to connect field devices, is less intensive. Modifying the application and correcting errors are easier to handle. It is easier to create and change a program in a PLC than it is to wire and rewire a circuit. Following are just a few of the advantages of PLCs : Smaller physical size than hard-wire solutions. Easier and faster to make changes. PLCs have integrated diagnostics and override functions. Diagnostics are centrally available. Applications can be immediately documented. Applications can be duplicated faster and less expensively.

1- Basic Elements of Control System : 5

PLC Course 1.1 - Switch Circuit Types : -

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The Following diagrams are circuit configuration for 2- and 3-pole safety switches. Safety switches may be fusible, non-fusible, or fusible with a solid neutral.

The circuit configuration required depends on the load and on the power supply connected to it. For example, a three-phase motor needs a 3-pole switch to connect it to a three-phase power supply. If over current protection is required, a fusible 3pole safety switch should be selected, as in the following example.

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Selecting a Switch : There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch:

Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw) Ratings (maximum voltage and current) Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)

Switch Contacts : Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:

Pole - number of switch contact sets. Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double. Way - number of conducting positions, three or more. Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released. Open - off position, contacts not conducting. Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on

positions. For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and one switching position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has two positions: open (off) and closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only one position conducts.

Switch Contact Ratings : 7

PLC Course chapter one Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and there may be different ratings for AC and DC. The AC values are higher because the current falls to zero many times each second and an arc is less likely to form across the switch contacts. For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter, but you may need to check the current rating. The maximum current is less for inductive loads (coils and motors) because they cause more sparking at the contacts when switched off.

Standard Switches : Type of Switch ON-OFF

Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST
A simple on-off switch. This type can be used to switch the power supply to a circuit. When used with mains electricity this type of switch must be in the live wire, but it is better to use a DPST switch to isolate both live and neutral.

Circuit Symbol

Example

SPST toggle switch

(ON)-OFF
Push-to-make = SPST Momentary
A push-to-make switch returns to its normally open (off) position when you release the button, this is shown by the brackets around ON. This is the standard doorbell switch.
Push-to-make switch

ON-(OFF)
Push-to-break = SPST Momentary
Push-to-break switch

A push-to-break switch returns to its normally closed (on) position when you release the button.

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ON-ON
Single Pole, Double Throw = SPDT
This switch can be on in both positions, switching on a separate device in each case. It is often called a changeover switch. For example, a SPDT switch can be used to switch on a red lamp in one position and a green lamp in the other position.
A SPDT

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SPDT toggle switch

toggle switch may be used as a simple onoff switch by connecting to COM and one of the A or B terminals shown in the diagram. A and B are interchangeable so switches are usually not labeled.

ON-OFF-ON
SPDT Centre Off A special version of the standard SPDT switch. It
has a third switching position in the centre which is off. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are also available where the switch returns to the central off position when released.

SPDT slide switch (PCB mounting)

SPDT rocker switch

Dual ON-OFF
Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST
A pair of on-off switches which operate together (shown by the dotted line in the circuit symbol). A DPST switch is often used to switch mains electricity because it can isolate both the live and neutral connections.
DPST rocker switch

Dual ON-ON
Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT
A pair of on-on switches which operate together (shown by the dotted line in the circuit symbol). A DPDT switch can be wired up as a reversing switch for a motor as shown in the diagram.
DPDT slide switch

ON-OFF-ON
DPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT switch. It has a third switching position in the centre which is off. This can be very useful for motor control because you have forward, off and reverse positions. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are also available where the switch returns to the central off position when released.

Wiring for Reversing Switch

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Special Switches : Type of Switch Push-Push Switch (e.g. SPST = ON-OFF)
This looks like a momentary action push switch but it is a standard on-off switch: push once to switch on, push again to switch off. This is called a latching action.

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Example

Micro switch (usually SPDT = ON-ON)

Micro switches are designed to switch fully open or closed in response to small movements. They are available with levers and rollers attached.

Key switch
A key operated switch. The example shown is SPST.

Tilt Switch (SPST)

Tilt switches contain a conductive liquid and when tilted this bridges the contacts inside, closing the switch. They can be used as a sensor to detect the position of an object. Some tilt switches contain mercury which is poisonous.

Reed Switch (usually SPST)

The contacts of a reed switch are closed by bringing a small magnet near the switch. They are used in security circuits, for example to check that doors are closed. Standard reed switches are SPST (simple on-off) but SPDT (changeover) versions are also available.

Warning: reed switches have a glass body which is easily broken!

DIP Switch (DIP = Dual In-line Parallel)

This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches, the example shown has 8 switches. The package is the same size as a standard DIL (Dual In-Line) integrated circuit. This type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g. setting the code of a remote control.

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Multi-pole Switch
The picture shows a 6-pole double throw switch, also known as a 6pole changeover switch. It can be set to have momentary or latching action. Latching action means it behaves as a push-push switch, push once for the first position, push again for the second position etc.

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Multi-way Switch
Multi-way switches have 3 or more conducting positions. They may have several poles (contact sets). A popular type has a rotary action and it is available with a range of contact arrangements from 1-pole 12-way to 4-pole 3 way. The number of ways (switch positions) may be reduced by adjusting a stop under the fixing nut. For example if you need a 2-pole 5-way switch you can buy the 2-pole 6-way version and adjust the stop. Contrast this multi-way switch (many switch positions) with the multi-pole switch (many contact sets) described above.

Multi-way rotary switch

1-pole 4-way switch symbol

Fig. 1 Switches are used to open/close a circuit.

Fig. 2 S1 is a "single pole on/off" switch in the off position.

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Fig. 3 This is a "2 pole on/off" switch which completely isolates the lamp from the supply in the off position. This may be important if it is a high voltage supply. The dotted line indicates that S1a and S1b are part of the same switch "ganged" together and operate simultaneously.

Fig. 4 ) : -This is a "single pole changeover" switch. Either lamp 1 or lamp 2 is on.

Fig. 5 ) :- This is a "2 pole changeover" switch. The unlit lamp is completely isolated from the supply. Again S1a and S1b are part of the same switch.

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Fig. 6 This is a "single pole 5 way" switch. It can select 1 of 5 circuits. You can have 2p 5w, 3p 4w etc.

Fig. 7 ) This shows :(1) a "normally closed, push to break". (2) a "normally open, push to make". (3) both used together to make a "changeover" switch.

Fig. 8 ) : - This is a "changeover" slide switch. When operated a-b opens and b-c closes.

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PLC Course 1.2- Sensors :-

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Generally there are 5 steps to determine which switch type is best suited to the application. This depends on the material properties of the target to be detected. Step ( 1 ) : Step ( 2 ) : Step ( 3 ) : Step ( 4 ) : Step ( 5 ) : type of sensor . Housing design . Sensing range (mm) Electrical data and connections General specifications

Proximity Sensor:

A type of sensing switch that detects the presence or absence of an object without physical contact.

Inductive Proximity Sensor:-

A type of sensing switch that uses an electromagnetic coil to detect the presence of a metal object without coming into physical contact with it. Inductive proximity sensors ignore nonmetallic objects.

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PLC Course Capacitive Proximity Sensor :-

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A type of sensing switch that produces an electrostatic field to detect the presence of metal and nonmetallic objects without coming into contact with them.

Ultrasonic Sensor

A type of sensing switch that uses high frequency sound to detect the presence of an object without coming into contact with the object.

Photoelectric Sensor : -

Recognition, detection, positioning, classification, counting, notification and monitoring. Nowadays, these processes are largely handled by non-contact photoelectric sensors. Applications range from the automobile industry, mechanical engineering, and assembly automation, through warehousing and conveyor systems and packaging applications, to the printing and paper industries, and naturally include monitoring and safety systems .

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Pressure Switch : A control device that opens or closes its contacts in response to a change in the pressure of a liquid or gas.

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PLC Course Sensing Switches :-

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A device, often called a sensor, used to provide information on the presence or absence of an object. Examples include a limit switch, photoelectric sensor, inductive proximity sensor, capacitive proximity sensor, and ultrasonic proximity sensor.

Sensors

Advantages
High Current Capability Low Cost Familiar " Low-Tech " Sensing Senses all Kinds of Materials Long Life Largest Sensing Range Very Fast Response Time Resistant to Harsh Environments Very Predictable Long Life Easy to Install Can Detect Non-Metallic Detects Through Some Containers Senses all Materials

Disadvantage
Require Physical Contact Very Slow Response Contact Bounce Lens Subject to Contamination. Sensing Range Affected by Color and Reflectivity

Applications
Interlocking Basic End Travel Sensing

Limit Switch

Photoelectric

Packaging Material Handling Parts Detection

Inductive

Distance Limitations Senses Metal Only

Industrial and Machines. Machine Tools

Capacitive

Very Sensitive to Extreme Environmental Changes Sensitive to Temperature Changes.

Level Sensing

Ultrasonic

Level Control Doors Anti-Collision

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PLC Course 1- 3 - Electromagnetic Relay : -

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relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw (changeover) switches.

Circuit symbol for a relay

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical. The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.

Relays

The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
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NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off. NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on. Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the

relay coil is on.

relay coil is off.

Choosing a relay : You need to consider several features when choosing a relay: 1. Physical size and pin arrangement

If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the supplier's catalogue. 2. Coil voltage The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower than their rated value.
3.

Coil resistance

The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use Ohm's law to calculate the current: supply voltage coil resistance For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a Relay coil current =

4.

current of 30mA.

5.

Switch ratings (voltage and current)

The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V

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AC".

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6.

Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)

Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). example).
Advantages of relays:

Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC. Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot. Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A). Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:

Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents. Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per second. Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil. Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched off. This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this a diode is connected across the coil. The cathode of the diode is connected to the most positive end of the coil.

Overload Relay

A device used to protect a motor from damage resulting from an overcurrent.

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Overcurrent

A current in excess of the rated current for a device or conductor. An overcurrent can result from an overload, short circuit, or ground fault. Overload

Can refer to an operating condition in excess of a full-load rating or a current high enough to cause damage if it is present long enough. An overload does not refer to a short circuit or ground fault.

1.4-

Contactor :-

A device used to energize and de-energize an electrical circuit.

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2-

Circuit Breakers : -

Residential and Commercial Circuit Breakers : -

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PLC Course chapter one There are several circuit breakers that are used in residential, commercial and light industrial applications. These circuit breakers are normally plug-in or bolt-on types that mount in load centers or panel boards . Other types are also available, for example, circuit breakers that mount on a DIN rail. There are several variations of circuit breakers, and this section will attempt to explain the most popular of them.

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Internal Accessories : -

An accessory is an addition that adds to the performance of a circuit breaker or adapts the circuit breaker for specific application requirements. Various accessories are available for Siemens molded case circuit breakers. Internal accessories are used to modify a breakers performance. The four internal accessories are shunt trip, under voltage trip, auxiliary switches, and bell alarm. The circuit breaker internal accessories are mounted on the side of the circuit breaker as shown in the following illustration.

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To mount internal accessories in circuit breakers, the cover is removed and the accessories installed as shown in the following illustrations.

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Shunt Trip : -

It is sometimes necessary to trip a breaker from a remote location. For example, if someone were to get caught in a piece of machinery, anyone can push a panic button tripping the breaker. One or all critical circuit breakers may be tripped at the push of a button from a distant control point by use of a shunt trip device. The shunt trip device consists of a coil in series with a limit switch. When the circuit breaker contacts are closed the limit switch is closed. Depressing a customer supplied pushbutton energizes the shunt trip coil, causing the breakers mechanical latch to disengage the trip mechanism and opening the circuit breakers contacts. When the circuit breakers contacts open the limit switch also opens, removing power from the shunt trip coil. As with any trip the breaker must be reset manually.

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Under voltage Trip : -

The under voltage trip device is designed to automatically trip the circuit breaker when the supply voltage drops to a low value (35-70% of nominal line voltage). The device also prevents the circuit breaker from being reclosed until the supply voltage returns to at least 85% of its normal level.

Auxiliary Switch : -

An auxiliary switch consists of one set of normally open and one set of normally closed contacts. Contact A is open when the circuit breaker is in the Off or Tripped conditions. Contact B is closed when the circuit breaker is in the Off or Tripped conditions. This accessory is used to indicate whether a circuit breaker is on or off from a remote location. For example, in the following illustration an indicator light is connected to a customers power supply through contact A. When the circuit breaker is switched on, the light illuminates, indicating the circuit breakers contacts are closed and the breaker is supplying power to the load. When the circuit breaker is switched off, contact A opens, turning the indicator light off.

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Bell Alarm Switch : -

The bell alarm switch differs from the auxiliary switch in that it only functions when the circuit breaker trips. Opening and closing the circuit breaker by means of the operating handle does not affect the position of the alarm contacts. The A contact closes when the circuit breaker trips. The B contact opens when the circuit breaker trips. A horn or indicator light can be used to indicate the circuit breaker has tripped.

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Electric Motor Operator : -

It is designed to Motor Operator open, close and reset a circuit breaker by remote control. It is mounted on the face of the circuit breaker so that it can engage the breakers operating handle. The built-in motor is connected to remote pushbuttons. Pressing the ON pushbutton causes the electric motor to move the circuit breaker to the ON position. Pressing the OFF pushbutton causes the electric motor to move the circuit breaker to the OFF position. To reset the circuit breaker from the tripped position, press the OFF pushbutton to move the handle to the OFF position. Then press the ON pushbutton to the close the breaker contacts.

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Digital Control
1- Analogue systems : Analogue systems process analogue signals which can take any value within a range, for example the output from an LDR (light sensor) or a microphone. An audio amplifier is an example of an analogue system. The amplifier produces an output voltage which can be any value within the range of its power supply.

Analogue signal

An analogue meter can display any value within the range available on its scale. However, the precision of readings is limited by our ability to read them. For example the meter on the right shows 1.25V because the pointer is estimated to be half way between 1.2 and 1.3. The analogue meter can show any value between 1.2 and 1.3 but we are unable to read the scale more precisely than about half a division.

Analogue meter display

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PLC Course 2 - Digital systems : -

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Digital systems process digital signals which can take only a limited number of values (discrete steps), usually just two values are used: the positive supply voltage (+Vs) and zero volts (0V). Digital systems contain devices such as logic gates, flip-flops, shift registers and counters. A computer is an example of a digital system.

Digital (logic) signal

A digital meter can display many values, but not every value within its range. For example the display on the right can show 6.25 and 6.26 but not a value between them. This is not a problem because digital meters normally have sufficient digits to show values more precisely than it is possible to read an analogue display.

Digital meter display

3- Logic signals : -

Most digital systems use the simplest possible type of signal which has just two values. This type of signal is called a logic signal because the two values (or states) can be called true and false. Normally the positive supply voltage +Vs represents true
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and 0V represents false. Other labels for the true and false states are shown in the table down . Noise is relatively easy to eliminate from digital signals because it is easy to distinguish from the desired signal which can only have particular values. For example: if the signal is meant to be +5V (true) or 0V (false), noise of up to 2.5V can be eliminated by treating all voltages greater than 2.5V as true and all voltages less than 2.5V as false. Logic states True False 1 High +Vs On 0 Low 0V Off

Gates are identified by their function: NOT, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, EX-OR and EX-NOR. Capital letters are normally used to make it clear that the term refers to a logic gate. the logic gates are not always required because simple logic functions can be performed with switches or diodes .

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3-1 Logic gate symbols : There are two series of symbols for logic gates: 1The traditional symbols have distinctive shapes making them easy to

recognize so they are widely used in industry and education.

2-

The IEC ( International Electro technical Commission ) symbols are

rectangles with a symbol inside to show the gate function. They are rarely used despite their official status, but you may need to know them .

3-2 Inputs and outputs : Gates have two or more inputs, except a NOT gate which has only one input. All gates have only one output. Usually the letters A, B, C and so on are used to label inputs, and Q is used to label the output. On this page the inputs are shown on the left and the output on the right.

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3-3 The inverting circle (o) : Some gate symbols have a circle on their output which means that their function includes inverting of the output. It is equivalent to feeding the output through a NOT gate. For example the NAND (Not AND) gate symbol shown on the right is the same as an AND gate symbol but with the addition of an inverting circle on the output.

3-4 Truth tables : A truth table is a good way to show the function of a logic gate. It shows the output states for every possible combination of input states. The symbols 0 (false) and 1 (true) are usually used in truth tables. The example truth table on the right shows the inputs and output of an AND gate.

Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

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3-5 Logic ICs : Logic gates are available on special ICs (chips) which usually contain several gates of the same type, for example the 4001 IC contains four 2-input NOR gates. There are several families of logic ICs and they can be split into two groups:

3-6 Type of logic gates : 3-6 -1 NOT gate (inverter) : The output Q is true when the input A is NOT true, the output is the inverse of the input: Q = NOT A A NOT gate can only have one input. A NOT gate is also called an inverter. Input A Output Q 0 1 0 1 Traditional symbol IEC symbol Truth Table

3-6-2 AND gate : 35

PLC Course chapter one The output Q is true if input A AND input B are both true: Q = A AND B An AND gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if all inputs are true. Input A 0 0 1 1 Traditional symbol IEC symbol Input B 0 1 0 1 Output Q 0 0 0
1

Truth Table

3-6-3 NAND gate (NAND = Not AND) : This is an AND gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the output. The output is true if input A AND input B are NOT both true: Q = NOT (A AND B) A NAND gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if NOT all inputs are true.

Traditional symbol

IEC symbol 3-6-

Truth Table 4 OR gate :

Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

The output Q is true if input A OR input B is true (or both of them are true): Q = A OR B . An OR gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if at least one input is true.

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chapter one Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

1

Traditional symbol

IEC symbol

Truth Table

3-6-5 NOR gate (NOR = Not OR) This is an OR gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the output. The output Q is true if NOT inputs A OR B are true: Q = NOT (A OR B) A NOR gate can have two or more inputs, its output is true if no inputs are true. Input A 0 0 1 1 Traditional symbol IEC symbol Input B 0 1 0 1 Output Q 1 0 0
0

Truth Table

3-6-6 EX-OR (EXclusive-OR) gate : The output Q is true if either input A is true OR input B is true, but not when both of them are true: Q = (A AND NOT B) OR (B AND NOT A) This is like an OR gate but excluding both inputs being true. The output is true if inputs A and B are DIFFERENT. EX-OR gates can only have 2 inputs. Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 0
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PLC Course 0 1 1 Traditional symbol IEC symbol 1 0 1 1 1

0

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Truth Table

3-6-7 EX-NOR (EXclusive-NOR) gate : This is an EX-OR gate with the output inverted, as shown by the 'o' on the output. The output Q is true if inputs A and B are the SAME (both true or both false): Q = (A AND B) OR (NOT A AND NOT B) EX-NOR gates can only have 2 inputs.

Input A 0 0 1 1 Traditional symbol IEC symbol

Input B 0 1 0 1

Output Q 1 0 0
1

Truth Table

3-7 Summary truth tables : The summary truth tables below show the output states for all types of 2-input and 3input gates. Summary for all 2-input gates
Summary for all 3-input gates Inputs Output of each gate A B C AND NAND OR NOR 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
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Inputs OR N B OREX -

PLC Course OREX NORO utput of each gate A 0A ND 0 NA ND 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

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1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

0 0 1

1 1 0

1 1 1

0 0 0

1 1 0

0 0 1

Note that EX-OR and EX-NOR gates can only have 2 inputs.

3-8 Combinations of logic gates : Logic gates can be combined to produce more complex functions. They can also be combined to substitute one type of gate for another. For example to produce an output Q which is true only when input A is true and input B is false, as shown in the truth table on the right, we can combine a NOT gate and an AND gate like this:

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Input A Input B Output Q 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 Working out the function of a combination of gates : Truth tables can be used to work out the function of a combination of gates. For example the truth table on the right show the intermediate outputs D and E as well as the final output Q for the system shown below.
Inputs Outputs A B C D E Q 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

D = NOT (A OR B) E = B AND C Q = D OR E = (NOT (A OR B)) OR (B AND C) .

3-9 Substituting one type of gate for another : Logic gates are available on ICs which usually contain several gates of the same type, for example four 2-input NAND gates or three 3-input NAND gates. This can be
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PLC Course chapter one wasteful if only a few gates are required unless they are all the same type. To avoid using too many ICs you can reduce the number of gate inputs or substitute one type of gate for another. 3-10 Reducing the number of inputs of logic gates : The number of inputs to a gate can be reduced by connecting two (or more) inputs together. The diagram shows a 3-input AND gate operating as a 2-input AND gate. Making a NOT gate from a NAND or NOR gate Reducing a NAND or NOR gate to just one input creates a NOT gate. The diagram shows this for a 2-input NAND gate.

Any gate can be built from NAND or NOR gates As well as making a NOT gate, NAND or NOR gates can be combined to create any type of gate! This enables a circuit to be built from just one type of gate, either NAND or NOR. For example an AND gate is a NAND gate then a NOT gate (to undo the inverting function). Note that AND and OR gates cannot be used to create other gates because they lack the inverting (NOT) function. To change the type of gate, such as changing OR to AND, you must do three things:

Invert (NOT) each input.

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PLC Course Change the gate type (OR to AND, or AND to OR)

chapter one

Invert (NOT) the output.

For example an OR gate can be built from NOTed inputs fed into a NAND (AND + NOT) gate.

3-11 NAND gate equivalents : The table below shows the NAND gate equivalents of NOT, AND, OR and NOR gates: Gate NOT Equivalent in NAND gates

AND

OR

NOR

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PLC Course - : Substituting gates in an example logic system

chapter one

The original system has 3 different gates: NOR, AND and OR. This requires three ICs (one for each type of gate). To re-design this system using NAND gates only begin by replacing each gate with its NAND gate equivalent, as shown in the diagram below.

Then simplify the system by deleting adjacent pairs of NOT gates (marked X above). This can be done because the second NOT gate cancels the action of the first.

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PLC Course chapter one The final system is shown on the right. It has five NAND gates and requires two ICs (with four gates on each IC). This is better than the original system which required three ICs (one for each type of gate). Substituting NAND (or NOR) gates does not always increase the number of gates, but when it does (as in this example) the increase is usually only one or two gates. The real benefit is reducing the number of ICs required by using just one type of gate.

As we said before gates are not always because simple logic can be performed in

the logic required functions

conventional control system using switches or contact of relay or by electronic element such as diodes or transistor . 4- Integrated Circuit : IC's, often called "chips", come in several shapes and sizes. Most common are 8, 14, or 16 pin dual in line (dil) chips. IC's can be soldered directly into printed circuit boards, or may plug into sockets which have already been soldered into the board. When soldering, ensure that the IC (or the socket) is the correct way round and that no pins have been bent underneath the body.
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PLC Course chapter one When fitting new IC's it is often necessary to bend the pins in slightly, in order to fit it into the board (or socket). Some IC's are damaged by the static electricity which most people carry on their bodies. They should be stored in conductive foam or wrapped in tin foil. When handling them, discharge yourself periodically by touching some metalwork which is earthed, such as a radiator.

4-1 Linear integrated circuits :

Handle analog signals. Important component op-amp. Involve complex math (differentiation , integration,). Bases of loop controls. Limited fine tuning of feedback systems

4-2 Digital integrated circuits : Deal exclusively with binary signals.

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PLC Course Process information through logic gates.

chapter one

Various logic families (CMOS, TTL, ). Logic symbols & Boolean algebradesign & analysis. Large ICs with enormous number of gates. Heard of microprocessors.

5- Number Systems : Since a PLC is a computer, it stores information in the form of On or Off conditions (1 or 0), referred to as binary digits (bits). Sometimes binary digits are used individually and sometimes they are used to represent numerical values. 5-1 Decimal System Various number systems are used by PLCs. All number systems have the same three characteristics: digits, base, weight. The decimal system, which is commonly used in

everyday life, has the following characteristics: Ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Base 10 Weights 1, 10, 100, 1000, ... 5-2 Binary System The binary system is used by programmable controllers. The binary system has the following characteristics:

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PLC Course Two digits 0, 1 Base 2 Weights Powers of base 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ...)

chapter one

5-3 Converting Binary to Decimal The following steps can be used to interpret a decimal number from a binary value. 1) Search from least to most significant bit for 1s. 2) Write down the decimal representation of each column containing a 1. 3) Add the column values.

5-4 Bits, Bytes, and Words : Each binary piece of data is a bit. Eight bits make up one byte. Two bytes, or 16 bits, make up one word.

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5-5 BCD ( Binary-Coded Decimal ) : Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) are decimal numbers where each digit is represented by a four-bit binary number. BCD is commonly used with input and output devices. A thumbwheel switch is one example of an input device that uses BCD. The binary numbers are broken into groups of four bits, each group representing a decimal equivalent. A four-digit thumbwheel switch, like the one shown here, would control 16 (4 x 4) PLC inputs.

5- 6 Hexadecimal

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PLC Course chapter one Hexadecimal is another system used in PLCs. The hexadecimal system has the following characteristics:

16 digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F Base 16 Weights Powers of base 16 (1, 16, 256, 4096 ...)

The ten digits of the decimal system are used for the first ten digits of the hexadecimal system. The first six letters of the alphabet are used for the remaining six digits. A = 10 B = 11 C = 12 D = 13 E = 14 F = 15

6 - Control Strategies : 6- 1 Open Loop : -

Requirements

Control plan

Action

Plant system Disturbance

Outcome

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PLC Course 6- 2 Feed forward : -

chapter one

Modification to plan taking account of disturbance

Requirements Control plan Measurements Measurements of disturbances Action Plant system Disturbance Outcome

Modification to plan taking account of disturbance

of disturbances

6-3 Closed Loop : -

Measured value Requirements (set point) Compare

Deviation (error signal)

Feedback Control Action plan Plant system

Measurement outcome

Disturbance

6-4 Sequential Control : basis of computer operation. digital systems that have outputs dependent on previous system state .

Combinational Logic

Storage Device

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6-5 Programmable Computing Control Systems : -

Data memory Input Data Firmware Program Output Data

Applications ( some of the application that will done through the course ) :1 Motor Starter ( Example 1 ) : The following example involves a motor start and stop circuit. The line diagram illustrates how a normally open and a normally closed pushbutton might be used in a control circuit. In this example a motor started (M) is wired in series with a normally open momentary pushbutton (Start), a normally closed momentary pushbutton (Stop), and the normally closed contacts of an overload relay (OL).

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PLC Course

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Momentarily depressing the Start pushbutton completes the path of current flow and energizes the motor starter (M).

This closes the associated M and Ma (auxiliary contact located in the motor starter) contacts. When the Start button is released a holding circuit exists to the M contactor through the auxiliary contacts Ma. The motor will run until the normally closed Stop button is depressed , or the overload relay opens the OL contacts , breaking the path of current flow to the motor starter and opening the associated M and Ma contacts.

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PLC Course

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This control task can also be accomplished with a PLC.

The PLC program can be expanded to accommodate many commercial and industrial applications. Additional Start/Stop pushbuttons and indicator lights can be added for remote operation, or control of a second motor starter and motor.

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PLC Course chapter one Over travel limit switches can be added along with proximity switches for sensing object position. In addition, expansion modules can be added to further increase the I/O capability. The applications are only limited by the number of I/Os and amount of memory available on the PLC.

2 Conveyor System ( Example 2 ) : The example application can be expanded to include a conveyor system with a gate to direct packages of varying weight. As packages move along the conveyor they are
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PLC Course chapter one weighed. A package that weighs at or greater than a specified value is routed along one conveyor path. A package that weighs less than a specified value is routed along another conveyor path, where it will later be inspected for missing contents. 3 A

bottling machine ( example 3 ) : In this example we use a counter to count bottles into groups of six for packaging.

4 Mixer ( Example 4 ) : In the following example a tank will be filled with two chemicals, mixed, and then drained. When the Start Button is pressed at input I0.0, the program starts pump 1
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PLC Course chapter one controlled by output Q0.0. Pump 1 runs for 5 seconds, filling the tank with the first chemical, then shuts off. The program then starts pump 2, controlled by output Q0.1. Pump 2 runs for 3 seconds filling the tank with the second chemical. After 3 seconds pump 2 shuts off. The program starts the mixer motor, connected to output Q0.2 and mixes the two chemicals for 60 seconds. The program then opens the drain valve controlled by output Q0.3, and starts pump 3 controlled by output Q0.4. Pump 3 shuts off after 8 seconds and the process stops. A manual Stop switch is also provided at input I0.1.

5 Parking ( Example 5 ) : A counter might be used to keep track of the number of vehicles in a parking lot. As vehicles enter the lot through an entrance gate, the counter counts up. As vehicles
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PLC Course chapter one exit the lot through an exit gate, the counter counts down. When the lot is full a sign at the entrance gate turns on indicating the lot is full.

6- Appendix : Electrical Circuit Symbol : -

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PLC Course

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Circuit symbols are used in circuit diagrams which show how a circuit is connected together. The actual layout of the components is usually quite different from the circuit diagram. To build a circuit you need a different diagram showing the layout of the parts on strip board or printed circuit board.

Wires and connections Component

Wire

Circuit Symbol

Function of Component
To pass current very easily from one part of a circuit to another. A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are connected (joined), but it is sometimes omitted. Wires connected at 'crossroads' should be staggered slightly to form two T-junctions, as shown on the right. In complex diagrams it is often necessary to draw wires crossing even though they are not connected. I prefer the 'hump' symbol shown on the right because the simple crossing on the left may be misread as a join where you have forgotten to add a 'blob'!

Wires joined

Wires not joined

Power Supplies Component

Cell

Circuit Symbol

Function of Component
Supplies electrical energy. The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
A single cell is often called a battery, but strictly a battery is two or more cells joined together.

Battery DC supply AC supply Fuse

Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more than one cell. The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+). Supplies electrical energy. DC = Direct Current, always flowing in one direction. Supplies electrical energy. AC = Alternating Current, continually changing direction. A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the current flowing through it exceeds a specified value. Two coils of wire linked by an iron core. Transformers are used to step up (increase) and step down (decrease) AC voltages. Energy is transferred between the coils by the magnetic field in the core. There is no electrical connection between the coils.

Transformer

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PLC Course
Earth (Ground)

chapter one
A connection to earth. For many electronic circuits this is the 0V (zero volts) of the power supply, but for mains electricity and some radio circuits it really means the earth. It is also known as ground.

Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc. Component

Lamp (lighting)

Circuit Symbol

Function of Component
A transducer which converts electrical energy to light. This symbol is used for a lamp providing illumination, for example a car headlamp or torch bulb. A transducer which converts electrical energy to light. This symbol is used for a lamp which is an indicator, for example a warning light on a car dashboard. A transducer which converts electrical energy to heat. A transducer which converts electrical energy to kinetic energy (motion). A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

Lamp (indicator)

Heater Motor

Bell

Buzzer

A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound. A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field when current passes through it. It may have an iron core inside the coil. It can be used as a transducer converting electrical energy to mechanical energy by pulling on something.

Inductor (Coil, Solenoid)

Switches Component
Push Switch (push-to-make) Push-to-Break Switch On-Off Switch (SPST)

Circuit Symbol

Function of Component
A push switch allows current to flow only when the button is pressed. This is the switch used to operate a doorbell. This type of push switch is normally closed (on), it is open (off) only when the button is pressed. SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw. An on-off switch allows current to flow only when it is in the closed (on) position.

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PLC Course
2-way Switch (SPDT)

chapter one
SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw. A 2-way changeover switch directs the flow of current to one of two routes according to its position. Some SPDT switches have a central off position and are described as 'on-off-on'. DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw. A dual on-off switch which is often used to switch mains electricity because it can isolate both the live and neutral connections. DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw. This switch can be wired up as a reversing switch for a motor. Some DPDT switches have a central off position. An electrically operated switch, for example a 9V battery circuit connected to the coil can switch a 230V AC mains circuit.
NO = Normally Open, COM = Common, NC = Normally Closed.

Dual On-Off Switch (DPST)

Reversing Switch (DPDT)

Relay

Resistors Component
Resistor

Circuit Symbol

Function of Component
A resistor restricts the flow of current, for example to limit the current passing through an LED. A resistor is used with a capacitor in a timing circuit. This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts (a rheostat) is usually used to control current. Examples include: adjusting lamp brightness, adjusting motor speed, and adjusting the rate of flow of charge into a capacitor in a timing circuit. This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a potentiometer) is usually used to control voltage. It can be used like this as a transducer converting position (angle of the control spindle) to an electrical signal. This type of variable resistor (a preset) is operated with a small screwdriver or similar tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is made and then left without further adjustment. Presets are cheaper than normal variable resistors so they are often used in projects to reduce the cost.

Variable Resistor (Rheostat)

Variable Resistor (Potentiometer)

Variable Resistor (Preset)

Capacitors Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

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PLC Course
Capacitor

chapter one
A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to block DC signals but pass AC signals. A capacitor stores electric charge. This type must be connected the correct way round. A capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to block DC signals but pass AC signals. A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner. This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is operated with a small screwdriver or similar tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is made and then left without further adjustment.

Capacitor, polarised

Variable Capacitor

Trimmer Capacitor

Diodes Component
Diode LED
Light Emitting Diode

Circuit Symbol

Function of Component
A device which only allows current to flow in one direction. A transducer which converts electrical energy to light. A special diode which is used to maintain a fixed voltage across its terminals. A light-sensitive diode.

Zener Diode Photodiode

Transistors Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.

Transistor NPN

Transistor PNP

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.

Phototransistor

A light-sensitive transistor.

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PLC Course Audio and Radio Devices

Component
Microphone

chapter one
Function of Component
A transducer which converts sound to electrical energy.

Circuit Symbol

Earphone

A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

Loudspeaker

A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

Piezo Transducer

A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

Amplifier
(general symbol)

An amplifier circuit with one input. Really it is a block diagram symbol because it represents a circuit rather than just one component. A device which is designed to receive or transmit radio signals. It is also known as an antenna.

Aerial (Antenna)

Meters and Oscilloscope Component

Voltmeter

Circuit Symbol

Function of Component
A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
The proper name for voltage is 'potential difference', but most people prefer to say voltage!

Ammeter

An ammeter is used to measure current. A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter which is used to measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or less. An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance. Most multimeters have an ohmmeter setting. An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of electrical signals and it can be used to measure their voltage and time period.

Galvanometer

Ohmmeter

Oscilloscope

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PLC Course Sensors (input devices)

Component
LDR

chapter one
Function of Component
A transducer which converts brightness (light) to resistance (an electrical property). LDR = Light Dependent Resistor A transducer which converts temperature (heat) to resistance (an electrical property).

Circuit Symbol

Thermostat

Logic Gates
Logic gates process signals which represent true (1, high, +Vs, on) or false (0, low, 0V, off). For more information please see the Logic Gates page. There are two sets of symbols: traditional and IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission).

Gate Type

Traditional Symbol

IEC Symbol

Function of Gate
A NOT gate can only have one input. The 'o' on the output means 'not'. The output of a NOT gate is the inverse (opposite) of its input, so the output is true when the input is false. A NOT gate is also called an inverter. An AND gate can have two or more inputs. The output of an AND gate is true when all its inputs are true. A NAND gate can have two or more inputs. The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing that it is a Not AND gate. The output of a NAND gate is true unless all its inputs are true. An OR gate can have two or more inputs. The output of an OR gate is true when at least one of its inputs is true. A NOR gate can have two or more inputs. The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing that it is a Not OR gate. The output of a NOR gate is true when none of its inputs are true. An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs. The output of an EX-OR gate is true when its inputs are different (one true, one false). An EX-NOR gate can only have two inputs. The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing that it is a Not EX-OR gate. The output of an EX-NOR gate is true when its inputs are the same (both true or both false). 63

NOT

AND

NAND

OR

NOR

EX-OR

EXNOR

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