Research Article

The utilization of bentonite enhanced termite mound soil mixture

as filter for the treatment of paint industrial effluent
Omobolaji Taofeek Opafola1   · Adekunle Olorunlowo David1 · Fidelis Odedishemi Ajibade2 ·
Hezekiah Oluwoye Adeyemi3 · Olorunfunmi Imisioluwa Solana4 · Babashola Dapo Odugbose5

Received: 21 November 2020 / Accepted: 18 February 2021

© The Author(s) 2021  OPEN

Abstract
This research investigates the applicability of bentonite enhanced termite mound soil mixture as an alternative filter
medium for paint industrial wastewater (PIWW) management in a constructed pilot-scale filtration tank with four dif-
ferent sections. The mixture of bentonite (BC) and termite mound soil (MS) used as the filter was proportioned by
percentage weight as (100% MS), (5% BC + 95% MS), (10% BC + 90% MS), (15% BC + 85% MS) and placed into four
sections, respectively. The filter materials were compacted, cured and subjected to wastewater loading for 30 weeks. The
results obtained from the analysis of the filtrate samples revealed that filter with 15% BC content generally exhibited high
and effective pollutant removal efficiencies of 51.3%, 98.9%, and 72.7% for total dissolved solids, total suspended solids,
and copper, respectively, while a maximum removal efficiency of 100% was recorded for lead, chromium and cadmium.
The pollutants (TDS, TSS, Pb, Cr, Cu and Cd) concentrations of the treated PIWW were below the National Environmental
Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency permissible limits for discharge. Hence, the 15% bentonite and 85%
termite mound soil mixtures are recommended for the small-scale paint industries as a point of use measure for effective
pollutant removal. Its application would mitigate the degradation of environmental resources caused by indiscriminate
disposal of untreated effluent.

Keywords  Bentonite · Filter · Paint effluent · Termite mound

1 Introduction countries [1, 2]. The significant growth of manufacturing

industries in Nigeria has contributed to the high volume of
Waste may be referred to as an unwanted material in liq- generated effluents which has impacted the environmen-
uid, solid or gaseous form which is discarded in accord- tal resources due to the indiscriminate and unsanctioned
ance with standard regulations after it has served its discharge of untreated effluents into surface water bodies.
primary purpose. The rise in human population growth Depending on the category of industry, wastewater pollut-
across the globe without sustainable control measures ants may include high levels of biological oxygen demand
had resulted in a vast volume of waste generated per day. ­(BOD5), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total dissolved
The effective management of these generated wastes is a solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), and toxic heavy
perpetual challenge in both developed and developing metals. Filtration is considered an essential wastewater

*  Omobolaji Taofeek Opafola, [email protected] | 1Department of Civil Engineering, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ibogun
Campus, P.M.B. 5026, Ifo, Ogun State, Nigeria. 2Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 704, Akure,
Ondo State, Nigeria. 3Department of Mechanical Engineering, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ibogun Campus, P.M.B. 5026, Ifo, Ogun State,
Nigeria. 4Department of Home Science and Hospitality Management, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ayetoro Campus, P.M.B. 0012, Ayetoro,
Ogun State, Nigeria. 5Department of Agricultural Engineering, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ibogun Campus, P.M.B. 5026, Ifo, Ogun State,
Nigeria.

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treatment technique due to its efficiency in the removal of wastewater pollutants are yet to be analysed and ascer-
of suspended particles and reduction of organic and inor- tained. There is no literature available on the application of
ganic pollutants. Ripperger et al. [3] classified filtration pro- enhanced mound material as an alternative filter system
cesses based on four different criteria, namely location of for wastewater management. The presence of high pollut-
particle retention, generation of the pressure difference, ant concentrations in the generated industrial wastewater
operation mode, and application. In recent studies, differ- makes adequate treatment sacrosanct prior to their usual
ent filter media have been used in the removal pollutants disposal into receiving water bodies. There is a need to
from wastewater. For instance, Shafiquzzaman et al. [4] comprehensively study the applicability of alternative low-
employed low-cost ceramic filter for urban stormwater cost materials for wastewater management as the on-site
treatment, whereas Ajibade et al. [5] and Akosile et al. [6] biophysiochemical treatment of these generated effluents
utilized ceramic filter to enhance the microbial quality of could be capital-intensive. Thus, this study investigates
household drinking water. Also, Liu et al. [7] used oyster the applicability of bentonite enhanced termite mound
shell for biological aerated filter medium for municipal soil mixture as a filter medium for the treatment of paint
wastewater. Lawal et al. [8] studied the treatment of agro- wastewater and evaluates its pollutants removal efficiency.
processing wastewater using ceramic wastewater and
Gasemloo et al. [9] used sulphated carboxymethyl cellu-
lose nano-filter for tannery wastewater. Composite clayey
soils have been applied as an efficient chemical filter and 2 Materials and methods
pollutants removal in recent times [10–13]. Mounds oth-
erwise known as termitaries are structures built by dis- 2.1 Materials
similar termite species from surrounding soils through the
redistribution of soil organic matter and elements in their The major materials used for the research are termite
biomass and organo-mineral constructions. They possess mound soil (MS), bentonite (BC) and paint industrial
low thermal conductivity, resistance to moisture penetra- wastewater (PIWW).
tion, comparative compressive strength and mostly found
in tropical and subtropical geographical environments (a) Termite mound soil A reddish brown mound soil was
[14–17]. Termitaries have been classified as nuisance to sourced from Ifo, Ogun State within the geographi-
agricultural farm lands and wooden infrastructure because cal coordinates of latitude 6° 48′ 39.82″ N and lon-
of the space occupied and their destructive nature [18]. gitude 3° 5′ 58.76″ E (Fig. 1). It possesses a specific
They are usually destroyed and turned into wastes. This gravity of 2.53 and classified as a poorly graded soil
conventional waste has been utilized as construction with silty clay (Table 1). The X-ray diffraction analy-
materials [19–21] and an adsorption material in the decon- sis revealed quartz (93.76 wt%) as the dominant
tamination of metal polluted effluent [22]. However, the mineral. The unconfined compressive strength and
potentials of mound soil as a filter material in the removal

Fig. 1  a Termite mound prior to sampling, b broken mound, and c pulverized mound sample

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Table 1  Physical characteristics of bentonite and termite mound

soil [1]
Properties Bentonite Termite mound

Colour Yellowish–brown Reddish–brown

Specific gravity 2.37 2.53
Dominant mineral Montmorillonite Quartz
Sand (%) 20.1 87.5
Silt (%) 20.4 2.3
Clay (%) 59.5 10.2
Liquid limit (%) 189 49
Plastic limit (%) 61 27
Plasticity index (%) 128 22
USCS classification – Poorly graded
soil with silty
clay Fig. 3  PIWW
USCS Unified soil classification system
2.2 Methods
hydraulic conductivity of MS are 298.42 kN/m2 and
783.4 × ­10−9 m/s, respectively. 2.2.1 Elemental and mineralogy analysis of the filter
(b) Bentonite A yellowish–brown bentonite was obtained materials
from a major supplier within Lagos, Nigeria (Fig. 2).
It is characterized with a specific gravity of 2.37 The major and trace elements present in the bentonite
(Table  1). The X-Ray diffraction analysis revealed and termite mound soil were identified through the use
montmorillonite (73.73 wt%) as the dominant min- of X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (EDX 3600B Skyray
eral. Instrument, USA). The soil samples were air-dried and
(c) Wastewater PIWW used as a contaminant was a com- sifted (fraction below 2 mm). The X-ray diffraction (XRD)
posite sample acquired from a major paint manufac- technique was employed to determine the mineralogical
turing company’s plant situated in Lagos State (Fig. 3). phase composition and quantification of the materials.
The characterization of the acquired wastewater is
shown in Table 3. 2.2.2 Performance evaluation framework

The applicability of bentonite enhanced termite mound

soil mixture as an alternate filter medium for paint
effluent management was assessed with the aid of a
well-designed and constructed pilot-scale filtration
tank (800 × 800 × 800 mm) with four different sections
(400 × 400 × 400 mm) designated as AX, AY, BX and BY,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 4.
The soil mixtures placed in each section were pre-
pared and proportioned by percentage weight as
(100% MS), (5% BC + 95% MS), (10% BC + 90% MS) and
(15% BC + 85% MS) for sections AX, AY, BX and BY, respec-
tively. The soil mixtures were compacted with optimum
water content in three layers to attain 100 mm thickness with
the aid of a hand compactor of 7 kg self-weight and cured
for 28 days as described by Tucan et al. [11]. The mixture in
each section was subjected to paint wastewater loading for
30 weeks. The content schematic of the tank is illustrated
in Fig. 5. Filtrate samples were collected from the leakage
outlets of each section in triplicate (Fig. 6) and placed in an
ice-cooled insulated cooler and transported to the labora-
Fig. 2  Bentonite clay tory. The samples were refrigerated at 4 °C upon arrival at the

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Fig. 4  Plan view of the pilot scale filtration tank

Fig. 6  Experimental setup

removal efficiencies of the filter were determined by using

Eq. (1);
Ci − Cf
Re (%) = × 100 (1)
Ci

where Re is the removal efficiency, Ci is the initial concen-

tration of contaminant, and Cf is the final concentration of
contaminant.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Elemental composition of the filter materials

XRF results for the collected soil samples attest to the exist-
ence of the following major (Al, Si, P, S, K, Ca, Ti, V, Fe, W, Nb,
Mo, Sn, Sb) and trace (Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn) elements.
The composition is major and trace elements in the ben-
tonite and termite mound are summarized in Table 2. The
principal occurring elements in both bentonite and mound
Fig. 5  Content schematic soils are aluminium 8.91 and 14.11 wt%, silicon 25.19 and
25.82 wt%, iron 17.92 and 10.50 wt%, respectively.

laboratory preserve their physicochemical qualities prior to 3.2 Mineralogical composition of the filter

analysis in accordance with APHA, [23] and USEPA, [24]. The materials
quantification and analysis of filtrate samples were obtained
after the experimental framework. The performance of the The XRD diffractograms and mineralogical analysis of the
filter was evaluated through the relationship between the termite mound disclosed quartz (93.76%) as the primary
characterization of raw PIWW and filtrate samples. The and dominant mineral which exhibits a strong reflection

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Table 2  Composition of major and trace elements in the soil sam- highest filtrate discharge of 1.1 L with a corresponding
ples flow rate of 11 × 10−4 LPH while filter BY with bentonite
S/N Element Concentration (wt%) and termite mound ratio of 15:85 has the lowest filtrate
discharge and flow rate of 0.2 L and 0.43 × 10−4 LPH,
Bentonite Termite mound
respectively. The particles of cohesive soils have the ten-
1 Al 8.91 14.11 dency to stick to each other due to intermolecular inter-
2 Si 25.19 25.82 actions and greater quantity of clay particles produces
3 P 0.12 0.13 high liquid limit, as a result, they usually have low perme-
4 S 0.44 0.34 ability [25, 26]. The liquid limit of bentonite is more than
5 K 0.97 0.20 thrice compared to that of termite mound soil. The low
6 Ca 0.32 0.15 filtrate discharge recorded for filter BY could be attributed
7 Ti 0.32 1.25 to more fines present in bentonite compared to termite
8 V 0.02 0.02 mound soil.
9 Cr 0.03 0.01
10 Mn 0.22 0.12 3.4 Characterization of raw and treated paint
11 Co 0.34 0.20 industry wastewater.
12 Fe 17.92 10.50
13 Ni 0.06 0.08 The characteristics of the raw paint wastewater are pre-
14 Cu 0.03 0.05 sented in Table 4. The total dissolved solids (TDS), bio-
15 Zn 0.11 0.11 chemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen
16 Pb 0.01 0.02 demand (COD) are 585, 254 and 569 mg/L, respectively.
17 W 0.11 0.02 The heavy metals analysis revealed elements such as lead
18 Nb 0.01 0.03 (0.35 mg/L), chromium (0.76 mg/L), copper (1.43 mg/L),
19 Mo 0.23 0.16 cadmium (0.43 mg/L) and nickel (9.45 mg/L). The concen-
20 Sn 1.25 1.43 trations of TDS, BOD, COD, copper and nickel were above
21 Sb 1.13 1.29 the permissible limits of NESREA [27]. Similar results were
reported by Oladele et al. [28] and Onuegbu et al. [29].
Hence, it’s imperative to treat the wastewater prior to its
at 60.2° 2θ with peak intensity of 8500 counts. However, discharge into the environment to forestall the pollution
the crystalline phase of secondary minerals contained in of surface and groundwater. The trends of bentonite con-
bentonite displays reflections of anhydrite (3.20%), gyp- tent on colour, TSS, Pb, Cr, Cu, Ni, TDS, BOD and COD of the
sum (1.57 wt%), bassanite (0.56 wt%), ferrite (0.47 wt%) treated samples are shown in Figs. 9 and 10. The strength
and lime (0.44 wt%) at 62.3° 2θ, 62.1° 2θ, 57.4° 2θ, 59.8° of pollutants in the filtrate samples generally reduced with
2θ and 54.1° 2θ with peak intensities of 1500, 1100, 1300, the stepped introduction of bentonite. However, the B ­ OD5
700 and 1000 counts, respectively (Fig. 7). Analysis of the and COD of the treated samples (Fig. 10) failed to comply
mineralogical phase composition revealed montmoril- with NESREA ­(BOD5 ≤ 30 mg/L and COD ≤ 60 mg/L) per-
lonite (73.73 wt%) as the primary and dominant mineral missible values for discharge into inland waters. The avail-
in bentonite which exhibits a strong reflection at 28° 2θ ability of organic compounds (nitrocellulose, alkyd resins
with peak intensity of 6400 counts. Moreover, the crystal- and acrylic/styrene co-polymer) and oxidizable inorganic
line phase of secondary minerals contained in bentonite compounds (pigments and additives) is responsible for the
display reflections of gypsum (8.43 wt%), periclase (7.07 impact on ­BOD5 and COD [29].
wt%), lime (6.06 wt%) and calcite (3.14 wt%) at 21° 2θ,
43° 2θ, 37.3° 2θ and 33° 2θ with peak intensities of 2400, 3.5 Filter removal efficiency
2100, 2500, and 2300 counts, respectively (Fig. 8). How-
ever, a weak reflection found at 60.2° 2θ with maximum The performance of the filters was assessed based on their
intensity of 1900 counts affirm the presence of portlandite removal efficiency (RE). Table 4 presents the RE of the filters
(1.57 wt%). with respect to their bentonite contents. The RE of colour
for filter AX, AY, BX and BY is 7.3%, 12.7%, 16.4% and 20%,
3.3 Filtrate quantification and flow rate respectively. Hu et al. [30] stated that application of ben-
tonite as an adsorbent of basic red dye is largely based on
The filtrate quantification, flow rate and period of debut its ability to exchange cations. The best colour RE recorded
droplet from respective filters are presented in Table 3. for filter BY is largely based on the high cation exchange
Filter AX with 100% termite mound soil (control) has the capacity of the bentonite used. The RE of TDS ranged from

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Fig. 7  X-Ray diffraction spectrum of termite mound soil

19.7 to 51.3% reduction while that of TSS ranged from bentonite content gave a maximum RE value of 100%. An
97.8 to 98.9% reduction (Fig. 11). Healy [31] reported that exceptional maximum treatment efficiency of 100% was
bentonite-based hydrophobic media has the capacity to recorded for cadmium in all the filtrate samples obtained
absorb up to 60% of its weigh in organic contaminants. from the filters (Fig. 11). Bentonite is characterized with a
The high reduction in TSS and TDS of the treated samples high specific surface area, tendency to absorb water in the
may be attributed to the capacity of bentonite to adsorb interlayer sites and affinity to adsorb ions from solutions
particulate matter on its surface. The RE of copper signifi- [33, 34]. The excellent removal efficiencies of metal ions
cantly increased from 5.6% for filter AY to 72.7% reduction generally recorded for filter BY could be attributed to its
for filter BY with the stepped introduction bentonite. The high adsorption capacity and vast specific area.
finding is in tandem to that of Cao et al. [32] that reported
efficiency removal of 73.63% for copper ion on adsorp-
tion study using bentonite-zeolite. Filters AX and BX gave 4 Conclusion
the minimum RE values of 42.9% and 85.7%, respectively,
for lead while filters AY and BY with bentonite content of The investigation on the applicability of bentonite (BC)
5% and 15% recorded the maximum removal efficiency enhanced termite mound soil (MS) mixture as an alternate
of 100%. The treatment efficiency of nickel gradually filter medium for the treatment of paint industry wastewa-
increased with the stepped introduction of bentonite. Fil- ter revealed the following conclusions.
ter AX gave the minimum RE value of 63% while maximum
RE value of 78.8% was recorded for filter BY. Chromium a. Filter BY with 15% bentonite content is the best filter
removal efficiency values for filter AX, AY and BX are 35.5%, compared to other filters with lower percentage of
55.3% and 67.1%, respectively, while filter BY with 15% bentonite.

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Fig. 8  X-Ray diffraction spectrum of bentonite

Table 3  Quantification and flow rate of the filtrate samples b. Filter BY is effective and efficient for the treatment of
Filter Composition Filtrate Period of debut Flow rate
paint wastewater pollutants such as TDS, TSS, Pb, Cr,
dis- droplet (weeks) ×10−4 (LPH) and Cu.
charge c. The blend of 15%BC + 85% MS can be applied effec-
(Litre) tively as an alternate filter medium for the treatment
AX 0%BC + 100%MS 1.1 6 11 of paint industry wastewater.
AY 5%BC + 95%MS 0.5 11 2.7 d. The filtration technique can be applied in small paint
BX 10%BC + 90%MS 0.4 17 1.4 industry to remove pollutant from their effluent due
BY 15%BC + 85%MS 0.2 28 0.43 to its design simplicity, availability of filter materials,
cost and treatment efficiencies.
BC Bentonite clay; MS Mound soil; LPH Litre per hour

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Table 4  Characteristics of paint Parameter Initial *NESREA stand- Removal efficiency (%)

wastewater and filter removal concentration ards
efficiency (mg/L) AX AY BX BY

Colour 5.5 7 7.3 12.7 16.4 20.0

TDS 585 500.0 44.4 19.7 39.3 51.3
TSS 11.28 25.0 97.8 98.7 98.2 98.9
BOD5 254 30.0 8.7 4.3 6.7 13.0
COD 569 60.0 10.2 8.3 9.3 11.6
Lead 0.35  < 1.0 42.9 100.0 85.7 100.0
Chromium 0.76  < 1.0 35.5 55.3 67.1 100.0
Copper 1.43  < 1.0 5.6 56.6 46.9 72.7
Nickel 9.45  < 1. 0 63.0 65.1 68.8 78.8
Cadmium 0.43  < 1.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

TDS Total dissolved solids; TSS Total suspended solids; BOD Biochemical oxygen demand; COD Chemical
oxygen demand; *NESREA National environmental standards and regulations enforcement agency [27]

Fig. 9  Effect of bentonite 5.5

content on colour, TSS, Pb, Cr, 5.1
Cu, Ni 5 4.8
4.6
4.5 4.4
4
Concentraon (mg/L)

3.5 3.3 Colour

3.5
3 2.95 TSS
2.5 Pb
2
2 Cr
1.5 1.35 Cu
1 0.76 Ni
0.62
0.25 0.39
0.5 0.34 0.2
0.2 0.15 0.12
0 0 0.05 0
0 5 10 15
Bentonite content (%)

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Fig. 10  Effect of bentonite 600

content on TDS, BOD and COD
522
511 516
503
470

400

Concentraon (mg/l)
355
325
285 TDS
243 237
232 BOD
221
200 COD

0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
Bentonite content (%)

Fig. 11  Removal efficiencies
trend of the filters

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