Problem Set 10 (f) Find P(∅) and P({∅}).

Is it true that P(∅) ⊆

Mathematical Methods for Economists1 P({∅})? Is it true that P(∅) ∈ P({∅})?

1. (a) Give an example where the following result fails: 4. Assuming that if one cannot do mathematics he cannot be
False Theorem. For sets A, B, C, and D, let an economist, show that if one is able to be an economist
he must be able to do mathematics.
L = (A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D)
5. Argue that if an enterprise is engaging in various activities
R = (A × B) ∪ (C × D) in such a way as to maximize profits, the additional rev-
enue from increasing expenditure by one unit is the same
Then L = R.
in all activities.
(b) Identify the mistake in the following proof of the False
Theorem. 6. Consider an arbitrary non-empty set Ω. A class F of sub-
sets of Ω is called a field if it contains Ω itself and is closed

in
Bogus proof. Since L and R are both sets of pairs, it’s
sufficient to prove that (x, y) ∈ L ⇔ (x, y) ∈ R for all under the formation of complements and finite unions:
x, y. The proof will be a chain of iff (⇔) implications: • Ω∈F

e.
(x, y) ∈ L • A ∈ F ⇒ A0 ∈ F

nc
⇔ x ∈ A ∪ C and y ∈ B ∪ D • A, B ∈ F ⇒ A ∪ B ∈ F
⇔ either x ∈ A or x ∈ C, and either y ∈ B or y ∈ D A class L of subsets of Ω is called a λ−system if it contains
Ω itself and is closed under the formation of complements

ra
⇔ (x ∈ A and y ∈ B) or else (x ∈ C and y ∈ D)
and disjoint unions:
⇔ (x, y) ∈ A × B, or x ∈ C × D
⇔ (x, y) ∈ (A × B) ∪ (C × D) = R. • Ω∈L

(c) Fix the proof to show that R ⊆ L.

nt • A ∈ L ⇒ A0 ∈ L
• A, B ∈ L and A ∩ B = ∅ ⇒ A ∪ B ∈ L
se
2. An integer, m, divides an integer, n, in symbols, m | n, iff A class P of subsets of Ω is called a π−system if it is closed
there is an integer k such that km = n. under the formation of finite intersections:
ic
Claim. For any prime, p, and positive integers
x1 , x2 , . . . xn , if p | x1 x2 · · · xn , then p | xi for some i • A, B ∈ P ⇒ A ∩ B ∈ P
om

between 1 and n. Suppose Ω is any finite set. Which of the following is

Underline the sentence where the following proof goes necessarily true/ necessarily false/ possibly true? Prove
wrong and explain. or disprove:
False proof. [By strong induction on n.]
on

The induction hypothesis is the Claim itself. (a) A class that is both a λ−system and a π−system is
Base case (n = 1): When n = 1, we have p | x1 , therefore a field.
we can let i = 1 and conclude p | xi . (b) A, B ∈ L and A ⊆ B imply B − A ∈ L.
ec

Induction step: Now assuming the claim holds for all

(c) A class that is a field is a π−system.
k ≤ n, we must prove it for n + 1.
So suppose p | x1 x2 · · · xn+1 . Let yn = xn xn+1 , so (d) If F1 and F2 are fields on set Ω, then F1 ∩ F2 is a
x1 x2 · · · xn+1 = x1 x2 · · · xn−1 yn . Since the righthand side field on set Ω.
of this equality is a product of n terms, we have by induc- (e) If F1 and F2 are fields on set Ω, then F1 ∪ F2 is a
tion that p divides one of them. If p | xi for some i < n, field on set Ω.
then we have the desired i. Otherwise p | yn . But yn is (f) Power set of Ω is a field.
a product of the two terms xn , xn+1 . Therefore, we have (g) For Ω = {x1 , x2 , x3 }, the collection A =
by strong induction that p divides one of them. So in this {{x1 , x2 , x3 }, {x1 , x2 }, {x3 }} is a field.
case p | xi for i = n or i = n + 1.
7. What does “p unless q” mean? Is it synonymous with
3. For any set X, define P(X) = {Y |Y ⊆ X}. Do the fol- ¬q ⇒ p or ¬q ⇔ p or p ⇒ ¬q or p ⇔ ¬q? (Unless means:
lowing exercises. Upon any less condition than (the fact or thing stated in
(a) Show that X ⊆ Y if and only if P(X) ⊆ P(Y ). the sentence or clause which follows); if not; supposing
that not; if it be not; were it not that; except; as, we shall
(b) Show that if X ⊆ Y then P(X) ∈ P(P(Y )). fail unless we are industrious.)
(c) Show that for any set X, {∅} ∈ P(X) if and only if
8. Show that {x|x > x} = {x|x · 0 = 2}
∅ ∈ X.
(d) Show that for any set X, {{∅}, {{X}}} ∈ 9. “No kitten that loves fish is unteachable; no kitten without
P(P(P(P(X)))). a tail will play with gorilla; kittens with whiskers always
love fish; no teachable kitten has green eyes; no kittens
(e) Show that {P(A)|A ⊆ X} ∈ P(P(P(X))).
have tails unless they have whiskers.” Draw all possible
1 Topics: Sets, Relations, Logic. Contact: [email protected] conclusions.

1
10. In addition shown below, each of the letters A, B, C, D, (b) Give a relation on X that is reflexive, complete but
and E represents one of the ciphers from 1 up to 5 (equal not transitive.
letters represent equal ciphers and different letters repre- (c) Give a relation on X that is reflexive, transitive but
sent different ciphers). The first and last ciphers of the not complete.
sum are given.
(d) Give a relation on X that is reflexive, transitive and
ABCDE complete.
DABEC (e) Write down two different utility functions that rep-
EAABC resent the preferences given in your answer to (d).
+A C D A E (f) What are the strict preference and indifference rela-
9CBA0 tions that correspond to your answer to (d)?
(g) How many relations is it possible to define on X?

in
The Question: What does the complete addition look like
in ciphers? 15. Ann, Ben, Can, and Den think of one natural number.

e.
11. Each letter represent a different number. Find the num- • Ann says it consists of two digits.
bers such that the addition below is satisfied:

nc
• Ben says it is a divisor of 150.
SEND • Can says it is not 150.
• Den says it is divisible by 25.

ra
+MORE
MONEY Which one of them is not telling the truth?

nt
12. It’s an old saying that “two wrongs don’t make a right.” 16. Express each of the following events in terms of the events
However here is one case where the proverb is not quite A, B and C as well as the operations of complementation,
se
true. For although it is undeniably correct to say that in union and intersection:
the two subtractions
(a) at least one of the events A, B, C occurs;
ic
NINE NINE (b) at most one of the events A, B, C occurs;
−TEN −ONE
om

(c) none of the events A, B, C occurs;

TWO ALL (d) all three events A, B, C occur;
we have two wrongs, nevertheless when the digits which (e) exactly one of the events A, B, C occurs;
on

the various letters represent are correctly identified the two (f) events A and B occur, but not C;
calculations will be found to be absolutely right. What
number must each letter represent in order that these two (g) either event A occurs or, if not, then B also does not
subtractions may simultaneously be decoded into correct occur.
ec

computations? 17. Shorty Finelli was found shot to death one morning, and
13. Dorothy, Jean, Virginia, Bill, Jim and Tom are six young the police with better than average luck had three red-hot
persons who have been close friends from their childhood. suspects behind bars by nightfall. That evening the men
They went through high school and college together, and were questioned and made the following statements.
when they finally paired off and became engaged nothing Buck:
would do but a triple announcement party. Naturally they • I didn’t do it.
wanted to break the news to
• I never saw Joey before.
Who now are six will soon be three, • Surely, I knew Shorty.
And gaily we confess it,
But how we’ve chosen you may know Joey:
No sooner than you guess it.
• I didn’t do it.
Tom, who is older than Jim, is Dorothy’s brother. Virginia • Buck and Tippy are both pals of mine.
is the oldest girl. The total age of each couple-to-be is the • Buck never killed anybody.
same although no two of us are the same age. Jim and
Jean are together as old as Bill and Dorothy. What three Tippy:
engagements were announced at the party?
• I didn’t do it.
14. Consider the set X = {G, R, M }. • Buck lied when he said he had never seen Joey before.
(a) What is X × X? • I don’t know who did it.

2
 If one and only one of each man’s statement is false, and (b) Provide a correct strong induction proof that a class
if one of the three men is actually guilty, who is the mur- with n = 12 students can be divided into groups of 4
derer? or 5.
18. Negate the following statements (avoid use of the words 21. Let R be a relation on S. Define I = {(x, y) ∈ S ×
“not” or “no” or the symbol “¬”): S|(x, y) ∈ R∧(y, x) ∈ R} and P = {(x, y) ∈ S ×S|(x, y) ∈
(a) For all a ∈ N, there exists a b ∈ N such that a + b is R ∧ (y, x) ∈ / R}.
odd. Show: If R is reflexive and transitive, then for all x, y, z ∈
S,
(b) If Clay gets a good deal, then the team will stay in
Seattle. (a) (x, y) ∈ I & (y, z) ∈ I → (x, z) ∈ I
(c) For every real number x, there is a real number y (b) (x, y) ∈ P & (y, z) ∈ I → (x, z) ∈ P
such that x + y ∈ Z.

in
(c) (x, y) ∈ I & (y, z) ∈ P → (x, z) ∈ P
(d) There exists an integer x such that, for every integer
x 2 (d) (x, y) ∈ P & (y, z) ∈ P → (x, z) ∈ P

e.
y, x > y ⇒ ∈ N.
y
22. A function f (x1 , x2 , T ) = (y1 , y2 ) is defined as fol-
(e) If it is snowing, then Billy is not barefoot and Phil is

nc
lows, where x1 , x2 and T are non negative real
not eating ice cream.
numbers and x1 + x2 ≥ T . Also, for real number α,
(f) If 4 | an, then gcd(4, a) > 1 or 4 | n. y1 = max{x1 − α, 0}, y2 = max{x2 − α, 0} such that

ra
(g) For all x, y ∈ R, if xy is odd, then x is odd or y is y1 + y2 = T .
even. A function g(x1 , x2 , T ) = (y1 , y2 ) is defined as follows,
where x1 , x2 and T are non negative real numbers and

nt
19. Using induction prove x1 + x2 ≥ T . Also, for real number α, y1 = min{α, x1 },
(a) Imagine that the only money in the world are three y2 = min{α, x2 } such that y1 + y2 = T .
A function t(x1 , x2 , T ) = (y1 , y2 ) is defined
se
and five cents coins. Prove that you can pay (without
change!) any sum greater then seven cents. as follows, where x 1 , x 2 and T are non neg-
n ative real numbers and x 1 + x 2 ≥ T. Also,
ic
X n(n + 1) (y , y ) = g (x /2, x /2, T ) if T ≤ x /2 + x /2, and
(b) k= 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 (y 1 , y2 ) = (x 1 /2, x 2 /2) + f (x 1 /2, x2 /2, T − x 1 /2 − x 2 /2)
k=1
om

if T > x1 /2 + x2 /2.
20. Suppose we want to divide a class of n students into groups Fill in the following table.
each containing either 4 or 5 students. (x1 , x2 , T ) f g t
(a) Let’s try to use strong induction to prove that a class (100, 200, 100)
on

with n ≥ 8 students can be divided into groups of 4 (100, 200, 150)

or 5. (100, 200, 200)
Proof. The proof is by strong induction. Let P (n) (100, 200, 300)
ec

be the proposition that a class with n students can Define ph (x1 , x2 ) = {(y1 , y2 )|(y1 , y2 ) =
be divided into teams of 4 or 5. h(x1 , x2 , T ) for some T ≤ x1 + x2 }.
Base case. We prove that P (n) is true for n = 8, 9, Draw the sets pf (100, 200), pg (100, 200), pt (100, 200) in
or 10 by showing how to break classes of these sizes R2+ .
into groups of 4 or 5 students:
23. (Kreps, 1979)[Optional ] In many problems of individual
8 = 4+4 choice, the choice is made in more than one stage. At
9 = 4+5 early stages, the individual makes decisions which will con-
10 = 5 + 5 strain the choices that are feasible later. In effect, these
early choices amount to choice of a subset of items from
Inductive step. We must show that P (8), . . . , P (n) which subsequent choice will be made. A simple example
imply P (n + 1) for all n ≥ 10. Thus, we assume that is that of making reservations at a restaurant. Imagine
P (8), . . . , P (n) are all true and show how to divide that the only way that restaurants vary is in the menu of
up a class of n + 1 students into groups of 4 or 5. meals which they will serve. The individual is assumed
We first form one group of 4 students. Then we can to know the menus at all restaurants that he might se-
divide the remaining n−3 students into groups of 4 or lect. Eventually, the individual will choose a meal, but his
5 by the assumption P (n − 3). This proves P (n + 1), initial choice is of a restaurant/menu from which he will
and so the claim holds by induction. later choose his meal. Let Z be the set of possible meals,
This proof contains a critical logical error. Identify with generic element z. Let X be the set of all conceivable
the first sentence in the proof that does not follow menus, with generic element x. That is, X is the set of
and explain what went wrong. (Pointing out that nonempty subsets of Z. Initial choice is the selection of
the claim is false is not suffficient, you must find the one x from some subset of X (the set of available menus),
first logical error in the proof.) and subsequent choice is the selection of one z from the x

3
 chosen. For simplicity, assume that Z is finite. The stan- 27. The house numbers of 3 individuals, A, B and C, are dis-
dard model of this situation posits a reflexive, complete tinct from each other and lie between 1 and 99. Both facts
and transitive binary relation % on Z, which represents are known to all 3 individuals. B asks A when C is not
the individual’s (weak) preferences over meals. Choice of present, 2 questions:
a menu is induced from % in the obvious fashion: Define
(i) Is your house number a perfect square?
x%̇x0 iff for all z 0 ∈ x0 there exists z ∈ x such that z % z 0 (ii) Is your house number greater than 50?
. . . [i]
Assuming A’s answers to be correct, B is able to infer
Choice of a menu then amounts to selecting %̇−maximal house number of A from answers given by A. A’s house
element of the set of available menus. number, however is not the same as inferred by B because
A answered only second question truthfully. C asks A
(a) Show that this relation %̇ is reflexive, complete and when B is not present, 2 questions:

in
transitive and satisfies
(i) Is your house number a perfect cube?
x%̇x0 implies x∼x
˙ ∪ x0 . . . [ii]

e.
(ii) Is your house number greater than 25?
where ∼
˙ is the indifference relation induced from %̇.
Assuming A’s answer to be correct, C is able to infer house

nc
(b) Show that a binary relation %̇ on X is reflexive, com- number of A from answer to two questions given by A.
plete and transitive and satisfies [ii] if and only if A’s house number, however is not same as inferred by
there exists some reflexive, complete and transitive C because A answered only second question truthfully.

ra
% on Z such that [i] holds. Deduce the house numbers of 3 individuals given that:
24. Clark, Daw and Fuller make their living as carpenter, I. A’s house number is less than house number of both

nt
painter and plumber, though not necessarily respectively. B and C.
The painter recently tried to get the carpenter to do some
II. sum of house numbers of 3 individuals is perfect
se
work for him, but was told that the carpenter was out
square multiplied by two.
doing some remodelling for the plumber. The plumber
makes more money than the painter. Daw makes more
ic
money than Clark. Fuller had never heard of Daw. What
is each man’s occupation?
om

25. Four students A, B, C, D competed in mathematics, logic,

literature and economics contests and each one of them
won one contest. Below are given the forecasts made by
on

these students:
A : D will win the logic contest.
ec

B : C will win the economics contest.

C : A will not win the mathematics contest.
D : B will win the literature contest.
It turned out that the forecasts made by the winners of the
literature and economics contests were wrong, and those
made by the winners of the mathematics and logic contests
were right. Who won which contest?
26. One of a, b, c and d has committed a crime with the help
of another one of them. Here are the statements by the
four individuals. The statements of the criminal and his
accomplice are false and those of the remaining two are
true.
a : if b is guilty of something , then c must be innocent.
b : if a is innocent then c must be guilty.
c : if b was the killer then d must have had nothing to do
with the crime.
d : i am innocent.
Which of the four is the criminal and who is his accom-
plice?