CHAPTER 1

ENERGY AUDIT
 1.1 What is An Energy Audit ?
• A systematic inspection and analysis of energy use
and consumption of audited object(s)
• A study conducted to identify where, when & how
much energy is being used in the business
• To identify energy flows, potential opportunities
and monitoring & verification
• How to reduce the cost of energy for the business
• To improve energy performance & reporting
AUDIT PROCESS1 3

Building an Audit Team Energy Saving Measures (ESMs)

01 Assembling the right members & 06 Classify & recommend energy saving
establishing clear responsibilities measures

Economic Evaluation
02 Preliminary Energy Use Analysis
Analysis of two or more years of utility
07 Evaluate the capital costs & life cycle cost
analysis (LCCA) of EEM
consumption & cost

Site Visit Procedures Develop an Audit Report

03 Activities to prepare for the on-site audit
08 Provide complete information to decide
whether to implement recommended EEM

Measurement Presentation
04 Site visit & audit of building to collect
data to quantifying operating parameters
09 Meet with the management & explain results

& performance

Implementing ESM
05
Analysis
10 Implement the EEM
Analysis of the energy-using systems
Include Measurement & Verification
1.2 Roles & Duties of an Energy Auditor
• Plan and carry out energy audit based on agreed scope

• Quantify energy consumption and establish baseline energy

information

• Construct energy balance

• Perform efficiency evaluation of energy & utility systems

• Compare energy norms with existing energy consumption levels

4
1.2 Roles & Duties of an Energy Auditor
• Identify and prioritise energy saving measures (ESMs)

• Analysis of technical and financial feasibility of energy saving

measures

• Recommend energy efficient technologies and alternate energy

sources

• Report writing, Presentation and follow up for implementation

5
 Types of Energy Audit
Type Description
-Evaluating energy consumption in general
-energy bill analysis and determining Energy Efficiency Index (EEI)
Walk-through/
-Identifying areas for potential savings in general using experience and ‘rule
Preliminary audit
of thumb’
-No systematic measurement

-Using input from preliminary audit

-Identification of energy sources and endusers and apportionment
-Determination of equipment and system performance
Detailed audit
-Performance evaluation with reference to design/standards
-Investigation and measurement to identify potential savings
-Analysis of saving measures using and technical and economic evaluation.

-Input from detail audit

-Involve high cost, complex system
Investment Grade -Require financing
Audit -Longer period for investigating and monitoring

6
Detailed Energy Audit 7

Method
 8

Data Collection
• 2 Types of Data Collection:
o Desktop data collection
o Field data collection
 9
Desktop Data Collection
• Purpose is to minimize the field energy related data collection by using all
available facility data
• Collect preliminary building energy related data using prepared audit forms to
estimate the time and manpower required for the field data collection
• Collect data from:
o Architectural drawings (as built drawing)
o M&E drawings
- Lighting circuit drawings (as built drawing)
- Air conditioning system drawing and design manual (as built drawing)
- Single line power supply schematic drawings (as built drawing)
o Electrical energy bill historical data (for at least one year)
o Load control systems such as timers, building automation system if any
and others (as built drawing)
o Process flow diagram - Operating Processes
 10
Field Data Collection
• To complement missing data during the Desktop Data Collection process.
• To verify the accuracy of Desktop Data
• To understand the building operations, energy wastages and building
maintenance status
• To carry out the necessary field measurements required to establish main
incoming load profile, major energy end-uses such as HVAC, lighting and
others
• To establish actual building load apportioning
• Use appropriate data loggers to record the building and end-use load cycles. It
is recommended to record typical daily load profiles of :
o main incoming for 7 days
o HVAC system for 1 to 7 days
o other equipment for 1 hour to 1 day
• Field data forms should be used to facilitate the field data collection
11
No. Equipment Type Model Parameter Accuracy
1 Power Analyzer FLUKE 435 / 435 II I, V, PF, kW
Digital Temperature,
±0.1 °C
2 Thermometer/Tempera EXTECH SD500 Relative (Temperature)
ture Data Logger Humidity
Relative
3 Humidity Meter FLUKE 971
Humidity
±3.0 %RH
(Relative
Temperature and Temperature
Humidity %)
4 Relative Humidity Data LASCAR EL-GFX-2 and Relative
Logger Humidity ±0.5 °C
(Temperature)
Thermocouple ±1.1 °C or ±0.4%
Temperature Data of the reading
5 KIMO KTT 310 Temperature value
Logger with K-Type
sensor (Temperature)
Portable Non-Contact GE TRANSPORT Flow Rate
6 1%
Liquid Flowmeter PANAMETRICS PT878 (liquid)

7 Air Velocity Meter EXTECH SDL350 Air Velocity

 14

Data Analysis
 Energy Efficiency Index (EEI)

• EEI is one of the Key Performance Indicators (KPI) to track the

performance of energy consumption
• The factor which most accurately reflects the practical application of
energy and can give the best measure of energy performance
• Once the unit of EEI has been selected, an organization has to set up
the baseline for the selected EEI which will be the base energy
efficiency for the organization
 Energy Efficiency Index (EEI)
Definition of EEI
• Definition of EEI depends on the use of energy in a
particular application. EEI can be defined as

Energy Input
EEI =
Factor related to the energy use
 Energy Efficiency Index (EEI)
Factors related to energy use may include:
– Weight of product produced;
– No. of items produced;
– Weight of raw materials used;
– Volume of production;
– Floor area of building;
– No. of patients bed per night (for hospital building);
– No. of occupied room per night (for hotel building)
 WHY BENCHMARKING IS IMPORTANT

➢ Where are you now?

Where?
➢ How good are you?

performance
Current
BASELINE
➢ Why are you at this
Why? position versus others?
BASELINE

➢ How good can you be?

➢ What can be improved?

Min Average Company industry What?
➢ How do you get better?
INDUSTRY
ORGANIZATION
BASELINE
BASELINE
 19

Identification of ESMs
 Identification of Energy Saving Measures (ESM)
Measures Example

Saving Ideas
•Fine-tuning of building services
No cost
•User awareness
OFF!! •Repair leaks
•Reshedule load/usage Internal
•Saving potential 3~10% initiatives
(SEM)
•Cooling system improvement
•Lighting system and technology improvement
Low cost •Building envelope
•Insulation
•Monitoring & Targeting
•Housekeeping
•Saving potential 6~10%

•Equipment technology change

High cost •System change
•Cogeneration
Internal or
•Fuel conversion with ESCO
20
•Saving potential 10~15%
1.4 Energy Audit Report
 Energy Audit Reporting
• Energy audit report should be based on actual historical and field collected data
and any recommendations should be supported by reliable engineering
calculations.
• The report should consists of several sections namely,
✓ Executives summary – Highlight major findings
✓ Introduction – Project background, scope, assumptions and limitations
✓ Energy Audit Methodology - Energy Audit Process and Energy Audit
Measurement Equipment.
✓ Building/Facility Profile
✓ Site description – Audited site and description
✓ Historical energy consumption & Production pattern – Energy
consumption trend, EEI, specific consumption, baseline & regression
analysis
✓ Energy management practices
✓ Load profile and apportioning – Energy distribution
✓ Production energy intensity indices (kWh/m2/year or tonne /kWh) – EEI
improvement
✓ Observations & Findings on Active Systems
✓ Electrical Systems
✓ Mechanical Systems
 Energy Audit Reporting (contd.)
✓ Analysis & Identification of Energy saving measures (ESMs) and
recommendations - Type of Energy Saving Measures, estimated
savings in kWh and RM, assumptions & methods used in estimating
savings, the implementation costs, Simple Payback Periods and some
remarks on the recommended measures.

✓ Summary of Implementation Strategies - Summary of the proposed

ESMs and estimated investment cost.

✓ Conclusion & The Way Forward - Describe proposed energy

conservation policy for maintenance retrofitting and design in
achieving green building and sustainable development.

✓ References and appendices.

24

Executive Summary

• Highlight the methodology used, observation and findings such as the

energy consumption and building energy indices (BEI) (kWh/m2/yr)
• The total energy saving potential, cost and simple payback period for
implementing the recommended ESMs could be presented in tabular
format according to its ESMs categories
25

Analysis & Identification of ESMs

• Indicate that the actual implementation cost and savings could vary within
certain margin depending on final contractor’s quotation, design and
installation of the implemented ESMs
• Summarize the ESMs analysis in tabular format showing the
• assumptions used in calculation, estimated consumption before and after
implementing ESMs
• estimated saving in kWh and RM
• estimated implementation costs
• simple payback periods
• some remarks on the recommended measures.
• Summarize the ESMs according to its categories: no cost , low cost & high cost
• Refer to Sample Audit Report_1
 1.5 Energy Review
(Review & prioritise ESMs findings)
 Energy Review
• Ensure accuracy of facility operating hours
• Ensure accuracy of each equipment operating hours
• Accuracy of energy and demand rates used in the energy audit
• Appropriateness of project recommendations for the facility
– Equipment complexity - can the new equipment be operated by your existing
staff, or is training needed?
– Equipment compatibility - is the new equipment compatible with existing
systems?
– Equipment reliability - has the equipment had a proven track record?
– Operational cost - will the new equipment increase workload of your existing
staff or require the hiring of outside maintenance specialists?
• Verification of the Energy Savings (IPMV - Measurement & Verification Protocol)
• Project cost estimates (equipment, installation, engineering design, construction,
training, commissioning, permits and plan checks, contingency cost)
 Energy Review Output
• Energy use and consumption
– Current energy sources
– Past and present energy use & consumption analysis
• Areas of significant energy use (SEU)
– Identify the facilities, equipment, systems, processes & personnel working for, or on behalf of the
organization that significantly affect energy use & consumption
– Identify other relevant variables affecting significant energy uses
– Determine the current energy performance of facilities, equipment, systems & processes related to
identified significant energy uses
– Estimate future energy use and consumption
• Prioritized & recorded opportunities for improving energy performance
• The energy review shall be updated at defined intervals, as well as in response to
major changes in facilities, equipment, systems or processes
• Energy Baseline
• Energy Performance Indicators
Measurement & Verification (M&V)
 M&V DEFINITION

Measurement & Verification (M&V) is the process of

using measurements to reliably determine actual saving
created within an individual facility by an energy
management program
IPMVP, Vol. 1
 31

M&V PROTOCOLS

1 2 3 4

IPMVP ASHRAE US DOE FEMP California EEP

International Performance Guideline 14 Federal Energy Management California Energy Evaluation
Measurement & Verification Project M&V Guide for US Protocol
Protocol Government Buildings
USE OF M&V 32
 PRINCIPLES OF M&V 33

ACCURATE CONSISTENT
M&V report should be accurate as the Reporting of an energy project’s
M&V budget will allow effectiveness should be consistent between
different type of efficiency project, energy
professionals & periods

COMPLETE RELEVANT
Reporting of energy saving should Savings should measure relevant
consider all significant effects parameters

CONSERVATIVE TRANSPARENT
Procedures/calculation should be All M&V activities should be clearly &
designed to under estimate saving fully disclosed
 34

WHAT IS MEANT BY ‘SAVINGS”

• Savings cannot be directly measured, since they represent the absence of energy use

• Savings are determined by comparing measured energy use before implementation of

an ESM (BASELINE) and energy use after implementation of an ESM (REPORTING
PERIOD or POST-RETROFIT), making appropriate adjustments for changes in conditions

• Energy savings are calculated by making adjustments so that the baseline energy is
adjusted to reporting period energy under the same conditions affecting the energy use

• Basic equation for Energy Savings:

Energy Savings = (Baseline Energy – Post Retrofit Energy) + Adjustments

 35

WHAT IS MEANT BY ‘ADJUSTMENTS”

• The adjustments term distinguishes proper savings report from a simple comparison of
before and after energy use.

• The adjustments must account for the differences in conditions between the baseline
and post-retrofit period.

• Conditions commonly affecting energy use are occupancy, production volume,

operations hours

• Adjustments can be trivial, simple or complex engineering calculation

• Also depends on the method of measurements

 36

METHOD OF MEASUREMENTS

Retrofit Isolation Method Whole Facility Method

• Measures the effect of • Measures all effects in the
retrofit only facility
• Savings are unaffected by • Usually uses the utility
changes beyond the meter
measurement boundary • Adjustments can be
• Usually requires a dedicated complex
meter • Option C or D
• Adjustments can be simple
• Option A or B or D
 37

EXAMPLE OF M&V OPTION B

M&V OPTIONS HOW SAVINGS ARE TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

CALCULATED
B. Retrofit Isolation
• Savings are determined by
field measurement of the • Engineering • Use of variable speed
energy use of the systems to calculations using drive & controls to a
which the ECM was applied, short term or motor to adjust pump
separate from the energy use continuous flow
of the rest of the facility measurements • Replacement of old
• Short-term or continuous • All key chiller with new chiller
measurements are taken parameters are • Adjustment not difficult
throughout the post-retrofit measured
period. • No estimated
value
 38

EXAMPLE OF M&V ANALYSIS - OPTION B

• In an office building, a new water-cooled, electric centrifugal chiller replaces an old

chiller.
• The electricity use of the chiller is primarily affected by chilled water load and chiller
efficiency.
• The performance of the old chiller was tested immediately before its removal. After
implementing the ECM, the average of the cooling load (tons) and electrical load
(kW) was recorded hourly.
• There is no additional measures being installed that directly affect the operation of
the cooling equipment (i.e control sequences, cooling towers, condensers).
• Baseline Energy: Performance test of old chiller, immediately before its removal
Data from several weeks of testing 39

TONS MEASURED (kW)

300 290
350 350
400 400
450 360
500 400
550 390
600 430
650 420
700 570
750 540
800 620
850 600
900 600
950 750
1000 750
 Data from Time Average Load Average Power Input
40
(20 Sept 2021) (Tons) (kW)
Post Retrofit testing
6:00 900 500
7:00 800 420
8:00 300 225
9:00 400 265
10:00 450 310
11:00 500 320
12:00 600 382
13:00 700 435
14:00 800 500
15:00 800 490
16:00 850 520
17:00 850 515
18:00 800 490
19:00 700 430
20:00 600 360
21:00 500 295
 Time Post Retrofit Average Adjusted Baseline Load Post Retrofit Savings
(20 Sept 2020) Load (Tons) [Y=95 + 0.62x] Average Power Input (kW) 41
(kW) (kW)
6:00 900 653 500 153
7:00 800 591 420 171
8:00 300 281 225 56
9:00 400 343 265 78
10:00 450 374 310 64
11:00 500 405 320 85
12:00 600 467 382 85
13:00 700 529 435 94
14:00 800 591 500 91
15:00 800 591 490 101
16:00 850 622 520 102
17:00 850 622 515 107
18:00 800 591 490 101
19:00 700 529 430 99
20:00 600 467 360 101
21:00 500 405 295 110
 CHAPTER 2

ENERGY AUDIT OF
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
 2.1 Energy Basics
• An energy consuming system is a collection of
elements that consume energy
• It may refer to a site, building, department,
system or piece of equipment, or any
combination of these
• It may be a multi-plant or multi-process
industrial site, or a single piece of equipment
such as an air compressor
 2.1 Energy Basics
• A boundary separates an energy consuming
system from the surroundings
• The boundary must be specifically defined
• The energy streams that cross the boundary
must be accounted for
 Energy System Boundary

Facility Energy System*

*Source: Energy Audit Course Handbook, NESP, 2nd Edition, 2017

 2.1 Energy Basics

• The First Law of Thermodynamics states that

“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
but it can be converted from one form to another”
 2.1 Energy Basics
• Energy conversion will generate usable and
non-usable energy
• The non-usable energy is classified as losses

Losses

Energy Conversion Process*

*Source: Energy Audit Course Handbook, NESP, 2nd Edition, 2017

 2.1 Energy Basics

• Our work in a facility will involve the conversion

of one form of energy input into at least two
other forms of energy output
– one output is the useful energy
– the other output is energy loss
• When we carry out an energy audit, we want to
find ways to reduce the losses cost-effectively
• Energy is defined as the ability to do work
• In mechanics, work is defined as a force (F)
applied through a displacement (d)
W=F.D
 Forms of Energy
• The forms of energy that we are interested in
a mechanical energy audit include
– chemical energy
– thermal energy
– mechanical energy, and
– electrical energy
 Forms of Energy
• Chemical energy
– energy that helps to “glue” atoms together in those
clusters called molecules, or chemical compounds
– we are interested in fuels or their derivatives such
as natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), coal
& oil that can be combusted
• During combustion, chemical energy is
liberated in the form of heat or thermal energy
• Thermal energy is useful in doing work
 Forms of Energy
• Thermal energy
– involves the microscopic movement of atoms & molecules
– often referred to as heat
• heat flows spontaneously only from a higher temperature area to a
lower temperature area
– often transferred via the flow of water, air, or other fluids
– 2 basic types of heat:
• Sensible heat is energy that changes the temperature of a body or a
substance – we can sense it
• Latent heat is energy that initiates a phase change; the temperature
of a substance is not changed
 Example: Heating Water
• Pressure of 1 atm (101.325 kPa) is maintained in the
cylinder, and the initial temperature is 20oC

T, Temperature (oC)
Superheated vapor

Saturated liquid (f)

Saturated vapor (g)
100
Mixture of sat liq & sat vap

20
Compressed Liquid

v1 v2 v3 v4

Q (Heat) v, specific volume, (m3/kg)

 Forms of Energy
• Thermal energy in producing steam
– The process of producing steam involves both
sensible and latent heat
– as the water is raised from its initial temperature
to the boiling point, sensible heat is required
– at the boiling point, additional heat is required to
convert the water from liquid to vapour; that heat
is latent heat
 STEAM TABLE - Saturated Water Property Table

Source: Cengel, Yunus, A., and Boles, M. A. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach.

New York: McGraw-Hill Inc. 9th Edition
 Forms of Energy
• Thermal energy
– thermal energy is often transferred via the flow of
water, air, or other fluids
– An example is a hot water heating system
• heat is moved from the boiler to the process
equipment by heating water at the boiler and
• pumping it to the process system where it delivers the
required heat.
• Water is frequently used because it has a good capacity
to retain heat
 SPECIFIC HEATS

1 kg iron 1 kg water
Which
Whichtakes
takesmore
moreenergy
energy??
Which takes more energy ?
To raise the temperature of 1 kg iron from 20 oC to 30oC
To raise the temperature of 1 kg iron from 20oC to 30oC
Tooror
raise the temperature of 1 kg iron from 20oC to 30 oC
To raise the temperature of
or 1 kg water from 20 oC to 30oC ?
To raise the temperature of 1 kg water from 20oC to 30oC ?
To raise the temperature of 1 kg water from 20oC to 30oC ?
SPECIFIC HEATS

• It takes different amounts of energy to raise the temperature

of identical masses of different substances by one degree

• We need about 4.5 kJ of energy to raise the temperature of

1 kg of iron to from 20 to 30oC

• It takes about 41.8 kJ of energy to raise the temperature of 1

kg liquid water from 20 to 30oC
SPECIFIC HEATS

• It is desirable to have a property that will enable us to

compare the energy storage capabilities of various substances

• This property is the specific heat

• The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the

temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree
• The specific heat capacity, c of a substance is
defined as the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of the
substance by 1oC
• The unit of c is kJ/kg oC
• The specific heat capacity of water is 4.19
kJ/kg oC
Often, the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a substance by a certain amount
is determined from:
Q = m c DT
Where
Q = Heat (kJ)
m = mass (kg)
c = specific heat capacity (kJ/kg oC)
DT = Temperature difference (oC)
Forms of Energy
 Forms of Energy
• Electrical energy
– involves the movement of electric current through
wires
– most electrical energy ends up as thermal energy in
the form of sensible heat
– some devices such as electric heaters convert the
energy directly
– other devices such as motors convert electricity to
mechanical energy, which eventually becomes heat
– to optimize electricity use, maximise the amount of
work done by electricity before it is lost as heat
 Units for Energy
• The basic unit of energy in the metric system is
the joule (J)
• Energy in the form of electricity is given in kWh
• 1 kWh = 3.6 MJ (Energy)
• 1 kW = 1 kJ/s (Power)
• Power is the rate of energy flow, or how fast
energy is being used or transferred
 Units for Energy

• Mechanical power is usually measured in

kilowatts in the metric system & horsepower in
the Imperial system
• 1 hp = 746 W =0.746 kW