metals

Review
Technological Insights into the Evolution of Bronze Bell Metal
Casting on the Korean Peninsula
Chun-Soo Won 1 , Jae Pil Jung 1, *, Kwang-Sik Won 2 and Ashutosh Sharma 3, *

1 Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Seoul, Seoul 02504, Korea
2 National Intangible Cultural Heritage No. 112, Seupji-gil 35, Deoksan-eup, Jincheon-gun 27815, Korea
3 Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea
* Correspondence: [email protected] (J.P.J.); [email protected] (A.S.); Tel.: +82-10-95345040 (A.S.)

Abstract: Bronze cast bells have been designed and developed for hundreds of years, with the
worldwide spread of several faiths and religions such as Buddhism, Catholicism, and Protestantism.
The exceptional ringtones of bronze bell metals have scientific healing and cultural importance. In
this review article, we highlight the evolution of bronze bell metal over the decades, its composition,
and the complex fabrication technologies used to date. Furthermore, we overview ancient and
modern casting alloy technology, especially bronze bell castings in Asia. The bell shape, materials,
and alloy casting technology have undergone dramatic change over the years. For comparison, we
include different bronze cast bells and their characteristics produced from the Middle Ages to the
present times. Based on the data obtained from the bell casting technology surrounding the Korean
Peninsula, the major trends in the evolution of bronze bell castings and long-standing traditions of
mold materials and alloys are described. In the present review, the effects of different elements on
bell materials are qualitatively overviewed, with an assessment of the material and casting properties,
service life, and bell sound. We also highlight the challenges of conventional bronze casting and
Citation: Won, C.-S.; Jung, J.P.; Won,
possible solutions for future investment castings and rapid prototyping of bronze bells.
K.-S.; Sharma, A. Technological
Insights into the Evolution of Bronze
Keywords: cast alloys; bells; silicon; bronze; 3D printing; wax casting
Bell Metal Casting on the Korean
Peninsula. Metals 2022, 12, 1776.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
met12111776
1. Introduction
Academic Editors: Carlos
With the progress of humanity, bronze cast bells have occupied nearly all facets
Alexandre Dos Santos and
of human life. Bronze bells have been an important component of the life of societies
Srecko Stopic
irrespective of the historical traditions and customs they represent. The historical bronze
Received: 22 August 2022 bells stem from the 19th century BCE. These bells were believed to be a signature of religious
Accepted: 14 October 2022 customs, morning prayers, Buddhism, and pieces of art [1]. In this journey, humans learned
Published: 22 October 2022 the process of casting materials into definite shapes at high temperatures, which is metal
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral forming, which is still used today. Casting technology has been known to man for many
with regard to jurisdictional claims in centuries and employed to shape tools for daily life. Cast weapons were mainly used in
published maps and institutional affil- war and in protection against dangerous animals, as temple bells, as household products,
iations. and as art [2,3].
Bells are used either singly, doubly, or in combination with several bells as instruments,
which are usually hit by a wooden block or shaken by hand or in a clock-operated system.
In small cities, temple bells are hung in a church tower to wake the citizens for morning
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. prayers. Bells were also part of various ceremonies and weddings or used in ships as a sign of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. imminent danger [4]. Figure 1 shows a typical temple bell structure with different body parts.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Metals 2022, 12, 1776. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12111776 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

 Metals2022,
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2 of

Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure Schematicdescription
descriptionofofthe
thebell
bellstructure.
structure.

The various parts of a temple bell include the bell bottom, which has different shapes:
The various parts of a temple bell include the bell bottom, which has different shapes:
round, smooth, scalloped, etc. Lip and sound rings are located below the body. The upper
round, smooth, scalloped, etc. Lip and sound rings are located below the body. The upper
regions consist of the neck, shoulder, and crowns of the bell. Several descriptive bands and
regions consist of the neck, shoulder, and crowns of the bell. Several descriptive bands
scriptures can be written over the body, which are related to the specific culture or history
and scriptures can be written over the body, which are related to the specific culture or
of that religion. The crown heads consist of hanging holes or some divine creatures such as
history of that religion. The crown heads consist of hanging holes or some divine creatures
a dragon as seen in most Southeast Asian bells [4,5].
such as a dragon as seen in most Southeast Asian bells [4,5].
2. Historical Evolution of Casting Bell Technology in Asia
2. Historical
2.1. AppearanceEvolution
of Bells in of Casting Bell Technology in Asia
Asia
2.1. From
Appearance of Bells in Asia
the beginning of the human era, bells have been an important part of the
everydayFromritual
the beginning
practice of of Buddhist
the human era, bells
monks andhave been an important
monasteries in South Asia.part ofBoth
the eve-
the
ryday ritual
Buddhist andpractice
ChineseofDaoist
Buddhist monks
customs and monasteries
promoted the castingin South Asia.and
of copper Both the Buddhist
bronze alloys.
Consequently,
and Chinese Daoist furthercustoms
spread promoted
of this technology
the castingoccurred
of copperin the
andinner
bronzeAsian countries,
alloys. Conse-
including Korea and Japan. The beginning of the Bronze Age occurred
quently, further spread of this technology occurred in the inner Asian countries, including at different times
inKorea
different geographical
and Japan. regions.ofThis
The beginning the evolution
Bronze Age began in theat7th
occurred century
different andin
times passed to
different
Tibetan bells inregions.
geographical the 8thThiscentury. Bronze
evolution casting
began technology
in the 7th centuryevolved in Southeast
and passed to TibetanAsiabells
in
about
in thethe
8th10th century
century. BronzeBCEcasting
[5]. The beginningevolved
technology of the Bronze Age took
in Southeast Asiaplace around
in about the
the 10th
10th century
century BCE BCE on beginning
[5]. The the KoreanofPeninsula
the Bronzeand Agethetook15th century
place around BCEthe in
10thManchuria
century BCE (a
region in northeast China) [6].
on the Korean Peninsula and the 15th century BCE in Manchuria (a region in northeast
Written
China) [6]. inscriptions such as epigraphy were either engraved or cast into bells, which
proclaim the representative
Written inscriptions such religion to serve narrative
as epigraphy were either purposes.
engraved Without
or castanyintodoubt,
bells, many
which
examples
proclaim thatthe once existed in the
representative last millennium
religion have either
to serve narrative been spoiled,
purposes. Without damaged,
any doubt, or
burnt
manyduring
examples the that
pastonce
centuries.
existedFor example,
in the the Nazis have
last millennium confiscated over spoiled,
either been 175,000 bells
dam-
throughout
aged, or burntEurope for copper
during the pastand tin. Of For
centuries. these, 150,000the
example, were destroyed
Nazis [7]. The
confiscated overTsar Bell
175,000
inbells
Moscow was damaged during a fire in 1737 [8] and the Chinese
throughout Europe for copper and tin. Of these, 150,000 were destroyed [7]. The TsarXi’an Bell Tower built
during
Bell in 1384
Moscowwas was
bombed by theduring
damaged Japanese in 1939
a fire [9].[8]
in 1737 Most
andKorean bells were
the Chinese Xi’anlost
Bellduring
Tower
Japanese colonial rule (1910–1945), which were later restored
built during 1384 was bombed by the Japanese in 1939 [9]. Most Korean bells wereby Kwang-Sik Won [10]. Thus,
lost
most
during Japanese colonial rule (1910–1945), which were later restored by Kwang-Sik and
of the precious data related to the initial form of bronze cast bells, their size Won
shapes, and most
[10]. Thus, the casting
of thetechnology
precious data is mostly
relatedfound
to theininitial
Buddhist
formAsia [4,5]. cast bells, their
of bronze
size and shapes, and the casting technology is mostly found in Buddhist Asia [4,5].
2.2. Types, Geographical Distribution, and Characteristics of Bronze Cast Bells
Bronze temple bells are largely divided into Eastern bells and Western bells. Eastern
bells refer to temple bells and Western bells refer to worship bells in churches or cathedrals.
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 3 of 28

There are various types of bronze bells around the globe that require our attention due
to their historical importance, their production, and the specific roles they played. The
history of bells passes from generation to generation because bells have a longer life and
are used in numerous events, outlasting humans. In Asia, common bronze cast temple
bells include both flat and scallop-edged bottoms [1,11]. The important temple bells found
in Asia include the Chinese bell of the Zhou dynasty (770–256 BCE), the Japanese temple
bell, the Kanzeon-ji bell of 698 BCE, and the Korean Sangwonsa Temple bell, founded in
725 BCE [12–14]. Common bells located in Europe differ in the shape of the bell bottom.
These include Tuba Dei, the Royal Sigismund Bell, Maria Bogurodzica, Cracow bell, etc.,
which are mostly used in churches for morning prayers [1,4,5]. Japanese bells have a convex-
type bottom while concave types are common in Tibetan temple bells. Other East Asian
temple bells are flat-bottomed, an uncommon observation in Tibetan bells [5]. In Korea,
bronze bells were first made in the Bronze Age (3300–1200 BCE). However, these bells did
not produce a good sound and were not musical and were often used in horse trappings
and shamanist ceremonies as a symbol of authority [5]. Apart from the composition, the
sound of the bell mostly depends on its shape. For example, a circular shape allows a
wave to travel around the bell’s perimeter. The standing waves generated around the
circumference of the bell are responsible for the special tone of the ringing [15]. The first
musical bells were made in China during 1116 BCE and were played in the aak orchestra
and accompanied Confucian rites and ceremonies. The most famous Korean bells are big,
shaped casting bells (pomjong) used in monasteries and Buddhist temples, which were
introduced from China in the Tang dynasty [1,5]. However, utilizing other technology, such
as papermaking and ceramics, the Koreans outperformed their teachers and developed
exceptionally large and finely decorated bells in this era [5]. Papermaking of parts is
generally used in metal castings to prevent melt leakage from the mold and prevent heat
shrinkage [16]. Korean papermaking from mulberry has been used for printing, preparation
of walls, and in ondol floors. The main sources of cellulosic fiber evolved as the ancient
craft migrated from its origin in China to Korea and Japan, and then spread to Western
countries [17]. Potteries such as ceramics were used on the bell surface to create engraved
parts, which were filled with white and black clay, and various aesthetic decorations were
produced over the bell [18]. Since Buddhist temple bells have different styles, varying
from one country to another, they can be divided into Chinese bells, Korean bells, Japanese
bells, Vietnamese bells, and Southeast Asian bells. According to the Gyeongju National
Museum’s report (a world heritage site in Korea), the Korean bell is rated as having the
most beautiful sounds and patterns. There are various reasons why Korean bells make
such a beautiful sound. The first reason is its unique shape and structure, which filters
out undesired noise. This bell sits lower than most of the other bells. The caved-in bottom
creates greater resonance. The top of the bell is almost half the diameter of the bottom,
which also helps to improve the sound clarity [19]. The Korean bell is considered as a
masterpiece among other bells around the world due to its unique and beautiful shape
and clear and long-lasting sound. In simple words, the bell rings and reverberates like a
“Maengnoli phenomenon”, which is the sound of a heartbeat [20,21]. All these attributes
led to its own scientific name “Korean bell”, demonstrating the excellent aesthetic sense
and workmanship of our ancestors [22,23]. The sound of the Chinese bell is relatively noisy
and has short resonance. Other bells such as the Japanese bell are similar to the Chinese
bell and cannot produce beautiful sounds, causing fluctuation from deep inside [18–21].
Some of the popular bell types on the Korean Peninsula are summarized in Table 1.
 Metals2022,
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Table1.1.Some
Table Somecommon
commontemple
templebells
bellsthat
thatevolved
evolvedononthe
theKorean
KoreanPeninsula,
Peninsula,data
datafrom
from[5,24,25].
[5,24,25].

Bell Name Period

Bell Name Period Remarks Remarks
Silla bells 57 BCE to
Silla bells 935 CE Silla
57 BCE to 935 CE art, gold crowns, tombs, Buddhist
Silla art, gold crowns, tombs, temples
Buddhist temples
Sangwonsa bell 725 CE Mount Odaesan near Pyeongchang
Sangwonsa bell 725 CE Mount Odaesan near Pyeongchang
Songdok bell 771 CE Gyeongju National Museum, Korea
Songdok bell 771 CE Gyeongju National Museum, Korea
Hwangnyong-sa bell 553-645 CE Gyeonju, Korea
Goryeo bell Hwangnyong-sa
963 CE bell 553-645 CE
Toksu Palace Museum of Gyeonju, Korea
Fine Arts, Seoul, Korea
Kasagi bell Goryeo bellCE
1196 963 CE Toksu Palace Museum
Kyoto, Japanof Fine Arts, Seoul, Korea
Kasagi bell 1196 CE Kyoto, Japan
The largest temple bells in Korea were produced during the Silla kingdom and are
shownThein Figuretemple
largest 2a. The unified
bells Sillawere
in Korea period witnessed
produced significant
during development
the Silla kingdom and in are
arts
and crafts, and large bronze bells were hung in Buddhist temples. The
shown in Figure 2a. The unified Silla period witnessed significant development in arts and other oldest sur-
vivingand
crafts, bells include
large Sangwonsa
bronze bells wereTemple
hung inbell on Mount
Buddhist Odaesan
temples. The near
otherPyeongchang
oldest surviving and
Songdok bell, also known as the Emille Bell, at the end of the
bells include Sangwonsa Temple bell on Mount Odaesan near Pyeongchang and SongdokSilla period (57 BCE–935
CE).also
bell, Theknown
Songdok as bell, made using
the Emille Bell, ata the
lostend
waxofcasting, weighs
the Silla period19(57tons (FigureCE).
BCE–935 2b). The
This
bell is housed
Songdok at Pongdok
bell, made Temple
using a lost in Gyeongju
wax casting, weighsand is thus
19 tons called
(Figure the
2b). Gyeongju
This bell of
bell is housed
atKorea [26]. Temple in Gyeongju and is thus called the Gyeongju bell of Korea [26].
Pongdok

Figure2.2.Important
Figure Importanttemple
templebells
bellsthat
thatevolved
evolvedon
onKorean
KoreanPeninsula.
Peninsula.(a)
(a)Sangwonsa
Sangwonsabell,
bell,(b)
(b)Songdok
Songdok
bell (Emille Bell), (c) Japanese bell, and (d) Chinese bell. Korean Buddhist ‘Emille’ Bell [26]. World
bell (Emille Bell), (c) Japanese bell, and (d) Chinese bell. Korean Buddhist ‘Emille’ Bell [26]. World
History Encyclopedia. Last modified October 05, 2016. Retrieved from
History Encyclopedia. Last modified October 05, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.
https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5838/korean-buddhist-emille-bell/ (accessed on 1 February
org/image/5838/korean-buddhist-emille-bell/
2022). (accessed on 1 February 2022).

The height of the Songdok bell is about 3.5 m with a diameter of 2.27 m and is decorated
The height of the Songdok bell is about 3.5 m with a diameter of 2.27 m and is deco-
with lotus and heavenly creatures suspended through a signature dragon loop. Some of
rated with lotus and heavenly creatures suspended through a signature dragon loop.
the bells that were larger than Songdok bells were, unfortunately, short-lived. In addition,
Some of the bells that were larger than Songdok bells were, unfortunately, short-lived. In
the massive Hwangnyongsa bell, which had a record weight of 300 tons, disappeared.
addition, the
According massive
to the Hwangnyongsa
historical records, thesebell,bellswhich
werehad a record
either buriedweight of 300 tons,
or disappeared withdisap-
the
peared. According to the historical records, these bells were either buried
temples due to heavy floods in early 1400. Some of the largest bells of Silla were taken away or disappeared
with the
during thetemples
Mongol due to heavy
invasion floodsAfter
[27,28]. in early
the1400.
Silla Some
period, ofthe
the Goryeo
largest bells of Silla
bell dates towere
the
taken away during the Mongol invasion [27,28]. After the Silla period,
Goryeo dynasty (918 to 1392 CE), in which Buddhism continued to be the dominant religion the Goryeo bell
dates to the Goryeo dynasty (918 to 1392 CE), in which Buddhism
of the state. Many examples of such bells exist in Japan today, being donated or captured continued to be the
dominant
during the religion
Hideyoshi of the state. in
invasion Many examples
the 16th centuryof such bells exist
CE. Goryeo in are
bells Japan today,
smaller inbeing
size
donated or captured during the Hideyoshi invasion in the 16th century
than Silla bells, which were bronze cast and mostly decorated with dragons and heavenly CE. Goryeo bells
are smaller in size than Silla bells, which were bronze cast and
creatures. Examples include the Naesco Temple bell in southwest Korea (1222 CE), which mostly decorated with
dragons
has lotus and
petalsheavenly
over thecreatures.
upper rim Examples include
of the bell, the Naesco
a wider border Temple
around thebell nine-nodule
in southwest
Korea (1222 CE), which has lotus petals over the upper
squares, and four spheres accommodating the dragon suspension loop [29]. rim of the bell, a wider border
around
The the nine-nodule
above discussionsquares,
makes itand four
clear spheres
that accommodating
primitive Buddhist temple the dragon
bells weresuspension
mostly
loop [29].
founded in East Asia, specifically in China, Korea, and Japan. In contrast to Korean bells,
Thebells
Japanese above discussion
are flat-mouthedmakes it clear2c),
(Figure thatwith
primitive Buddhist
a few rare templeofbells
exceptions the were
temple mostly
bell
founded in East Asia, specifically in China, Korea, and Japan. In contrast
from Kasagi Temple, Kyoto, cast in 1196, which had a different form of scalloping, which has to Korean bells,
Japanese
exactly thebells are flat-mouthed
opposite rim shape to (Figure
that of the2c),Songdok
with a fewbellrare exceptions
[5,11,22,29]. A of the temple
major bell
difference
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 5 of 28

between Chinese and Korean bells lies in the shape of the bottom, being scalloped in
Chinese bells (Figure 2d).

3. Bronze Alloys and Temple Bells

As discussed earlier, bells have been used in musical idiophones and have been known
to humankind since the primitive ages [3]. The materials used for casting bells cover a
wide range of elements. Primitive bells were cast using copper (Cu) or iron (Fe) sheets. In
Southeast Asia, especially some parts of China, the production of iron occurred as early
as 600 BCE. After the Iron Age, it gradually spread across the Korean Peninsula, where
it is hard to locate the end of the Bronze Age, unlike other parts of the world. Bronze
cast products continued to be made in large quantities even after people had adapted to
working with iron. It was predicted that until the advent of the 2nd century CE, cast iron
bells were more popular than bronze bells [30]. One such example of a cast iron bell is the
iron bell of Jeondeungsa Temple (164 cm × Ǿ 100 cm) in Korea, which is similar to most
Chinese bells. According to the inscriptions engraved over the bell, the bell belonged to
China in around 1097 BCE [31]. At present, the major component alloy of temple bells is
Cu-Sn alloy. A specific composition of 78 wt.%Cu and 22 wt.%Sn is widely known as bell
metal [32,33]. Bell bronze is a structurally complex alloy, and the quality of bells mostly
depends on the casting parameters and technology used for their fabrication [34,35]. The
quality of cast bells is assessed using their acoustic properties, vibrations, and frequency
analysis. The acoustic vibrations are also affected by the present porosity and structure of
the cast alloy [36].
Copper alloys account for more than 90% of the materials used to make bells in
both Eastern and Western countries and these materials are very limited to the extent
that these bells are intermittently made of Fe and Cu-Ni. According to Strafford, it is
believed that the production of cast iron (Fe-C) bells started in 1857 with the development
of cast steel. However, Fe-C alloys were not suitable due to their poor sound and short life.
Many ancient bronze castings included Ni as an impurity (<1%) associated with copper
ores [37]. However, as Ni > 1%, this effect becomes noticeable, and it is believed that
ancient men developed a certain type of copper bronze containing an appreciable amount
of Ni [38]. Previous works pioneered by Audy et al. [34,37] showed that Ni < 2 wt.% is
the recommended fraction for obtaining a balanced set of castability, strength, and sound
quality properties of a bronze cast bell. This is due to the characteristics of bells that must
make a sound. Among these materials, bronze is the most used material for bells because
of its clear and resonant sound. The important characteristics of bronze are (a) the tone
determination according to the speed of sound and loudness, (b) damping ability, and
(c) toughness. Most world-famous bells, such as the American Liberty Bell and the Korean
Emille Bell, are made of bronze [11,39]. The strength and sound of bronze depends on
the content of tin. Eastern bells, characterized by their loudness and low notes, have a tin
content of 12–18% while clear, high-pitched Western bells have a tin content of 20–24%. The
tin content of Western bells is higher than that of Eastern bells [40,41].

3.1. Composition of Bronze Bells

The generated sound quality and functioning of bells depend on the cast alloy compo-
sition, their methods of fabrication, and inherent cast defects. In other words, the quality of
the cast bell is highly dependent on the material type, shape, and methodology. Mostly,
temple bells are composed of bronze castings. The major bell alloys include bronze, brass,
cupronickel, and iron. Bronze accounts for more than 80%, and the chemical composition
of bronze used for bells is reported to contain various metals such as Zn, Sb, Ni, and Pb
in the Cu-(10–25)%Sn system. This trend does not differ much between the East and the
West [34]. Table 2 shows the materials of the ancient Buddhist temple bells (Eastern bells).
It can be seen that the tin contents of the same oriental bells, Japanese bells, are similar to
those of Korean Buddhist temple bells.
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 6 of 28

Table 2. Chemical composition of some temple bells surrounding the Korean Peninsula [11].

Chemical Composition (wt.%) Impurity

Name of Bell
Cu Sn Pb Au Zn Ag S
Sangwonsa bell 83.87 13.26 2.12 - 0.32 - -
Seonrimwon bell 80.2 12.2 - - 2.2 - 0.1
Silsangsa bell 75.7 18.0 0.31 - - - -
Bell of the Joseon dynasty 80.1 12.2 - - - - -
Japanese bell 82.1 9~13 - - 1~1.7 - -

The successful casting of bells is largely based on tin bronzes. Previous studies have
shown wide variation in the composition of tin bronzes (Cu-Sn) used for the construction of
temple bells. The compositions of the different bells shown in Table 2 were mostly analyzed
for various alloying and impurity elements. The important bronze bells surrounding the
Korean Peninsula are summarized in Table 2. Most of these bells contain Pb and Zn as
alloying elements except Seonrimwon bell, which contain sulphur. The compositions
that were not detected are not shown in Table 2. Traditionally, bell bronze consisted of
numerous other alloying elements, for example, Pb, Ag, Zn, Sn, Bi, Sb, Fe, As, Ni, Si, S, and
P [11,34,41,42]. Among these elements, Pb, Zn, Ni, Ag, Sb, and Fe are important alloying
elements. In addition, Bi, As, Si, S, and P are impurities trapped within the bronze melt
during melting with coke and charcoal [34].
In the search for a better bronze alloy composition, bell makers have experimented
with a range of different alloying elements in various fractions. The alloy composition,
however important, is not the sole factor used to assess a bell’s properties. The problem of
meeting the demands concerning the material properties becomes even more complicated
as additional variables, thus far neglected or impossible to control, are considered. The
requirements that need to be met by the bell alloy are as follows: (a) easy melting/casting,
(b) high casting quality, (c) uniform and homogeneous bell surface properties, (d) durability,
and (e) nice generated sound. Therefore, the casting technology used in bell preparation is
a matter of secrecy in different bell foundries.
Bronze has a higher corrosion resistance than pure Fe, especially against harsh envi-
ronmental conditions. The addition of Sn in Cu provides further strengthening of the Cu
matrix and prevents mechanical damage to the bell when it is hit with a hammer, which
in turn could degrade the sound. The alloying of Cu with Sn in moderation is preferred
to avoid impact fracture upon prolonged striking of the bell. Additionally, Sn increases
the sound amplitude; however, other elements such as Pb promote the castability but
deteriorate the sound duration. A common Middle Age bronze bell composition falls
within the range of 20–25 wt.% Sn; in recent times, lower amounts of Sn (10–15 wt.%) and
Pb (1–3 wt.%) have been used [43]. The important bell compositions developed over the
last decades are illustrated in Table 3. The ticks indicate the presence of a specific alloying
element in the bronze cast bell.
Table 3 indicates that the material composition of bronze alloy has a significant impact
on the mechanical and acoustic properties. According to the pioneering work of Audy
et al. [34,37], the recommended concentration of Ni is less than 2 wt.% to achieve a high
wear resistance, fatigue resistance, and castability of the melt. If Pb > 1.5 wt.%, the machin-
ability, fluidity, and wear resistance are improved but at the cost of the sound quality.
Additionally, if Sb > 1 wt.%, the brittleness increases, and the sound quality becomes poor.
Other impurities such as p = 0.01 wt.% assist the deoxidizing properties of the melt during
casting. When copper is melted, oxygen and other gaseous impurities trapped in the bell
core cause further cracking after solidification. Thus, p = 0.01 wt.% is recommended for
better bell casting. Based on these abovementioned factors, the most common bronze
composition for optimum bell characteristics is recommended: ~20 wt.%Sn, <2 wt.%Ni,
<1.5 wt.%Pb, <1 wt.%Sb, ~0.01 wt.%P, and Cu as a balance. There is large variation in differ-
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 7 of 28

ent bells’ composition in practice due to the different bell manufacturing practices [37,44–56].
Therefore, metallurgical analyses of bronze cast bells, including an evaluation of the me-
chanical properties, should be carried out in order to assess the quality of bells.

Table 3. Composition of bronze cast bells (Eastern and Western bells) and their possible effects on the
mechanical properties. The tick mark (X) indicates the presence of particular element in the casting.

Alloying Constituents (wt.%)

Properties Ref.
Sn Pb Zn Bi Ag Sb As Ni Fe S P
10–20 - ≈5 - - - - - - - - High tensile strength [37,44–49]
10–20 X - X - - X - - - - Reduced tensile strength [44–47,49]
<23 - <5 - - ≈1 - - X X - High hardness [44–46,49]
>23 - - X - >1 X - - - - High brittleness [44–46,49]
- X - - - - - X X - - High wear resistance [49]
- - <5 - - - - - - - - High elongation [37,44,45,49]
<5 - - - - - - - - - - Reduced elongation [43,44]
≈20 - - - - - - - - - - High elastic limit [43,44,46,48]
>23 - - - - - - - - - - Low elastic limit [43,44,46,48]
- - - - - - - - X - - Abrasion resistant [50]
X - - - - - - - - - - High toughness [21,22,24]
- - - - - - - - X - - Low toughness [43,44,46]
- - - - - - - X - - - Fatigue resistant [51]
X X - - - - - - - - - High fluidity [11,22,43]
- - - - - - - >2 - - - Low fluidity [5,43,49]
- - - - - ≈1 - - - - 0.01 Deoxidizing [43]
- - - - - - - X - - - Reduced deformability [52]
- - - - - - - - X - - Poor rusting resistance [44,45,53]
>15 - - - - - - - - - - Poor crack resistance [43,44]
X - - - - - - - - - - Change in cast color [33,43–45]
- - X - - - - - - - - Reduced crystallization gap [42–44,49,54]
- - - X - - X - - - - Poor castability [43–45,49,54]
X X - - - - - - - X - High machinability [43–46,49,54]
- - - - - - - - X - - Poor machinability [3,5,11,44]
<10 - - - - - - - - - - Highly porous [2,44,45,54]
- - - - - - - 0.4–5 - - - Reduced porosity [55,56]
- - - - - - - 0.5–2 - - - Softening increased [45,55]
- - - - - - - 2–4 - - - Structure stabilizes [45,55,56]
20–23 - - - - ≈1 - - - - - Good sound quality [37,44–46]
- >1.5 >1.5 - X - - - - - - Poor sound quality [37,44–46]
X X X - - - - - - - - Reduced melting point [37,43–45,47,48]
X - - - X - - - - - - Expensive [37,43–46]
- X - - - - - - - - - Cost-effective [37,43–46]

3.2. Microstructure of Bronze Bells

The microstructure of bronze consists of an alpha (α) solid solution phase and an
alpha + delta (α + δ) eutectoid phase, which is known to be affected by the Sn content and
mold material. Here, the δ phase is Cu31 Sn8 , which is a brittle intermetallic compound.
In the phase diagram shown in Figure 3 [42,57], it can be seen that the Cu6 Sn5 , Cu6 Sn5 ,
and Cu3 Sn intermetallic compound (IMC) phases can also be generated. Since these
IMCs can cause cracks when the bell is used for a long time, it is necessary to suppress
 3.2. Microstructure of Bronze Bells
The microstructure of bronze consists of an alpha (α) solid solution phase and an
alpha + delta (α + δ) eutectoid phase, which is known to be affected by the Sn content and
mold material. Here, the δ phase is Cu31Sn8, which is a brittle intermetallic compound. In
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 the phase diagram shown in Figure 3 [42,57], it can be seen that the Cu6Sn5, Cu6Sn5, and8 of 28
Cu3Sn intermetallic compound (IMC) phases can also be generated. Since these IMCs can
cause cracks when the bell is used for a long time, it is necessary to suppress their for-
mation. Forformation.
their this purpose,
Forthe
thisuse of a lower
purpose, thecontent
use of aoflower
Sn or content
an increase in or
of Sn thean
cooling ratein the
increase
is recommended to reduce the size of IMCs or suppress their formation by supersaturat-
cooling rate is recommended to reduce the size of IMCs or suppress their formation by
ing Snsupersaturating
[37]. AnnealingSn procedures have also
[37]. Annealing been suggested
procedures to remove
have also the brittletoδ-phase
been suggested remove the
of thebrittle
Cu-Snδ-phase
systemof [58,59].
the Cu-Sn system [58,59].

FigureFigure
3. Cu-Sn phase phase
3. Cu-Sn diagram [42]. [42].
diagram

An increase
An increase in theinSnthe Sn content
content improvesimproves the technological
the technological properties
properties of tinof tin bronze,
bronze,
especially
especially regarding
regarding the improved
the improved hardness,
hardness, wearwear and friction
and friction properties
properties [60]. [60].
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, the mechanical
the mechanical characteristics
characteristics of castofbronze
cast bronze
have have a maximum
a maximum tensile
tensile
strength at 17% Sn, elongation at 4~5% Sn, and maximum
strength at 17% Sn, elongation at 4~5% Sn, and maximum hardness at 32% Sn [59]. Re- hardness at 32% Sn [59]. Regard-
ingthe
garding thematerial
materialof ofactual
actualbells,
bells,the
thehigher
higherthe thestrength
strengthandandhardness,
hardness,the thebetter.
better.When
When the
tincontent
the tin contentisisgreater
greaterthan
than20%,
20%,the thehardness
hardnessincreases
increasesbut butbrittleness
brittlenessappears,
appears,sosoititisis not
onlyweak
not only weaktotofatigue
fatigueafter
afterimpact
impact butbut segregation
segregation also also easily
easily occurs
occursduring
duringsolidification,
solidifica- so
it is difficult to obtain uniformity in the material [61,62]. Therefore, the
tion, so it is difficult to obtain uniformity in the material [61,62]. Therefore, the tin content tin content of bronze
Buddhist temple bells produced in modern times is around
of bronze Buddhist temple bells produced in modern times is around 15~17%, and the tin 15~17%, and the tin content
is adjusted according to the size of the bells [63,64]. A typical bronze
content is adjusted according to the size of the bells [63,64]. A typical bronze bell micro- bell microstructure
is composed
structure is composedof α-dendrites
of α-dendrites andandα +αδ+ eutectoid
δ eutectoid asasshown
shownininFigure
Figure4a.4a. The black dots
The black
correspond to
dots correspond to the
the porosity
porosity in inthe
thematrix
matrix(Figure
(Figure4b,c).
4b,c).Others
Othershavehavealso reported
also reported a similar
a
microstructure in the past [65–67]. The role of the α + δ microstructure
similar microstructure in the past [65–67]. The role of the α + δ microstructure in the cor- in the corrosion
rosiondegradation
degradationmechanism
mechanismofofbronzebronze artifacts
artifacts was studied in
was studied in the
thepast
pastusing
usingpotential
potential pH
Pourbaix diagrams [67,68]. The results indicated that the porosity
pH Pourbaix diagrams [67,68]. The results indicated that the porosity and brittle particles and brittle particles
provide additional reaction sites and dissolution occurs through crevices and pores, which
promotes the entire corrosion process.
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 9 of 28

Metals 2022, 12, 1776 9 of 28

provide additional reaction sites and dissolution occurs through crevices and pores,
which promotes the entire corrosion process.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Optical
Optical micrograph
micrograph of
of tin
tin bronze
bronze (78
(78 wt.%Cu-22
wt.%Cu-22 wt.%Sn).
wt.%Sn). (a)
(a) As-cast,
As-cast, (b)
(b) quenched
quenched in
in oil,
oil,
and (c) quenched in water. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [68]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.
and (c) quenched in water. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [68]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier.

Recently, Sarkar
Recently, Sarkar et et al.
al. studied
studiedthe theeffect
effectofofquenching
quenching media
media onon thethe
morphology
morphology of
of the brittle phases in as-cast bell metal (78wt.%Cu-22 wt.%Sn). The brittle δ-phasea
the brittle phases in as-cast bell metal ( 78wt.%Cu-22 wt.%Sn). The brittle δ-phase showed
needle-like
showed structure. After
a needle-like quenching
structure. Afterin oil and water
quenching in oilmedia at 700 °C
and water , the inter-dendritic
media at 700 ◦ C, the
region of all theregion
inter-dendritic samples differed.
of all the samplesAfterdiffered.
comparison Afterwith the phasewith
comparison diagram, it was
the phase found
diagram,
that
it wasthefound
dendritic structure
that the of allstructure
dendritic three samples was in
of all three the α-phase
samples was in while the interdendritic
the α-phase while the
region of the as-cast
interdendritic regionsample was in sample
of the as-cast the δ-phase;was in thetheβ-phase
δ-phase; was the shown
β-phase by the
wasoil- and
shown
water-quenched samples [68]. The mechanical properties
by the oil- and water-quenched samples [68]. The mechanical properties of the oil- andof the oil- and water-quenched
samples were increased
water-quenched samples bywere
8% and 25%, respectively,
increased by 8% and after 25%,increasing
respectively, the after
quenching tem-
increasing
perature
the quenchingby 50 °temperature
C to above 700 by°C ◦
50due C to the
above ◦
transformation
700 C due to of the
α- to β-phases by fragmen-
transformation of α- to
tation of the
β-phases by dendrites.
fragmentationTheseofresults are consistent
the dendrites. These with several
results areprevious
consistent studies
with [69–72].
several
The binary
previous studiesphase
[69–72]. diagram of tin bronze shows that the δ-phase solidifies first in the
remaining
The binarySn-rich liquid
phase and other
diagram of tinsolute
bronze elements
shows that [73].the The interdendritic
δ-phase solidifiesphases
first in un-
the
dergo eutectoid
remaining Sn-richreaction to form
liquid and otheransolute
α + δ mixture,
elementswhere[73]. Theδ is interdendritic
the brittle Cu31phasesSn8 compound.
undergo
eutectoid
Rapid cooling reaction to form
prevents the an α + δ mixture,
generation whereδ-phase
of the brittle δ is theand brittle Cu31the
retains Sn8α-solid
compound.solu-
Rapid
tion. Ifcooling prevents
the content of Snthe generation
is higher, of the brittle
i.e., 9–10%, and retains
δ-phaseinevitably
the δ-phase the α-solid
forms, which solution.
impacts
If
thethe content ofstrength
mechanical Sn is higher, i.e., 9–10%,
and reduces the δ-phase
the ductility inevitably
of bronze. Some forms,
researcherswhich impacts
have used
the mechanical strength
high-temperature and reducesatthe
homogenization 700ductility of bronze.the
°C to improve Some researchers
diffusion have com-
of brittle used
high-temperature
pounds into the α-phase, homogenization 700 ◦ C to improve
causing aatsingle-phase the diffusion
state after fast cooling of brittle
[74–76].compounds
into the α-phase, causing a single-phase state after fast cooling
The composition of a bronze (80 wt.%Cu-20 wt.%Sn) bell was analyzed by Cekus et [74–76].
al. inThe composition
a recent study [77]of aasbronze
given (80 wt.%Cu-20
in Figure 5a-d.wt.%Sn) bell was analyzed
The compositional analysisbyshowed
Cekus et al.
that
in
theatest
recentareastudy
A and [77] as given
B had in Figure
α-fractions 5a–d.
of 60% and The
40%, compositional
respectively.analysisHere, A showed
and B refersthat
the test“top”
to the area and
A and B had α-fractions
“bottom” sections ofofthe 60%belland 40%, respectively.
as shown in Figure 5a. Here,
The A and Bbronze
as-cast refers
to the “top” andconsists
microstructure “bottom” of sections
primary of the bell as
dendrites shown by
covered in Figure 5a. The as-cast
α+δ eutectoid (Figurebronze
5b-d),
microstructure consists of primary dendrites covered by α +
which is responsible for the sound quality of the bell. The eutectoid fraction was 40% and δ eutectoid (Figure 5b–d),
which is responsible
60%, respectively, for thetaking
without sound intoquality of thethe
account bell. The eutectoid
porosity. fraction was of
The microhardness 40% theand
α-
60%,
phase in samples A and B was 132 and 135 HV. The microhardness of the δ-phase inthe
respectively, without taking into account the porosity. The microhardness of α-
sam-
phase in samples A and B was 132 and 135 HV. The microhardness
ples A and B was 347 and 319 HV, respectively. The reduced mechanical properties along of the δ-phase in samples
A
theand B wascross-section
thickest 347 and 319 of HV, therespectively.
bell bottom The reduced
did not affectmechanical
the sound qualityproperties along
but did the
cause
thickest
a decrease cross-section of the in
in the Sn content bell
thebottom
α-phase. didThe notauthors
affect the sound that
reported qualitythisbut did cause
occurred a
to the
decrease in the Sn content in the α-phase. The authors reported
differences in the melting, pouring, and solidification procedures of the alloys, i.e., a that this occurred to the
differences in the melting,
higher solidification time atpouring,
the belland solidification
bottom creates aprocedures
difference in of the
the mechanical
alloys, i.e., acharac-
higher
solidification time
teristics of the bell [77].at the bell bottom creates a difference in the mechanical characteristics of
the bell [77].
Metals Metals 2022,
2022, 12, 12, 1776
1776 10 of 2810 of 28

FigureFigure
5. Microstructural analysis
5. Microstructural of an of
analysis as-cast bronze
an as-cast bell. (a)
bronze bell.The
(a)cut
Theview areasareas
cut view of the
oftest
the points
test points A
A (top)(top)
and and
B (bottom) of the bronze cast bell. (b–d) Scanning electron microscopy and
B (bottom) of the bronze cast bell. (b–d) Scanning electron microscopy and the elemental
the elemental
distribution in areas with increased Cu and Sn contents, respectively [77].
distribution in areas with increased Cu and Sn contents, respectively [77].

Low-tin bronze
Low-tin alloy alloy
bronze depicts a single-phase
depicts a single-phasemicrostructure
microstructure and and
has has
better machina-
better machinabil-
bility,ity,
which is used to make thin sheets and artifacts [78]. Previous
which is used to make thin sheets and artifacts [78]. Previous researchers have researchers haveadded
addedPbPbtoto compensate for the difference in the Sn content from the top
compensate for the difference in the Sn content from the top to the bottom core of theto the bottom
core of theThe
bell. bell. The addition
addition of Pb improves
of Pb improves the meltthe melt but
fluidity fluidity
remainsbut undissolved
remains undissolved
and segregates
and segregates
in the solidinstate.
the solid state. Theofpresence
The presence of Pb-spheroids
Pb-spheroids and their size and their size distribution
distribution contributes to the
contributes to the machinability
machinability of Cu-based alloysof Cu-based
[78]. Pballoys
is found[78].
as Pb is found
spherical as spherical
aggregates alongaggre-
with the α
gates and
along with the
δ phases in αtheand δ phasesThe
eutectoid. in the eutectoid. The
microhardness microhardness
of bronze of bronze
bells varies between bells
160 and
varies200
between
HV0.5160 dueand 200non-homogeneous
to the HV0.5 due to the non-homogeneous
microstructure (“harder” microstructure (“harder”
α + δ, α and Pb-globules,
α + δ,and
α and Pb-globules,
porosity) [67]. and porosity) [67].
Similar to tin to
Similar bronze, aluminum
tin bronze, aluminumbronze has also
bronze hasbeen
also used to enhance
been used the acoustic
to enhance the acoustic
properties of bronze
properties bells and
of bronze bellsthe
andfeasibility of a substitution
the feasibility for dedicated
of a substitution Cu-SnCu-Sn
for dedicated bronze. bronze.
Al-bronze
Al-bronze is characterized
is characterized by anby an excellent
excellent hardnesshardness and strength.
and strength. PreviousPrevious authors
authors have have
shown shown that castings
that castings mademade of CuSn
of CuSn 20 and and CuAl
20CuAl 10 Fe
10Fe3Mn 3 Mn2 similar
2 have have similar acoustic
acoustic vibrations,
vibrations,
which can be used to develop cheaper and high-strength bell
which can be used to develop cheaper and high-strength bell templates that can facilitate templates that can facili-
tate the desired curvature shape and acoustic characteristics
the desired curvature shape and acoustic characteristics without further additional tuning without further additional
tuning [36,62,79].
[36,62,79].

4. Metal
4. Metal Casting
Casting Technology
Technology
According
According to theto the metallurgy
metallurgy knowledgebase,
knowledgebase, casting
casting is a material
is a material fabrication
fabrication processprocess
in which molten material is introduced into a mold, allowing it to solidify within the mold, mold,
in which molten material is introduced into a mold, allowing it to solidify within the
andthe
and then then the mold
mold is detached
is detached or broken
or broken to obtain
to obtain the fabricated
the fabricated part. Castings
part. Castings are mainly
are mainly
used toused to make
make complexcomplex
shapesshapes
that that would
would be otherwise
be otherwise difficult
difficult or uneconomical
or uneconomical to to prepare
pre-
using other methods, such as cutting, turning, or joining a solid [80]. In this section, we
pare using other methods, such as cutting, turning, or joining a solid [80]. In this section,
highlight the different methods used in casting technology.
we highlight the different methods used in casting technology.
Two major categories of metal castings include (1) expendable and (2) non-expendable
Two major categories of metal castings include (1) expendable and (2) non-expenda-
mold casting technologies (Figure 6a). Expendable mold castings are permanent or tem-
ble mold casting technologies (Figure 6a). Expendable mold castings are permanent or
porary molds produced by sand casting and plaster of Paris (POP) molds. Most bronze
temporary molds produced by sand casting and plaster of Paris (POP) molds. Most bronze
bell castings utilize expendable mold castings with temporary pattern casting such as lost
bell castings utilize expendable mold castings with temporary pattern casting such as lost
wax casting (LWC) or semi-permanent mold castings such as rotational molding or pep-set
wax casting (LWC) or semi-permanent mold castings such as rotational molding or pep-
casting (Figure 6b). In this section, we discuss the casting technologies related to bronze
set casting (Figure 6b). In this section, we discuss the casting technologies related to
cast bells in particular.
bronze cast bells in particular.
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 1111of
of 28

Figure
Figure 6.
6. (a)
(a) Metal
Metal casting
casting technologies
technologies and
and (b) popular bronze
(b) popular bronze cast
cast technologies
technologies for
for bells.
bells.

The traditional method of bronze casting using using template

template molding
molding expands
expands the the spec-
spec-
position of
ified position ofaamold
moldduring
duringmetalmetalpouring.
pouring. These
These template
template molds
molds are considered
are considered im-
improper because they do not take advantage of directional solidification
proper because they do not take advantage of directional solidification [81]. The internal [81]. The internal
shrinkage pores
pores inside
insidethethecastings
castingscancandisturb
disturbthe
thesound
soundvibrations
vibrations ininbells
bells byby
introducing
introduc-
additional
ing nodal
additional points.
nodal Specifically,
points. the casting
Specifically, technology
the casting of bronze
technology bells bells
of bronze can becandivided
be di-
into four
vided intomethods, such assuch
four methods, beeswax casting,casting,
as beeswax rotational molding,
rotational polymer-set
molding, process, pro-
polymer-set and
LWC and
cess, [82–85].
LWCAmong
[82–85].these,
Amongthe rotational
these, the molding
rotationaland beeswax
molding casting
and beeswaxmethods aremeth-
casting tradi-
tional
ods arecasting techniques
traditional castingthat have been
techniques used
that since
have been ancient
used times. Beeswax
since ancient remnants
times. Beeswax are
not common in prehistoric European locations, with only a few exceptions
remnants are not common in prehistoric European locations, with only a few exceptions to date [86,87].
The beeswax
to date [86,87].casting method casting
The beeswax was later used in
method Asia,
was laterespecially in China
used in Asia, and theinKorean
especially China
Peninsula, for the fabrication of bells, swords, and artifacts [88,89].
and the Korean Peninsula, for the fabrication of bells, swords, and artifacts [88,89].It is no exaggeration
It is no
to say that almost
exaggeration to sayall Buddhist
that bells
almost all in Korea
Buddhist were
bells produced
in Korea wereusing the beeswax
produced using the casting
bees-
method from the unified Silla and Goryeo period [90].
wax casting method from the unified Silla and Goryeo period [90].
4.1. Traditional Bronze Casting Methods for Bells
4.1. Traditional Bronze Casting Methods for Bells
4.1.1. Importance of Beeswax in LWC
4.1.1. Importance of Beeswax in LWC
LWC or beeswax casting employs wax obtained from honey bees, an essential organic
LWC
mixture of or beeswax
various casting employs
compounds. wax obtained
The composition from honey
of beeswax differsbees, an essential
quantitatively or-
from
ganic mixture of various compounds. The composition of beeswax
different bee species [91]. The major components of beeswax include hydrocarbons, fatty differs quantitatively
from
acids,different
esters, andbee species
traces of [91]. Theunknown
a few major components
compounds of beeswax
[92–95]. include hydrocarbons,
Most recently, seven
fatty
homologous series of beeswax have been used for identification, such as odd andseven
acids, esters, and traces of a few unknown compounds [92–95]. Most recently, even
homologous
numbers of C- series
atoms of (C17
beeswax have
to C35) (C22beento used
C34); for
oddidentification, such as odd and even
numbers of monounsaturated fatty
numbers
acids (C21oftoC-C35)atoms (C17HC29:1,
except to C35)HC31:1,
(C22 to C34); odd numbers
and HC33:1; of monounsaturated
and monoesters fatty
(palmitate, (C34
acids (C21
to C50); to C35)
oleate except C18:1–20),
(C18:1–18, HC29:1, HC31:1, and HC33:1; andwith
and hydroxypalmitate monoesters (palmitate,
large chain alkanols(C34
(an
to C50); oleate (C18:1–18,
isomer of C34 to C50)) [96]. C18:1–20), and hydroxypalmitate with large chain alkanols (an
isomer of C34 to
Beeswax C50)) [96].to have specific importance in ancient technological, cultural,
is believed
Beeswax
artistic, is believed
and symbolic areastoashave
shown specific importance
in Figure in ancient
7. The various technological,
applications cultural,
of beeswax were
artistic,
summarized and symbolic
by Regertareas as 2001
et al. in shown in The
[97]. Figure
last 7. The
few various
years have applications of beeswax
shown new applications
were summarized
of beeswax by over
as a glaze Regert et al. in[98],
pigment 2001a [97]. The lastcoating
waterproof few years have shown
in ceramics newand
[99,100], appli-
an
cations
adhesive offor
beeswax
a bindingas a agent
glaze onover pigment
Chinese [98], a waterproof
turquoise-inlaid coating
bronzes in ceramics
[101,102], [99,100],
in addition to
and an adhesive for a binding agent on Chinese turquoise-inlaid bronzes
its use as a sealing material for funereal homes [103]. With the development of lost wax [101,102], in ad-
dition to its useaas
metal castings, a sealing amount
significant materialoffor funerealis homes
beeswax required[103]. With
for the the development
production od bronzeof
lost wax using
castings metal this
castings,
method a significant
[104]. amount of beeswax is required for the production od
bronze castings using this method [104].
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 12 of 28
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 12 of 28

Figure7.7.Application
Figure Applicationofofbeeswax
beeswaxinintechnological
technologicaland
andartistic
artisticareas.
areas.

Beeswaxhas
Beeswax hasbeen
beenused
usedasasaadental
dentalfilling
fillingininNeolithic
NeolithicSlovenia
Slovenia[105].
[105].Archaeological
Archaeological
surveys have confirmed that the beeswax present in cooking pots is the
surveys have confirmed that the beeswax present in cooking pots is the remainder remainder of bees-
of
wax castings [106]. Lamps or candles have played diverse technological, symbolic,
beeswax castings [106]. Lamps or candles have played diverse technological, symbolic, and and
artisticroles
artistic rolesininancient
ancienttimes
times[107,108].
[107,108].

4.1.2.
4.1.2.LWC
LWCBackground
Background
LWC
LWC isthe
is themost
mostancient
ancientcasting
castingtechnology
technologyfor forthe
theproduction
productionof ofcast
castartifacts,
artifacts,sculp-
sculp-
tures,
tures,bells,
bells,and
andswords.
swords.LWC LWCisisalsoalsoknown
knownas asinvestment
investmentor orprecision
precisioncasting
castingand andhas
has
been
beenwidely
widelyknownknownfor forcenturies.
centuries. TheThe cast
castcomponents
components have haveananexcellent
excellenthighhighsurface
surface
finish,
finish,dimensional
dimensional stability, andand
stability, complex
complex shapes (near-net-shape
shapes geometry)
(near-net-shape that are
geometry) made
that are
possible when micromachining is not feasible or wasteful. Recent advancements
made possible when micromachining is not feasible or wasteful. Recent advancements in in casting
technologies have made
casting technologies haveit the
mademost versatile
it the casting method
most versatile casting among
methodthe different
among casting
the different
technologies. According to Taylor [109], LWC originated in 5000 BCE
casting technologies. According to Taylor [109], LWC originated in 5000 BCE when prim- when primitive men
used it to fabricate tools for hunting animals.
itive men used it to fabricate tools for hunting animals.
Figure
Figure8a–d
8a–dshows
showsthe thevarious
variouscastcastobjects
objectsused
usedbybyprimitive
primitivemen mentotocast
castswords
swordsand and
pointed weapons using LWC. The assembled wax model was
pointed weapons using LWC. The assembled wax model was immersed in a clay mold immersed in a clay mold
followed
followedby byheating
heatingand andsqueezing
squeezingof ofthe
thewax
waxoutoutof
ofthe
themold,
mold,leaving
leavingbehind
behindaahollow
hollow
object
object that was filled with liquid metal. The solidified weapon heads werethen
that was filled with liquid metal. The solidified weapon heads were thendetached
detached
and
andfinished.
finished. Kotzin
Kotzin [110]
[110] mentioned
mentioned the the importance
importance of of this
this process
process inin various
various jewelry,
jewelry,
idols,
idols, and art castings for centuries. LWC has been found in various areas acrossthe
and art castings for centuries. LWC has been found in various areas across theglobe
globe
such as the treasures of the Pharaohs in Egypt, Inca tombs of South
such as the treasures of the Pharaohs in Egypt, Inca tombs of South America, the ancientAmerica, the ancient
Etruscans, the Greeks in Europe, the Chinese Bronze Age, Indus Valley and Harappan
Etruscans, the Greeks in Europe, the Chinese Bronze Age, Indus Valley and Harappan
civilization, etc. An example of a Harappan bronze sculpture, a creative dancing girl, is
civilization, etc. An example of a Harappan bronze sculpture, a creative dancing girl, is
shown (Figure 8e). Later, this LWC was utilized to produce artifacts of Cu, Cu-Sn, and
shown (Figure 8e). Later, this LWC was utilized to produce artifacts of Cu, Cu-Sn, and
Au. The review by Kotzin states that LWC helped in promoting the cultural civilization
Au. The review by Kotzin states that LWC helped in promoting the cultural civilization
of people across the globe. LWC offered solutions to various complex-shaped objects,
of people across the globe. LWC offered solutions to various complex-shaped objects, un-
undercut parts with a smooth finish, and fine details. In recent times, the use of LWC has
dercut parts with a smooth finish, and fine details. In recent times, the use of LWC has
continued to increase in the manufacturing of a variety of products.
continued to increase in the manufacturing of a variety of products.
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 13 of 28
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 13 of 28

Figure
Figure 8.
8. LWC
LWC of of ancient
ancient spearheads.
spearheads. (a)
(a) Wax
Wax model
model assembly:
assembly: (b)
(b) Placing
Placing of
of the
the wax
wax model
model in
in the
the
clay
clay mold; (c) pouring of liquid metal into the clay mold after wax draining; and (d) detachment of
mold; (c) pouring of liquid metal into the clay mold after wax draining; and (d) detachment of
the
the mold
mold to
to obtain
obtain the
the solid
solid product [109]. (e)
product [109]. (e) Dancing
Dancing girl
girl sculpture.
sculpture.

4.1.3. Merits
Merits and
and Drawbacks
Drawbacks of LWC
The various
various applications
applicationsofofLWC LWC inin
thethe modern
modern ageage include
include charger
charger wheels,
wheels, elec-
electronic
gadgets,
tronic golf club
gadgets, golfheads, biomedical
club heads, hip implants,
biomedical and aerospace
hip implants, components
and aerospace for defense
components for
outlets according to Eddy et al. [111]. LWC has no metallurgical limitation
defense outlets according to Eddy et al. [111]. LWC has no metallurgical limitation on the on the products,
including including
products, ferrous and non-ferrous
ferrous alloys. No additional
and non-ferrous alloys. No costly tools are
additional involved
costly tools are in this
in-
process.inHowever,
volved LWCHowever,
this process. involves expensive
LWC involves manual labor to manual
expensive prepare labor
the wax pattern and
to prepare the
ceramic
wax slurry.
pattern and ceramic slurry.
The extensive
The extensive investigations
investigations of of LWCs
LWCs carried
carried outout byby Craig
Craig et al. [112] showed that
the suitability of a wax pattern as a lost wax pattern depends on on
the suitability of a wax pattern as a lost wax pattern depends thethe following
following factors:
factors: (1)
(1) the lowest possible thermal expansion to match the desired dimensional
the lowest possible thermal expansion to match the desired dimensional accuracy; (2) accuracy; (2) aa
melting point
melting point that
that is
is lower
lower than
than ambiance
ambiance to to prevent
prevent thermal
thermal distortions
distortions and and cavitation
cavitation
issues; (3)
issues; (3) high
high resistance
resistance to to deformation
deformation at at room
room temperature
temperature for for easy
easy handling;
handling; (4) (4) high
high
wettability and
wettability and smoothness.
smoothness.(5) (5)low
lowviscosity
viscositytotofill
fillthe
thethinnest
thinnestsections
sections ofof
the mold
the mold during
dur-
pouring;
ing (6) easy
pouring; detachment
(6) easy detachment fromfrom
the mold after after
the mold casting; (7) ash
casting; (7)free
ashand
freeshould not leave
and should not
any residue in the mold; and (8) environmentally safe. Other factors
leave any residue in the mold; and (8) environmentally safe. Other factors include the include the expenses,
recyclability,
expenses, availability,availability,
recyclability, and toxicityand when choosing
toxicity whena choosing
wax pattern. a waxThepattern.
efficiency Theofeffi-
the
lost wax can be achieved by employing additives, mixing it with
ciency of the lost wax can be achieved by employing additives, mixing it with differentdifferent wax types, and
optimizing
wax the process
types, and optimizingparameters.
the process parameters.
4.1.4. LWC for Bells
4.1.4. LWC for Bells
LWC using the beeswax method is the first ancient casting technique used in China
LWC using the beeswax method is the first ancient casting technique used in China
around the 10th century BCE. It was introduced into Korea around the 3rd century BCE
around the 10th century BCE. It was introduced into Korea around the 3rd century BCE
and was believed to be the origin of the modern LWC method. Beeswax casting is still a
and was believed
traditional methodtoinbe the origin
Southeast of the
Asia, modern
Europe, andLWC method.
Africa. Beeswax
Graig et al. [113]casting
studiedisthe
still
usea
traditional method in Southeast Asia, Europe, and Africa. Graig et al.
of beeswax in dentistry at the University of Michigan and reported that the mechanical [113] studied the
use of beeswax
strength in dentistry
properties at the University
are especially of Michigan
important when and reported
considerable expansion thatoccurs
the mechani-
during
cal strength casting
investment properties are especially
for dental important when considerable expansion occurs dur-
applications.
ing investment
The beeswax casting for method
casting dental applications.
produces a model that is identical to the shape of the
The beeswax casting method
bell that is made of beeswax and overlaid produces a molding
with model thatsandis identical
mixed with to fine-grained
the shape of clay
the
bell that is made of beeswax and overlaid with molding sand mixed with
and sand followed by drying [114]. After, the mold is heated to liquefy the wax inside, fine-grained
clay
and and sand
liquid followed
melt is pouredby drying
into the[114].
spaceAfter,
where thethe
mold
waxis is
heated to liquefy
dissolved. the wax
Beeswax inside,
is seldom
and liquid melt is poured into the space where the wax is dissolved. Beeswax is seldom
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 14 of 28

Metals 2022, 12, 1776 14 of

mixed with rosin, wood oil, or beef oil to soften the wax so that the outer plates rotate
well [41,45]. The process flow of the beeswax method consists of pattern engraving, wax
mixed with rosin, wood oil, or beef oil to soften the wax so that the outer plates rotate we
pouring, wax pattern plate
[41,45]. Theproduction,
process flowcore production,
of the beeswax method wax layer on the
consists core, wax
of pattern pattern wax pou
engraving,
plate assembly, casting sand, drying, wax removal, firing, melting, and casting.
ing, wax pattern plate production, core production, wax layer on the core, wax patte
Kissi [115] evaluated the casting
plate assembly, castingofsand,
hollow artifacts
drying, wax produced by Ghanaian
removal, firing, melting, traditional
and casting.
metalsmiths and suggested that the use of liquid wax to produce
Kissi [115] evaluated the casting of hollow artifacts produced hollow wax byframes
Ghanaian in tradition
POP molds should be used toand
metalsmiths ensure directthat
suggested duplication
the use ofofliquid
the master
wax towithout
producethe creation
hollow wax frames
of parting lines inPOP
themolds
inner should
walls of bethe model.
used to ensure direct duplication of the master without the creatio
Hossain et of al.parting
[116] studied
lines in thetheinner
physicomechanical
walls of the model. characteristics of paraffin and
beeswax to simulate the rocking
Hossain behavior
et al. for water
[116] studied the jet drilling and concluded
physicomechanical that natural
characteristics of paraffin an
beeswax could be beeswax
a goodtosubstitute
simulate the forrocking
reservoir behavior
rocks.for water jet et
Giuseppe drilling andstudied
al. [117] concluded thethat natur
thermos-mechanical beeswax could beofa beeswax-halloysite
properties good substitute for reservoir
nanotube rocks.
(HNT)Giuseppe et al. [117]
composites andstudied th
thermos-mechanical
stated that a slight decrease in the beeswax properties of beeswax-halloysite
crystallinity occurred after nanotube
the HNT (HNT) composites an
addition.
stated that a slight decrease in the beeswax crystallinity
Zhang et al. [118] investigated the thermal behavior of four insect waxes and obtained occurred after the HNT a additio
Zhang ◦ et al. [118] investigated the thermal
melting point of 70.34 C and melting enthalpy of 168.1 J/g for beeswax. behavior of four insect waxes and obtained
melting point of 70.34 °C and melting enthalpy of 168.1
Previously, Dong-Joo et al. [119] studied the influence of the temperature and cooling J/g for beeswax.
speed on the mechanical Previously, Dong-Jooof
characteristics et aal.pressure
[119] studied
cast the influence of the
thermoplastic temperature
composite. Theand coolin
speed on the mechanical characteristics of a pressure cast thermoplastic composite. Th
results showed that the crystallinity decreased with the increased cooling rate, with the
results showed that the crystallinity decreased with the increased cooling rate, with th
slowly cooled specimen having a high fracture toughness.
slowly cooled specimen having a high fracture toughness.
The patterns are engraved on stone, clay, or wood such as talc with an intaglio, and
The patterns are engraved on stone, clay, or wood such as talc with an intaglio, an
then the pattern is re-sculpted with wax (Figure 9a,b). The preparation of 3D patterns such
then the pattern is re-sculpted with wax (Figure 9a,b). The preparation of 3D patterns suc
as dragon stringas ordragon
a sculpture
string is orcreated using
a sculpture the beeswax
is created using form (Figureform
the beeswax 9c–e). Larger
(Figure 9c–e). Larg
bells are difficultbells
to make using the beeswax casting method, and it is
are difficult to make using the beeswax casting method, and it is presumedpresumed that the that th
rotary method and beeswax
rotary method casting methodcasting
and beeswax coexistedmethodat the time [120].
coexisted at theUnfortunately, the
time [120]. Unfortunately, th
key technology of this traditional method was lost during Japanese colonial
key technology of this traditional method was lost during Japanese colonial rule and th rule and the
Korean War. TheKorean
demand forThe
War. bells increased
demand afterincreased
for bells the Korean War
after the due
Koreanto the
Warrapid
due tospread
the rapid sprea
of Protestants, and the first bell manufacturing company was established
of Protestants, and the first bell manufacturing company was established in in Korea in 1954,
Korea in 195
which used the rotational molding method learned from the Japanese
which used the rotational molding method learned from the Japanese [121]. [121].

Figure 9. The fabrication

Figure 9.process of a beeswax
The fabrication form
process of a[110,116]. (a) Pattern
beeswax form engraving,
[110,116]. (a) Pattern(b) beeswax(b) beesw
engraving,
pouring,
pouring, (c) beeswax (c) beeswax
patterning, patterning,
(d) plane beeswax (d)form,
planeand
beeswax form, and
(e) beeswax (e)form.
bell beeswax bell form.

Modern LWC for Modern LWC for

the pomjong thewas
bell pomjong bell was
developed in developed in the
the last few last few
decades anddecades
was and w
patented in Korea in 2004 [122]. The biggest difference between
patented in Korea in 2004 [122]. The biggest difference between LWC and conventional wax LWC and convention
wax casting is whether the model of the bell is made only with beeswax
casting is whether the model of the bell is made only with beeswax or a mixture of beeswax or a mixture
and FRP. In LWC, the bell frame is made of FRP—only the pattern part is separately madepart is sep
beeswax and FRP. In LWC, the bell frame is made of FRP—only the pattern
of wax—and the rately made of
wax pattern is wax—and the the
inserted into waxFRP
pattern
frameis (Figure
inserted10a–b).
into theAlthough
FRP frameit (Figure
is a 10a–b
Although it is a simple process, it is important to know how to insert beeswax into th
simple process, it is important to know how to insert beeswax into the FRP bell mold and
FRP bell mold and separate the FRP bell mold so that the molding sand does not brea
separate the FRP bell mold so that the molding sand does not break after coating with the
after coating with the casting sand.
casting sand.
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 15 of 28
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 15 of 28

Figure10.
Figure 10. The
TheLWCLWCmethod
methodused
used to to
produce a temple
produce bell.bell.
a temple (a) Wax
(a) pattern, (b) FRP
Wax pattern, (b)frame,
FRP (c) wax
frame,
form, (d) molding and coating, (e) wax removal, (f) core, (g) molding box assembly, and (h) casting
(c) wax form, (d) molding and coating, (e) wax removal, (f) core, (g) molding box assembly, and
[122].
(h) casting [122].

When the
When the model
model of ofthethebellbellis is
completed
completed using FRPFRP
using and andbeeswax beeswaxas shown in Figure
as shown in
10c, unlike the traditional wax method, which uses
Figure 10c, unlike the traditional wax method, which uses clay and sand as the clay and sand as the casting sand, in
cast-
this method, ceramic materials such as zircon flour and chamotte
ing sand, in this method, ceramic materials such as zircon flour and chamotte sand (fire sand (fire clay) are used
as the
clay) arecasting
used as sand,
the and
castingcolloidal
sand, silica is used as
and colloidal the is
silica binder.
used as A the
slurry of colloidal
binder. A slurry silica
of
and zircon
colloidal flour
silica andis coated on theissurface
zircon flour coated of onthe
thebeeswax
surface model and then model
of the beeswax chamotte andsand
thenis
applied (Figure
chamotte sand is10d). According
applied to theAccording
(Figure 10d). size of the to species,
the size thisofprocess is repeated
the species, up to is
this process 30
times or more. After the casting sand coating is finished,
repeated up to 30 times or more. After the casting sand coating is finished, the FRP and the FRP and beeswax inside are
removedinside
beeswax and the outer shape
are removed and istheceramicized
outer shapethrough firing through
is ceramicized (Figure firing
10e,f).(Figure
The finished
10e,f).
outer frame is placed on the core, and a separately molded
The finished outer frame is placed on the core, and a separately molded dragon string dragon string is placed on itisto
complete
placed on itthe
to form (Figure
complete the 10g,h).
form (Figure 10g,h).
Previousbell
Previous bellmanufacturers
manufacturershave haveattempted
attemptedtotoproduce produce large
large and and small
small bells
bells using
using a
a variety
variety of materials:
of materials: castcast
iron,iron, steel,
steel, Zn Zn andand Al alloys,
Al alloys, glass,
glass, China China clay,clay, or pottery.
or pottery. How-
However,
ever,
the theconsists
alloy alloy consists
of aboutof80 about
wt.%80 Cuwt.%and Cu and 20
20 wt.% Sn wt.%
is stillSn is still regarded
regarded as the basic as material
the basic
material
for for the production
the production of bells, the of so-called
bells, the ‘bellso-called
bronze’ ‘bell[123,124].
bronze’ [123,124].
Despite many Despite many
trials of
trials of replacing
replacing the costlythe costly
Sn with Sn with
other other no
elements, elements,
alloy with no similarly
alloy withgood similarly
acoustic good acoustic
properties
properties
has has beensoachieved
been achieved far [36,125].so farThere
[36,125].
wereThere were where
incidents incidents somewhere some large-scale
large-scale projects
failed to combine
projects failed to these
combine properties. Some bells
these properties. Somecracked
bellsafter
cracked a shortaftertime of use,
a short timee.g.,
of the
use,
Aleksejevskij bell, which
e.g., the Aleksejevskij worked
bell, whichfor only one
worked foryear,
onlyand onethe year,largest
and bell in the world,
the largest bell inthethe
Tsar Bell,the
world, also
Tsarknown as Tsarsky
Bell, also knownKolokol,
as Tsarsky with a masswith
Kolokol, equala to mass × 103tokg,
250equal 250has never
× 10 3 kg,

stricken
has never a note.
stricken Since 2000,
a note. Sincethe 2000,
largest theand heaviest
largest ringing ringing
and heaviest bell in the bellworld has been
in the world has
the Bell of Good Luck at the Foquan Temple in Pingdingshan
been the Bell of Good Luck at the Foquan Temple in Pingdingshan city, China, whose city, China, whose mass
ismass
116 is 103 ×kg
× 116 103[126,127].
kg [126,127]. TheThe shapeshape of bells
of bellshas haschanged
changedover overthe thecenturies
centuries[128–130];
[128–130];
nevertheless,
nevertheless,their theirconstruction
constructionwas wasdesigned
designedtotohave havesuitable
suitablestrength
strengthand anddivine
divinesound
sound
using
usingproperly
properlyselected
selectedparameters,
parameters, i.e., wall
i.e., thickness,
wall thickness, bellbell
diameter,
diameter, andand the the
composition
composi-
of theofalloy,
tion which
the alloy, are decisive
which are decisive concerning
concerning the thesound
sound tonetoneand andtimbre
timbre [131–133].
[131–133].The The
optimal mechanical strength is easy to achieve by increasing
optimal mechanical strength is easy to achieve by increasing the bell wall thickness, the bell wall thickness, but the
but
relationship
the relationshipbetween the shape
between of the bell
the shape of theand its and
bell sound itsissound
hard to is grasp,
hard to especially because
grasp, especially
the bell sound
because the bellconsists
soundofconsists
a seriesof ofamerged
series oftones
merged and tones
overtones, which givewhich
and overtones, the so-called
give the
strike tonestrike
so-called [134,135].
tone [134,135].
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 16 of 28

Metals 2022, 12, 1776 16 of 28

4.2. Rotational Molding Method

4.2.1.
4.2. Rotomolding Process
Rotational Molding Method
4.2.1. Rotomolding Process
Rotational molding is also termed rotomolding or rotational casting. It is the most
popular processing
Rotational methodisfor
molding molding.
also termed Itrotomolding
was first developed in thecasting.
or rotational early 20th
It iscentury,
the most
but it became
popular popularmethod
processing after thefor
1960s when Lyondell
molding. Basell
It was first replaced
developed in vinyl plastisol
the early resins
20th century,
with
but polyolefin resins [136].
it became popular after The rotomolding
the 1960s processBasell
when Lyondell consists of fourvinyl
replaced stages: charging,
plastisol resins
with polyolefin
heating, resins
cooling, and [136]. Theasrotomolding
de-molding, process
shown in Figure consists of four stages: charging,
11 [137–141].
heating, cooling, and de-molding, as shown in Figure 11 [137–141].

Figure 11.11.
Figure (a) (a)
Rotomolding process
Rotomolding and and
process (b) thermal cyclecycle
(b) thermal for rotomolding of a semi-crystalline
for rotomolding pol-
of a semi-crystalline
ymer [141]. There are seven steps in the thermal cycle profile.
polymer [141]. There are seven steps in the thermal cycle profile.

The
Thevarious
various stages
stagesininrotomolding
rotomolding are
areillustrated
illustrated ininFigure
Figure11a,b.
11a,b.The Thevarious
varioussteps
steps
are as follows. The first step is mold charging, where the cast material
are as follows. The first step is mold charging, where the cast material is poured is poured into
intothe
the
mold. The cast material is in the form of a powder, with or without additives,
mold. The cast material is in the form of a powder, with or without additives, to achieve to achieve
a auniform
uniformheatheatdistribution.
distribution.AfterAfter charging,
charging, thethemold
mold is is
heated
heatedwith
withuniaxial
uniaxialororbiaxial
biaxial
rotation.
rotation.TheTherotation
rotationspeed
speed is is
optimized,
optimized, which
which is isrelatively
relatively low
lowtotoachieve
achievea auniform
uniform
distribution.
distribution. The
The uniaxial
uniaxial toto
biaxial
biaxialrotation
rotationratio
ratiois is
usually
usually maintained
maintained atat4:14:1
toto
avoid
avoid the
the
adherence
adherenceofofmelt
melt over
over the mold
moldsurface.
surface.After
Afterheating,
heating,the the mold
mold is cooled
is cooled withwith airwater
air or or
water
sprayspray
and and the solidification
the solidification of cast
of the the cast sample
sample follows.
follows. After
After solidification,
solidification, thethe final
final cast
cast product
product is detached
is detached fromfromthethe
moldmoldandand recovered
recovered [141].
[141].

4.2.2.
4.2.2. Materials
Materials forfor Rotomolding
Rotomolding
TheThenumerous
numerousmaterials
materialsand andtheir
theirrespective
respectiveproperties
propertiesused
usedasasrotomolded
rotomoldedcastcast
products are summarized in Table 4. Rotomolding has also been used to prepare
products are summarized in Table 4. Rotomolding has also been used to prepare automo- automobile
prototypes.
bile Although
prototypes. Althoughthisthis
method
method hashas
thethedisadvantages
disadvantagesof poor strength
of poor andand
strength degradation
degra-
over time,
dation over the
time,process is nowisbecoming
the process more popular
now becoming due to the
more popular dueproduction of stress-free
to the production of
plastic products. Due to these challenges, suitable surface functionalization
stress-free plastic products. Due to these challenges, suitable surface functionalization isis exercised
by choosing
exercised a suitable
by choosing resin and
a suitable additive
resin polymer.
and additive The optimum
polymer. processprocess
The optimum parameters
pa-
in rotomolding can give rise to promising plastic products for industries.
rameters in rotomolding can give rise to promising plastic products for industries. Roto- Rotomolding
products
molding are expected
products to increase
are expected in the near
to increase future
in the near[124,125].
future [124,125].
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 17 of 28

Metals 2022, 12, 1776 17 of 28

Table 4. Various polymers and their properties needed for rotomolding [142,143].

Polymer Table 4. Various

Moldability polymers
Impact and their properties
Strength needed for rotomolding [142,143].
Advantage Limitations
Polyethylene
Polymer Excellent
Moldability Good
Impact Strength Low cost
Advantage Lower strength
Limitations
Polyethylene Excellent Good Low cost Low strength
Lower at cryo
strength
Polypropylene Good Poor Better stiffness temperatures, costly
Low strength at cryo tempera-
Polypropylene Good Poor Better stiffness than polyethylene
tures, costly than polyethylene
Polystyrene Good Poor Minimum shrinkage Poor strength
Polystyrene Good Poor Minimum shrinkage Poor strength
Expensive compared
Expensive compared totopoly-
Polyether ether
Polyether etherketone
ketone Moderate
Moderate Poor
Poor Rigid, fire
Rigid, firesafety
safety polyethylene
ethylene
costlythan
costly than polyethylene,
polyethylene,
Polyvinyl chloride Good Good Easily paintable lower stiffness
Polyvinyl chloride Good Good Easily paintable lower than
stiffness than polyeth-
polyethylene
ylene
Acrylonitrile butadiene
Acrylonitrile Moderate Good Rigid and paintable costly than polyethylene
styrenebutadiene Moderate Good Rigid and paintable costly than polyethylene
styrene
Ethylene butyl acetate Good Good Stretchable Powder form
Ethylene butyl acetate Good Good Stretchable Powder form
Thick and rigid, high
Epoxy Moderate Poor Thickimpact
and rigid, high im-
strength
Highly expensive
Epoxy Moderate Poor Highly expensive
pact strength
Fluropolymers Good Good Chemical resistant toxic
Fluropolymers Good Good Chemical resistant toxic
Heat resistance, better
Nylon Good Good Heat resistance, better im- Expensive
Nylon Good Good impact resistance Expensive
pact resistance
Harder moldability compared
Polycarbonate Good Good Transparent, tough Harder moldability compared
Polycarbonate Good Good Transparent, tough to polyethylene
to polyethylene
Polyurethane Good Good Wear resistant Higher cost than polyethylene
Polyurethane Good Good Wear resistant Higher cost than polyethylene

Rotational
Rotationalmolding
moldingof oftemple
templebells
bellsisisassociated
associatedwith withthetheproduction
productionofofaacore
coreand
andan an
outer bell shape using separate rotating plates for the core and the
outer bell shape using separate rotating plates for the core and the external shape, their external shape, their
fixation
fixationononthethe central
central axis, and attachment
attachment of of the
the casting
castingsandsandwhile
whilethe
therotating
rotatingplate
plateis
isrotating
rotating(Figure
(Figure12).12).ToTo make
make thethe cross-section
cross-section of of
thethe core,
core, thethe outer
outer shape
shape should
should be be
cut
cut exactly
exactly in half.
in half. The must
The size size must be decided
be decided by considering
by considering the shrinkage
the shrinkage rate of rate of the
the casting,
casting,
and theand the difference
difference betweenbetween the diameters
the diameters of the two of rotating
the two plates
rotating plates determines
determines the thick-
the thickness and shape of the bell. The core is fabricated using stacked
ness and shape of the bell. The core is fabricated using stacked bricks with a size slightly bricks with a size
slightly smaller than the actual core to be manufactured or by reinforcing
smaller than the actual core to be manufactured or by reinforcing bars to form the core bars to form the
core
(Figure 12a). A rotating plate is attached to the center for sand casting while rotatingitit
(Figure 12a). A rotating plate is attached to the center for sand casting while rotating
(Figure
(Figure12b).
12b).Green
Greensandsandis is
used
usedas as
thethe
casting sand
casting mixed
sand mixedwith clayclay
with as aas
binder. When
a binder. the
When
shape of the
the shape of core is established,
the core thethe
is established, surface of of
surface thethecore is is
core smoothed,
smoothed,and andthen
thenaagraphite
graphite
coating with water is painted and left to dry (Figure
coating with water is painted and left to dry (Figure 12c,d). 12c,d).

Figure12.
Figure 12.The
Thefabrication
fabricationprocess
processof
ofthe
thebell
bellcore
coreusing
usingrotational
rotationalmolding.
molding.(a)
(a)Building
Buildingcore
corebricks,
bricks,
(b) rotational molding, (c) mold wash coating, and (d) core drying [11].
(b) rotational molding, (c) mold wash coating, and (d) core drying [11].

When the core is completed, beeswax is applied while rotating according to the thick-
ness of the bell, and then the surface is finely trimmed to finish. To improve the fluidity,
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 18 of 28

When the core is completed, beeswax is applied while rotating according to the
thickness of the bell, and then the surface is finely trimmed to finish. To improve the
fluidity, beeswax is mixed with animal oil. After, the melted beeswax is pasted on a pre-
patterned plate and inserted onto the surface of the wax model. The dragon strings are
formed directly, with beeswax attached to the upper part and cast sand over the beeswax. To
prevent cracking and improve the strength, broken earthenware fragments are also attached
to the outer surface as reinforcements as the outer surface dries naturally. After complete
drying, the outside of the mold is heated to melt the wax inside, leaving behind the bell
core and outer part. The productivity of this method is low due to several complicated
workflows. Raw sand is used as casting sand, and clay or bentonite is used as the binder.
The proper mixing ratio of raw sand and bentonite is about 100:4 and is kneaded with a
little water [144]. The quality of the bell core can be improved by choosing high-quality
zircon sand or other ceramics with excellent fire resistance [145,146].
The relationship between the moisture content of the molding sand (the breathability)
and the strength of the molding sand was investigated in previous study [144]. The breatha-
bility was optimal at a 2~3% moisture content, and the strength of the mold increased up
to a 10~20% moisture content, and it tended to decrease when it exceeded the moisture
content. Considering the air permeability, the authors suggested that mold strength and
workability was optimal at a moisture content of 6~8% [144].

4.2.3. Major Applications of Rotomolding

Rotomolding processes are cost-effective compared to other casting methods due to
their lightweight, flexible, and corrosion resistance properties, etc. [147–149]. However,
there are certain limitations of rotomolding such as its low strength and stability [150–154].
Certain additives have been used to improve the rotocast strength [155–160]. Therefore,
rotomolding is often used to fabricate hollow, multilayered seam-free products. This
technique has attracted enough attention in the past few decades and produces stress-free
products with heat [161–164]. Rotomolding molds are less expensive than other cast molds
and material wastage is minimized [165,166]. Rotomolding has been commonly used in
tanks, medical instruments, fuel storage tanks, toys, traffic signs, toys, furniture, toolbox,
etc. [167,168]. Other miscellaneous applications include light laundry mats, kayaks, vehicle
crash bars, oxygen mask lids, vending and display items, aquarium accessories, drug
dispensers, contact lenses, etc. [169]. As early as the 1970s, cross-linkable and modified
polyethylene-grade polymers were present in the rotomolding market. These new polymers
again fueled new market areas, especially the production of large tanks.

4.3. Pep-Set Casting Method

4.3.1. Pep-Set System
Pep-set is a highly reactive process used to make sand cores and molds in a foundry using
the no-bake process. This process requires a pep-set system, which needs a relatively long time
for polymerization and simultaneous fast curing and provides higher productivity [170]. The
cast product strength is very high and there is no need for the further addition of a binder with
the pep-set system, which in turn minimizes contamination and the emission of impurities
during molding. The standard concentration of a pep-set system is less than 0.6% per part.
The curing speed depends on the ambient temperature and can be controlled by the quantity
and/or quality of catalyst used in the ratio (1:0.5–5.0% per part).
The pep-set system is a potential casting process, where the binders rely on the
polymerization reaction of phenolic resin with an isocyanate additive. The process involves
a three-part binder system (binder, hardener, and liquid catalyst). The hardening proceeds
without any formation of by-products such H2 O or HCHO [170].

4.3.2. Background of Pep-Set Casting

The pep-set casting method and the LWC method are modern casting techniques that
began to be used in the 1980s. The pep-set process was developed mostly in Europe and
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 19 of 28

later introduced into Korea in the 1980s [171]. Pep-set binders are primarily a product
of polymerized phenolic resin and an isocyanate component. The process involves the
three steps of a binder, hardener, and liquid catalyst [172]. The pep-set method is more
productive than the conventional rotary method but also results in a better quality of the
product. The pep-set process, one of the self-hardening mold casting methods, is a modern
casting method developed in Europe and introduced into Korea in the 1980s through Japan.
It was used for the casting of automobile engines and precision machine parts but started
to be used to case sculptures such as bells and statues in 1986. Even though there was
resistance in the main industry at the time, it was an opportunity to raise the quality of
Korean bells. More than 10 years later, in 1997, the traditional method of beeswax casting
was restored by Won Kwang-Sik, which is an important cultural asset [173].
A limited number of studies exists on the casting of Buddhist temple bells. A few
notable works were summarized by Y.H. Yeom in around 1991–1995 [11,149]. There are a
lack of studies that have been carried out on the use of the pep-set method for temple bells.
In 2006, a new beeswax casting method was used for large Buddhist bells for the first time
in the world [174,175]. However, due to the low yield, the beeswax casting method fell into
hibernation at the industrial level, but it was later improved and is being used today.

4.3.3. Molding in Pep-Set

This method requires a high initial cost due to the various sizes of the molds and
their usage. The mold used in the pep-set casting method is manufactured by a method
that is completely different from the method used in the rotary or other casting methods.
First, the rotary plate is made with POP, which is the same shape as the bell, and then a
pattern engraved on POP is inserted to make a bell model out of POP (Figure 13a,b). FRP
(fiber-reinforced plastic) is again applied to the POP model, and the process of hardening
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 is repeated to make a 凹-shaped FRP model by removing the plaster inside when 20 of
the28
appropriate thickness is reached. If FRP is applied to the inside of this 凹-shaped FRP
model and separated again, a 凸-shaped FRP model is made, which is used as a mold
(Figure 13c).
(pep-set) andAtmolding
this moment, the mold
sand with is divided
a kneader, and into three
filling theto four between
space parts so that it canand
the mold be
separated
mold walls.from the formwork after molding.

Figure13.
Figure 13.The
Thefabrication
fabricationprocess
processofofaabell
bellform.
form.(a)
(a)AAPOP
POPbell
bellform,
form,(b)
(b)an
anengraved
engravedplaster
plasterbell
bell
form, (c) an intaglio FRP bell form, and (d) a completed bell form.
form, (c) an intaglio FRP bell form, and (d) a completed bell form.

Artificial
The moldingsilica sand is mainly
operation used
is carried outwith casting sand,
by putting a mold mixed
that isin large
a ratioenough
of 50:50.
to The
be
smaller the particle size of the molding sand, the more delicate the surface
filled with the molding sand on the outside of the vertical mold made of FRP, mixing resin obtained. Since
it is impossible
(pep-set) to obtain
and molding sand a with
sounda kneader,
casting, itandis important
filling the to select
space a particle
between the size
moldthat
andis
suitable
mold for the casting. When the molding sand is hardened, the FRP mold inside is dis-
walls.
assembled and
Artificial removed,
silica sand isand a ZnCO
mainly used3-based coatingsand,
with casting agentmixed
is applied
in a to theof
ratio mold surface
50:50. The
engraved
smaller the with thesize
particle pattern
of the(Figure
molding13d).
sand, the more delicate the surface obtained. Since it
According
is impossible to historical
to obtain a soundrecords,
casting,casting technology
it is important datesa to
to select 5000 BCE
particle and is
size that originated
suitable
in the
for the casting.
Middle When
East andthe later
moldingentered
sandAsian countries
is hardened, the such as China,
FRP mold inside Korea, Japan, and
is disassembled
India.
and The earliest
removed, and arecords
ZnCO3of casting
-based technology
coating agent are preserved
is applied to thein the
mold writings
surfaceofengraved
the monk
Theophilus
with Presbyter
the pattern (Figurein13d).
his book Schedula Diversarum Atrium in 12th century BCE [176].
According to Theophilus Presbyter, the operational sequence of bell-making consists of
several steps, such as building and shaping the clay core with a horizontal lathe, removing
the lath spindle, and closing the hole with plastic clay to support the U-bent iron staple
hanging on the clapper. After that, the upper part of the mold is added to the core, and
four pole guides are used as a sink. The casting pit is prepared with Roman tiles plastered
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 20 of 28

According to historical records, casting technology dates to 5000 BCE and originated
in the Middle East and later entered Asian countries such as China, Korea, Japan, and
India. The earliest records of casting technology are preserved in the writings of the monk
Theophilus Presbyter in his book Schedula Diversarum Atrium in 12th century BCE [176].
According to Theophilus Presbyter, the operational sequence of bell-making consists of
several steps, such as building and shaping the clay core with a horizontal lathe, removing
the lath spindle, and closing the hole with plastic clay to support the U-bent iron staple
hanging on the clapper. After that, the upper part of the mold is added to the core, and
four pole guides are used as a sink. The casting pit is prepared with Roman tiles plastered
with clay. Heat is provided from both the upper and lower part of the square outer furnace.
After firing, the pit is quickly emptied, and the mold is slowly lifted out and detached to
recover the bell and the iron hoops [177].
In the late 1950s, a detailed operational sequence for casting neck collars of the Early
and Middle Bronze Age was created by Hans Drescher [178]. Later, in the 1980s, Rønne
added an important knowledge base regarding stamping and spiral techniques [179,180].
In summary, these developments led to the assumption that these decorated artifacts
(such as neck collars, belt discs, and tutuli) were crafted via the wax model into their final
forms [178]. Secondary decorative components such as rims and geometrical elements
were either stamped [180] or added to the wax.
With the advancement of modern casting technology, computational tools have enabled
foundrymen to bridge the gap between design and manufacturing. New computational
approaches should be used to identify defects (hot tear, shrinkage pore, cold shut, etc.),
determine the casting time, guide the morphology, and optimize the entire process.

5. Advanced Rapid Prototyping Techniques in Investment Casting

As already discussed, conventional wax casting technology is expensive for low-
volume manufacturing such as customized or prototype component casting. As such, the
process is highly time-consuming and spans weeks to months depending on the machine
shop’s capacity and schedule. Design errors and iterations add up and impact the final
manufacturing cost. In these situations, rapid prototyping (RP) techniques are receiving
increasing attraction for casting objects with freedom from design constraints. LWC has
been integrated with RP techniques to improve the yield and flexibility of manufacturing
in various applications [181,182].
Advanced computer-aided manufacturing (CAD) design has helped to achieve the
best RP techniques. The CAD model of a 3D object is sliced into several sequential layers
that can be joined to consequent layers in a layerwise fashion. The different RP techniques’
process flow is shown in Figure 14a. The diversity in the materials and processes used
for binding the layers in sequence constitutes the different RP processes. The existing
RP techniques are classified into four major classes: liquid, powder, sheet, and gas-based
platforms (Figure 14b). The first RP technique, stereolithography (SLA), was discovered
in the late 1980s. After, several improvements of the RP techniques were performed.
According to Liu et al. [177], other commercial RP techniques include fused deposition
modeling (FDM), laminated object manufacturing (LOM), selective laser melting (SLM),
and 3D printing.
 binding the layers in sequence constitutes the different RP processes. The existing RP tech-
niques are classified into four major classes: liquid, powder, sheet, and gas-based plat-
forms (Figure 14b). The first RP technique, stereolithography (SLA), was discovered in the
late 1980s. After, several improvements of the RP techniques were performed. According
to Liu et al. [177], other commercial RP techniques include fused deposition modeling
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 21 of 28
(FDM), laminated object manufacturing (LOM), selective laser melting (SLM), and 3D
printing.

Figure14.
Figure 14.(a)
(a)Typical
TypicalRP
RPprocess
processflow
flow[150].
[150]. (b)
(b) Classification
Classification of
of RP
RP techniques
techniques based
based on
on physical
physical
state of feedstock [182].
state of feedstock [182].

Accordingto
According to these
these technological
technological advances,
advances,this thisclassification
classificationwill
willallow
allow 3D3Dmanufac-
manu-
facturers to choose a suitable RP technique with increased accuracy, performance, dura-
turers to choose a suitable RP technique with increased accuracy, performance, and and
bility. Cheah
durability. Cheahet al. [181]
et al. [181]reviewed
reviewedthe thediverse
diverseapplications
applications of of RP techniques to
RP techniques toseveral
several
LWCprocesses
LWC processesranging
rangingfrom fromjewelry
jewelrycasting,
casting,sports
sportsgoods,
goods,biomedical
biomedicalimplants,
implants,injection
injection
moldedparts,
molded parts,and
and diedie casting
casting to the automotive/aircraft
automotive/aircraftindustries.industries.The The integration
integration of of
RP
RPtechniques
techniques with LWC
with LWC hashas
potential merit
potential for rapid
merit and and
for rapid cost-effective production
cost-effective of high-
production of
precision castings.
high-precision castings.
AlthoughRP
Although RPtechniques
techniquesare arehighly
highlyproductive
productiveand andflexible,
flexible,the
theapplication
applicationofofthesethese
techniquestototemple
techniques templebellsbellsisisnewnewdue duetotothe
theexpenses
expensesincurred
incurredoveroverthe
therawrawmaterials.
materials.The The
printingofofbronze
printing bronzebells
bells requires
requires thethe integration
integration of wax
of wax 3D 3D printing
printing andand LWC LWC technolo-
technologies.
gies.3D
Wax Wax 3D printing
printing uses theusesSLAthe SLA technique
technique to create tothecreate the wax
wax pattern pattern
from from aresin.
a wax-like wax-like
For
additional support to support
resin. For additional stand the towax
standpattern,
the wax support
pattern, structures are also printed
support structures are alsotogether
printed
with the wax
together withmodel.
the wax The support
model. Thestructures are removed
support structures are manually after the printing
removed manually after the
process
printing followed
process by cleaning
followed byofcleaning
the waxofpattern
the wax forpattern
casting.for casting.
Initially,
Initially,one
oneorormore
morewax waxspruesspruescan canbebejoined
joinedtotothethepattern.
pattern.Next,
Next,thesethesesprues
spruescan can
bebeattached
attachedtotoa awaxwax‘tree’ together
‘tree’ together with
with other
otherwax patterns.
wax patterns. This wax
This waxtreetree
is then placed
is then placedin
ainflask andand
a flask covered
covered with a fine
with a finePOP.POP.AsAs soon
soonas as
thethe
POPPOP solidifies,
solidifies,a amold
moldisisformed
formedfor for
bronze casting. The POP mold is then fired or oven heated to burn
bronze casting. The POP mold is then fired or oven heated to burn all the wax. The liquid all the wax. The liquid
bronze
bronzeisisthen
thenpoured
pouredtotofill fillthe
thecavities
cavitiesleft
leftby
bythe
thewax
waxfollowed
followedby bycooling,
cooling,solidification,
solidification,
and breaking off the mold to obtain the
and breaking off the mold to obtain the cast model. cast model.
The
Theprocess
processofof employing
employing RPRP techniques
techniques together
togetherwithwith
the fabrication
the fabricationof waxof patterns
wax pat-
isterns
referred to as rapid
is referred to as investment
rapid investment castingcasting
(RIC). (RIC).
The advantages
The advantagesof RICofinclude its cost
RIC include its
effectiveness, high manufacturing ability, freedom in the design
cost effectiveness, high manufacturing ability, freedom in the design of parts that wereof parts that were initially
difficult or impossible to make via machining, feasibility of design iterations or tool modifi-
cation, and ability to facilitate parametric optimization effectively. However, RIC patterns
are not economical and are limited to mass production due to the expensive RP materials
involved. For a high production volume, rapid tooling (RT) can effectively manufacture
tens to millions of wax patterns in an economical way.

6. Conclusions
In this paper, the history, materials, and casting methods used to produce bells were
overviewed. Primitive bells were manufactured using casting and bell-making technology
such that even a complex bell material composition was well-designed. Korea’s bell-
making technology has been steadily developing, breaking away from the traditional
method due to the development of new bell materials and processes. Owing to a lack of
metallurgical knowledge of compositions in earlier bells, the alloys used in the Middle Ages
were significantly different from the current bell metals. A study of earlier bells through
Metals 2022, 12, 1776 22 of 28

metallography revealed substantial differences in the microstructure and compositions

through modified melting and casting approaches. During the post-independence era,
Korea steadily innovated different rotational methods, pep-set casting, and LWC methods,
becoming a world leader in cast bell technology. Future research should be carried out
with other low-cost wax and additives to improve the castability of bells. Nowadays,
the use of pure elements and progressed melting practices has decreased contamination
levels due to the addition of P and S, which makes bells more robust and less sensitive to
cracking when hit by a hammer or wooden block. However, limited attempts have been
carried out to cast a temple bell to replace conventional metal casting techniques. Future
research should be directed towards RP techniques to fabricate wax patterns directly from
the CAD file by layerwise deposition of wax droplets. Though these RP techniques are
more advanced, conventional LWC techniques are still being used today for different metal
casting and temple bell fabrication because of the obstacles of the high cost of materials
and experimentation so that small- and medium-sized industries are unable to procure
them. Therefore, further amendments of the current methodologies that reduce tooling
costs are desired. Technological developments of RP techniques are expected to bring the
cost down and lead to a better casting quality, temple bells, and acoustics, resulting in a
longer service life to mankind.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.-S.W. and J.P.J.; methodology, C.-S.W.; formal analysis,
K.-S.W.; investigation, K.-S.W.; resources, A.S.; writing—original draft preparation, C.-S.W. and A.S.;
writing—review and editing, C.-S.W. and K.-S.W.; project administration, A.S.; funding acquisition,
A.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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