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Nutritional composition of various insects and potential uses as alternative

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DOI: 10.5713/ab.21.0447

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Open Access
Anim Biosci
Vol. 35, No. 2:317-331 February 2022
https://doi.org/10.5713/ab.21.0447
pISSN 2765-0189 eISSN 2765-0235

— Invited Review —
Nutritional composition of various insects and potential uses as
alternative protein sources in animal diets

Assar Ali Shah1, Pajaree Totakul1, Maharach Matra1, Anusorn Cherdthong1,

Yupa Hanboonsong2, and Metha Wanapat1,*

* Corresponding Author: Metha Wanapat Abstract: The aim of the present investigation is to determine the nutritional composition
Tel: +66-8-1932-4180, Fax: +66-4-3202-368,
E-mail: [email protected] of various insects and their potential uses as alternative protein sources in animal diets.
The feeding industry requires production systems that use accessible resources, such as
1
Tropical Feed Resources Research and feed resources, and concentrates on the potential impacts on production yield and nutri­
Development Center (TROFREC), Department
of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture,
tional quality. Invertebrate insects, such as black soldier flies, grasshoppers, mealworms,
Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, housefly larvae, and crickets, have been used as human food and as feed for nonruminants
Thailand and aqua culture while for ruminants their use has been limited. Insects can be mass-
2
Department of Entomology and Plant
Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen
produced, parti­cipating in a circular economy that minimizes or eliminates food- and
University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand feed-waste through bioconversion. Although the model for formula-scale production
of insects as feed for domestic animals has been explored for a number of years, significant
ORCID production and transformation to being a conventional protein resource remains to be
Assar Ali Shah
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2546-187X deeply investigated. This review will focus on the nutritional composition of various
Pajaree Totakul insects and their potential use as alternative protein sources, as well as their potential
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3990-6550 use to promote and support sustainable animal production. Furthermore, nutritional
Maharach Matra
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2865-1836 compositions, such as high protein, lauric acid omega 6, and omega 3, and bioactive
Anusorn Cherdthong compounds, such as chitin, are of great potential use for animal feeding.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8719-4404
Yupa Hanboonsong
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0080-1222
Keywords: Alternative Protein Source; Animal Feed; Bioactive Nutrients; Insect Farming;
Metha Wanapat Insect Meal
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7633-052X

Submitted Oct 5, 2021; Revised Nov 12, 2021;

Accepted Nov 22, 2021

INTRODUCTION
Parts of this review were presented at Animal
Bioscience Forum 2021 on Animal Biosciences
to Improve Animal Health and Production: Insects have been addressed as one of the most promising alternative protein sources to
Insect proteins for animals — current status,
potentials and challenges (September
solve the international dilemma of protein meal production for human food and animal
28-29, 2021), which was supported by feeds. The most significant benefit of insects over other protein sources is the low ecological
Pathway Intermediates (http://www.pathway-
intermediates.com). charge of production that is necessary to satisfy the world protein requirements [1]. Re­
cently, insects have been recognized as a significant potential resource of sustainable new
raw resources for animal diets in several countries, perhaps the world. Primary insects
encompass the nutritional requirements of animal feed in terms of nutrients and amino
acid (AA) profiles and are part of the natural diets for some animal species [2]. From an
ecological point of view, large-scale production of insects promises lower greenhouse gas
emissions, the production of 1 kg of protein in smaller landfills, lower feed–food compe­
tition, a reduction in land use, and the conversion of organic supplements into high-value
protein products [3]. The food and agriculture organization (FAO) [4] has extensively com­
plied “edible insects” and stressed the highlights and challenges underpinning the research
gaps and the ability to scale-up production and engage all stakeholders. Many insects have

Copyright © 2022 by Animal Bioscience

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 Shah et al (2022) Anim Biosci 35:317-331

been used as animal diets, and the most promising insects acids (EAA) [1]. Van Huis [15] reported that insects, such as
are the black soldier fly (BSF), grasshopper mealworm, and BSF, cricket, silk worm, housefly, yellow mealworm, grass­
housefly larva [5-8]. Schiavone et al [9] reported that the use hopper, and house fly maggots, have a potential use as protein
of BSF (Hermetia illucens) larva at 5% dry matter (DM) in­ meal in animal feeds. The EAA, such as arginine, lysine, and
take successfully improved the growth rate, feed efficiency, methionine, can enhance the utilization in chickens as well
carcass and immunological status (through chitin, lauric acid, as in fish culture. Insects play an important and essential role
and peptides) of broiler chickens. Specifically, the use of insects as a protein-based feed to ensure food security. In addition
in bioconversion is a significant example of a new approach to the nutritional value derived from high concentrations of
and a sustainable circular financial system [9,10]. protein and AA, insects contain high levels of fatty acids (FA),
  Their high potential alternative as a feed component is as­ especially unsaturated FA.
sociated with their short life cycle and, therefore, their ability   Additionally, Ahmed et al [16] showed that edible insects
to be reared on a large scale and at competitive trade prices (Acheta domesticus, Brachytrupes portentosus, Gryllus bi-
compared to the other species proposed as animal feeds. The maculatus, and Bombyx mori) used at 25% of SBM in a
possibility of incorporating insect larvae, preppa, and fat in concentrate supplement significantly improved (p<0.01)
the diets of fish, poultry, and dairy animals has been investi­ in-vitro fermentation (reduced CH4) and maintained de­
gated previously as part of the usual protein and fat sources gradability. In addition, other findings were similar to SBM
(i.e., fish, oil, and soybean meal [SBM]) [2]. Beneficial results treatments because of insects’ high CP, AA profiles, and FA
have been seen in mammal performance, gut strength char­ (14% to 26%, esp unsaturated FA, omega 6 and 3).
acteristics, and product value. The use of insects as a diet   Consequently, it appears appropriate to consider insect
supplement to achieve better intestinal performance has also protein as a profitable feed source in the future. Conversely,
gained significance. It contains bio-bacterial ingredients, such there is little research on consumer and stakeholder perspec­
as antimicrobial peptides, lauric acids, and chitin immune- tives on the use of insects in farm animals diets. Therefore,
boosting properties [11]. the article is arranged as follows. After the introduction,
  The FAO estimated that there has been an increased de­ Section 1 presents an overview of the legislative structure to
mand for animal protein, with poultry meat accounting for introduce a new source of protein in the animal husbandry
the most significant increase in meat consumption. Thus, industry. Section 2 details the chemical composition and
increased poultry meat production is expected and exacer­ nutritive value of various insects for use in animal feed.
bates the previous challenges of providing potentially costly Section 3 includes an economical assessment of insect pro­
reliable feed. Ingredients for animal feeds include fish oil, tein compared to other protein sources. Section 4 provides
soybeans, seed cakes, and many additional grains [12]. More­ information on the current production status of insect farm­
over, the international forum of insects for food and feed ing. Section 5 outlines the advantages and limitations of
anticipates that the use of insects for food and feed in the using insects in animal diets. Section 6 includes the regula­
European Union will increase from 500 tons in 2020 to more tions for insect use as determined by the governments in
than 1 million tons in 2025, with 3 million tons by 2030 (larvae Asia. Finally, the conclusion provides an outline of the pres­
and adult). This positive market trend may reflect the profit ent challenges and future investigations in this area.
that stakeholders receive by producing insects, which will
increase consumer awareness of the adverse effects of animal CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND
feed production [13,14]. NUTRITIVE VALUE OF THE VARIOUS
  It is difficult to simplify the nutritional composition of INSECTS FOR ANIMAL FEEDING
edible insects, as more than 2,100 different species are eaten.
Edible insects can offer nutrients and nutritional energy to Grasshoppers chemical composition and nutritive
meet the requirements of the animal and human body as part value
of a diverse diet [14]. Alternatively, the nutritional composi­ Grasshoppers can be grown within their natural habitats, such
tions of insects vary significantly between and within species, as farms, grasslands, paddocks, and wetlands [17]. Harvest­
depending on the insect’s metamorphic stage, habitat, and ing grasshoppers from these habitats can decrease the use of
diet. In addition, they are rich in proteins (i.e., AA, such as effective elements to control insects. In this way, these hurt­
cysteine, lysine, methionine, and threonine), carbohydrates, ful insects can be used in an economical and self-sustaining
fats, and several minerals (e.g., calcium, iron, zinc, and phos­ way, especially in developing countries, as a protein source
phorus), and essential vitamins (e.g., vitamin A, B complex, in animal feed [5,8]. The grasshopper body has three main
and vitamin C). Experiments have shown that insects are components: the head contains sensory structures, such as
suitable for food, as they comprise 77% to 98% protein. In­ eyes, antennae, and mouth parts; the thorax has structures
sect protein quality is also high in terms of essential amino associated with mobility, such as the legs and wings; and the

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Shah et al (2022) Anim Biosci 35:317-331

abdomen contains the digestive and reproductive structures hoppers (Rasulia nitidula) contained 36% to 40% CP, 2.5%
[18]. to 3.2% carbohydrate, 41% to 43% EE, 2.6% to 3.9% ash,
  Table 1 lists the average nutritive values of a grasshopper. 11.0% to 14.5% CF and 900 to 2,300 μg/100 g total carot­
On average, grasshoppers consist of DM (35.00%), crude enoids based on DM.
protein (CP, 50.50%), crude fiber (CF, 15.30%), ash (6.40%)
on DM basis. Furthermore, a grasshopper’s average mineral Grasshopper effect on ruminant animal digestibility
concentrations are as follows: calcium (Ca) 146.0 parts per Insects are an increasingly attractive feed and food product,
million (ppm), phosphorous (P) 153.0 ppm, magnesium especially as a new and sustainable source of high-quality
(Mg) 56.40 ppm, potassium (K) 344.0 ppm, zinc (Zn) 22.50 protein for animal production. So far, approximately 2,000
ppm, copper (Cu) 05.30 ppm, manganese (Mn) 01.40 ppm, species of edible insects have been recognized. Although the
and iron (Fe) 32.20 ppm. Many scientists have estimated nutritional value of insects varies from species to species either
the nutrients in grasshopper meal (GHM; Table 1). As noted fresh or processed they are generally compared to beef or fish
by Makkar et al [5] and Khan [8], this nutritional information in many nutritional aspects. The protein content ranges from
is extremely unpredictable. The CP concentration fluctuates 350 to 700 g/kg of DM, and the quality of protein in edible
between 29% to 77.1% depending on species, developmental insects is considered outstanding, as shown by the rich AA
phase, and processing technique. Ojewola et al [19] found profiles and digestive properties. Notably, most properties
that grasshoppers contained ash (9.97%), CF (2.38%), CP that affect the nutritional composition of insects’ efficiency
(28.13%), ether extract (EE, 4.18%), and gross energy (GE, as feed depends on the synthesis of the food eaten by the
1,618 kcal/g), noted respectively on basis of DM. Alterna­ insects [23,24]. Patton and Chandler [24] reported the in-
tively, Makkar et al [5] and Khan [8] found the contents of vivo rumen digestibility by using grasshoppers, crab meal,
grasshopper: ash (4.31%), CF (9.21%), CP (53.58%), EE cockroaches, and shrimp meal. The in-vivo digestibility system
(26.52%), and nitrogen-free extract (6.40%), noted respec­ concerned a variation of the balanced nylon bag performance.
tively on basis of DM. The adult grasshopper mostly consists The nylon bag was balanced inside the rumen of fistulated
of chitin (8.73%), CP (65.42%), and fat (8.3%) based on DM Jersey cows. The comparatively small solubility of the sub­
[20]. Ghosh et al [21] found that in small horn grasshopper stances appears in the short time for 12 h incubation and
all EAA, such as cysteine (3.5%), isoleucine (2.85%), lysine the average rumen digestibility for the following insects
(4.29%), leucine (2.53%), and threonine (3.75%), were found was grasshoppers (66.5% of DM), shrimp meal (32.0% of
in large quantities, but arginine, tyrosine, histidine, methi­ DM), cockroaches (17.4% of DM), and crab meal (21.5%
onine, tryptophan, and valine were found in small quantities. of DM). The in-vitro protein digestibility and vitamin sub­
For AA, glutamic acid and glutamine quite were high in stances of feather termites, green locusts, and brown locusts
30% of DM insects, followed by serine (6% DM) [20]. Five were determined with standard techniques. The investigation
FAs, linoleic acid, lanolinic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, was performed on fresh, freshly dried, and toasted insect
and stearic acid occurred in grasshoppers and contained samples. There was no significant change to (p>0.05) protein
about 89.6% total FA. The same researchers reported that digestibility in termite specimens, but a significant reduc­
certain minerals were present: Cu (4.36 mg/100 g DM), Fe tion in locust (p≤0.05) sample digestibility was seen during
(16.19 mg/100 g DM), Mg (84.84 mg/100 g DM), and Zn testing and drying. There was a significant decrease in ribo­
(17.34 mg/100 g of DM). Similarly, the following vitamins flavin 4.18 mg/100 g in fresh termites, 2.76 mg/100 g in
were found in high concentrations: vitamin B3 (29.59 mg/ toasted lemons, 2.26 mg/100 g in fresh dried lemons, and
100 g DM), vitamin B2 (2.55 mg/100 g of DM), vitamin C 1.50 mg/100 g in toasted dry termites after processing [25].
(26.73 mg/100 g of DM), and vitamin A (0.12 mg/100 g of   Generally, protein decreased in relation to in-vitro digest­
DM) [21-23]. Recently, Ssepuuya et al [23] found that grass­ ibility, with the maximum protein digestibility found in fresh

Table 1. Types of economical insect and their chemical composition and nutritive value
Percentage (%) Milligram per kilogram (mg/kg
S.No Insects species References
DM CP CF Ash Ca P Mg K Na S Zn Cu Mn Fe
1 Grasshopper 35.00 50.50 15.30 6.40 146.0 153.0 56.40 3.44 ND ND 0.04 0.01 1.40 0.06 [2,25,27]
2 Black soldier fly larvae 27.40 56.10 23.20 9.85 2.14 1.15 0.39 1.35 0.13 27.04 13.10 11.20 23.20 20.40 [2,34,35,
36,37,42,43]
3 Housefly larvae 83.47 33.29 6.20 6.25 0.49 1.09 0.23 1.27 0.54 ND 10.39 32.40 42.50 47.50 [6,42,48]
4 Mealworm larvae 94.60 55.83 25.19 4.84 0.21 1.06 0.30 1.12 0.21 ND 138.2 19.40 05.70 71.50 [54,55]

DM, dry matter; CP, crude protein; CF, crude fiber; Ash; Ca, calcium; P, phosphorous; Mg, magnesium; K, potassium; Na, sodium; Zn, zinc; Cu, copper; Mn,
manganese; Fe, iron.

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 Shah et al (2022) Anim Biosci 35:317-331

insect species. On the other hand, the digestibility waste in Black soldier fly larvae chemical composition and
termites (M. subhylanus) for fresh (90.49% of DM), toasted nutritive value
(90.36% of DM), and dry/dried (90.13% of DM) samples was Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) originate in cattle, pig, and
not significant. However, the decline was noticeable in the poultry manure, but they can mature on organic waste materi­
brown and green grasshopper samples [26]. Depending on als, such as catsup, coffee beans pulp, caribou, and vegetables
the processing environment, high-temperature processing [35]. Adult BSFs have a wasp-like shape, are blue or black,
can decrease or enhance protein digestibility. Introduction and have two translucent “windows” on the first part of the
to fluctuating heat can increase the digestibility of original abdomen. Adult BSFs range from 15 to 20 mm in length.
proteins by opening the polypeptide chain and making the   Different researchers have reported different nutrients in
protein further sensitive to digestive enzymes [27,28]. In ad­ feeds made from BSF larvae (Table 1). On average, BSFL
dition, when proteins are exposed to several warm treatments, consist of DM (27.40%), CP (56.10%), CF (23.20%), ash
then digestibility can decrease due to the development of di­ (9.85%), Ca (2.14%), P (1.15%), Mg (0.39%), K (1.35 %), Zn
sulphide bonds in the protein. Nafisa et al [27] found that (13.10 mg/kg), Cu (11.20 mg/kg), Mn (23.20 mg/kg), and Fe
boiling and tasting tree locusts enhances the content of tan­ (20.40 mg/kg) on the basis of DM. BSFL (also known as eat­
nins and phytates in full insects and decreases in-vitro protein ing BSF larvae, BSF pre-poppy food, and BSF worm food) are
digestibility in steamed and fried samples. Processing de­ used directly or are dried, chopped, and ground into shapes.
creased protein digestibility, but some feed was still comparable The DM substance in fresh BSFL is much higher (34.9% to
to the reported prices for protein. The highest digestibility of 44.9%), which makes BSFL easier and less expensive than
brown locusts (85.67% of DM), green locusts (82.34% of other fresh products. On average, BSFL consists of 41.1% to
DM), and fresh termites (90.49% of DM) were recorded in 43.6% CP, 15.0% to 34.8% EE, 7.0% to 10% CF, ash 14.6% to
mink animals and compared well with the prices of plant 28.4%, and 5,278.49 kcal/kg GE, based on DM [36,37]. BSFL
protein sources [27-29]. larvae are high in Ca (5% to 8%) and P (0.6% to 1.5%). Fur­
thermore, the mineral profile contains Cu (6.0 mg/kg), Fe
Grasshopper effect on nonruminant animal (0.14% to 14%), Mn (246 mg/kg), Mg (0.39%), sodium (Na,
digestibility 0.13%), K (0.69%), and Zn (108 mg/kg) [34,35]. According
The inclusion of GHM into the diet of chickens has enhanced to Cullere et al [35], the primary EAA were alanine (Ala),
feed conversion and protein digestibility. Adding GHM to glutamic acid (Glu), leucine (Leu), and valine (Val), were
the diet did not change the meat’s physical properties, but affluent in BSF larvae. De Marco et al [36] found smaller
the sensory properties appear to improve with vision [30,31]. amounts of arginine (Arg), histidine (Hist), lysine (Lys),
On the other hand, the following is an alternative to eating a and methionine (Meth) in the BSFL diets than in the pre­
fish meal with grasshoppers at rates of 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 vious investigation, but isoleucine (Isoleu), phenylalanine
of in the broiler diet during the early and growing period. (Phy), and threonine (Thar) animal protein reversed the
Replacing fish meal with grasshoppers significantly reduced position.
feed intake, growth efficiency, and body production. During   The FA synthesis of BSFL depends on the synthesis of
the growing phase of broilers, feed efficiency was not signifi­ FA in the diet. Black soldier fly larvae fed on cow dung con­
cantly affected [32]. In Nigeria, researchers studying broilers tained lauric acid (21%), oleic acid (32%), omega (30.2%),
(1 to 28 days) replaced desert GHM with fish meal; replacing and palmitic acid (16%). The FA ratio of BSFL was an offer
50% fish protein with GHM (1.7% in diet) resulted in in­ to fish 43%, 11%, 12%, and 3%, and 50% cow dung [5]. The
creased weight gain, feed intake, and feed conversion ratios whole lipid substance improved from 21% to 30% DM. Rais­
[33]. ing BSFL on cow fertilizer and increase 22% fish weight
  In addition, fresh, toasted, freshly dried, and toasted dry within 24 hours of their parasite is enough for adequate
samples generally showed decreases in all vitamins. Two types improvement of polyunsaturated FAs, especially eicosa­
of insects had significantly lower riboflavin contents (p≤0.05) pentaenoic acid, and docosahexaenoic acids [37].
after toasting and solar drying compared to fresh samples.
Five minutes of toasting at 150°C resulted in a 34% decrease Black soldier fly larvae effect on nutrient digestibility
in riboflavin material compared to fresh specimens [28]. How­ in ruminants
ever, subsequent sun-drying of the toasted sample at 30°C Possible sources of insect protein for cattle feed include Ja­
resulted in a significant loss of riboflavin c (64%) compared maican field crickets, BSFL, and mealworms. Jayanegara et
to fresh dried samples (46%), and processed grasshoppers al [37] used these three types of insects to feed Friesian Hol­
showed a considerable decrease (p≤0.05) in vitamin B₃ and stein cattle. They reported that the insect feeds usually contain
ascorbic acid [28,34]. 40% DM than Jamaican field cricket and also insect feed was
marked with higher fiber content than SBM. In insect feed,

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black soldiers found significantly higher neutral detergent those fed 15% BSFL 15% feed.
fiber (NDF), and acid detergent fiber (ADF) in larvae con­
cerning in vitro rumen fermentation facial appearance and Housefly (Musca domestica) chemical composition and
digestibility of insect and SBMs revealed similar total volatile nutritive value
FA concentrations, acid detergent insoluble CP ratio were The housefly (HF) head has eyes, antennae, and mouthparts.
higher and lower in-vitro DM digestibility and in-vitro organic Housefly increase food digestion by using saliva deposited
matter (OM) digestibility in insect feed than SBM. Insect from the mouthparts. Antennas provide housefly with their
feed produces less gas due to higher fiber and EE contents primary source of smell and often vary among males and fe­
than SBM. In these in vitro systems, gas is formed primarily males. The widespread housefly larvae (HFL) can breed on
through carbohydrate fermentation, and EE’s involvement cattle, pig, and poultry manures, and HFL can be raised on
in gas production is insignificant. The high level of NH3 in public waste material. The life-cycle of the HF has multiple
the incubation of Jamaican field cricket relates to its high CP stages: eggs; larvae of first, second, and third instar; pupa;
content. The elimination of proteolysis and physiological and adult. The duration from egg to adult is approximately 7
degradation by proteolytic microorganisms in the rumen to 10 days in warm temperatures and 40 to 49 days in cooler
form NH3 [38]. The formation of NH3 in the rumen is not weather [41].
entirely dependent on CP concentration and includes other   The HFL is ready to create maggots of food. They are stored
factors, such as CP portion, protein degradation rate, pas­ for fast reproductive tempo, high food cost, and simple to
sage rate, use of NH3 to form microbial proteins, and renal process and durable utilize [42]. Housefly larvae have high
absorption of NH3 through the rumen wall blood flow [39]. amounts of energy, protein, micronutrients (e.g., Cu, Fe, Zn),
Animals given feeds containing all insects excreted much EAA, and FA. Housefly larvae are inexpensive, have high-
less methane than those fed SBM, and the decreased insect quality nutritional value, and are less troublesome to make
digestibility resulted in low H2 production, which is an im­ from other sources of animal protein. In general, HFL meals
portant substrate for the production of methanogenesis [40]. have high amounts of Lys, Thr, and Met and can be added
to low-protein cereals and legume-based diets for livestock
Black soldier fly larvae effect on nutrient digestibility [8,43]. Different researchers have reported different nutrient
in non-ruminants levels for feeds using HFL. Table 1 lists the average nutritive
Black soldier fly larvae are ahead of significance in the diet values of HFL. On average, Housefly larvae include ash
of livestock ability to accelerate products through the low-cost (6.25%), DM (83.47%), CP (33.29%), CF (6.20%), Ca (0.49%),
agricultural industry in high-protein biomass. The required P (1.09%), Mg (0.23%), K (1.27%), Zn (10.39 mg/kg), Cu
nutritional content of BSFL for use as protein-rich biomass (32.40 mg/kg), Mn (42.50) mg/kg, and Fe (47.50 mg/kg)
in feed for pork, fish, and poultry raised for food has not on DM basis.
been met. In addition, insect digestibility depends not just   According to Hwangbo et al [44], HFL is rich in CP (63.99%
on the insect species and breeding substrate but also on pro­ of DM) and EE (24.31% of DM). The CP and EE contents
cessing techniques and regulations (e.g., time and temperature) can differ because of drying techniques and the maggots’
[39]. The standard DM digestibility of BSFL was 71%±2.81% ages. The CP content decreases and the EE content increases
of DM when fed to leopard geckos and 26%±9.9% of DM with age. According to Makkar et al [5] and Khan [8], HFL
for mountain chicken frogs. Significant digestive benefits were feed included ash (10.68% of DM), CP (60.38% of DM), EE
also found because of the Cu, molybdenum, Mg, K, protein, (14.08% of DM), and GE (4,800.80 kcal/kg), and HFL in­
Na, Fe, and Zn. Some differences in indigestion may be as­ cluded ash (7.73% of DM), CP (76.23% of DM), EE (14.39%
sociated with the different percentages of larvae among studies. of DM), and GE (4,877.23 kcal/kg). They noted that HF pupas
When raising quail [40], three diets were tested as controls, and larvae have apparent metabolic energies of 3,398.77
10% nonstandard BSFL feed (soybean oil 28.4% and SBM kcal/kg and 3,618.51 kcal/kg, respectively. The larvae showed
16.1% substitute) and 15% BFSL feed (soybean oil 99.9% high Ca, P, and metabolic energy (4,140 kcal/kg) compared
and SBM substitute 24.8%). The quail showed the same body to SBM (2,250 kcal/kg). Linoleic acid was found at concen­
weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, and mortality trations of 26.3% to 36.3% of the whole fat in feeds containing
rates in every experimental group. The evident nutrient di­ HF pupae and larvae, respectively. In addition, maggots
gestibility (i.e., CP, DM, EE, OM, and starch) was similar in contain a high percentage of palmitoleic acid, and HF pu­
the three groups, except for EE, which had the maximum pae are high in essential FAs such as oleic acid and linoleic
digestibility at 92.9% for the control and 89.6% for the 15% acid. Maggots also had higher AAs and EAAs than SBM.
BSFL feed. Upon examination the quail showed no preference In particular, the maggots had high levels of EAAs, such as
for the control. Furthermore, the breast meat weight and Lies, Arg, Fi, Trap, and Val, but low concentrations of meth
production did not differ between the control group and and sesame. Thus, meth will need to be offered in conjunc­

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tion with diets containing maggots. The contents of CP, Phy, tration. The ratio among Arg 0.67%, Lys 0.9%, Isoleu 10.68%,
Lys, and Meth were higher in HF pupae than they were in Leu 0.6%, respectively were found in larvae and pupae [48].
mealworms (MWs). In terms of protein value, larvae were
similar to bone and meat meal, as well as fishmeal (FM), Mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) chemical
and better than SBM. The maggots had more pronounced composition and the nutritive value
digestion of protein (98.5%) and EAA (94.8%) than SBM Mealworm is grown on dried and cooked waste material in
diets [45]. It was famous that the maggot has the highest various sketches from fruits, grains, and vegetables. They
CP content in raw egg concentrates (45.8%) and EE (19.3%) are vegetarians but are usually fed in flour with wheat bran
compared to non-bee rations (39.5% and 19.1%, respec­ or soybean flour [5]. A mealworm is a beetle-like form of
tively). The maggots food people who are involved in chopped edible worms, a type of bean sprouts, dark-colored beetles.
mangoes have a higher amount of ash (7.1%) maggots were Like holometabolic insects, they go through four stages of
eaten with the raw egg attracting the maximum CP (6.1%). life: the egg, the larva, the pupa, and the adult. Larvae typi­
The maximum CP value was observed 48 hours after harvest cally measure about 2.5 cm or more, while adults typically
(58.0%). Most were EE and CP 120 hours harvest (24.6 and range between 1.25 and 1.8 cm [49]. There are differences
7.6 respectively) were observed [46]. in the nutrients in the diet of mealworms reported by dif­
ferent researchers. The average nutritive value of mealworms
Housefly larvae effect on nutrient digestibility in was listed in Table 1. The average percentage of the meal­
ruminants worm consist of DM 94.6%, CP 55.83%, CF 25.19%, ash
Bosch et al [45] found that nitrogen was in 83.2% and 84.3% 4.84%, calcium 0.21%, phosphorous 1.06%, Mg 0.3%, K
of OM in vitro digestion capabilities and HF fly papaya, re­ 1.12%, Na 0.21%, Zn 138.2 mg/kg, Cu 19.4 mg/kg, Mn 5.7
spectively. The proximate investigation showed as EE 13.9% mg/kg, Fe 71.50 mg/kg of DM basis (Table 1).
and 12.9% with total tract digestibility of 93.9% and 97.9%,   The scientific literature on the nutritional synthesis of
CP 59.9% and 75.9% with whole tract digestibility of 68.9% mealworm larvae shows different variations depending on
and 78.9%, CF 7.9% and 14.9%, with total tract digestibility the diet, climatic situation, and stage of maturity. Recently,
of 61.9% and 57.9%, GE 4,800.8 kcal/kg and 4,877.2 kcal/kg, Bovera et al [49,50] match up to the chemical composition
and apparent metabolizable energy (ME) 3,398.77 kcal/kg and AAs profile of mealworm larvae with SBM diet and it
and 3,618.51 kcal/kg respectively [46]. Nutrition analysis has been reported that the ratio of 51.93%, CP 21.57% EE, and
Housefly larvae feed were shown to have comparable values 7.20% ADF in mealworm larvae then SBM diet CP 44.51%,
to most high protein feed ingredients. The larval diet con­ EE 1.84% and ADF 4.79% respectively. Both sources of the
sisted of 60% proteins with a balanced AA profile and 20% protein had a different mixture of EAAs, and this was espe­
fat with 57% monounsaturated FA, and 39% saturated FA. cially evident for apparent for methionine and cystinone (SBM
The larvae were short of food any significant amount of showed 3.27 times more content than MW) other than Arg
omega-3 FA [45,46]. (1.70%), Isol (1.75%), and Lys (1.68%) and higher in SBM
diet hist (1.19%), Leu (1.25%), Thr (1.26%), and Val (1.10%),
Housefly larvae effect on nutrient digestibility in non- while the content of tryp was higher in MW larvae than in
ruminants SBM diet [51]. Every supplementary AA had sufficient levels
There are two studies of apparent digestion of dried HF feed in MW larvae and can meet broiler requirements [47]. Cur­
that were tested in broiler chickens. Hwangbo et al [44] fed rently, Hussein et al [6] reported that 44.9% CP and 33.9%
four weeks older broilers are fed 30% dry HF larvae or a diet EAAs and almost all EAAs particularly Lys (4.51%) and Meth
for 7 day with SBM and three weeks older broilers are fed (1.34%) were relatively high in MW.
corn meal diet which contains 50% dry HFL feed. The con­   According to Ravzanaadii et al [51] who found that the
sequences show that the apparent importance in the first mealworm larvae contained a very small concentration of
study, the concentration of CP (98.5%) for HF larvae, was Ca (434.59 mg/kg) and a higher concentration of P (7,060
higher than in the 2nd study (69.5%) and the final study mg/kg). The ratio of Ca: P is not sufficient for poultry pro­
showed that CP fecal digestion was higher for HF pupae duction especially for chickens, however, such problems can
than for larvae. According to Pieterse and Pretorius [47] be solved by feeding WMs with a Ca prepared diet for 1 or 2
found that the significantly better visible fecal digestibility day [5]. The micro-mineral report was established to be Cu
standards for individual AAs than CP. There is requiring 13.27 mg/kg, Fe 66.87 mg/kg, and Zn 104.28 mg/kg, and
evaluating the nutrient digestibility of insects as a ration also significant long-chain FAs synthesis was detected in lar­
component, which is a requirement for preparing insect- val fed with the highest component of linoleic acid 30.23%,
containing diets. The AAs analysis exposed AAs sympathetic oleic acid 43.17%, and palmitic acid 15.79%, respectively [37].
with high Lys concentration but slightly low meth concen­

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Mealworm larvae effect on nutrient digestibility in fish hydrolysate [8,57].

ruminants   The dietary value of dry mealworm larvae directly resem­
Insect-eating, black soldiers fly, Jamaican field cricket and bled that of FM, making it a potentially smart alternative
mealworms are protein supplements for livestock. Accord­ protein-rich feed component for the animal feed industry as
ing to Jayanegara et al [37] reported that the results of the compared to other nutritional supplements such as FM, meat
above insects fed to Friesian Holstein cows showed that the meal, or chicken meal [58]. On the other hand, the small
ratio of acid detergent insoluble CP and neutral detergent amounts of animal protein can be supplemented with dried
insoluble CP were slightly lower as compared to SBM. All mealworm larvae. The digestibility of CF was higher in chin­
insect feeds had lower in-vitro DM and OM digestibility than chillas fed on mealworms. Both alternative diet sources of
those in SBM (p<0.05). However, all insect feed produced protein in the investigational diets improved the digestion of
less methane than those of SBM at 12, 24, and 48 h (p<0.05). ADF and acid detergent lignin [59].
Very limited data have been reported on the use of insect   May researchers have measured the CP digestibility of
meal in ruminants [39,52,53]. The use of dietary HF and some insect larvae [58-60]. Stein et al [61] reported that the
MW fat larva has been reported not to affect the digestibility apparent digestible diet of BSF larvae in male growing pigs
of lactating rabbits at low inclusion rates of 0.75% to 0.1.5%. was 76% parallel to SBM digestibility. Jin et al [60] have shown
However, the high-fat content (3% to 6%) of BSFL resulted that with an increase in the concentration of dried mealworm
in lowering the DM, OM, EE, and GE digestibility [52,53]. in the feed, the overall digestibility of CP was significantly
  According to Gasco et al [53] who offered two kinds of increased. Under this study, the digestibility was 92.1% when
insects (MW and HF) to rabbit, and as result, the control and the level of dried mealworm in the diet was 4.5% and 93.0%
experimental groups found no difference between feeding when added at 6.0% [58].
insect fat in terms of performance, disease, mortality, and
blood metabolites. The increase in HF and MW fats did not ECONOMICAL ASSESSMENT OF INSECT
affect the appearance DM digestibility, CP, EE, fiber fraction, PROTEIN AS COMPARED TO OTHER
and energy. The gut morphometric index and organ histo­ PROTEIN SOURCES
pathology were not affected by the addition of house fly and
mealworm fat diets. Similar results were reported by Gugołek The insect producers also need a scale to prove their credi­
et al [54] who showed supplementation of fish meal and MW bility so that consumers can be confident about the quality
meal had no considerable variation in the digestibility of DM, of the product, stability, and safety. The price varies accord­
OM, total energy, total protein, and NDF between the treat­ ing to the price of the insect and there are currently improving
ments and the control group. However, it should be noted insect manufacturers and production, which will have a huge
that total protein digestion was higher in groups control and impact on overall production costs. To be viable, insect pro­
mealworm than in the fish meal group [54]. An enzymatic tein products must have a live weight of 0.40 €/kg based on
method was used to analyze total protein digestibility of Tene- 35% DM. The up-to-date price of frozen dry edible insects
brio molitor and Hermetia illucens in-vitro digestion experiment. for attractive fish is currently 3.70 €/kg and for testing ra­
The authors found that the digestion of raw protein in dites tionale, a high-rank protein meal of BSF larvae was quoted
was affected by the level of chitin. In both insect feed sam­ at meal 20 €/kg (Protix Biosystems, Dongen, The Nether­
ples, total protein digestion was negatively associated with lands) [62]. In addition, the market value of commercially
ADF and chitin content. However, the average chitin yield in available maggots meal is 1.08 €/kg compared with protein-
mealworm larvae was at 4.92% of DM [55]. rich feed ingredients, worms are the most viable protein
fish with a genuine price of 1.24 €/kg and are expected to
Mealworm larvae effect on nutrient digestibility in increase soon. The up-to-date price of soybeans feed (CP
non-ruminants >480 g/kg) is approximately 0.57 € [62,63]. Conversely, to
The yellow mealworm was found to have 91.5% and 91.3% make a good assessment among the insects and traditional
in vitro and organic digestibility, respectively in comparison protein sources, the nutritional value must be adjusted, for
with the two insect larvae feedings (MW and BSF) due to example, based on digestible protein or digested AAs. In
nutrients digestibility and coefficient of total tract apparent order to be viable, insect manufacturers aim to reduce the
digestibility of apparent ME and AAs digestibility coefficients cost good-quality protein.
for broilers [56]. There was no significant variation in all nu­   Rising the size of insect breeding companies will further
trients digestibility values except for the EE value and the enhance efficiency and reduce the cost of insect protein. Some
value of MW was higher than of the BSF meals [8]. The MW other potential for cost reduction are as follows: i) reduction
larval hydrolysate increased digestibility of DM, CP, Lye, Meth, in feed costs by increasing conversion of bio-waste products.
when compared to other nutritional supplements from using ii) Rising the size of insect breeding companies and capable

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use of the building will reduce housing costs, e.g., by dropping SBM, BSF, HF, maggot, and MW were not economically possi­
energy use and improving heat exchange and ventilation. ble. However, it is possible to replace FM with HF from an
iii) Enhancing the productivity by advanced breeding and economic point of view, although their actual digestibility
breeding techniques; iv) Developing the reaction extraction needs to be considered properly when comparing their eco­
efficiency (insect fat and insect protein) [64]. In addition to nomic values [68].
reducing costs, rising product prices will help compete with   On the fictitious expansion of commercial poultry farms
insects. The valuable practical properties of insects have the (which spend € 1,000 per month on protein derived from
potential to enhance the value of pests as feed ingredients. SBM), which means to completely replace SBM with BSF,
Organic farmers may also be involved in raising insects to HF, or MW. The additional feed cost will be 88,230, 3,980,
enhance the permanence of animals in their fields. Insects and 13,010 €, respectively. Consider that if farmers make all
are actually present in the natural habitat of insects [62-64]. year round, it can cost a fortune to take over the field at a
In addition, farming of insects capable of biodegradation profit margin. Before insects can be adopted as an alterna­
of organic wastes according to Čičková et al [65] and Van tive to SBM and FM, both cost and nutritional value must be
Huis [66] reiterated that BSF and HF production has been sustainable. To be competitive, the cost of insects should be
more potentially promising for feeding interventions. reduced, 0.4 €/kg of direct weight based on 35% DM sub­
  Adjusting the prices of insecure insects based on their nu­ stances. This and many other possible strategies to improve
tritional value would be the best feasible way to compare them insect competition were suggested by alternative sources of
with traditional proteins [63]. Based on this, the prices of in­ protein [62-64]. The Economic values of insects compared
sects were considered based on their protein, Lys, and Met to other sources of proteins see in Table 2.
mixture. The permanent model was experimental at the pro­
tein value, the lysine and methionine value was measured CURRENT INSECT FARMING
for all protein sources. The highest price per kg of protein, PRODUCTION STATUS
Lys, and Met was traced for BSF while SBM has cheaper
prices. The estimated cost of an opportunity to replace SBM The various varieties of insects have been an ingredient of
with insects depended on the price of protein, Lys, and similar the diet for farm animals (e.g., pigs, poultry, and especially
protein value of SBM. The consequences specify that the fish). Human utilization of insect-based food is attractive a
cost of protein, Lys, and Met per kilogram of SBM replaced more and more popular alternative source of protein and an
by BSF would cost for farmers 88.23, 92.43, and 142.52 €/kg, estimated two billion communities currently eat insects or
respectively. Similarly, replacing one kilogram of protein, Lys, insect-based foods. In many fields, entomophagy is a native
and Met from SBM with HF maggot with cost an additional process. However, in Western countries, insect utilization
3.98, 3.85, 3.85, and 6.73 €/kg, respectively [64,67]. In order tends to increase, but yet most people reject insects as food
to convert the equivalent amount of protein, Lys, and Met [69].
provided by SBM for MW, the farmer will have to bear an   The edible pests are produced in three ways: deforestation,
additional loss of 13.0, 11.15, and 15.02 €/kg, respectively. semi-breeding, and farming. According to Yen [68], moths
FM’s economic values were similar to those of HF maggot represent 92% of the world’s insect supply, and semi-do­
based on its cost and nutritional values. When compared to mestic insects make up 6%. This means that only 2% of the

Table 2. The economical values of insects compared to other sources of protein

Potential source Housefly maggot Black soldier fly Mealworm Fishmeal Soybean meal
CP (%) 50.4 42.1 52.8 75.4 52.00
Lysine (%) 6.1 6.6 5.4 7.5 6.3
Methionine (%) 2.2 2.1 1.5 2.8 1.3
PPR (€/kg) 1.08 20 3.7 1.24 0.2
PP (€/kg) 2.14 47.51 7.01 1.64 0.54
PL (€/kg) 0.13 3.14 0.38 0.12 0.03
PM (€/kg) 0.05 1.00 0.11 0.05 0.01
PP to PP SBM1) 3.98 88.23 13.01 3.05 1.00
PL to PL SBM1) 3.85 92.23 11.15 3.64 1.00
PM to PM SBM1) 6.73 142.52 15.02 6.58 1.00
References [2,5,70,71] [70,71] [2,5,70,71] [2,5,70,71] [2,5,70,71]
PPR, product price; PP, protein price; PL, price of lysine; PM, price of methionine; PB, protix biosystems; AP, Agri protein.
1)
PP to PP SBM, price of replacing 1 kg of protein from SBM with other protein sources; PL to PL SBM, cost of replacing 1 kg of lysine from SBM with lysine
from other protein sources; PM to PM SBM, cost of replacing 1 kg of methionine from SBM with methionine from other protein sources.

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provided insects for, now, if we only consider those that are   According to Gahukar [77] wanted to explore the economic
direct human use. Insect farming is a recent method of pro­ viability of insect farming as an alternative source of protein
ducing edible insects, especially in developed countries [70, production. Gahukar pointed out that insect farming is not
71]. According to Van Huis and Oonincx [70], who offered cheap at present. The main cost represents the raw material
more information on the farming system, advantages, and used to feed the insects and, today, the cost per feed produced
disadvantages, insecticide is undoubtedly the majority pro­ is quite high (e.g., 18 for 25 kg feed for cricket breeding) [29].
ductive and effective way to produce pests. There is a lack of economic literature on the expediency of
  Some of the technological and administrative benefits introducing insect diets into animal feed. In particular, these
come from raising insects more than most livestock substi­ results show that on the basis of bee food, i.e., BSF and HF
tutes for natural protein production. According to Mlcek et are cheaper than FM (in this case, used for boiler breeding)
al [71] and Govorushko [72] summarizes the benefits associ­ [78]. The investment in livestock was projected at 25% higher
ated with such farming: i) Insect farming requires less gap come back due to the high feed conversion related to insect
than conventional livestock. This requires imperfect invest­ feed and the beneficial value of raw materials (the cost of
ment costs (protein manufactured per unit); ii) Genocide insect feed is approximately 71% of fish and SBM) [5,8].
is carried out with completely simple technology; iii) This According to Arru et al [78] established that the use of insect
type of farming can lead to faster returns on investment and feed in aquaculture, especially in the cultivation of European
faster financial returns; and iv) This farm is easy to manage territorial waters, is derived from the yellow MW which is
and does not require in-depth education. the most widely used for fish farming and the study was con­
  Insect farming has been developed worldwide for feed ducted in Italy and concluded that where the cost of fish is
and food production, and it is becoming a vital business not higher in Europe than in insect meal. The authors pointed
simply in the tropics [73]. Insect farming for the feed in­ out several rule implications in the study, signifying that
dustry has improved significantly in recent decades due to large-scale pest production would promote various economic
the natural potential of many livestock and fish methods to profits (such as income and job production) in rising coun­
act as traditional feed. The implanted energy from the OM tries [75].
used to breed insects is completely changed into high-value
edible protein for human and livestock feeding [74,75]. The ADVANTAGE AND LIMITATION OF
result is a rapid worldwide growth in the insect feed market, INSECTS USE IN ANIMAL DIETS
which, according to Mordor Intelligence [76], was valued
at 687.8 million USD in 2018, with an annual growth rate of Insects are the potential source of alternative protein. Insect-
12% reaching a value of 1,396.4 million USD. In particular, based feed products may have a market like fish and SBM,
until 2018, the insect feed market in Asia-Pacific conquered which are currently the major ingredients in aquaculture and
in response to enhance meat utilization. It is expected to be livestock feed formulas. Also, one kilogram of worm protein
Europe’s fastest-growing market in the next few years. Analyz­ takes much less feed and soil of meat protein. However, the
ing the insect feed promote by animal category, aquaculture significant existing legislation and regulations need to be re­
is the primary buyer (51% of the shares), while market share viewed certainly this type of mini-livestock is permissible to
analysis shows the most scattered buyers with some transfer enter the animal feed.
companies. (Altec Coupon, Intrafeed Corporation, Insect,
Agro Protein, and Environ Flight) [68,75]. On the other Sustainable feed ingredients
hand, some micro-enterprises can do economically the use There is a need to increase meat consumption in developing
of easy skills and possibilities offered locally, in particular, countries and thus to encourage the tapping of proteins into
insecticides are exploited in the aquaculture sector. This alternative feed sources. “Insects are gradually recognized as
means that internationally, a lot of companies are concerned a better protein substitute use in animal feed”, reads a project
in the preparation of insect feed and food, some of which briefing document, noting that many species are highly nutri­
are concerned in the preparation of animal feed, focusing tious and their other sources of feed reduce the environmental
only on the production of insect feed [76]. Moreover, insects impact of production.
farming is more socio-economically and environmentally-
friendly under low carbon-scenario with high feed utilization Digestibility of insect
efficiency [15]. In this background, there are considerable Digestive capacity can be better assessed in in-vivo digest­
sell opportunities and challenges for the insect feed and ibility trials. Digestive imitation can be effective in digesting
food sectors, such as profitable scale manufacture, high- tolerance conditions (pepsin/HCL) and small intestine (buffer/
quality standards, excessive quantities, low ecological impact, pancreas). Therefore, it is functional to compare with the
and the need for spirited prices [76]. elements that are well described in the feed. For poultry, the

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in-vivo digestibility of insect diets in terms of AAs is 89% for wound healing.
to 95%, which is dependent on AAs and is equivalent to FM.
Housefly pupae performed similarly in-vitro digestion for REGULATORY OF INSECT USES BY THE
OM and protein compared to fish meal and poultry meal. GOVERNMENTS IN ASIA

Low cost Edible insect regulations safety policies and regulations about
A Young French company, Ynsect, has recognized an inex­ the edible pests should be significant to the governments of
pensive, nutritious, and locally sourced alternative to soybeans both developing and developed countries to make sure that
as an important source of protein in animal feed. Earlier this consumers are provided with a reduced or risk-free supply
year, a BSF, HF, MW, and silkworms were named among the of this type of food from farm to fork [79]. The utilization
mainly capable species for industrial feed production by the pattern of customers have changed significantly in recent
UN Food Agency. According to the FAO, proteins such as times due to their growing understanding of the quality and
meat, fish meal, and soybean feed account for 60 to 70 per­ rights of safe foods, and this undoubtedly applies to edible
cent of the price. insects and their derivatives [80]. Thus, the article clarifies
that insects should be marketed for human utilization, espe­
Animal health benefits cially for human consumption. Those insect food products
According to the investigator, BSF protein derivatives can must comply with existing good manufacturing methods
promote the health of pets and fish: “Aging is the major chal­ (CGMP) for processing, packaging and transportation. And
lenge in livestock”. Aging can accelerate the loss of free radicals to protect consumers, there should be a warning label for
in a livestock body, leading to widespread health disorders shellfish allergies [81].
(such as locomotor disorders). Insect proteins, including   In Western countries, food regulations pose a major diffi­
livestock feed and water, are legal in Europe and are gaining culty to the use of insects in both feed and food. The European
traction. Insect proteins are especially suitable for young ani­ Food Safety Authority has declared that all insect products
mals to eat, as young animals grow faster and develop their for human utilization will be considered ‘novel food’ and must
immune systems. It appears that the black solder fly protein be suggested for novel food authorization by 2018, with a
derivative can help suppress free radical damage in livestock transition period of 2 years in advance. Approved products
bodies. Aquatic organisms, on the other hand, are at constant will be allowed to remain in the market until 2020 [82]. How­
risk of pathogenic bacteria attacks, resulting in the develop­ ever, quantities of European Union (EU) member states have
ment of a variety of health conditions, including immunity, their own legislation to address this need. There are similar
aging, and so on. laws around the approval of novel food in North America.
In Canada, authoritarian approvals must come from the
Medical uses of insect Canadian food inspection agency and health Canada, and
Bee venom stimulates apoptosis in rheumatoid synovial cells the food and drug administration in the United States, as
by reducing BCL2 expression and rising BAX and Caspase-3 well as the association of American feed control officers for
expression. Bee venom stimulates apoptosis through caspase feed ingredients definition committee [80].
3 activation in synovial fibroblasts in patients with rheuma­   In Asia, Thailand, the world’s main breeder of cricket, is
toid arthritis. working on creating the first set of guidelines. The Thai
  The toxins found in bee venom can kill the human im­ Government Agency for Agricultural Products is expected
munodeficiency virus (HIV). Bee venom contains melittin, to issue guidelines for good agricultural practices for the
which surrounds the HIV virus as well as other viruses. It is growth of cricket by the end of 2017. The initial set of these
loaded with melittin nanoparticles that attack an integral part rule for Government Agency for Agricultural was made
of the virus’s structure. Nanoparticles are easy to manufacture public by Khon Kaen University [81]. There is a average of
in large quantities for future clinical trials. cricket farming in Thailand. The standards include farm
  Maggot therapy deliberately launches sterile flying larvae ingredients, animal health, food, environment, water, and
(maggots) to selectively clean squashy tissue wounds. These record keeping principles. The goal is to produce high-quality
assists stop the infection and also cures chronic wounds and cricket that is safe for customers. Food, water, should not
ulcers. Wounds that have been healing for days and those be spoiled, equipment should be clean and hygienic, and
that have been affected are better than those that have not all chemicals should be used according to the instructions
healed. Maggots eat several chemicals that kill microbes, [83]. The expansion of Thai cricket farming values has been
including allantoin, calcium carbonate, phenylacetic acid, linked to cricket exports, mostly access to EU markets Food
proteolytic enzymes, phenylalanine, urea, and many more. is administered by the Food and Drug Administration Thai­
Maggots were used by the Maya and Indigenous Australians land. In aquaculture, Thai companies want to replace unsafe

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fish meat with insects. Thailand also has a huge broiler meat protein as well as macro-minerals and bioactive substances
and pork industry with a potential for insect-based feed. contained enormously in most of the insects. Furthermore,
Thailand has food quality standards for all kinds of animals, current information pertaining to modern cultivation and
but insect feed standards do not yet exist [84]. farming have exhibited the practical potential for productive
  The ministry of public health (MPH) is presently the re­ cultivation for both uses in human consumption and as a
liable organization that regulates insect production and protein source in animal diets to replace conventional source
utilization in Thailand. All pest-processed products that are of protein such as SBM and fish meal. Nevertheless, more
sold and exported in local markets must be approved by proactive investigations using insect protein for animal feed­
law through the Food and Drug Administration under the ing for both nonruminants and ruminants are warranted to
MPH. Insect breeders must apply for a license, and a Food elucidate additional data.
and Drug Administration inspector oversees the production
position, as well as sampling and monitoring products for CONFLICT OF INTEREST
suitable hygiene standards on a regular basis. There are no
specific standards for food as insects. Thus, they are treated We certify that there is no conflict of interest with any financial
like any other food product under the Food Act (Food and organization regarding the material discussed in the manu­
Drug Administration Thailand 2014) of B.E.2522 (1979). script.
This is probably recognized to the fact that there is a long
history of entomophagy in Thailand as well as in the bigger FUNDING
region of Southeast Asia, and contradictory food standards
have not been developed to protect consumers [81]. The authors received no financial support for this article.
  Feng et al [85] reveled that edible insects have been used
in Chinese medicine and as food for more than 2000 years. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Currently, 324 species from 11 orders are reported in China.
In China, insects are a common feed and food component Thanks are extended to the Postdoctoral Fellowship of KKU
in several areas, but are not yet declared in the food law. One 2021, supporting the first author and National Research
exception, though, is the silkworm pupae, which were added Council of Thailand (NRCT) through the Basic Research
to the Health Ministry’s list of approved foods in 2014. China Fund (record no. 2564A10302002). Special thanks to Professor
is the world’s biggest manufacturer of silk and silkworms are Y. Hanboonsong for her advice and the video presentation.
accessible in large quantities. They are also exported for food Sincere gratitudes are extended to TROFREC, Department
consumption, such as in Thailand [80]. of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Khon Kaen Uni­
The South Korean government launched a process in 2011 versity, Thailand.
to legalize some edible insects. Following this initial process,
in 2016, the Korean Food and Drug Administration classified REFERENCES
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